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CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

BY CHRISSI KEOGH
THE ENLIGHTENMENT PERIOD
What is the Enlightenment?
It occurred from 1600 to 1800; it was an intellectual period in Europe.

During in this era, revolutionary ideas regarding the relationship


between society and man evolved.

The time saw a generation of thinkers known as Philosophes that


happened across Paris; extending to Scotland and other countries in
Europe.

Philosophes (French for philosophers) were the intellectuals in the


Enlightenment period. These people applied reason to different
concepts such as economics, social issues, philosophy etc.

“Have courage to use your own reason” -Immanuel Kant


Key Concepts

Favouring Science over Religion; it was a time that


rejected ‘supernatural’ ideas.

Philosophers ideas had importance over Priests.

Belief that men-society relationship could be


perfect and productive.

Science was a superior concept.


Timeline
Key Philosophes Industrial Revolution/Urbanisation

1760
Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Voltaire (1694-1788)
The American War of Independence
David Hume (1711-1776)

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

1776
Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804)

Adam Smith (1723 – 1790)


French Revolution
Adam Ferguson (1723-1816)
1789
The Birth of Sociology

“The Philosophy of the Eighteenth Century had


been critical and revolutionary, that of the
nineteenth century will be inventive and
constructive”- Saint-Simon (1760-1825).

Sociology is the idea that rational Science can be


applied to the social world to create progress and
an improved life
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Grew up in the wake of the French Revolution.

As a person, he rejected religion and royalty and focused on studying society; this he named
Sociology.

During his young life the European society was experiencing alienation and violent conflicts.

Influenced by Henri de Saint-Simon.

Established a new religion of humanity based on Science.

Different ideas:

Theological- In this stage, anything that cannot be explained is put down to the supernatural. It is
divided into three stages: a) Fetishism: where man accepts existence of the soul or spirit. B)
Polytheism: where man begins to believe in magic. They believed in several Gods, created the class
of Priests and get the blessings of these Gods. C) Monotheism: Man believes there is only one centre
of power which controls the activities of the World. They believed in the power of a single God.

Metaphysical-In this stage it was believed that the an abstract power determines World events and
does not believe in one single God.

Positivism- No place for belief or superstition; everything is explained in a rational sense. Comte was
against all types of irrational elements in that of social thinking. It only takes into account logical or
mathematical proof; rejecting both theism and metaphysics.

EMILE
DURKHEIM
1858-1917
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas
Social phenomena and societies cannot be
understood in reference to individuals.

Individuals are the products of society.

‘Social facts’ are facts that can be studied


scientifically. They influence the way individuals
act and how they think.

Humanity has a dual character; including the


capacity for morality and an insatiable appetite.
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas
Religions represent the expression of moral codes, they
define acceptable behaviour and lay out what is socially
necessary.

Durkheim is also known as a ‘functionalist’.

Social facts have a cause and a function; the cause explains


the origin whereas the function explains the perseverance.

Durkheim explains how change is possible.

‘Utilitarians’ have the belief that industrialisation is


underlined by rational economic behaviour.
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas
Society requires an increasing division of labour in order to maximise
production as well as increasing the amount of human happiness.

Vast amount of individuals become a social force and their behaviour


can be understood from a societal perspective.

In order for such a social force to exist; society itself must have
changed in some key respect.

There is not any evidence suggesting the sum of human happiness


has been increased by industrialisation.

In a study of suicide it was suggested that while individual cases may


be best explained by psychology; the social phenomenon of suicide
rates is best explained by sociology.
Social Change
Durkheim’s approach to human societies come in
two fundamental types; traditional and modern.

Firstly, traditional society can be categorised as


mechanical solidarity. This is due to the
resemblance of the members of society based on
functions and beliefs.

Furthermore, modern societies are can be


categorised as organic solidarity. This is the analogy
that relates to organs in the body; each have
separate functions yet are mutually dependent.
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas
The division of labour exists yet the term does not
just refer to different jobs but instead the
institutions and functions within society.

The economic division of labour reflects societal


differentiation.

Societies either have to compete or co-operate in


order to survive. This is settled by the triumph of
morality over appetite.
Durkheim’s Theories and Ideas
Society experiences dysfunction and conflict
which is caused by the absence of established
normalities and functions. This state Durkheim
describes as ‘anomie’.

Durkheim’s theory of power and exploitation


needs developing. Often, he is considered a
defender of capitalism- a ‘conservative’ thinker.

He called himself a ‘socialist’ despite being


opposed to Marxism and communism.
THE MATERIALIST CONCEPTION OF HISTORY

KARL MARX
1818-1883
Marx’s Quotes
“Men can be distinguished from animals by
consciousness, by religion or anything else you
like. They begin to distinguish themselves from
animals as soon as they begin to produce their
means of subsistence, a step which is conditioned
by their physical organisation. By producing their
means of subsistence men are indirectly
producing their actual material life.” -Marx

[In McLellan, D. (1973) pp. 144-145]


Marx’s Quotes
“The human being is in the most literal sense a
zoon politikon (an animal which lives in
communities), not merely a gregarious animal,
but an animal which can individuate itself only
in the midst of society. Production by an
isolated individual outside society is as much of
an absurdity as is the development of language
without human beings living together and
talking to each other” -Marx

[In Callinicos, A. (1983) pp. 69]


Marx’s Theories and Ideas
Marx’s model is referred to as ‘base’ and
‘superstructure’ model.

Within said model, the material is referenced as


“means of production” and surrounds “forces of
production” and “objects of production”.

“Relations of production” refers to the social side.

“The mode of production” is the combination of


the relations and means of production that define
societies essential nature.
Modes of Production
Primitive Communism: this concept originated from Marx and
‘Friedrich Engels’ both arguing that societies were originally
based on egalitarian (people who believed in equal
opportunities) social relations etc.

Antiquity: meaning the ancient past; prior to the middle ages.

Feudalism: a social system of the Middle Ages in which


people fought and worked for nobles who gave them land
use and protection in return.

Capitalism: is a political and economic system within which


the country’s industry and trade get controlled by private
owners (for profit) instead of by the state.
Who Exploits Who?

In antiquity, plebeians (commoners) and slaves get


exploited by the upper classes; patricians.

In feudalism, the serfs (lowest feudal class) as well


as the peasants are exploited by aristocracy and
landowners.

In capitalism, the proletarians (industry workers)


are exploited by the bourgeoisie (capitalists).
Marx’s Theories and Ideas

Marx defines class as an objective representation


in relation to the means of production.

Marx also introduces the idea of “class


consciousness” in some works.

Class struggle transforms society; the material


factors within society are the determinants of what
is possible.
Marx’s Quotes
“In so far as there is merely a local
interconnection among these small holding
peasants, and the identity of their interests
begets no community, no national bond and no
political organisation among them, they do not
form a class.” -Marx

[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, A.


(1852)]
Marx’s Theories and Ideas
Within Marx’s theory there are two aspects; the
materialist and the humanist. These are also sometimes
known as ‘structure’ and ‘agency’.

Capitalism is based on production for ‘accumulation’


and capitalists themselves are continuously changing
the means of production.

Additionally, capitalism also creates new class i.e. the


proletariats.

Marx considers the material basis for creation of


classless societies a result of an absence of scarcity.
Marx’s Theories and Ideas
Throughout history there has been class struggles.

However, beneath that struggle is the development of


productive forces.

Feudalism created aspects of capitalism but the system itself


had to be eradicated in order for capitalism to thrive.

In the beginning capitalism was largely progressive, however,


after a while it puts a strain on further human development.

Technical developments within capitalism prove it is possible


creating a better world, although, whether it occurs depends
on active participation of people and class struggle.
Marx’s Quotes

“Men make their own history, but they do not


make it just as they please; they do not make it
under circumstances chosen by themselves,
but under circumstances directly encountered,
given and transmitted from the past.” -Marx

[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, A.


(1852)]
THE PROTESTANT ETHIC AND THE SPIRIT OF
CAPITALISM

MAX WEBER
1864-1920
Weber’s Theories and Ideas

Weber rejects mono-casual explanations and


materialist conceptions (Marxist) of history. This is
based on the fact that they remove the human
elements in social action.

The correlation between capitalism and


Protestantism is accepted. Weber reverses the
Marxist view of base and superstructure.
Weber’s Theories and Ideas
He sees capitalism as a system within which the
goal is to maximise profits through peaceful means,
rational organisation of production and the use of
Science and technology.

He considers capitalism a system within which there


are not any limits on desires to accumulate.
Traditional limits/boundaries are no longer in
function.

Weber’s analysis of capitalism is extremely similar to


that of Karl Marx.
Calvinists and Belief in God
Weber highlights an affinity between the belief system of
Calvinists and the necessary behaviour of successful
capitalists.

Calvinist beliefs: an absolute God who is


incomprehensible to humans. God is divine while humans
are not and it is impossible to understand God’s ways.
Trying to understand His ways is considered arrogant.

This God is considered to have created the world and


universe for His own glory; all humans exist only to serve
the greater glory of God. God does not exist for humanity,
humanity exists for God.
Calvinists and Belief in God
The theory continues that we are all pre-destined to
either salvation or damnation. God has already
decided the fate on whether people should be
saved or damned. God’s decision cannot be
changed, or questioned as we cannot assume our
power is greater than His.

A small minority will be saved for heaven while the


vast majority is condemned to eternal damnation.

In addition, all pleasures of the flesh are considered


sinful.
Calvinists and Belief in God
These beliefs indirectly encourage investigation using
Science.

Having a belief in predestination creates a pathological


state of anxiety.

Calvinists overcome their anxiety by living a life of hard


work. Wealth gets accumulated rather than consumed.

Their behaviour is not logical but rather psychological;


Calvinists try to reassure themselves that they must be
an elected one for heaven.
Calvinists and Belief in God

Wealth accumulation, scientific investigation,


frugal consumption, strong productivity and
reinvestment are all the behaviours generated by
the Calvinist belief system; corresponding to the
requirements of capitalism.

Weber demonstrates that action can be shaped by


beliefs; he believes in the typology of action.
Typology of Action
Traditional

Affective

Wetrational (value rational)

Zweckrational (instrumentally rational)

This idea fits with his idea of Verstehen.

Weber is not attempting to replace one mono-casual


explanation of history with another; he is suggesting that
there is non mono-casual explanation in the first place.
The Future is Bleak
While Weber is against the idea of determinism he
believes the future is going to experience
increasing rationalisation and bureaucratisation.

The effect of this is to destroy the human spirit


and create an “iron cage of bureaucracy”.
CAPITALISM: A MARXIST ANALYSIS
CAPITALISM
What is Capitalism?
Capitalism is a system that lacks a central organisation and
is made up of individual capitalist concerns; the main aim
is accumulation. There is a strong desire for profits.

These profits are the result of labour. The values of any


given thing is essentially determined by the necessary
amount of labour power needed to produce it.

Labour power is elastic.

Competition forces investment to create competitive edge.

Overall, this results in capitalism being more and more


productive and constantly increases technology.
CAPITALISM

There tends to be a rise in the organic ratio of fixed capital in


relation to labour.

These usually lead to the rate of profit falling.

Therefore creating a crisis of overproduction and profit


squeeze; some companies go bankrupt.

However, each crisis is eventually overcome i.e. each slump


is eventually followed by a boom.

Capitalist state: the executive of the modern state, however,


it is a committee for managing bourgeoisie affairs.

The capitalist state attempts to overcome individual interests.


CAPITALISM

In the long-run, there is a tendency to incorporate


huge number of workers into huge productive
units and cities.

Additionally, there are constant tries to increase


exploitation which strives workers to organise as
well as defend their interests.

Due to capitalists forcing trade union issues on


workers; these workers learn their own power and
become class conscious.
CAPITALISM

The tendency for capitalism to centralise means


crises increase in severity, and the effects of each
crisis get more and more dramatic.

While the system may be able to recover, it leaves


many individuals unable to and in these cases
changing the system seems a more reasonable
solution.

Feudalism became an obstacle in human progress


and was violently eradicated- therefore for Marx’s
capitalism in its decline also became an obstacle
and has to be overthrown.
CAPITALISM

While creating the proletariat; capitalism creates issues


for itself. Marx believes this class will rise up and remove
capitalism; alike to when the bourgeoisie overthrew
feudalism. This will, in his theory, create a new era.

In proletariat terms the only solution is communism or


socialism.

Due to the lack of any private property there would be


no rich or poor, no masters over servants and ultimately
no inequality all together.

Despite these theories, Marx does no give a detailed


analysis of how communism would function in practise.
SUICIDE AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION: DURKHEIM
Rationalist strategy to understand the social reality
Emile Durkheim describes his position as
sociological rationalism.

“man is a product of history: there is nothing in him


that is either given or defined in advance” -
Durkheim [1979, pp. 69].

Demonstrating Sociological method:

Rules of Sociological Method (1895)



It argues that “the cause of sociology that is (i.e.)
objective, specific and methodical” -Durkheim [1982,
pp. 35].
Bonds of Social
Social Facts
Solidarity
‘a thing originating in the
institutions or culture of a They determine the
society which affects the extent to which
behaviour or attitudes of an individuals are connected
individual member of that to specific rules.

society.’

Social facts have a It is also the extent to


representational nature i.e. which individuals get
they are signs of common controlled by norms,
culture. E.g. law, language, values of society and
religious practises, the social rules.
division of labour and beliefs.
Social Relatedness
Mechanical solidarity is the social integration of
members in a society that share common beliefs
and values. The common values and beliefs
constitute a “collective conscience” that functions
internally in individual members allowing them to
cooperate.

Differentiation required a new form of solidarity i.e.


organic connection to community.
Relationship: Individual and Society

In the Division of Labour (1893) the relationship


between specialisation and differentiation of
function, secularisation, individualism and freedom
of markets.

Modern society contains certain pathological


features.
Suicide (1897)
“every case of death resulting directly or indirectly from a
positive or negative act performed by the victim himself
and which strives to produce this result” -Durkheim

[In Aron (1970) pp. 35]

What causes suicide?

Social Phenomenon

Suicide is not seen as an expression of mental state/


individual pathologies

Balance between integration and regulation


Types of Suicide
Egoistic: suicide occurs in a society which experiences excessive
individualism i.e. low social integration. Committed by people who are
not supported in a cohesive social group.

!
Altruistic: a term coined to describe suicide committed for the benefit of
others in a community e.g. self-sacrifice for military objectives in
wartime. It reflects a courageous indifference in the loss of a life.

Anomie (normlessness in contemporary world): a condition in which


social and moral normalities are unclear or not present. Lack of norms
lead to atypical behaviour.

Fatalistic (over-regulation): that occurs in social conditions where the


individual experiences prolonged unjust treatment. Durkheim considers
it the result of excessive regulation; when you are over-regulated in a
society.
Suicide and the Wider Society
Expression of a moral crisis in Western society.

Over integration and over-regulation can lead to pathological


consequences.

Critique

Durkheim places over-emphasis on the social causes.

Under representation of individual mental states.

Not enough recognition of the role of belief in determining


whether or not a death is considered a suicide.

Some factors of Durkheim’s studies need to be challenged.


THE CONCEPT OF ALIENATION: MARX
The Concept of Alienation
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels have had a
significant impact in current understandings of
modernity.

Contemporary society regularly uses the concept


of alienation.

Alienation highlights a sense of dissatisfaction with


experiences and lack of control or connection with
people/institutions.
Why does Alienation occur?

Alienation is a central theme in Marx’s philosophy


of history.

There are themes of alienation in capitalism; the


origins do not exist within our psychology but
instead in social relations.

Marx’s goal was to understand as well as explain


what about capitalism is dysfunctional.
Labour
The Economic and Philosophical Manuscript (1844)

Defines labour as: “mans self-confirming essence” -
Marx.

The basis of human labour involves culture, life and


the ability to engage with nature.

Labour is considered a fundamental part of our


existence.

Marx’s materialism: Human capacity to produce and


reproduce on the basis of existence; objective
activity in that of food, shelter and clothing.
Alienation as a Term
It occurs when there is a lack of control, when the
ability to control ones life, environment, labour,
institutions and social relations is deprived.

It can also represent a sense of disconnection i.e.


separating oneself from others, the inability to
develop ones life.

Thesaurus: objectification, estrangement,


rationalism, anomie & fetishism.
Religions Involvement in Alienation
Influence of Ludwig Feuerbach.

Religion dissociates us from ourselves.

We project our power onto God- what we create dominates us.

Religion is considered the heart of a heartless world or the


spirit of an unspiritual situation.

“Religion is the self-conscious feeling of man who has not yet


either found himself or has already lost himself.” -Marx.

[In Elements of the Philosophy of Rights, (1835)]


Forms of Alienation
A worker is alienated from the product of his labour i.e. the worker gets
objectified. The product being produced is therefore of higher
importance than whoever is producing it.

A worker is also alienated from the process of production. Therefore,


there is no internal satisfaction in working; the worker is externalised
from the process. Certain forms of work can create a sense of loss in
purpose and meaning for a worker, for instance, television sales.

Alienation can also be experienced in the sense of conscious productive


activity i.e. what distinguishes humans from other animals. The idea that
what is animal becomes human and what is human becomes animal.

Another form of alienation is in the sense of humans being alienated


from social communities and other people. ‘The basis of life under
capitalism is replaced individualism’.
Overall Concept
The overall idea of alienation is that control over
the world has been taken by capitalism i.e. in an
exploitive and egoistic way.

This negativity is shown through environmental


struggles we have, economic issues, social justice
and what we consume.
RATIONALISATION/DISENCHANTMENT: WEBER
Rationalisation
Rationalisation: Refers to the impact of planning
modern life.

Bureaucracy: is a form of administration that relies


on rules, regulations, chains of command,
hierarchies and guidelines.

Formal rationality: amount of quantitative


calculation & logical thought used when performing
administrative duties.

Substantive rationality: measures of ultimate values.


Iron Cage McDonaldization
Individuals become more and “The process by which the principles
more insignificant due to large of the fast-food restaurant are coming
administrative structures.
to dominate more and more sectors
of American society as well as the
Reduced all value of non- rest of the world” -George Ritzer.

religious functional Represents Weber’s bureaucratisation


bureaucracy. and iron cage.

Rules, regulations and systems


predetermine the structure of the
production process.

It represents a loss of individual


choice and creativity.

Assembly line production of food


(from production to sales).
Disenchantment
Growth of Science takes over other ways of
understanding the world.

Science is unable to provide meaning to


substantive questions of how we should live or
how we should die.

Disillusionment: is the loss of an ethical


substantive value in Western culture.

Pessimistic outlook: our fate is characterised by


rationalisation and disenchantment of the world.
Weber’s Theories and Ideas
Individuals would have to find
meaning in modern life by finding
areas not colonised by
rationalisation.

World becoming dispirited.

Socialism is not a solution to


rationalisation & the loss of
meaning.

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