INTRODUCTION

The Cape Town Metropolitan is undeniably one of the

most striking regions in the world. Its dramatic coastlines,
iconic mountains, deep blue oceans and intricately diverse
ecosystems have achieved international recognition,
making the area a prime tourist destination and world
heritage site. These natural assets play a fundamental
role in giving the city its unique nature, and need to be
considered in the future spatial development of the city.

Curretnly, approximately 3,78 million people call Cape

Town their home. With urban population rates and
building footprints growing steadily (as illustrated by the
historical building extent maps to the left), the impacts
these inhabitants have on the natural systems of the
region will be of increasing importance and concern.
Urban development in the future needs to protect the
vital natural systems which give the metro its unique and
world-rene\owned beauty, because ultimately, the ability
of our environment to support our survival depends on it.

This report provides an overview of the primary

natural stratum of the Cape Town metropolitan area.
The report reflects upon the current state of the
natural environment, focusing specifically upon the
physiography, climate, hydrology and biodiversity
of the City of Cape Town. These elements are
considered individually but are also acknowledged
to be deeply interconnected and interdependent.

The report begins by considering each natural element

respectively in terms of their spatial implications and
the associated threats, trends and opportunities for the
future. The human impacts on these vital and intricate
systems are then analysed in terms of the effects of
solid waste, energy production, transportation, economic
endeavors, agriculture and human settlements on the
natural environment. Finally, having reflected upon the
current existing statutory protective practices and their
associated strengths and limitations, the report identifies
key opportunities for future protection of environmental
assets and systems in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area.
Figure 1: Urban Extent Over Time Figure 2: Cape Town Metro Overview
4
PHYSIOGRAPHY
PHYSIOGRAPHY
Cape Town’s iconic mountains, dramatic coastlines and scenic
vistas make it one of the most physically striking regions in
the world. Situated on the Southern peninsula of the African
continent, Cape Town has obtained international recognition as
a world heritage site and a prime tourist destination. Physical
geography plays a huge role in making Cape Town the place it
is – and this section of the report shall unpack how the region’s
topography, geology and pedology influence the form that the
metro takes on.
KEY DEFINITIONS:
Physiography: the physical features of the earth
Topography: the arrangement of features (both natural and man-made)
Geology: the distribution and nature of rock types
Pedology: the soil types and quality.
These terms are closely related, and examining their subject matter in
turn gives us an overarching idea of the physical aspects that inform the
structure of Cape Town Metro.
5
TOPOGRAPHY
The juxtaposition of the striking peaks of the Cape Fold Belt,
Agulhas-Columbine Arch mountain ranges and the sandy low-
lying areas of the Cape Flats (see Figures 3 and 4) is part of what
gives the Cape Town Metro its distinctive physiographic identity.
Beyond being visually impressive, this contrast has had significant
spatial implications for the way in which the Metro has been
settled.
The iconic Table Mountain Range, to which Cape Town can
attribute much of its status as a worldwide tourist destination,
has long been a key formative feature in the metro. Table
Mountain itself provides an important locating feature for many
of those who live in the area, and its impressive slopes (which
rise over 1000m above sea level at near vertical angles) provide
a location for the recreational activities of locals and tourists
alike (Compton, 2004: 12). However, with land values in close
proximity to the mountain being significantly higher than those
in the Cape Flats and surrounds, residents of the Cape Town
Metro do not all have equal access to this beautiful resource. This
disparity in land value can be attributed to the scenic beauty of
the area, the proximity to the City Bowl, the economic resources
it provides, and the influence of the tourist industry on rental
costs in the area.
On clear days, looking across the Cape Flats towards the North Figure 4: Topographic Features
gives you a striking view of the Hottentots-Holland Mountain Adapted from GIS data
Range. This range, which is part of the Cape Fold Belt, brings an Changes to distinctive topographical features happen on a very
end to the expansive Cape Flats. Because of the dramatic slopes slow time-scale. The mountains of the Cape Town Metropolitan
of these mountain ranges, development in the metro has tended area formed over millennia, driven by tectonic forces, erosion,
to be concentrated in the lower-lying areas like the Cape Flats weathering, and to a smaller extent, recent human impacts.
and the Northern Suburbs. This is compounded by competition for The cutting of Chapman’s Peak Drive into the Cape Granite and
land close to the City Bowl, which tends to be more mountainous, Malmesbury shale between Hout Bay and Noordehoek was a
as well as by the number of protected biodiversity areas found on spectacular example of human alterations of the physiography
and around the Metro’s mountains, where development is greatly of the Metro. Another dramatic example was the Foreshore
limited. Urban Sprawl continues to extend into these low-lying reclamation in the 1930s and 1940s (see Figure 5), where
regions, many of which see increasing development in the current extensive dredging and land-filling were used to gain back the
period.
Figure 3: Cape Mountain Ranges Figure 5: Foreshore Reclaimation
Adapted from (Compton, 2004: 20) Adapted from: (Methven, N.D.)

Figure 6: Geology
Adapted from: (Jacobs & Wright, 2016: 148)
foreshore region from the sea (Bray, 2008: 4). Both of these
human manipulations of the natural topography have had adverse
effects, like rock falls and landslides that are regular features
along the Chapman’s Peak route, and the increase in swell
directed at the Milnerton/Bloubergstrand section of coastline.
Another important topographical feature of the metro is the
series of rivers that run through it, many of which make their way
from the slopes of the region’s mountains to the sea. These will
be discussed in depth in the section of this report that looks at
hydrology.
GEOLOGY
The underlying rock types of Cape Town Metro’s topographical
features has influenced where and how the region has been
settled. The Metro is made up mostly from Malmesbury Shale,
Cape Granite, Sandstone and Quaternary Sands (Witsands) (see
Figure 6). There is undoubtedly variation within each of these
rock type groups, largely depending on the age and compression
of specific rocks, but each tends to carry a set of distinctive
characteristics.
Figure 7: Average Cost of Housing per Suburb
Author’s own. Data adapted from (BusinessTech, 2017)
For example, the Cape Granite that is found at the base of Table
Mountain, in the Hottentots Holland Mountain range towards the
North, and in some areas along the Atlantic seaboard and Cape
Flats is relatively hard and resistant to weathering. The hard
sandstone like that found towards the top of Table Mountain,
on the other hand, has a finer grain and thus allows for faster
drainage of water. The Malmesbury Shale and Witsands found
in much of the Cape Flats and Northern regions of the metro
are much softer and finely grained, and thus weather easily
(Reimold & Viljoen, 1999: 61-63). These variations in rock types
have significant effects on the biodiversity of the flora and fauna
supported in the metro, and contribute to the Cape’s high levels
of endemic species.
The spatial distribution of these rock types has significant
impacts for the durability areas in the face of erosion and
weathering, as well as on building costs and conditions for
human settlements. The costs incurred by building houses into
the granite and sandstone (particularly in sloping areas like
around the base of Table Mountain, Lion’s Head and Signal Hill)
are significantly higher than the costs of building on shale and
sands found in low-lying areas like the Cape Flats. This is because
the labour and machinery necessary to manipulate hard, sloping
6
Figure 8: Cape Town Metro Income Distribution
Adapted from (Battersby & Peyton, 2014: 158)
rock faces can be costly (Compton, 2004: 98). These disparities
in building costs play a role in where people can afford to settle
– and, in tangent with numerous other forces, result in the
concentration of high and middle income housing around Table
Mountain and the City Bowl, as observable in Figures 7 and 8. In
contrast, housing costs and average incomes in the low-lying flats
of Cape Town are noticeably lower.
PEDOLOGY
The Cape Metro generally exhibits poor soil quality, which has
a significant effect on water quality, agricultural potential and
vegetation types in the region. In particular, the low-lying Cape
Flats are characterised by sandy soils with excessive drainage,
which are minimally suited to agricultural use. A notable
exception, however, is the Philippi Horticultural Area towards
the South of the Cape Flats, which contains a pocket of suitable
agricultural soil. Better soil qualities lie to the North and the East
of the Metro, which is where a good deal of the agriculture in
the area has taken off. The Cape Winelands metro, in particular,
contains impressive soil qualities.
 Figure 9: Soil Erodibility
Adapted from Cape Farm Mapper. 2017.
Soil quality also has a direct impact on water quality. For
example, water run-off from Table Mountain moves through
fynbos soils that are rich in organic matter. This makes it slightly
acidic, and also turns it a yellow-brown colour from the soluble
organic compounds it picks up along the way (Compton, 2004:
95). More frighteningly, in areas where the water table lies close
to the surface (like in some sections of the Cape Flats Aquifer),
groundwater is vulnerable to contamination from leaking petrol
and septic tanks. Chemicals added to poor soil in agricultural
processes also run the risk of seeping into the water table. In this
way, soil quality can have a substantial impact on the quality of
water available in the metro.
Over time, the quality of soil in the metro is deteriorating. Soil
erosion, loss of topsoil and soil creep (the slow movement
of soil downhill in sloping regions) has resulted in a gradual
degradation of Cape Town’s land quality. In general, the region is
characterised by having moderately to highly erodible soils (see
Figure 9). The loss of topsoil is a particularly worrying trend here.
This soil-group, which is dark, loamy and rich in organic matter
is essential for plant growth, and vital for sustaining biodiversity.
Much of the topsoil in the metro is fine-grained and loose, and
thus can be removed easily by wind and water. However, the
rate in which it is removed has been exacerbated by excessive
Figure 10: Quarries
Author’s own, using GIS data
ploughing of agricultural land, overgrazing, and the introduction
of alien plant species, whose large roots are unable to retain
the thin topsoil (Compton, 2004: 93). This loss of topsoil results
in a permanent degradation of land quality, which in turn, has
negative effects for future agricultural potential, biodiversity and
hydrological systems (Compton, 2004: 98).
Human impacts on the Cape Town Metro’s soil are not just limited
to quality, but also extend to the positioning and movement of
soil types. A number of small quarries within the metro have
aimed at extracting valuable resources like silica, natural sand
and clay (see figure 10). Here, spatial layout of these minerals
as well as the positioning of environmentally protected regions
around the mountainous peninsula have resulted in most of
these quarries and mines being built in the Northern suburbs
and some areas of the Cape Flats (Compton, 2004: 98). However
in the past, quarries have existed in the now-protected areas
around the base of Table Mountain (Compton, 2004: 98). These
quarries contribute to removal and redistribution of soils in the
metropolitan area.
Another key example of human impact on soils in the Cape Town
Metro is the disruption of dune movements and systems. Many
of the once-mobile sand dunes in the region have now been
Figure 11: Hout Bay Dune Cordon (1944)
7
(Compton, 2004: 78)
stabilised, as a result of human settlement patterns and the
planting of alien vegetation species like Port Jacksons (Compton,
2004: 91). For example, the building of houses and planting of
dune grasses in Hout Bay has disrupted the headland bypass dune
that used to move sand from the dunes of Hout Bay Beach to
Sandy Bay. The original path of this dune movement (1944) can
be seen in Figure 11. Instead, sand now accumulates in Hout Bay,
causing a number of inconveniences for residents and resulting in
a disruption of the dune system (Compton, 2004: 103).
NOTABLE THREATS
Importantly, the Cape Town Metro is not immune to physiographic
threats. The metropolitan region, which runs across the Milnerton
Fault line, has experienced a number of earthquakes in the past
(see figure 12 and 13). These have varied in intensity, with the
most significant to date measuring up to VIII on the Modified
Mercalli Scale in the early 1800s (Brandt, 2011: 6). As the African
tectonic plate continues to move away from the Antarctic plate
to its South, the likelihood of increasingly intense seismic activity
along the Milnerton Fault line is a possibility. The unregulated
drilling of private boreholes in response to water shortages in
recent months also has the potential to increase the likelihood of
tremors and quakes (Brandt, 2011: 4). More stringent regulation
regarding borehole drilling (particularly informal borehole
drilling, which often fails to take risks like this into account)
is necessary for the future. Furthermore, the steep slopes of
the metro’s mountain ranges make rockfalls and landslides an

important hazard to consider, particularly after fires run through
the area and remove the vegetation form mountain slopes
(Compton, 2004: 102).
8
STATUTORY FRAMEWORK
Generally, City of Cape Town regulations and policy acknowledge
the value and significance of the natural assets contained within
the metro as important environmental, cultural and economic
resources. Figure 14 shows areas identified as biophysical assets
in the 2017 Spatial Development Framework, which encompass
a fair deal of the metropolitan region (City of Cape Town, 2017:
16). However, the extent to which these areas are actually being
preserved is questionable. Most of the preservation of these
statutory protection happens indirectly, through policies that aim
to protect biodiversity or hydrological systems. This is an area
that should be addressed. Indiscriminate development of areas
outside these protected zones has resulted in soil degradation,
erosion and the damaging of valuable physiographic assets like
dune systems.

Figure 12: Milnerton Fault Line

(Hartnady, 2003: 15)

Figure 13: Seismic Actvity over time Figure 14: City of Cape Town’s Identified Biophysical Assets
(Brandt, 2011: 6) (City of Cape Town, 2017: 16)
 CLIMATE

KEY DEFINITIONS
Climate Variability: Climate variability refers to how climatic variables fall
either below or above an average state.
Climate Change: Climate change within a recorded period refers to a
relatively smooth increase or decrease of the average value (IPCC 2001).
Mean High Water Springs (MHWS): Height of MHWS refers to average
heights of two successive high tides during a period of 24 hours at the
point where tide range is the greatest throughout the year (CIRIA 1996).
Heat Island Effect : Built up areas that are significantly warmer than
nearby rural areas. Caused by human activities (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency 2018).
INTRODUCTION
9
Figure 15: Trends in Climate Change
Climate system warming has occurred at an unprecedented rate (Tadross & Johnston, 2012.)
since the 1950s, mostly due to human activities. This has resulted
in atmospheric warming, ice and snow reduction, sea level rise,
and an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gas (IPCC,
2013; Mukheibir & Ziervogel, 2007). Anthropogenic Greenhouse
Trends in annual average daily minimum
Gas emissions of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide temperate
are currently at their highest for the last 800,000 years (IPCC,
2014). According to climate models, atmospheric temperature will
increase by 1.4 degrees Celsius to 5.8 degrees Celsius by 2100.
These changes are likely to continue even if global greenhouse
gas emissions are reduced significantly in the short- to medium
term, in accordance to the Kyoto Protocol (Mukheibir & Ziervogel,
2006). Trends in annual average daily maximum
temperate
HISTORICAL CLIMATIC TRENDS IN CAPE TOWN
CLIMATE AND SEASONS Trends in annual average dry spell length Trends in average rainfall intensity
Cape Town enjoys a Mediterranean climate. Summer temperatures
are highest in February with a monthly average maximum of 26.9
degrees Celsius. Winter temperatures are lowest in July with
average maximum temperatures of 17.7 degrees Celsius and
average minimum temperatures of 9.1 degrees Celsius. Extreme
temperatures range between 42 degrees Celsius in summer and 1
degree Celsius in winter (Tadross & Johnston 2012).

HISTORICAL CLIMATE TRENDS

Recent years have displayed an observable trend of more frequent
and intense heat waves, more hot days and generally higher
maximum temperatures in the Metro (CSAG, 2016). The 2 graphs
in Figure 15 show the trend in annual average daily minimum
and maximum temperatures. Both show statistically significant
increases since 1960, and a statistical increase in average
temperature of all seasons (Tadross & Johnston 2012).
Furthermore, a trending decrease in the frequency of low
pressures has resulted in spatial variability in rainfall, and an
increase in the frequency of extreme weather patterns, including
increases in the magnitude and duration of coastal storms
(Brundrit. G 2016; Mukheibir & Ziervogel 2006). For example,
figure 15 demonstrates that Metro has seen a lengthening of
dry spells in recent years. Additionally, average intensity of
daily rainfall has also been higher in the later period (Tadross &
Johnston 2012). These trends show the result of climate change
from climatic variables that are generally on the rise.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND HUMAN IMPACT
EXTREME EVENTS/STORMS
There have been a number of disasters and extreme climate
events in the Cape Town Metro over the past years. The
increasing frequency and intensity with which these events occur
Trends in maximum number of Trends in frequency of days exceeding the long term
consecutive dry days (1960-1990) 90th percentile daily rainfall event
is a consequence of climate change. These include Cape Flats
floods, wind storms, South Peninsula fires, severe storms, and the
current prolonged drought (Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable
Livelihoods Programme (DiMP), 2000).
Within the Western Cape, direct damage costs associated with
climate related extreme events amounted to approximately R
3,161.1 million between 2003 and 2008 alone (RADAR Western
Cape, 2010). If climate vulnerability is not reduced, there will
be not only an increase in this financial burden, but also direct
and indirect effects on society and the environment. This is
exacerbated by the decline of ecological infrastructure such as
sand dunes, wetlands and floodplains that act as natural buffer
zones. Climatic changes such as temperature increases and
rainfall patterns will further negatively affect the ability of these
ecological buffer zones to shield human settlements from climate
hazard impacts (ibid).

SEA LEVEL RISE
Worldwide sea-level rise occurs as a result of rises in global
surface temperature, through the thermal expansion of oceans,
glacier melting and the polar ice balance from Greenland and the
Antarctic (IPCC, 2001). The associated vulnerability of certain
locations can be evaluated in terms of the following five potential
impacts (Midgely et al, 2005):
Increased exposure to extreme events
Raised groundwater tables and saltwater intrusion
Increased coastal erosion
Increased frequency and extent of flooding
Increased tidal influence
For instance, Hughes’ case study in 1992 shows that private
property in Muizenberg/Zandvlei would sustain damage from a
one-meter rise in sea level. This damage would have amounted
to tens to hundreds of millions of rands in 1992 (Hughes, 1992).
Figure 17 demonstrates that coastal erosion of 100 meters will
put MHWS behind the first block of property in Muizenberg west
side. The 1.5 m flood level intrudes into a large area as well
(ibid).
Figure 16 demonstrates the levels of risk certain areas would
be exposed to in the face of sea level rise. LLD refers to Land
Levelling Datum, which is similar in value to the Mean Sea Level.
The blue inundation area (up to LLD+2m) would be considered a
sheltered environment with limited exposure to sea level rise. The
red inundation area (up to LLD+2m and LLD+4.5m) represents an
exposed environment, and the yellow inundation area (between
LLD+4.5m and LLD+6.5m) displays a very exposed environment
(Brundit, 2009). There is evidence of the vulnerability of low-lying
lagoons and areas, which would feel the effects of sea level rises
(ibid).
Figure 16: Exposure to the Worst Cape Town Storms
11
1988). Human health can be acutely and chronically affected
by extreme exposure to these pollutants, leading to premature
deaths, chronic respiratory disease and irritations (Western Cape
Government, 2015)
Figure 18 shows estimated emissions from Section 21 listed
activities in the Western Cape. These listed activities are
combustion installations, animal matter processing, petroleum
industry activities, metallurgical industry, mineral processing,
and the thermal treatment of hazardous and general waste. VOC
stands for volatile organic compound, or organic chemicals that
have a higher vapor pressure at ordinary room temperature. Note
that the City of Cape Town has the highest emissions across the
board since this district municipality has the highest amount of
economic activity (Western Cape Provincial Government, 2015).
Regarding measurement of air quality, Figure 19 identifies the
three ambient air quality stations within the Western Cape:
located in Khayelitsha, Hout Bay, and Vissershok. While daily
mean carbon dioxide concentrations are available for Khayelitsha
and Vissershok, only data concerning daily maximum hourly mean
for hydrogen is available at Hout Bay.
The higher daily mean carbon dioxide concentrations within
Khayelitsha could be attributed to the heavy reliance of informal
settlements on high-emission producing coal for cooking and
heating. Furthermore, population densities are highest within the
low-income and informal settlements here (City of Cape Town,
2011). Spikes are correlated with colder months of the year, when
Figure 17: Flood Levels in Zandvlei Area Figure 18: Estimated Emissions from Section 21 Listed Activites in the
(Hughes, 1992) Western Cape (Kg/Annum)
AIR POLLUTION
The National Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) has
identified seven critical pollutants, around which the South
African Ambient Air Quality Standards ( DEA 2009, 2012) is
based. These are:
Figure 19: Air Quality Reading
-Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2); Western Cape Provincial Government (2015)
-Sulphur Dioxide (SO2);
-Ozone (O3);
-Particulate Matter of particle size less than 10
micron (PM10) ;
-Particulate Matter of particle size less than 2.5
micron (PM2.5)
-Benzene (C6H6);
-Carbon Monoxide (CO); and
-Lead (Pb)
The severity of health effects resulting from exposure to
these seven pollutants depends on frequency of exposure, the
magnitude of pollution and exposure duration (Sexton and Ryan,
 11
Figure 20: Air Quality Monitoring Stations
Western Cape Provincial Government (2015)

Figure 21: City of Cape Town Land Cover

diseases; mental health issues; occupational health problems;
and morbidity (WIREs Clim Change, 2014). Climate change also
may result in a decline in food production and by extension,
increasing food insecurity, due to effects on ecosystem
distribution and species range. (Tadross & Johnston, 2012).
Energy2040 Goal for Cape Town, which aims to become more
energy efficient in reducing carbon emissions and diversifying the
city’s energy supply over the next 5 years. It includes targeted
projects that seek to reach the goals of the City’s Action Plan,
informed by Energy2040. (City of Cape Town, 2015)

high-energy intensive heating methods, which often involve fossil
fuel burning, are necessary (City of Cape Town State of Energy,
2015).
ENERGY
Energy Sources
Energy sources and the use thereof have subsequent effects on
air quality and climate (City of Cape Town, 2018). This shall be
elaborated on in the section of this report that will examine
Human Impacts on the Primary Stratum, but is worth mentioning
here because of the link between energy sources and climate
change.
HEALTH PROBLEMS
Very little work currently exists on the associations between
health, nutrition, food security, and climate change in South
Africa (WIREs Clim Change, 2014). However, existing research
suggests that negative potential impacts of climate change on
health include diseases such as malaria, diarrhea, and respiratory
and heart diseases (Myers, 2011; Myers, 2013).
Other key health risks impacted by climate change include
increases in: air pollution; natural disasters; communicable
CURRENT ADAPTATION PRACTICES & C40 Deadline 2020 Program: The most recent legislation is the
City of Cape Town committing to creating a pathway for carbon
RESULTS neutrality by 2050 under the C40 Deadline 2020 programme (City
of Cape Town, 2018). The C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group is
LEGISLATION just one example in how the City of Cape Town actively engages
in international climate platforms and reporting networks (ibid).
The City of Cape Town was the first African city to create a State
of Energy Report in 2001 (updated 2007, 2011, and 2015). RESULTS OF LEGISLATION
The Energy and Climate Change Strategy (2006): This report
Most recent data from 2012 also shows that the transport,
utilizes these projected trends seen in Figure _ to inform its
residential and commercial sectors emit the most carbon
strategic visions of providing inclusive access to affordable,
appropriate, safe and healthy energy sources; meeting energy Figure 22: Legislation Priorities
needs sustainably and efficiently; providing an efficient
and equitable transport system; and supporting economic
competitiveness and employment (City of Cape Town, 2006).
Climate Change Policy (2017): This document outlines a vision
of becoming resource efficient, climate resilient and reducing
carbon emissions through inclusive and sustainable economic,
environmental and social development. In this regard, the
principles include ensuring climate compatible urban design, and
promoting citizen behavior change.
Energy 2040 (2015): The City of Cape Town adopted the
 11
emissions (City of Cape Town SAPIA, 2015). The same 2012 study
shows that most carbon emissions are from electricity (63%),
petrol (15%) and diesel (12%) (ibid). Therefore, the success of
the most recent projects have yet to be quantified.

OPPORTUNITIES
While these programs address adaptation to climate variability
and extreme events in both short term and long term
developmental context, adaptation policies and procedures
ought to occur at different levels of society. For instance,
there are international agreements, national procedures and
municipal guidelines, but there is a lack of proposed or existing
neighborhood level initiatives. There also ought to be a specific
focus on adaptation practices within informal settlements, since
in many cases this population is the most vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change. It is important to remember that
implementation is just as important as strategy, and the City
of Cape Town should continue to commit to monitoring and
evaluation of its policies (Mukheibir & Ziervoge, 2006).

HYDROLOGY
KEY DEFINITIONS
Wetlands: “are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or owing, fresh,
brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low
tide does not exceed six meters” (Ramsar, 2016).
Artificial Wetland: An artificial wetland can be defined as an area that
is covered by a body of water due to human interference, which is not
naturally suited for a wetland environment (Snaddon et al, 2013).
Aquifer: is a layer of underground water, fed by surface water seepage
through its location in permeable rock.
Permeable Rock: is a porous rock that allows water to pass through cracks
and is able to hold large amounts of water underground.
Canalisation: is transformation of a natural river bank into a man made
concrete structure, to manage the flow and erosion of a river through urban
areas.
Catchment Area: the area from which rainfall is collected and directed into
rivers.
Riverine: of or pertaining to a river and river bank, including dwellings
located in close proximity to the river or river bank.
11
Figure 24: Water Usage
(COCT, 2018)
INTRODUCTION
Cape Town is experiencing a severe water shortage, which
has spurred the City of Cape Town to work on providing new
efficient and sustainable water acquisition methods to the
metropolitan area. The Western Cape Water Supply System
(WCWSS) is responsible for supplying Cape Town with water.
WCWSS gets its water from a series of fourteen dams from
neighbouring catchment areas (CoCT, 2018). The Department
of Water and Sanitation (DWS) manage the three largest dams;
Theewaterskloof, Voëlvlei, and the Berg River dam. DWS are
responsible for meeting the water demand of cities, industries
and agricultural sectors through the planning and implementation WATER RESTRICTIONS AND USAGE
of water resource schemes (CoCT, 2018). The six major dams that form part of WCWSS have a maximum
capacity of 900 million m³ (Mm³). They supply a total of 1
With climate change affecting rainfall patterns, it is of great 346 million liters per day (MLD). However the demand has
concern that the current water supply system is almost entirely been reduced to a restricted 681 MLD (Table 1). The DWS have
dependent on rainfall (CoCT, 2018). As a result, the DWS are restricted citizens to a maximum usage of 50 liters per day to
struggling to meet Cape Town’s water demand. Augmentation maintain dam levels above 10% (CoCT, 2018). Table 1 below
water schemes such as groundwater extraction and desalination shows a decline in the CoCT consumption from 1364 MLD to 681
are being introduced to meet water demands. MLD.
The pie chart below shows a more detailed breakdown of Table 1
CoCT’s water usage and the allocation of water to each sector. (COCT, 2018)
Residential houses (55%) use the majority of the total water
followed by Retail and Offices with a total of 13%.
Figure 23: Western Cape Water Systems
(Coct, 2018)
The two graphs below depict CoCT’s water usage and the
estimated arrival of day zero, if consumption isn’t reduced. The
graph on the right shows the concerted effort made by Cape
Tonian’s to conserve water, depicting a positive trend moving
away from the critical zone. However, the CoCT has drafted a
Critical Water Shortages Disaster Plan with three phases in the
event of the target usage not being reached. (CoCT, 2018). CoCT
is currently in Phase 1.
STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING THE DROUGHT
The CoCT has implemented three main strategies for overcoming
the drought and reaching the rainy season.
A) Managing the remaining water in dams Figure 25: CoCT Water Usage and Estimated Day Zero
B) Reducing demand (COCT, 2018)
C) Introducing other water sources

Figure 26: Water Usage Comparison between 2016 and 2017
(COCT, 2018)
2016
The images above shows a comparison of the average daily
consumption per capita between July 2016 to September 2016
and July 2017 to September 2017. The average consumption per
capita is dependent on the number of individuals per household.
However, it is clear that the overall trend shows a decline in the
water usage across the city.
ACCESS TO WATER
Compared to the rest of South Africa, a large proportion of Cape
Town’s citizens have their basic needs met. Access to water is
well managed across the majority of the metro. The map below
shows a 97.61%-100% access to water in the most densely
populated areas of the city. Informal settlements however depict
a lower percentage rate of 21,21%-68,5% of individuals have
access to fresh running water within their homes.
11
Figure 27: Access to Water Across the Metro
(Currie et al, 2017)
2017
LEGISLATION: (i) meeting international obligations
(j) promoting dam safety
NATIONAL WATER ACT (k) managing floods and droughts
South Africa introduced the National Water Act in 1998. The
purpose of this act is to ensure that the nation’s water resources NATIONAL WATER RESOURCE STRATEGY
are protected, developed, conserved, managed and controlled.
The purpose of the New Water Program is to make the city more
The main facets of said act are:
resilient to drought by making new water sources available. The
a) meeting the basic human needs of present and future
following section summarizes the strategy.
generations
(b) promoting equitable access to water
GROUNDWATER (VARIABLE, PERMANENT AUGMENTATION)
(c) redressing the results of past racial and gender discrimination
(d) promoting the efficient, sustainable and beneficial use of
• Cape Flats aquifer providing ±55 million litres per day
water in the public interest
sustainable year-round yield (Phase 1)
(e) facilitating social and economic development
(f) providing for growing demand for water use
• Atlantis aquifer providing ±32 million litres per day final yield
(g) protecting aquatic and associated ecosystems and their
biological diversity
• TMG aquifer providing ±50 million litres per day year-round
(h) reducing and preventing pollution and degradation of water
yield (well within phase 1 license conditions)
resources

WATER TRANSFERS
• Receiving ~8 Mm3 from Groenland Water User Association
PERMANENT DESALINATION
• The City is currently contending with the decision of the
right volume, location, timing and procurement method of
permanent desalination processes. At the current stage of
evaluation, this appears to be optimal between 120 – 150
million litres per day at a single plant, with delivery of first
water possible in 2021. In parallel, work is continuing at the
pilot site at Koeberg, which is planned to produce ~20 million
litres per day in 2 years’ time (March 2020)
PERMANENT RE-USE
• The introduction of more expensive water such as ground
and desalinated water necessitates maximising value by re-
use. Having assessed all the available capacity at the City’s
wastewater treatment plants alongside the Cape Flats aquifer
injection requirements, a plant of between 70 – 90 million
litres per day is being assessed for injection at Faure water
treatment plant at an attractive cost with first water in the
second half of 2020.
ADDITIONAL SURFACE WATER
• The long-term outlook for additional augmented water into
the WCWSS needs to be balanced with water provision from
DWS, such as the additional 23Mm3 or 60 million litres per
day from Berg river to Voelvlei surface water augmentation
scheme.
• FUTURE WATER DEMAND
The current water crisis is considered an emergency under Section
30A of the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA).
The City’s bulk water augmentation schemes are exempt from the
water and environmental regulations. The City is still required
to adhere to Section 2 of the Act and minimise impact on the
environment (Slingsby, 2018).
CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT
The Catchment Management Agency (CMA) controls and manages
water resources in a defined Water Management Area (WMA). It
involves the community in water resource management, and co-
ordinates the role of other institutions in water related matters
(DWS, 2017). CMA works together with the National Water
Resource Management Strategy (NWRS).
Figure 28: Future Water Augmentation Programme
Coct, 2018
MANAGING URBAN GROWTH AND CREATE A BALANCE BETWEEN
URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The City is promoting an urban form with higher densities and
mixed land use patterns as an attempt to alleviate environmental
pressures. Efficient use of non-renewable resources such as water
is prioritised.
ENVIRONMENTAL STRATEGY
The City’s Environmental Strategy (CES) provides an integrated
perspective on sustainable, resource efficient growth in the
context of the City’s Economic Growth Strategy (EGS) and the
Social Development Strategy (SDS) that the Environmental
Strategy recognises (CoCT SDF, 2017). This includes:
• An acknowledgment of the Constitutional right to a safe and
healthy environment
• An acceptance that the success of economic and social
development in the city relies on Biophysical assets and the
servicing of the city is dependent on finite natural resources
CoCT’s current water demand is expected to increase from 940
million litres per day to 1270 million litres per day by 2032. The
growing demand for water is putting immense pressure on Cape
Town’s and neighbouring water systems. These systems may be
at risk of failure if water systems are not managed effectively.
The current drought has proved that relying solely on rainwater
is a risky option, especially considering that climate change may
change rainfall trends. This has given the city a reason to get a
head start on addressing the future water demand.
COASTAL WATERS
The ocean is the endpoint for many inland water systems.
Pollutants and harmful substances travelling down river systems
therefore damage and degrade the health of Cape Town’s
coastlines. Pollutants such as agricultural pesticides, single use
plastics, wastewater, and factory discharges find their way into
11
our river systems and are discharged into the ocean after heavy
rainfall. Therefore coastal water quality is often worse during the
rainy season. A total of 32% of South Africa’s effluent discharge
is along Cape coastal waters, causing the loss of biodiversity in
marine ecosystems. Systems. Unsustainable and poorly planned
urban development adds to the degradation of our coastal
systems.
RIVERS
Cape Town has a number of river systems running along the Cape
Peninsula mountain range. These rivers do not add to the potable
water supply of Cape Town water sources. The reservoirs fed by
Cape Town’s rivers are primarily used for the control of veld fires.
Rivers are also well known for their biodiversity and provide
green hubs throughout the city. Therefore, the conservation of our
river systems is of very important.
Figure 1(Adams, 2012).
Cape Town Rivers do not cover a great distance from the
catchment areas along the Cape Peninsula Mountain Range to the
ocean. Although the distances are short, the rivers travel through
densely populated areas. The map below portrays population
densities across Cape Town with the darkest red areas exceeding
3000 people per km². Urban development and human interaction
with rivers often negatively affects the wellbeing of a riverine
ecosystem. Some of these rivers carry almost toxic water as result
of severe polluting. Fauna and flora depending on the ecosystems
surrounding these heavily polluted rivers are at risk of extinction.
Urban development and increased densities along river systems
are taking valuable land away from the already threatened and
diminishing ecosystems within the city.

CANALISATION
Rivers are dynamic systems, they adapt to the changing
environment around them. Their shape, texture, form and speed
are determined by natural and human influences. The Black,
Liesbeeck, Big Lotus, Little Lotus, and Keysers Rivers have all
suffered a loss of biodiversity due to canalisation in densely
Figure 29: Canalisation and Flood Plains
(Bhikha, 2013)
populated areas. Elevated river levels after excessive rains often
overflow their canalised banks and may cause severe flooding.
The image below depicts the extent to which the Liesbeeck and
Black River would flood the surrounding area if the river banks
were to overflow. Severe flooding of these two rivers could cause
extensive damage to the surrounding urban fabric and what is
left of the natural environment.
11
THREATS TO OUR WATER SOURCES
Rainfall across South Africa is uneven and seasonal, and therefore
careful management of our water resources is required. As a
result, water resources are at risk to climate change – depicting
an increase in annual average temperatures and the possibility of
more droughts (WWF, 2013). Veldfires put our catchment areas at
further risk, causing unstable land which may result in flooding

and landslides after heavy rains. Invasive alien vegetation are
heavy water feeders, reducing the availability of water for
indigenous fynbos, and a loss of biodiversity. Land degradation
from over-farming puts the land at risk to soil erosion after heavy
rains as well as the seepage of pesticides and chemicals into the
river systems.
Figure 30: River Canalisation
CAPE FLATS AQUIFER (CFA)
The Cape Flats Aquifer covers an area in excess of 400 km². It is
bounded by the Tygerberg hills in the North, the Cape Peninsula
in the west, the Bottelary hills to the east and False Bay to
the South (DWS, 2008). The direct link between surface water
and the CFA allows rainfall and surface runoff to recharge the
aquifer during rainy seasons. Once groundwater supplies have
been recharged, the elevated water table begins to recharge the
overlying rivers (DWS, 2008). This symbiotic relationship benefits
each system independently during the dry season.
11
ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS
The natural flow or discharge of water is often disrupted by
construction work and urban development. This may lead to the
development of an artificial wetland.
STORMWATER
After excessive rains, wetlands act as a natural method for flood
control. Urban development and the canalization of rivers have
since bypassed many wetlands, for fear of flooding built areas
near or on wetland territory (Brown, et al. 2009). The canalisation
of rivers does not prevent floods from occurring during excessive
rains. This damaged ecosystem system struggles to cope with
excessive rains and often overflows its canal boundary, leading
to the loss of biodiversity hubs in urban areas. The regeneration
of these systems is incredibly difficult and may never be the
same again. Before urban development, stormwater would
naturally filter through rivers and wetlands before slowing
down and filtrating back into groundwater systems. With the
increase of urban development and paved areas, stormwater is
unable to naturally filtrate into groundwater systems and most is
discharged into the ocean.

WASTEWATER
Wastewater is transported to wastewater treatment sites where
contaminated water is treated. Treated wastewater effluent
is not returned to Cape Town’s raw water as it is collected
from outside the municipal area (Water Services Departmental
Sector, 2017: 30). A percentage of the treated water is used
to artificially recharge the Atlantis Aquifer. One of the primary
challenges for wastewater treatment is the increased number of
backyard dwellers putting strain on the wastewater infrastructure
and treatment plants. Overloading the system often results in
blockages, which then overflow and enter other systems without
being treated. This not only a severe health hazard for humans
but has serious implications for the natural environment and
surrounding water systems.
WETLANDS AND AQUIFERS
OVERVIEW:
Wetlands are an integral part of an ecosystem, as they contain
a unique diversity of plant and animal life. A diversity of flora
add to the capability of wetlands to filter and clean water from
natural and man-made pollutants. We need to preserve our
wetlands for future generations, because once destroyed, rare
plant, animal, bird and fish species will struggle to survive.
Groundwater is essential in the recharge of river levels and
wetland water levels. This symbiotic relationship helps maintain
water levels or moist soils for biodiversity hotspots to flourish all
year.
SPRINGS
The Cape Town drought has put immense pressure on the public
natural springs around the city. Citizens queue for hours to
collect fresh, clean drinking water. The extraction of large sums
of water at a certain point in the system has negative effects
for the rest of the system. Biodiversity along the lower reaches
of systems that have been negatively impacted on by humans
THREATS TO CFA struggles to cope.
The development of settlements and industrial areas above the
aquifer recharge zone increases the possibility of pollutants Figure 31: Prospective Borehole Drill Sites
reaching the groundwater system (DWS, 2008). The quality of the
water has deteriorated significantly in certain areas and is not fit
for use. The contamination of groundwater systems affects plant
and animal life that depend on rivers fed by the CFA.
Prospective borehole drill sites are to be an augmentation of
water source to form part of Cape Town’s water scheme. This will
place an extreme amount of pressure on the aquifer. Extracting
large amounts of water from CFA puts strain on other ecosystems
as well. Consequently, we can expect to see a decline in habitat
diversity along riparian systems.
THREATS TO WETLANDS
Urban development and growth has resulted in the destruction
of many wetlands across the Cape Metropolitan Area. In many
instances, urban developments have been built on or adjacent to
a wetland. These modifications can affect the character or even
classification of the system (Ollis, Snaddon, Job, & Mbona, 2013).
Wetlands are resultantly classified as areas under threat in the
Cape.

BIODIVERSITY
ACRONYMS AND KEY TERMS:
NEM:BA : National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act
NEM:PAA : National Environmental Management: Protected Areas Act
NEMA : National Environmental Management Act
SANBI : South African National Biodiversity Institute
WCBSP : Western Cape Biodiversity Spatial Plan
Biodiversity: Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living or-
ganisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part;
this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
Ecosystem: A collective of the living things which include plants, animals
and organisms in a given area, interacting with each other and with their
non-living environments which include the weather, earth, sun, soil, climate
and atmosphere
Biome: A very large ecological area on the surface of the earth which are
defined by abiotic factors such as climate, geology, soils and vegetation.
They are covered with flora and fauna which are adapted to that specific
environment.
Biosphere: The layer of the planet Earth where life exists. This layer ranges
from heights of up to ten kilometres above sea level.
Wetlands: areas where water covers the soil, or is present either at or near
the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year
Flora: Plant matter occupying a particular location at a particular period in
time.
Fauna: Animal life occupying a particular location at a particular period in
time.
Taxa: Plural of Taxon, is a group of organisms which are biologically classi-
fied as a unit.
Endemism: The ecological state of being unique to a particular geographic
location, such as a habitat type, nation or other defined zone.
OVERVIEW
This section of the report will consider biodiversity in the Cape
Town Metro and in the greater Western Cape region. Focusing
beyond the Metro’s border is essential in understanding the
natural systems within and around Cape Town, because these
different scales and systems affect one another.
(INSERT Map of the Western Cape showing Municipalities)
The combination of weather patterns, climatic conditions,
topographic features variations, altitude, geology and soil types
encourage a very unique biodiversity in the Western Cape.
Within the Western Cape, we find the Cape Floristic region.
This floristic region is one of six global such regions, and is the
smallest and most diverse. It has the highest known concentration
of plant species in the world (Conservation SA, n.d.).
AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
Aquatic ecosystems include freshwater and marine ecosystems.
The Freshwater ecosystems of the Western Cape consist of
watercourses and wetlands (WCBSP, 2017). The Western Cape
Figure 32: Cape Town Metro in Context
(Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2017: 21)
is generally a water scarce region and the drought now poses
a threat to the development and growth of the region (WCBSP,
2017). In turn, this affects its biodiversity at the primary level
and has a ripple effect on other systems supported by this
primary strata.
(INSERT Map of Ecosystem Threat Status for the Western Cape)
WETLANDS AND BIODIVERSITY
As highlighted in the section of this report that dealt with
hydrology, wetlands are a vital source of biodiversity. This section
11
will examine the characteristics of wetlands in the Western Cape
more thoroughly. There are a number of significant wetlands of
international importance within the Western Cape, as highlighted
in the Ramsar list of wetlands. These are described below.
• The Wilderness Lakes in the southeast of the Western Cape
and Breede-Gouritz Water Management Area are surrounded
by lakes, dunes, thickets, woodland, marshes and reedbed
habitats.
• Both the De Mond (Heuningnes Estuary) and the De Hoop Vlei
located on the Agulhas Plain are essential. De Mond provides
an important habitat for wintering, staging and feeding for
breeding bird species, including migrants and waterbirds.
• De Hoop Vlei is an important habitat for waterbird species.
These systems are surrounded by agricultural lands. Siltation
and chemical runoff have major impacts on the integrity of
the estuarine and wetland ecosystems (WCBSP 2017,46).
• The False Bay Nature Reserve includes wetlands located in
the Cape Flats. These wetlands support at least two critically
endangered vegetation units: the Cape Flats Sand Fynbos and
Cape Flats Dune Strandveld. False Bay Nature Reserve includes
two lakes, Rondevlei and Zeekoevlei. Both provide a suitable
habitat for many species of waterbirds and mammals such as
flamingos, hippos and the cape clawless otter.
• The Langebaan lagoon is comprised of reedbeds, sandflats,
islands, dwarf shrubland and saltmarshes. It provides
important nursing habitat for numerous fish species. It is also
important for wintering and staging waterbirds.
• The Verlorenvlei contains shrubland, dune systems,
marshlands and reedbeds. It is an important feeding area for
pelican species, and habitat for fish species including the
Verlorenvlei redfin minnow Pseudobarbus verloreni. Some of
the threats to this lake include water being channeled from
the vlei for irrigation purposes and nitrification of the water
caused by upstream activities. The buffer area of the lake is
also used for cattle grazing.
TYPES OF WETLANDS
The Western Cape Mountains support vegetation typical of the
Fynbos Biome with numerous endemic taxa (e.g. Bruniaceae and
several frog species). They are of vital importance to the Western
Cape’s water supply. Valley-bottom wetlands occur mostly in
the Cape Flats, which are under pressure from development and
settlement growth.
CURRENT STATE OF BIODIVERSITY IN THE
WESTERN CAPE
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
FLORA

According to SANBI (2015), there are 10 714 plant species,
subspecies and varieties in the Western Cape. Currently, 290 of
these species are critically endangered. 619 species are classified
as endangered species, while 877 are classified as vulnerable
(SANBI, 2015). According to Le Roux et al (2012), there are
163 vegetation units in the Western Cape, of which 64% are
endemic to the province. There are 67 threatened ecosystems
in the Western Cape. In addition, according to Turner’s WCSBR
(2012), there are 21 critically endangered ecosystems in the
province. The following species are not adequately protected: the
Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos, Central Rûens Shale Renosterveld,
Cape Flats Sand Fynbos, Swartland Shale Renosterveld, Swartland
Silcrete Renosterveld, Western Rûens Shale Renosterveld,
Ruens Silcrete Renosterveld, Knysna Sand Fynbos and Peninsula
Shale Renosterveld. The Garden Route Granite Fynbos and
Kouebokkeveld Alluvium Fynbos are also critically endangered.
There are 5 biome types that are found in the Western Cape
which include, Fynbos, Succulent Karoo, Nama Karoo, Albany
Thicket and Afrotemperate Forest (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006).
The fynbos biome, which is internationally acclaimed for its
diversity and beauty, is dependant on fire to release seeds for
regeneration (WCBSP, 2017). Fynbos generally occurs in the
nutrient poor soils found in the Cape Fold Belt mountains.
Lowland fynbos also occurs in the nutrient poor flats of the
Metro. Urban expansion in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area,
which relates to higher rates of transformation, is a threat to
lowland fynbos and has depleted biodiversity in these regions
substantially (Rebelo et al., 2011). Leipoldtville Sand Fynbos
occurs on the acid sands of the lowlands of the northern West
Coast. This fynbos is threatened by high levels of transformation
due to agricultural expansion of potatoes under irrigation.
(insert Leipoldtville Sand Fynbos image)
Renosterveld, another vegetation type in the fynbos biome,
occurs on nutrient-rich, shale soils as well as on soil derived
from granite. It occurs in the lowland areas of the coastal inland
plain and the Cape Fold mountains. Since Renosterveld occurs in
nutrient rich soils, it is under threat from agricultural expansion.
(insert Renosterveld vegetation image)
Strandveld is found along the coastline on calcareous sands.
This vegetation type is under threat due to urban expansion of
the Cape Town Metro, the garden route towns and industrial
development in Saldanha. In Saldanha, which lies to the north
of the Metro, mining and industry serves as the main threat to
biodiversity (WCBSP, 2017: 35).
(insert Strandveld on a limestone ridge image)
The Afrotemperate Forest Biome occurs as naturally fragmented
patches in the higher rainfall areas, which are sheltered from
frequent fire, more typically in the mountains, with the largest
extents occurring in the Garden Route and Tsitsikamma. It often
extends onto the coast (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006). (WCBSP,
2017: 32). In areas where there is fire exclusion, such as the
Newlands forest area, the extent of the forest reaches into the
mountain fynbos.
FIRES
Wildfires occur approximately every 15 years in the region.
These occur in large vegetation areas within the City of Cape
Town municipal boundary, including Table Mountain National
Park. These fires are important for Fynbos and Renosterveld
regeneration.
Fires most often occur during the warm, dry summers between
November and March, particularly when there are several days of
hot, windy, and dry conditions (Midgley et al, 2005).
FAUNA
There are approximately 600 bird species in the Western Cape,
11
including both migratory and resident species. There are 93
threatened bird species in the Western Cape and 6 which are
species are regionally extinct. Examples of endangered species
include Damara Tern (Sterna balaenarum), the Hottentot
Buttonquail (Turnix hottentottus), the African Marsh Harrier
(Circus ranivorus), the Black Harrier (Circus maurus) and the
Ludwig’s Bustard (Neotis ludwigii). Habitat distribution affects
the distribution of fauna. Hence linkages of the fynbos biome
beyond the extent of the Western Cape allows for bird species to
migrate easily. Apart from fynbos, birds are also found in coastal,
marine and wetland habitats. There are 172 described mammal
species and subspecies which make the Metro their home. One
of the main threats to fauna in the Western Cape is seen to be
biodiversity loss by the encroachment of alien species, habitat
transformation and climate change.
There are approximately 153 reptile species and subspecies
identified in the greater Western Cape area. Of these, 11 species
are threatened, 3 are critically endangered, 2 are endangered,
6 are vulnerable and 8 are near threatened. There are
approximately 55 amphibian types identified in the Western Cape.
The main threats to the indigenous fish in the greater Western
Cape region are invasive alien species, habitat degradation and
Figure 33: Areas with high concentrations of taxa
of conservation concern
(WCBSP, 2018: 54)
destruction caused by pollution resulting from poor land use
practices adjacent to water systems. This has led to 13 species in
the Western Cape being categorized as threatened.
CONSERVATION PRIORITY AREAS
In the terrestrial ecosystems category, five broad conservation
priority areas have been identified in the Western Cape. These
include the Cape Floristic Region (North-West Sandveld, Saldanha
Peninsula, Nieuwoudtville, Upper Breede River Valley, and
Riversdale Plain) (WCBSP, 2017:22).
In addition, other priority areas identified include the False Bay
corridor, linking the Cape Peninsula and Helderberg regions; the
Kuils River corridor, linking Macassar Dunes Conservation Area
and Driftsands Nature Reserve; the West Coast corridor, linking
the Blaauwberg and Koeberg Nature Reserves; the Diep River

fynbos corridor, linking the Table Bay and Blaauwberg Nature
Reserves; the Dassenberg Coastal Catchment Corridor. This last
corridor is one of the protected area expansion priorities for the
Western Cape and links the provincial Riverlands Nature Reserve
(immediately outside the City boundary) to the West Coast.
Figure 34: Historic Vegetation Footprint
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN WESTERN CAPE
AND CAPE TOWN
Habitat loss remains the main cause of biodiversity loss in the
western cape. Habitat loss is caused by habitat transformation,
degradation and fragmentation which is mainly caused by
changes in land use. These land use changes are followed by
other effects which greatly damage existing biodiversity.
Figure 35: Current Vegetation Footprint
BIODIVERSITY TRENDS
Urban development continues to grow in the Cape town metro,
resulting in land use change. As rates of urban development,
habitat fragmentation and habitat loss rates increase. This
coincides with biodiversity loss. In addition, the population of
Cape town has increased dramatically within the last 2 decades,
which has put a lot of pressure to create urban settlements.
This has lead to more sprawl, which has fragmented natural
systems even further (WCBSP, 2017: 7). The natural environment
and biodiversity is vulnerable to the effects of climate change.
Climate change causes loss of biodiversity through habitat loss
and extreme weather events which modify the habitat making it
vulnerable to depletion.
22
36: Critical Biodiversity Areas
The Western Cape is also the country’s leading exporter of
agricultural produce (WCBSP, 2017: 7). Transformation of the
natural environment into agricultural land has been a great threat
in the Cape Town metro and the Western Cape at large. Areas
such as the Cederberg, for example, have seen high rates of
habitat transformation over the last decade. In response to this,
the area has been considered for conservation action through
efforts such as the Greater Cederberg Biodiversity corridor as well
as the Sandveld Environmental Management Framework.
Mining is a major contributor to the South African economy.
However, it poses a threat to biodiversity. The West Coast has
limestone, which supports Strandveld and phosphate minerals.
In the metro in particular, the Cape Flats possess sand which is
also heavily mined, and the implications of this on biodiversity is
substantial. This is exacerbated by the high incidence of private
developments and urban expansion in the metro.
 22
Figure 37: Alien Vegetation Densitities over time

WESTERN CAPE DROUGHT AND BIODIVER-
SITY (EFFECTS, CONSERVATION AND FU-
TURE-ADAPTATION AND RESILIENCE)
The Western Cape drought crisis (as discussed in depth in
the hydrology section of this report) has impacted the water
resources available to the province and the metro. Invasive
species have exacerbated the effects of the drought. Invasive
species were cleared around Wemmershoek as a result. Alien tree
species that threaten to uptake excessive water and nutrients
have been cleared to allow for the endemic biodiversity to thrive.
LEGISLATION
There are a number of policy documents that deal with the
conservation of biodiversity in the Western Cape. It is worth
noting that conservation areas are not protected formally
since they are not gazetted. In addition, 80% of the land that
is considered to have important biodiversity is not formally
protected, as it does not fall into the categories under protected
areas.
The biodiversity stewardship programme is set up to encourage
partnerships for the management and protection of natural
assets.This is a voluntary conservation partnership agreement
between the Biodiversity management authority and the land
owner in areas where conservation is identified as a priority.
Other acts include the National Forest Act and Mountain
Catchment Area Act. A gap exists in this legislation whereby
there is a lack of legislation restricting activities in the mountain
catchment areas.
The Western Cape Protected areas expansion strategy was
implemented to address the existing protected area network,
which was not adequate in protecting the majority of ecosystems
and biodiversity. It aims to encompass a more updated and
representative array of areas that are threatened and unprotected
(WCBSP, 2017:28).
The National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act focuses
on an ecosystem approach in managing biodiversity. It looks
beyond the boundaries of formally protected areas and links
various protected areas and the surrounding areas, as well as the
biodiversity patches in between them (WCBSP, 2017:28).
The National Environmental Management Protected Areas Act
addresses the formal protection of ecologically viable areas and
their linkages. It sets up legal requirements for the management
of national, provincial and local protected areas. It looks into
protected areas which are under private or communal land
ownership to encourage partnerships between the protection
22
management authority and the land owner(s) (WCBSP, 2017:28).
The National Protected Areas Expansion Strategy intends to
enhance ecological sustainability and resilience by overseeing
cost effective expansion of protected areas. It sets out national
level ecosystem focus areas for expansion of protected areas
across the nation.
The National Biodiversity Framework is involved with coordinating
and aligning the various actors involved in conserving and
managing biodiversity in South Africa.
The Western Cape Provincial Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan is a 10 year strategy and is more focused on coordinating
the efforts of Cape Nature, relevant government departments,
municipalities and local communities to ensure biodiversity
conservation and equitable distribution of the ecosystem
benefits.
The National Biodiversity Assessment 2011 summarises the
priority areas across different ecosystems, identifying their
locations. It is important in streamlining decision-making
regarding environmental matters, as well as improving land use
decisions based on identifying priority areas which need to be
restored and managed.
CRITICAL ISSUES AND OPPORTUNITIES (BIODI-
VERSITY PROTECTION) AND (POLICY FRAME-
WORKS)
Future development should incorporate and enhance the
ecosystem services provided by natural areas by improving blue
green infrastructures in and around new developments. This
could be done by identifying the ecological opportunities and
constraints that should inform land use. In addition, ecological
corridors can be identified to conserve biodiversity.
Land use planning and decision-making should strive to
encourage sustainable development. This should be done by
considering biodiversity conservation areas in determining the
location and the procedure of development.
Also, conservation efforts need to be considered and implemented
Figure 38: Conservation Areas
beyond the areas demarcated for biodiversity conservation as
natural systems do not occur in confined spaces, but are part of
a broader system. Hence, there is the need to address systems at
a greater scale. This ensures that continuity and habitat linkages
are considered during development and land use planning.

HUMAN IMPACT
KEY DEFINITIONS
Solar PV: Solar photovoltaic systems convert light into electricity.
Renewable Energy: Energy sourced from replenishable sources (e.g sun-
light).
Backyard Dwellings: Dwellings erected on private property that are set
apart from the main house.
Food Security: The ability to access sufficient amounts of food regularly,
that is both nutritious and affordable
Gross Domestic Product: The total amount of goods and service pro-
duced per annum within a country.
Green Economy: Economic activity that supports the sustainability of the
environment
Land Use Intensity: The extent of development in a given area.
Permeable Surfaces: Types of pavements and roads that allow for the infil-
tration of stormwater
SOLID WASTE
OVERVIEW
Waste disposal sites, as noted by the Western Cape Department
of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (2017:
20), are incredibly detrimental to natural ecosystems. Landfill
sites also hold exponential health risks in terms of hazardous
waste, that remain long after landfill site closure (Western Cape
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning,
2017: 20). Leachate, which is produced by landfill sites as a
result of chemical, biological processes as well as input moisture,
has the potential to negatively affect both surface water and
groundwater (Western Cape Department of Environmental
Affairs and Development Planning, 2017: 24). The Western Cape
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning
(2017: 24) specifically highlights the detrimental effects leachate
poses to species habitats and the species themselves. Landfill
sites rely on land availability, which is scarce within Cape Town,
thus require the use of extensive transportation infrastructure.
This in-turn possesses its own environmental impacts. Landfill
sites located on Cape Town’s periphery also impede on natural
areas and ecosystems, as previously mentioned. The responsibility
of ensuring the safe and efficient disposal of waste products
falls under national and provincial governing bodies, as noted
by the Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning (2017:30).
CURRENT SITUATION
The Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning (2017: 2) outlined the Western Cape
Industrial Symbiosis Programme (WISP), which focuses on the
creation of economic opportunities from waste produce by the
commercial, industrial and agricultural sectors. This programme
not only prioritises low carbon emission output, but also benefits
the economy in terms of resource efficiency (The Western
Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development
Planning, 2017: 2). In 2017 the output of waste reached 2 447
000 tonnes (Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs
and Development Planning, 2017: 6). Coping with this output
of waste is a substantial challenge. There are however plans
to increase collection mechanisms which hope to reduce this
problem.
Within the private sector there are a number of initiatives that
convert landfill gas into electricity, pyrolysis generating biodiesel,
biomass as fuel and tyre recycling (Western Cape Department of
Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2017:32).
Fig T: In considering graph T, construction and demolition waste
is the predominant type of waste reaching landfill sites.
TRENDS
The Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
22
Development Planning (2017:6) highlights that from 2001 to
2010 there was an exponential increase in waste output, which
surpassed the population and economic growth for the same
period. This suggests that there is a general trend towards
increased waste production, that is not indicative of growth in
actors or industrial production. Waste generation within Cape
Town is expected to increase by 6.25% between 2015 and 2020
and a further 9.75% between 2020 and 2030 (Western Cape
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning,
2017:9). The increasing number of private sector businesses
involved in recycling of waste into fuels and the like suggests a
general trend of increasing demand for sustainable approaches
to waste processing by the general population of Cape Town.
There is increasing pressure to find alternative methods to that
of landfill sites, as noted by the Western Cape Department of
Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (2017:33).
This is a result of the scarcity of land, the associated cost of
transporting waste to peripheral areas, the health risks, and
environmental impacts of such landfills. As noted by the Western
Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development
Planning (2017:2), there is a general trend towards increased
recycling of waste, thus suggesting a decrease in the quantity of
solid waste that needs to be transferred to landfill sites.
Fig A: In comparing the amount of waste generated in 2005,
2010 and 2016, a significant increase in waste generation can
be observed. Cape Town contributes substantially to the waste
generated in the entire Western Cape Province. This suggests
an upward trend that is likely caused or exacerbated by the
population increase of the city. From Fig A, it can also be
Figure 39: Cape Town Waste Output
(CoCT, 2018)

surmised that not enough waste is being diverted to be recycled.
Fig39. depicts the trend of how landfill waste is being reduced
through diversion strategies. There is a steady increase in waste
being diverted, reducing the overall amount reaching landfill
sites.
STATUTORY ‘STUFF’
The City of Cape Town (2018:236), suggests that a long-term
plan that incorporates the circular flow of waste materials shall
be prioritised and shall include both recycling and reusing.
This shall be affected through public-private partnerships. The
City of Cape Town (2018:236) intends to limit the quantity of
waste that reaches landfill sites by introducing waste treatment
facilities located within the previous urban edge boundary, so as
to reduce the effect on the existing natural environment. The City
of Cape Town (2018:131) has specifically emphasised that any
Figure 40: Distribution of Waste Generation
(CoCT, 2018) infrastructural development related to wastewater or solid waste
treatment shall occur within the historical urban edge boundary
so as to limit the effects on the natural environment. Agricultural
farms are responsible for disposing of their own solid waste, and
many contract the responsibility to the private sector (Western
Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development
Planning, 2017:20).
In terms of waste mitigation and adaptation, there are a number
of initiatives that have been instituted in the greater Western
Cape Area and adhere to the waste management hierarchy
(Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning, 2017:25).
ANALYSIS
Figure 41: Solid Waste Management
(CoCT, 2018)
Landfill sites in particular are prone to contaminate soil and
water sources, which is both detrimental to the environment
and poses potential health risks (Western Cape Department of
Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2017:21).
Landfill sites that are mismanaged are prone to release dust and
well as hazardous compounds. These have the potential to affect
groundwater quality and soil fertility (Western Cape Department
of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2017:21).
Methane, carbon dioxide and aldehydes are compounds that are
found to be emitted from landfill sites (Western Cape Department
of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2017:21).
SHORTFALL & OPPORTUNITIES
The Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning (2017:1) highlighted that while there is
limited available land for future landfill sites within the Western
Cape, there is also considerable pressure on the government to
adopt new innovative approaches to waste management that
Figure 42: Energies by Sector
(CoCT, 2018)
22
is sustainable and possesses a lesser environmental impact.
Further to this, additional data is required in terms of the volume
and composition of waste so as to design effective intervention
strategies (Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs
and Development Planning, 2017:34). The Western Cape
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning
(2017:33) also highlighted that they are under-funded, as tariffs
and the small budget do not sufficiently cover the costs to
develop infrastructure and manage the existing infrastructure.
As noted by the Western Cape Department of Environmental
Affairs and Development Planning (2017:1), the recycling industry
has grown and offers numerous new employment opportunities.
Materials such as wood, plastic, food, natural waste products
and fabric have the potential to be diverted from regular waste
management facilities and included recycling programmes such
as WISP (Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs
and Development Planning). Approximately 284 tonnes of solid
waste was processed by the WISP programme between 2013 and
2015 (Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning, 2017:2).
The Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning (2017:6) suggests that in terms of waste
management, the following strategies need to be mainstreamed:
the minimisation, reuse, reduction and treatment of waste. It
is suggested that if these strategies are incorporated within
mainstream management, it will result in a reduction of overall
waste output reaching landfill sites (Western Cape Department
of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2017:6).
In order to improve waste management, the Western Cape
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning
(2017:6) suggests that there be increased private sector
involvement and investment, increased accessibility and equality
to waste services and ongoing monitoring and evaluation of
output.
The Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning (2017:23) highlights that the number
of waste pickers at landfill sites within greater South Africa
has increased and that approximately 80%-90% of recyclable
materials are recovered by pickers. This is an informal response
that may indirectly benefit the environment in terms of reduced
waste output. These waste pickers are however exposed to
hazardous compounds, which poses health risks to these
individuals.

The programmes that saw the greatest success, were those
where the recovery of recyclable materials directly benefited the
community (Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs
and Development Planning, 2017:26). ‘Buy-back’ and ‘swap-shop’
projects have been instituted across the country and have seen
much success, these hold potential and opportunity for initiation
within Cape Town.
ENERGY
KEY DEFINITIONS:
Solar PV: Solar photovoltaic systems convert light into electricity.
Renewable Energy: Energy sourced from replenishable sources (e.g sun-
light).
OVERVIEW
As discussed in the section of this report dealing with climate,
energy production and usage has a substantial effect on the
environment. GreenCape (2017:20) notes that coal electricity
generation and diesel both release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere, contributing to climate change.
Fig B: Figure B suggests that the largest contribution to the
overall city’s energy consumption lies in the transport sector.
Petrol, electricity and diesel dominate Cape Town’s energy-use
profile (City of Cape Town, 2003). Paraffin, liquid petroleum gas,
coal, heavy furnace oil and wood comprise of the remaining 11%
of total use. Meanwhile, the transport sector takes up over half
of total energy use. The transport sector is exhibiting traits of
becoming increasingly inefficient due to a growth in the number
of private vehicles, under-resourced public transport, and road
congestion (City of Cape Town, 2005).
The City of Cape Town purchases the majority of electricity from
Eskom national electricity grid, which is dominated by coal-
generation plants located mainly in Mpumalanga and Gauteng.
CURRENT SITUATION
In 2016 there was a significant increase in the Solar PV’s
generation of energy, which was approximately 94 300
kW (GreenCape, 2017:38). The agricultural sector saw
the introduction 36 solar PV systems in the Western Cape
(GreenCape, 2017). The input cost, and slow return, have limited
the widespread adoption of Solar PV power generation within
the agricultural sector as noted by GreenCape (2017:38). The
agricultural sector is likely to increase its overall energy usage
over the medium to long-term in the face of higher temperatures,
and the necessity for cooling systems to preserve produce.
As noted by GreenCape (2017:36), Cape Town has recently
introduced the option for private energy generators to sell excess
electricity supply back into the main grid.
Fig G: Map G illustrates the adoption of renewable energy
22
power plants on a country-wide scale. In considering Map G, in
comparison to the other provinces, the Western Cape has adopted
the widest range of energy sources. The diversity of renewable
energy plants in the Western Cape is a significant indicator
that alternative renewable energy is being explored within the
province as a whole.
TRENDS
The City of Cape Town (2018:242) suggests that the current
trajectory of energy consumption in Cape Town will increase
twofold by 2040. The increasing use of appliances to combat
climate change pressures may exacerbate energy consumption
in years to come (CoCT, 2018: 241). The City of Cape Town
(2018:241) notes that direct investment suggests that there is
a general increase in the demand for reduced carbon intensive
Figure 43: Renewable Energy Power Plants
strategies and renewable energy. The City of Cape Town
(CoCT, 2018)
(2018:22); Population Statistics South Africa (2014) and the Cape
Town State of Energy Report (2015), highlight that consumptive
ANALYSIS
resource trends suggest that there is a decrease in electricity
usage, water usage and land in relation to the overall size of As noted previously, trends indicate that energy consumption
both the economy and the population. With respect to the use shall only increase in the future on a global scale, particularly in
of petrol, however there is an overall increase in consumption response to global changes in temperature as a result of climate
(CoCT, 2018: 22). change. In Cape Town in particular, trends indicate that there
Fig R: As reflected by figure R in the table, various goals have may be a decrease in energy usage. This is likely as a result of the
been prioritised by the City. These goals suggest a demand for load-shedding that occurred, and therefore may not be a long-
efficient electricity and transportation so as to reduce carbon term consistent trend. Despite the adoption of alternative energy
dioxide emissions. generation in the agricultural sector, this is a small proportion
of the sector and financial costs limit the adoption of alternative
STATUTORY ‘STUFF’ energy on a larger scale.
The City of Cape Town (2018:131) has specifically emphasized
SHORTFALL & OPPORTUNITIES
the need to reduce the impact of additional power generation
The City of Cape Town (2018:242) suggests that an inward
developments on the natural environment and specifies that all
densification approach shall improve energy efficiency and
such development should occur within the historical urban edge
the City has prioritised alternative energy production methods
boundary. In terms of the maintenance of existing infrastructure,
through incentivising the development of such infrastructure. The
the Spatial Development Framework has prioritised the upgrading
of the northern sewerage line as well the waste water treatment City of Cape Town (2018:241) suggests that there is potential
works in Bellville (CoCT, 2018:252). for the development of wind energy infrastructure in the Western
Cape. The City of Cape Town (2018:241), states that the local
green economy holds a number of opportunities, particularly in
relation to the service and tourism sectors. Backyard dwellings
also have the potential to increase the load on existing
infrastructure such as public facilities as a result of the increase
in population density. Backyard dwellings also have a lesser
impact on the environment in that they decrease the demand
for urban expansion and increase density and intensity of the
residential areas.
 22
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS Settlements Directorate (2012:15), there is a growing awareness
that residential settlements need to consider not only the natural
environment in which they are located, but the very materials
KEY DEFINITIONS: being used in terms sustainability and resiliency.
Backyard Dwellings: Dwellings erected on private property that
are set apart from the main house. TRENDS

OVERVIEW
As noted by the Human Settlements Directorate (2012:1)
urbanisation has occurred rapidly within Cape Town in
conjunction with the increase in the size of the population.
The Human Settlements Directorate (2012:1) further highlights
the importance of preserving natural ecosystems in the face of
increasing development. The City of Cape Town has introduced
an Urbanisation Framework to manage urbanisation (Human
Settlements Directorate, 2012:1). The number of backyard
dwellings have increased in Cape Town (Human Settlements
Directorate, 2012:2), and are an innovative approach to housing
provision. In the face of land scarcity and high land values,
backyard dwellings are an accessible solution. Backyard dwellings
are an innovative approach to reducing urban sprawl in Cape
Town and increasing residential densities, in so doing, a lesser
impact is incurred by the natural environment.
There are also considerable concerns regarding housing in the
face of growing natural pressures resulting from climate change
(Human Settlements Directorate, 2012:4). Both informal and
formal residential settlements are vulnerable to natural disasters,
particularly settlements located close to water courses or on
flood plains (Human Settlements Directorate, 2012:4).
CURRENT SITUATION
Informal settlements within Cape Town have increased in both
size and number and are under-supplied in terms of service and
resource provision (Western Cape Department of Environmental
Affairs and Development Planning, 2017:4). The lack of service
provision to informal settlements, specifically sanitation and
waste removal, poses direct impacts on the natural environment
in the form of illegal dumping of waste in water courses and
the burning of waste materials (Western Cape Department of
Environmental Affairs and Development Planning, 2017:4).
Thus, the lack of service provision to informal settlements
poses negative impacts to the natural environment in terms of
pollution to water, soil and air. The Western Cape Department
of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (2017:4)
noted that informal settlements often develop on sites that
are vulnerable to natural disasters, which compounds issues of
housing and service provision as well as environmental impacts.
Many informal settlements are located in areas vulnerable to
flooding or soil erosion, and water quality is often affected
(Western Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and
Development Planning, 2017:4). As evidenced by the Human
The City of Cape Town (2018:22) in reference to the City of Cape
Town (2016); Eighty20 (2016) and Integrated Human Settlements
Five Year Plan (2017), suggests that housing trends are moving
towards informal strategies that increase existing residential
densities. The City of Cape Town (2018:22), highlighted concerns
in relation to informal strategies in that its increases pressure on
existing public facilities and infrastructure networks. The Western
Cape Department of Environmental Affairs and Development
Planning (2017:3) has highlighted that within the Cape Town
Metro, the northern suburbs are showing the greatest rate of
expansion.
ANALYSIS
There are a number of social and environmental concerns
related to housing settlements. The current emphasis on higher
residential densities may benefit both the social, in terms of
service provision and accessibility and the environment, in terms
of a lesser urban footprint impact. The only concern related
to increasing residential densities in existing areas is the load
placed on existing infrastructure. This however can be managed
through effective planning.
SHORTFALL & OPPORTUNITIES
Opportunities ultimately lie in different planning interventions,
the use of sustainable building materials and increasing existing
urban densities.
AGRICULTURE
KEY DEFINITIONS:
Food Security: The ability to access sufficient amounts of food
regularly, that is both nutritious and affordable
Gross Domestic Product: The total amount of goods and service
produced per annum within a country.
OVERVIEW
Food security is an important aspect related to agriculture,
in terms of production and supply. In terms of the Spatial
Development Framework (The City of Cape Town, 2018:200), it
has identified a number of objectives to ensure food security.
Phillipi Horticultural Area
These include enabling financially disadvantaged households
to incorporate urban agriculture as a means to ensure food
security, as well as enable the inclusion in land redistribution
for agricultural development programme (The city of Cape Town,
2018:200). GreenCape (2017:42) highlights that in order to
preserve and conserve the natural environment, agricultural
practices are required to adapt to more sustainable approaches
such as minimising mechanical tillage, rotating crops in an area
and utilising organic soil cover.
In Figure 43, The map represented illustrates the agricultural
areas within the Cape Town metro as well as natural areas and
aquifers. As indicated by figure 43, the agricultural areas within
the Cape Town metro are located predominantly in the North with
isolated portions to the South and South East. As can be seen
from figure K, there is quite a clear differentiation between urban
and natural agricultural areas.
CURRENT SITUATION
As noted by the Western Cape Department of Environmental
Affairs and Development Planning (2017:2), the Western Cape as
a whole contributes approximately 14% towards South Africa’s
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), agricultural export being a large
component thereof. The drought has affected the Western Cape
predominantly, but has indirectly affected the entire country,
particularly with respect to the maize shortage, which is one of
South Africa’s staple foods (GreenCape, 2017:16). As a result
of the maize shortage specifically, South Africa has resorted to
importing the natural resource, as the demand for maize is so
high both for human consumption and livestock feed (GreenCape,

2017:16). As noted by GreenCape (2017:16), the drought has
affected livestock in terms of the increased cost of feed which
ultimately affects base prices of meat. In 2015, the Swartland
area was greatly affected and approximately 200 000 tonnes
of wheat was discarded (GreenCape, 2017:16). Potatoes were
affected within the Sandveld area, fruits yields were also below
expectations, and substantial financial losses were incurred.
TRENDS
As noted by GreenCape (2017:10), there are various drivers
motivating the incorporation of green economic approaches in
South Africa. GreenCape (2017:10) suggests that the rising costs
of traditional energy production is putting pressure on businesses
and households alike to move to more cost-effective, efficient,
environmentally friendly modes of energy production. The costs
of utilising fertilisers and pesticides are also putting pressure
on the agricultural sector to find alternatives (GreenCape,
2017:10). Water scarcity is encouraging investment in efficient
water technology and energy efficient water systems (GreenCape,
2017:10).
Figure 43 : Adoption of Conservation Agriculture across South Africa, 2014
(CoCT, 2018)
STATUTORY ‘STUFF’
In terms of legislation, GreenCape (2017:21) outlines how DAFF
and the Department of Environmental Affairs are responsible for
agricultural policy and legislation.
The Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act of 1983
specifically protects agricultural resources, roil, water and
manages invasive species (GreenCape, 2017:21). The National
Development Plan for 2030, developed in 2012, links the
agricultural sector to economic and social obligations, such as
reducing poverty, minimising inequality and expanding the green
economy (GreenCape, 2017:21). There are a number of Acts, as
highlighted by GreenCape (2017:21), that specifically pertain to
water sources, provision and regulation.
ANALYSIS
The agricultural sector is slowly moving towards more sustainable
approaches as a result of the input costs and climate pressures
such as the drought.
SHORTFALL & OPPORTUNITIES
GreenCape (2017:11) highlights that there are many barriers
to environmental sustainability within the agricultural sector
in South Africa as a whole. These include a lack of awareness
as to the advantages of moving towards sustainable methods
of production, the length of time associated with legislative
processes, insufficient knowledge dissemination in terms of best
practice approaches, limited funding of research into sustainable
agriculture and the cost of the technology.
ECONOMY & EMPLOYMENT
Figure 44 Agricultural Areas of Significance
(CoCT, 2018)
22
KEY DEFINITIONS:
Green Economy: Economic activity that supports the sustainability of the
environment
OVERVIEW
The natural environment plays a significant role in Cape Town’s
economy, in terms of agriculture, tourism and industry (The City
of Cape Town, 2018:231). The city’s natural tourist attractions
benefit both the economy and employment, particularly in the
service sector as noted by the City of Cape Town (2018:231).
Tourist attractions within the Cape Town Metropolitan area
include biodiversity, freshwater ecosystems, coastal areas and
scenic areas (The City of Cape Town, 2018:18).
CURRENT SITUATION
The City of Cape Town (2018:22) highlights that Cape Town’s
economy is increasing its efficiency with respect to the
consumption of resources, energy and water, particularly given
the size of the economy and the associated population of Cape
Town.
Fig L: Figure L illustrates where natural and coastal assets are
located within the Cape own metro and the associated economic
significance of these sites.
Fig M: As can be seen in map M, natural areas are being
recognised for their economic potential. In being promoted
as natural assets that generate monetary capital, the natural
environments are able to be conserved/preserved and maintained.
Fig P: Map P depicts the business nodes within Cape Town
and where commercial and industrial growth has occurred.
Also reflected in Map P are the opportunities that have been
identified in the industrial and commercial sectors by the spatial
development framework.
TRENDS
As noted by the Western Cape Department of Environmental
affairs and Development Planning (2017:2), the recycling sector
account for approximately 18 000 jobs, according to 2014 data.
The trends based on 2014 data suggest that approximately
19 450 jobs shall be provided by next year (The Western Cape
Department of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning,
2017:2).
SHORTFALL & OPPORTUNITIES
The City of Cape Town (2018:241) proposes that the ‘green
economy’ offers employment opportunities in the service sector.
The city of Cape Town (2018:236) proposes that in the long-
term, the economy should move toward a circular structure,

whereby recycling and reusing become key components of the
system. Prioritising the recycling sector has the potential to
generate numerous employment opportunities and simultaneously
reduce the load on landfill sites. The Western Cape Department
of Environmental Affairs and Development Planning (2017:32)
stated that the recycling sector had the potential to generate
approximately 4 500 jobs within the greater Western Cape area.
TRANSPORT & INFRASTRUCTURE
KEY DEFINITIONS:
Land Use Intensity: The extent of development in a given area.
Permeable Surfaces: Types of pavements and roads that allow for the infil-
tration of stormwater
OVERVIEW
As noted by the City of Cape Town (2018:257), the focus of the
City is on increasing the efficiency of transportation, as well as
integrating the network into the urban form.
Figure 51 : Tourism Assets
(CoCT, 2018)
Figure 52: Economic Nodes
(CoCT, 2018)
Figure 53: Destination Places
(CoCT, 2018)
22
Fig D: As reflected in Figure D, private vehicles are the
predominant form of transportation in Cape Town. This is not the
most efficient form of transport and the existing public transport
system suffers as a result of the low ridership. The release of
carbon emissions is ultimately detrimental to the climate and the
environment.
CURRENT SITUATION
Despite increases in residential density, the City of Cape Town
(2018:22) highlights that existing densities are too low to
support sustainable transport networks. As highlighted by the
City of Cape Town (2018:21), traffic congestion has increased
which puts strain on both the climate and income. The City
of Cape Town (2018:33) specifically highlight the negative
implications of traffic congestion in terms of increased pollution.
The City of Cape Town (2018:234) highlights how the inefficient
public transport system has resulted in the increase in private
vehicle usage, which in-turn has increased the congestion of
traffic in Cape Town and ultimately has resulted in Cape Town’s
overall fuel consumption.
Figure 45: Biophysical Assets
(CoCT, 2018)

Figure 46: Transport Modes to & from work in Cape Town, 2014
(CoCT, 2018)
Fig 45: The map represented in figure 45 illustrates natural
areas prioritised by the City within the Cape Town metropolitan
area. Further to this, it highlights that transport infrastructure
is largely confined to the urban area while the natural areas are
largely preserved.
Fig 49: Figure E depicts the time workers spend traveling on a
daily basis. The majority spend 15-30 minutes traveling to work.
The amount of time spent in commute, not only negatively affects
the environment, but affects workers’ productivity and wellbeing.
TRENDS
The overall move towards transit-oriented development, that
incorporates land use density, intensity and diversity (The City
of Cape Town, 2018:90), reflects an approach that is potentially
beneficial to the environment in terms of reductions in fuel
emissions.
Fig I: As can be seen in figure I, which illustrates Cape Town’s
resource efficiency, petrol remains Cape Town’s most inefficient
resources, water is indicated as being below the population
growth rate, but is undergoing a steady increase, while electricity
is steadily decreasing.
STATUTORY ‘STUFF’
As noted previously, the City of Cape Town (2018) has prioritised
Transport Oriented Development in the Cape Town Metropolitan
Spatial Development Framework. This is supported by higher
urban densities, nodes and mixed use urban corridors.
ANALYSIS
Transit Oriented Development has the potential to benefit not
only individuals in terms of accessibility and transport efficiency
but may also benefit the environment in terms of reduced carbon
22
emissions.
Figure 47: Cape Town’s Resource Efficiency
(CoCT, 2018)
Figure 49: Travel Time to work in Cape Town, 2014
(CoCT, 2018)
SHORTFALL & OPPORTUNITIES
In terms of reducing effects on the natural environment, there
is an opportunity to introduce more permeable road surfaces.
Permeable surfaces have the potential to maximise the retainment
of water in soil and vegetation, reduce water-related hazards,
reduces erosion and filter water of contaminants (United States
Geological Survey USGS, n.d.). The potential exists in Cape
Town to introduce experiential small-scale studies of permeable
surfaces. Encouraging the use of public transport is also
paramount to reducing cost and increasing energy efficiency.
OPPORTUNITIES:
This report has engaged with the dynamic main features of
the primary stratum that identify the Cape Town Metropolitan
area, ranging from physiography, climate change, biodiversity,
hydrology, and human impact. Through this examination, the
report points to the existence of a plethora of opportunities that
Figure 48 : Spatial Transformation Areas
can and should be addressed by various sovereign governmental
(CoCT, 2018)
bodies; advocating institutions; and metropolitan residents.
For one, there ought to be stricter regulation and policy regarding

the location and building of human settlement development.
Identification of ecological opportunities and constraints to
determine appropriate land use, such as protection of ecological
corridors to conserve biodiversity, ought to be a priority. A prime
example of inappropriate land use is unregulated borehole
drilling since this poses a risk of inducing seismic tremors and
earthquakes. Conservation efforts should extend beyond areas
demarcated for biodiversity conservation within the Western Cape
since natural systems do not function in closed scenarios.
Furthermore, opportunities also lie in planning interventions
regarding increasing existing urban densities, utilization of
sustainable building materials, encouraging public transit use,
and mainstreaming the minimization, reuse, reduction and
treatment of waste. Besides planning opportunities, here is
large potential in the growing ‘green economy’ in the City of
Cape Town that can address demand for small-scale studies of
Conceptual Analysis of Natural Systems Under Threat
The continuous development and growth of
Cape Town’s urban form is placing immense
pressure on our natural Systems. As a result
natural systems are suffering critical biodiversi-
ty loss. The loss of biodiversity is evident across
all systems, water is the most threatened. The
fluid nature of water systems puts our water re-
sources at risk. The spread of pollution through
water movement results in the contamination
of other natural systems. Thus pollution is
transported through our city effecting all areas
coming in contact with the contaminated
system.
The map depicts the effects of humans and cli-
mate change on the metropolitan region. Cli-
mate change may result in sea level rise, effect-
ing systems such as estuaries and endangered
coastal vegetation. Coastal regions are experi-
encing pressure from both sides (land-to-ocean
and ocean-to-land) causing critical biodiversit
loss due to a lack of space. Similarly dune sys-
tems and dune corridors are lacking space to
function as a complete and healthy system.
permeable surfaces. In light of these employment opportunities, it
is imperative to develop a specific focus on adaptation practices
within informal cases since this population is the most vulnerable
to impacts of climate change.
To address these exciting potentials, current limitations
must be considered as well. There exists a lack of awareness
towards advantages of sustainable methods of production,
long length of time with legislative processes, and insufficient
knowledge dissemination regarding best practices. Limited
funding of research into sustainable agriculture and the cost of
technology are additional hindrances. With these opportunities
and limitations in mind, it is important to remember that
implementation is just as important as strategy. As such,
monitoring and evaluation is essential to continue reducing
human impact on the natural system.
Land Threatened by Sea Level
Rise
Threatened Dune Systems
Threatened Water Systems
33
CONCLUSION
This report forms the basis for understanding the primary natural
stratum in the Cape Town metropole in relation to the greater
Western Cape region. Having considered the natural elements
individually and in relation to one another, it is evident that each
element is dependent upon the other.
There are various pressures on the natural environment,
predominantly as a result of human activity such as climate
change. Cape Town is presently facing one of the most severe
droughts in its history and this has had implications for
hydrological ecosystems, biodiversity and agricultural production.
The tourism sector contributes to both the economy and the
protection and conservation of Cape Town’s natural assets.
Tourism has played a fundamental role in ensuring the value of
the natural environment is recognised internationally, which has
ultimately assisted in its maintenance and conservation.
A variety of opportunities were identified, predominantly in
instituting policy guidelines and monitoring and evaluation
measures. Further opportunities exist to promote local level
initiatives and in the adoption of higher density approaches to
settlement planning.
The natural environment ultimately needs to be incorporated
in other sectoral policies to achieve greater sustainability,
particularly given climate change and current trajectories of the
natural environment both locally and globally.

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