Ifra Special Report 02.2007 www.ifra.

com/specialreports

Inter-Instrument Agreement in
Colour and Density Measurement

A must read for: Catchwords:

Technical Director Presses and Printing
Production Manager Pre-Press Production
Pre-Press Manager Materials and Consumables
2 Ifra Special Report: Improving Inter-Instrument Agreement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

Acknowledgements
In preparing this report, we would like to express our contention and topics that need to be resolved. However, the
sincere thanks to those who have helped directly in contrib- one common aim of everybody has been to improve colour
uting to the information published here and for their valuable and density measurement and inter-instrument agreement
suggestions for improving the text. The following people on a global scale. Some of the issues are under discussion
have been of great assistance in sharing their knowledge, in ISO meetings and are part of the programme of continu-
providing guidance and patiently answering our enquiries ous development and improvement of ISO standards. It is
during the preparation of this report: here, that we would also like to acknowledge the enormous
contribution and good work of all those who sit on those
Dr. Uwe Berthold FOGRA, Germany ISO committees and working groups. The list of standards
Anthony Cheng Singapore Press Holdings, regarding colour and density measurement, process con-
Singapore trol, viewing and proofing makes the word ‘extensive’ an
Raymond Cheydleur X-Rite, USA understatement.
Dr. Frederick Dolezalek FOGRA, Germany We would also like to acknowledge all the contributions
Dr. Peter Ehbets X-Rite, Switzerland from the authors of the reports and articles mentioned in the
Dr. Philip Green London College of References to this report. Without their research findings, we
Communications, UK would have lacked the necessary scientific support for our
Jan Keller X-Rite, Switzerland thoughts and opinions.
Andreas Kraushaar FOGRA, Germany Finally, a sincere ‘thank you’ to my Ifra colleagues, Man-
Ulrich Krzyminsky Techkon, Germany fred Werfel, Beatrix Beckmann and Harald Loeffler for their
Christopher LaFontaine X-Rite, USA additional information and support throughout the long
Olli Nurmi VTT, Finland process of gestation.
Dr. Danny Rich Sun Chemical, USA

We do not mean to infer that all these fine people agree Andy Williams
and approve of all that is stated herein. The final conclusions Ifra Research Engineer
and recommendations are our own and there are still areas of May 2007

Imprint
Ifra Special Reports, research reports, technical study reports and documents for the standardisation of newspaper production techniques.
Published by: Ifra, Washingtonplatz, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany; www.ifra.com; Tel. +49.6151. 733-6; Fax +49.6151.733-800. Chief Execu-
tive Officer: Reiner Mittelbach. Research Director and Deputy CEO: Manfred Werfel. Research Manager: Harald Löffler. Republishing – also of
excerpts – only with express permission of Ifra and acknowledgement of origin.

Price: Ifra Special Reports are sold at the price of 130 EUR* per copy.
For Ifra members, the price is covered by the membership fee that entitles them to an allotted number of copies. Ifra members may order
additional copies at 13 EUR* per copy.

* plus 7 % in Germany and for companies and persons in the European Union that do not have a VAT number.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Ifra Special Report: Improving Inter-Instrument Agreement 3

Table of contents
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1 Introduction – Colour and Density Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Maximising Inter-Instrument Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3.1 Instrument design considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.2 Uniform illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.3 Area of illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.4 Aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.5 Light sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Measurement technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.1 Measurement backing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.1.1 Backing material for colour measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.1.2 Backing material for density control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.2 Sample positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.3 Process sampling and measurement accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Time effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 Spectral Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1 Laboratory conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2 Spectrophotometer design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.1 Diffraction grating type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.2 Interference filter type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Spectrophotometer specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4 Thermochromism effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.5 Hygrochromism – relative humidity variation effects on measured colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.6 Gloss and specular reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.7 Fluorescence and UV filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.8 Colour difference formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.9 Instrument diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.9.1 White calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.9.2 Colour tile accuracy check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.10 Numerical tools to improve inter-instrument agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.10.1 X-Rite NetProfiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.10.2 Datacolor MAESTRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.10.3 The CTS Collaborative Reference Program for colour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.11 Practical spectrophotometry and colour measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5 Density Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.1 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.1.1 Broad band “Wratten” filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.1.2 Interference filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.1.3 Neutral filter for ISO standard visual density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.1.4 Polarisation filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.1.5 UV filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 The densitometer filter dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.3 Improved ISO standards for better inter-densitometer agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.1 What needs to be changed in ISO 13656 for densitometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.2 What needs to be changed in ISO 14981 for densitometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.3 What needs to be changed in ISO 5–3 and ISO 5–4 for densitometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

6 Future Systems ...................................................................................................................... 30

4 Ifra Special Report: Improving Inter-Instrument Agreement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

7 Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

8 Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.1 ISO Calibration and Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.2 ISO Uncertainty Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

9. Appendix B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.1 ISO standards for colour and density measurement and process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
9.2 ANSI CGATS standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

10. References ............................................................................................................................ 38

 www.ifra.com/specialreports
1 Introduction – Colour and Density Measurement
“…metrology, standardisation and conform-
ity assessment are the pillars of knowledge
for developing a technical infrastructure, and
thereby enabling sustainable development and
full participation in international trade. And
they are firmly linked together.” — from ISO’s
promotional brochure “Metrology, Standardi-
sation and Conformity Assessment”.
Colour measurement has come to the fore
in the graphic arts industry as it has finally
acquired instruments and ISO Standards.
Ironically, colour measurement and colour
management now offer better control of
standardised procedures between proof and
print than density measurement, though the
printing industry has been using density
measurement for far longer to control film
processing, plate making and printing – film
and plate processing now being almost com-
pletely replaced by a CTP process. Ironical,
too, in this area of CTP plate processing con-
trol, is that while densitometry may remain as
a hidden part of a closed loop control system,
a new generation of CCD-based measurement
devices has emerged using image analysis for
plate halftone dot size measurement and reg-
istration control. Densitometry for plate qual-
ity control is now largely obsolete.
One of the reasons why densitometry has
failed the user in printing is the multitude of
standards and the lack of a common agree-
ment about how density should be measured.
Differences are found between absolute and
relative density measurement, differences
in wide-band blue filter responses, in wide-
band versus narrow band filters, the inclu-
sion or exclusion of fluorescence, differences
between spectral density measurement versus
colour filter measurement, with polarisation
filter or not, and differences in how the black
ink is measured.
In the last year, there has been a reali-
sation that such differences are obstacles to
a global standard for print process control.
Generally, it would be much better to have
just one standard configuration and method
for density measurement. The individual four-
colour inks have almost identical spectral
properties, regardless of the printing process
– only the paper colour on which the inks are
measured brings some discontinuity to the
process ink standards.
Apart from these, other measurement dif-
ferences occur due to the instrument design
Chapter 1: Introduction – Colour and Density Measurement 5
and measurement process errors. Instruments
from different manufacturers measure differ-
ently. Often, it is even difficult to compare
measurement results between print sites as
well as between printer and customer. Some-
times even one and the same instrument
measures differently depending on its orien-
tation in relation to the measuring target. This
problem is true for both, densitometers and
spectrophotometers.
All the factors which contribute to these
measurement differences apply regardless of
which of the major printing processes is used.
Consequently, there is a strong case for agree-
ment on having instruments designed for the
graphic arts generally and to separate the
instruments for print density measurement
from those for colour measurement. Density
measurement is still the preferred method for
press inking control – manual or closed-loop;
full colorimetric print process control is still
something for the future. On the colorimetric
side, additional refinements to ISO standards,
colour measurement instruments, colour dif-
ference formulae and viewing booths are in
preparation to improve the correlation of col-
our measurement data with appearance and
with the matching of an approved proof to
the printed sheet.
Overall, the objectives of this report are
to improve measurement accuracy and preci-
sion for colour and density, to improve inter-
instrument agreement and to maintain repeat-
ability for hand-held spectrophotometers and
densitometers.
It is a conclusion of this Ifra Special
Report on Colour and Density Measurement
that the main improvements in inter-instru-
ment agreement can only be reached first
through rationalising and improving certain
ISO standards and then by using instru-
ments that conform. Differences caused by
the measurement conditions and method are
more easily overcome.
6 Chapter 2: Executive Summary
2 Executive Summary
The two prominent reasons for ink on
paper measurement in newspaper produc-
tion are:
> providing the advertiser with correct col-
our reproduction, and
> press ink level control for printing the ads
and colour-accurate news pictures.
Both are necessary parts of an objective
colour management system. Reflection spec-
trophotometers conforming to ISO 13655* are
needed for colour measurement and reflec-
tion densitometers conforming to ISO 5, ISO
13656, and ISO 14981 are needed by the
pressmen.
Firstly, although both colour measure-
ment (colorimetry) and densitometry are
possible using one instrument, a reflection
spectrophotometer, the measurement objec-
tives, and their appropriate ISO standards are
sufficiently different that no manufacturer
has yet designed a spectrophotometer opti-
mised for both tasks in a single instrument
and yet made it simple to change modes and
continue measuring. Proposed developments
to the above ISO 13655 standard, may lead to
even more complexity in spectrophotometer
construction, operability and use.
A return to two separate classes of meas-
urement instruments, spectrophotometers and
densitometers, each standardised and opti-
mised for its specific task, is recommended.
Colour measurement and colour management
need only concern the pre-press personnel
and maintaining defined press ink density
levels need only concern the printer in a
standardised daily workflow.
Secondly, the different designs of spectro-
photometers and varying measurement condi-
tions, although still within the ISO standard
tolerances – all lead to colour measurement
differences between instruments. Although
newspapers need only consider small port-
able reflection spectrophotometers, this report
describes the important factors that need to
be considered and controlled regardless of the
type of colour measurement device. More spe-
cifically, colour measurements should be made
under temperature controlled conditions.
* See Appendix B for a list and short description
of relevant ISO and ANSI CGATS Standards.
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
Thirdly, calibrating a spectrophotometer adjusted to control the UV component of the
to the manufacturer’s white calibration ref- light source on spectrophotometers and as a
erence is not enough to ensure long-term permanent filter on densitometers, should be
measurement accuracy and good inter-instru- added. Switching or adjusting the UV filter
ment agreement. Additional safeguards are on a spectrophotometer allows the effect of
needed using a manufacturer’s printed cali- fluorescence, caused by fluorescent optical
bration reference, software-driven remote brightening agents (OBA) in the paper, to
mathematical measurement analysis, instru- be measured and better appearance matches
ment diagnosis and, generally, remote instru- made between proofs and prints. The latest
ment calibration correction. Currently, the draft revision of ISO 13655 provides for this.
X-Rite NetProfiler service is recommended Seventhly, the practice of deducting the
for improving inter-instrument agreement measured density value of the unprinted
and long-term colour measurement accu- paper from the measured ink density value
racy and consistency. Instruments need to be is the final recommendation here for improv-
connected to the Internet for this performance ing inter-instrument agreement.
test and calibration. Modern colour measure- Numerous other recommendations to
ment instruments should all be capable of improve inter-instrument agreement are
being networked together – including those given concerning measurement procedures,
in remote locations. backing material, sampling and colour dif-
Fourthly, ISO densitometer standards vary ference formulae.
unnecessarily in the range of colour filters
used to measure the printed optical density
of the cyan, magenta, yellow and black inks.
Known variously as Status E, Status T and
Status I filter responses, they are all designed
for measuring the degree of absorption of
light as a measure of the amount of colour-
ant transferred by the printing press inking
system onto the paper. Today, the colour of
the inks used for the main four-colour print-
ing processes of sheet-fed offset litho, heat-
set web offset litho, cold-set web offset litho,
gravure, screen and flexography printing are
all standardised under the appropriate parts
of ISO 2846 and the individual ink colours
are spectrally very similar – worldwide. In
pursuit of a global printing industry density
standard, densitometer filters can be stand-
ardised too. The selection of the Status E filter
set is recommended as being the most suit-
able for universal implementation. ISO 14981
and ISO 5–3 should both point to Status E
densitometry.
Fifthly, densitometers should also be fit-
ted with a set of cross-polarising filters to
increase the accuracy of the measurement
by removing the influence of any light that
has not been coloured by the ink but simply
reflected by the mirror-like wet or glossy top
surface. Light reflected from the top surface
has no part to play in determining the amount
of ink colourant deposited.
Sixthly, in a similar way, a UV filter that
is removable or can be switched in or out or
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
3 Maximising Inter-Instrument Agreement
People often ask how they can make
readings of their samples taken with several
different instruments – often at different loca-
tions – correlate more closely. Unfortunately,
inter-instrument agreement is actually quite
a complex topic. The answer to the question
is that they need to standardise how those
measurements are made on all instruments
at all sites.
There are many parameters that affect the
values obtained from a measurement instru-
ment and process. They include:
> The instrument geometry, design, con-
struction and materials used by the manu-
facturer e. g. aperture size, filters, sensors,
light source
> Instrument resolution;
> Electro- and mechanical stability; warm-
up time, ‘drift’;
> Environmental conditions;
> Equipment calibration and acceptability
factors;
> The method of preparing the samples and
presenting the samples to the instrument;
conditioning, backing material, position-
ing, orientation, time differences;
> Differences associated with data or for-
mulae used to correct or process data;
standards, averaging, density or colour
difference formulae;
> Assumptions or approximations made
in the measurement process; sample
size, colorimetric- or densitometric
uncertainties.
When any one or more of these param-
eters are changed, the resulting values also
change. If two different users or sites vary any
of these parameters, the colour or density val-
ues cannot be expected to always agree. The
best inter-instrument agreement will always
be found using the same model of instrument
from the same manufacturer with all param-
eters matching at all sites.
3.1 Instrument design considerations
In the graphic arts, both spectrophotom-
eters and densitometers should have certain
common design principles.
3.1.1 Geometry
The accepted geometry in the graphic arts
for colour measurement instruments is either
a 45°:0° or a 0°:45° design, meaning the illu-
Chapter 3: Maximising Inter-Instrument Agreement
mination is circumferential at 45° elevation
to the sampling aperture and sampling is at 0°
to the sampling aperture or vice versa.
To Spectrometer
(0°) Specular
Fig. 1: Instrument geometry 45°:0°
According to the Helmholz theory, in a
linear optical system, the light source and
detector can be exchanged without alter-
ing the results. For most materials, this has
been shown to be true. One manufacturer,
for example, uses 45°:0° geometry for their
spectrophotometers and a 0°:45° geometry for
their densitometers.
3.1.2 Uniform illumination
The design of the optical systems of spec-
trophotometers and densitometers must be
very precise if exact and repeatable values
are to be obtained. This is particularly so in
the case of devices for measuring colour on
relatively rough surface structure like news-
print. The relative coarseness of the newsprint
fibres, their highly directional formation and
the relatively fluid mineral oil based inks that
follow the contours of the surface rather than
make a glossy meniscus, normally create an
inhomogeneous surface.
In the case of a 45°:0° geometry, spe-
cial care has to be taken to illuminate the
sampling aperture in a circle from the 45°
elevation, otherwise the measurements will
be strongly influenced by the direction in
which the instrument is placed in relation
to the paper grain. Significant measurement
errors can result, if a ring mirror is not used
or the sample aperture is not served by mul-
tiple illumination points evenly arranged in a
circle. Opinions vary – Rich1 suggests six or
eight illumination points in a circle, that is,
every 60° or 45° respectively, but ISO 149812
requires just two or more equally spaced illu-
mination points.
7
a. Light source
b. Measurement spot
c. Ring mirror
d. Sensor
Fig. 2: Densitometer with ring collection
Instruments having 0° illumination is the
other acceptable option, as long as all the
light that has passed through the ink film and
paper surfaces can be collected at all points
around the sample aperture at 45° elevation.
If no ring optic is used, the number and
placement of the illumination or collection
points should be specified as even illumina-
tion or collection is important when measur-
ing relatively uneven and directional printed
surfaces like newsprint.
It should be noted that some instrument
designers have chosen to use mono-direc-
tional illumination to measure colour in rela-
tion to the degree of homogeneity of surfaces.
Texture is an important property of appear-
ance and its effect on colour can be recorded
in terms of colour variation with changes in
the direction of the sample to the illumina-
tion. As such, this is just as valid a concept as
the measurement of the effect of fluorescence
or gloss on colour and appearance. The dis-
advantage is that several measurements are
needed to obtain sufficient data to quantify
the effect of these various parameters on the
colour of a sample.
In the case of density measurements,
the ISO 14981 standard notes “A directional
dependence is considered slight, if the aver-
ages over five repeated density measurements
differ by no more than 0.03 over the direc-
tions 0°, 45° and 90°”.
In ISO 5–43 for density measurement, the
term ‘annular geometry’ refers to a ring optic,
while the term ‘circumferential geometry’ is
an approximation to annular geometry, e. g. a
number of illumination points/sensors placed
around the circumference. If there is illumina-
tion or sensing from just one circumferential
angle of the measurement field, directional
and irregular surface effects will be empha-
sised and affect the measurement. The user of
8 Chapter 3: Maximising Inter-Instrument Agreement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

such an instrument should record the meas- Spectrophotometers/Densitometers

urement data as being “45° directional/nor- Nominal Screen Frequency Round Samplingi Non-roundii
mal” or “normal/45° directional”. This is also Aperture Size Sampling Area
the case with spectral data measured with lines/cm lines/inch Minimum Recommended Minimum Recommended
a directional spectrophotometer, as stated in 26 65 3.9 5.9 12.0 27.0
ISO 136554. 33 85 3.0 4.5 7.0 15.8
40 100 2.5 3.8 5.1 11.4
3.1.3 Area of illumination 47 120 2.1 3.2 3.5 7.9
Graphic arts and proofing substrates are 52 133 1.9 2.9 2.9 6.4
all translucent to an extent that the illuminat- 60 150 1.7 2.5 2.3 5.1
ing light from a densitometer or spectropho- 70 175 1.5 2.2 1.7 3.57
tometer can easily penetrate the stock and be 80 200 1.3 1.9 1.3 2.9
seen on the reverse side. Some of the same 100 250 1.0 1.5 0.8 1.8
light is also scattered laterally, emerging at a
point outside the collecting area of the sensor. Tab. 1: Minimum and Recommended Aperture Size and Sampling Area5
This lateral scattering beyond the collecting i These sampling aperture sizes are valid for instruments that are not moving relative to the target and have a round
area is called ‘translucent blurring’ or ‘lateral aperture.
diffusion’ and is a source of error as it causes ii Area can be achieved using either a single measurement, or by averaging multiple measurements in random or ad-
the densities to be higher and reflectances jacent locations on the sample. This includes the use of scanning type instruments, some of which scan at 8 mea-
lower than if all of the emerging light were surements per millimetre, i. e. 40 measurements/per 5 mm patch. For scanning instruments that make continuous
captured. The size of the error is the differ- measurements from a sample or instruments with apertures that are not round, the equivalent measurement area
ence between the reflectance factor measured should be covered.
on the translucent sample and the corrected
reflectance factor.
To minimize translucent blurring error, the 3.1.5 Light sources previously mentioned. Nevertheless, repeated
illuminated area is made slightly larger than Spectrophotometers, spectrodensitometers measurement of the same target area can
the measurement aperture (over-fill illumina- and densitometers make use of one or more change the measurement value.
tion) or vice versa (under-fill illumination). of three types of light sources – tungsten fila- These sources are, however, very rich in
Control elements on print control strips ment lamp, xenon flash lamp which is similar ultraviolet energy. This ultraviolet energy
can be as small as 5 mm square. The small to the flash of a camera or, more recently, will excite any fluorescing chemicals or dyes
size of the targets and the small aperture light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Certain guide- present in the samples and will lead to inac-
required to read them requires special con- lines should be followed depending upon the curate match predictions. Filters are usually
sideration of variations due to translucent type of lamp being used. available to minimise the effect of ultraviolet
blurring error. energy for shade matching or to calibrate the
ISO 5-4:1995 requires that the “irradiated Tungsten amount of UV energy for accurate whiteness
area of the specimen shall be greater than the Tungsten-halogen and tungsten fila- calculations. If the instrument being used
sampling aperture, and its boundary shall lie ment light sources are the most common does not contain a UV filter for calibrating
at least 2 mm beyond the boundary of the light sources found in densitometers and ultraviolet energy, standards must be re-meas-
sampling aperture.” For targets 5 mm and portable spectrophotometers. They are very ured each time a batch is to be evaluated for
smaller it is not practical to over-illuminate reliable and their theoretical spectral proper- whiteness. Stored standards can be used for
with a 2 mm larger illuminant spot size since ties are those of CIE standard illuminant A. evaluating whiteness only if they were meas-
the measurement aperture would be 1 mm The main disadvantages are that they do not ured on an instrument equipped with a UV
or less. reach their rated colour temperature without a filter. However, xenon is a high-maintenance
For graphic arts applications, ISO 14981 small ‘warm-up’ time, require relatively large light source, requiring especially careful rec-
and ISO/CD 13655 recommend that the amounts of electrical current, which is a dis- alibration and fine-tuning of the spectrum to
boundary of the irradiated area should be advantage for portable instruments and they a particular daylight by using filters (which
at least 0.5 mm outside (over-fill) or inside generate heat. Prolonged measuring periods reduce the light energy transmitted).
(under-fill) the boundary of the sampling at maximum speed should include pauses
aperture. to allow the instrument to cool and a white Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
reference calibration to take place. Without The light output of light-emitting diodes,
3.1.4 Aperture these safeguards, heat build-up may cause a LEDs, are stable over long periods of time,
Among the parameters that affect the dramatic change in the measured colour of especially when these devices have good tem-
accuracy of a measurement result that are the sample. perature and drive current control.
often overlooked are: > Stable light source – no warm-up period
> The measured area, and Xenon needed
> The screen frequency Xenon light sources do not generate as > Low electrical current consumptions and
> The number of measurements per much heat as tungsten filament sources, so long battery life
sample there is less concern for the sample heating > Low in heat dissipation
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
> Long life
> ‘Built-in’ filter
> High light output types are available
(Ta = 25 °C, IF = 20 mA)
1.2
1
Relative Emission Intensity (a.u.)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
400 450 500 550 600
Wavelength λ (nm)
Fig. 3: LED spectral power output (NICHIA Full Colour
InGaN)
White light LED technology is developing
rapidly. Initially, white LEDs were a combi-
nation of red, green and blue LEDs in one
package though more recent developments
include using a single blue LED and one or
more phosphor coatings. Some recent printers,
the Z2100 and Z3100 models from Hewlett
Packard now have an integrated spectro-
photometer using a white LED light source6.
However, the spectral bandwidth of LEDs is
now becoming more definable in increments
across the visible spectrum (and beyond) that
manufacturers are now able to produce a
7-band LED light source to cover the visible
spectrum for a spectrophotometer7. Eventu-
ally, semi-conductor light sources like LEDs
are expected to replace the tungsten filament
types in spectrophotometers and densitom-
eters for the graphic arts.
3.2 Measurement technique
As previously stated, the ability to meas-
ure a sample consistently is essential for a
successful quality control program. Before
any samples are measured and stored into the
computer database, a repeatable measurement
technique must be established and observed.
Samples should always be measured multiple
times with the largest aperture available on
the spectrophotometer.
Where possible, clearly mark the area for
measurement e. g. with printed guide marks
that allows the easy location of the measure-
ment device.
Chapter 3: Maximising Inter-Instrument Agreement
3.2.1 Measurement backing
3.2.1.1 Backing material for colour
measurement
Annex A of ISO/CD 13655 is rather cau-
tious about when to use black backing to the
samples for colour measurements. Colour
measurements of prints on substrates with
very low opacity are strongly influenced by
the backing material, especially in areas of
low ink coverage. Newsprint and many other
graphic arts papers are in this category of
substrate.
In the case of measurements of prints
printed on just one side of the paper, a white
backing material is better.
In the case of measurement of prints with
650 70 0 printing on both sides of the paper, a black
backing material is unavoidable. However,
there will be an obvious difference in the
measurement values between a proof, which
is invariably on a more opaque material and
printed just one side, and the double-sided
production print, even when using a black
backing.
In measuring test charts for an ICC pro-
file, the experience of many ICC members is
that it is better to use a white backing for
measurements8.
Self-backing, that is, to back a sample
with as many additional, unprinted sheets
of substrate as are necessary to ensure that
no further change in measurement when
more are added, is no longer recommended.
In practice, it can prove difficult to imple-
ment particularly on scanning measurement
instruments.
For an essentially white medium, ISO/CD
13655 recommends ideally a material with
at least 75 % reflectance at all wavelengths
in the range 420 to 700 nm. Also, the back-
ing medium should be diffuse reflecting,
not fluoresce, have a CIELAB C* value not
exceeding 3.0, a CIELAB L* value below 96.4
and be opaque. Such materials can be plastic,
ceramic or paper.
3.2.1.2 Backing material for density
control
When making density measurements for
process control on a printing press, the rec-
ommendation is to use a black backing and
to zero the densitometer on the unprinted
area of the paper i. e. make relative density
measurements.
The specification for the black backing
material follows the ISO/CD 13655 recom-
mendation. The black material should have
a density of 1.5 ± 0.20, after calibrating
9
the densitometer on the manufacturers
white reference. This value corresponds to a
CIELAB values of L*15-27 (D50, 2°, Abso-
lute) or a reflectance range of 2 %–5 %. It
should also be spectrally non-selective and
diffuse-reflecting.
3.2.2 Sample positioning
Sample rotation and repositioning will
reduce measurement variability due to sur-
face irregularities. For specimens with direc-
tional surface orientation, always measure at
the same single orientation, or measure them
at the same four orientations (i. e., 90 degrees
apart) and average the data.
3.2.3 Process sampling and
measurement accuracy
The portable colour and density measure-
ment instruments that we use in the graphic
arts are designed to measure small areas of
the proof or print. Often these areas are part
of special process control targets and are only
5 mm square or smaller. Because of natural
variations in the materials and mechanical
and physical variations in the printing proc-
ess, all printed areas contains minute ran-
dom irregularities of ink and paper. In process
control, speed of measurement and a rough
indication of the press inking levels has a
much higher priority than absolute accuracy.
Frequent measurements of a printed patch
on a sequence of copies during start-up fol-
lowed by regular measurements throughout
the press run provide sufficient control of the
process.
However, in reporting measurements after
the printing, one reading of a printed patch is
not enough to be sure that the measurement
is an accurate representation of the true value
of the sample or the printed job. It is usual
to make several readings and record average
values. The question then arises as to how
many readings need to be made to be confi-
dent in the accuracy of the measurements.
One way of estimating the number of
measurements to be made is to measure a
small sample and use the variation in the
readings to calculate whether fewer or more
samples would be appropriate. In the case of
colour and density measurement, an indica-
tor of the measured variation is the statisti-
cal standard deviation. The solid density is
the normal unit for density measurement,
although, either the 40 % or 50 % tone den-
sity could also form useful guides for quality
control. In colour measurement, the CIELAB
ΔE*ab value (as a measure of the deviation of
10 Chapter 3: Maximising Inter-Instrument Agreement
a single value from the average colour value)
is a possible candidate for the calculation of
the standard deviation and the sample size.
The formula for estimating the number
of samples needed for an accurate estimate
of the true result, based on a small scale test,
is:
2 correct amount of sampling depends on the
t0.025 x Std. Dev.
n=
Accuracy
where:
n = number of samples or measurements
needed.
t0.025 = Student’s t-test value for small sample
size (≤ 30 samples). The co-efficient
needed to establish that a sample
mean is within the specified limits
of accuracy of the true mean with a
95 % probability. (For this one-tailed
t value and n-1 degrees of freedom
use TINV function in MS Excel with
2 * probability).
Std. Dev. = standard deviation of test samples
(STDEV function in MS Excel).
Accuracy = required accuracy (in native units
e. g. 0.03 density or 1 CIELAB
ΔE*ab).
Equation 1 Small sample size estimation
Example using Excel formula
Using data from the results of four density
measurements, which means n-1 = 3 degrees
of freedom, and an accuracy of 0.03 density
= (TINV(2*0.025,3)*SD of
sample/0.03)^2
Equation 2 Small sample size estimation in
Microsoft Excel
A suggested starting point for making a
small scale test on printed sheets is to prob-
ably over-estimate the quantity required, for
example, measure four or five sheets as the
basis for the calculation.
While this is an uncomplicated method,
testing for each CMYK solid and halftone ink
density as well as CIELAB ΔE*ab values will
almost certainly result in a variation between
the number of samples needed. Taking the
largest value is always a safe strategy, but
normally the mean value of the estimated
sample sizes needed will also provide a reli-
able guide.
Developing a repeatable technique
An alternative technique for determining
the correct number of measurements to use
is to first produce an average reading using
an excessive and ‘safe’ number of samples
and measuring each control patch also an
excessive and ‘safe’ number of times. The
consistency of the materials, the print uni-
formity of the printing press units and the
printing conditions. In the case of newsinks
on newsprint, sixteen good copies of a printed
test target measured two times is probably an
excessive number and not practical for day-
to-day operations. Nevertheless, it could be
a possible starting point for determining the
correct procedure to find accurate and repeat-
able average measurement values.
Continuing with this example of using
sixteen printed samples, measure each control
patch two times – being sure to re-position
the instrument, and even rotate the instru-
ment or sample (e. g. 90°) after the first mea-
surement cycle, if it is a non-scanning mea-
surement instrument which uses directional
illumination. Calculate and save the average
(the mean) measurement for each colour
patch for the sixteen samples. Then take a
fresh selection of eight samples printed under
the same conditions from the same print run.
Measure these eight samples using the same
technique – with two readings with repo-
sitioning or 90° rotation and calculate the
average values for each patch for this group
of samples. Repeat the operation using just
four fresh samples from the same test run
and measuring each control patch two times,
The gamut volume
80000
75000
70000
Volume
65000
60000
55000
50000
At printing After 1 day
Fig. 4 Effect of time on the gamut volumes
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
with repositioning or 90° rotation between
the measurement cycles. Perform the same
process using just two fresh samples and two
readings with repositioning or rotation and
calculate the average values. Finally, measure
the control patches of one fresh sample with
two readings with repositioning or rotation.
The next stage is to obtain the colour dif-
ference values between the average colour
values of the individual colour patches for
the largest sample group, the group of sixteen,
and the average colour values for each of the
smaller groups of samples. Identify the point
at which the ΔE*ab exceeds the desired limit
of, for example, 1.5 ΔE*ab. If the ΔE*ab of the
four samples and two readings is 0.80 and the
ΔE*ab of the two copy sample is 2.1, then four
samples should be read two times to ensure
a variation of less than 1.5 ΔE*ab. When the
correct number of samples and readings has
been determined, measure a new set with this
number of samples and readings to confirm
that all readings are less than 1.5 ΔE*ab. If
any of the colour differences are greater than
1.5 ΔE*ab, the technique must be altered either
by modifying sample placement or by taking
additional samples and readings. It may seem
too time consuming to measure four or more
times, but the time taken in the beginning to
ensure accurate measurements will translate
into better results in the end. The measure-
ment speed of modern spectrophotometers
will reduce the time required to make addi-
tional readings to only a few seconds.
Paper
Cyan
Magenta
Black
Green
Red
Max. ink
After 2 days After 3 days
Time
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Chapter 3: Maximising Inter-Instrument Agreement 11

If, on further analysis, a sample group has

an average colour difference of 1.4 ΔE*ab but
the colour difference values between the indi-
vidual samples of this group and the average
colour value of the reference group of sixteen
samples show a variability of, perhaps, 0.70,
then the true reading of this secondary group
can range from 0.70 to 2.1. Consequently, it
is important to consider not just the average
colour difference value but also the ratio of
within-tolerance to out-of-tolerance copies.
If the degree of variability is very high, it
may be desirable to select a higher tolerance
value than the 1.5 ΔE*ab used in this example.

3.3 Time effects

Newsinks and certain web-offset inks
applied to absorbent papers, dry solely by
penetration. The penetration of the ink into
the paper has been shown to occur in two
phases:
a) a rapid penetration under pressure at the
moment of impression, followed by
b) a slower penetration due to capillary
forces.

The excessive absorption of an ink vehicle

can lead to ‘show through’ or ‘strike through’.
Unfortunately, an ink which has been largely
absorbed into the paper is bound to have a
dull appearance because very little light can
be reflected from its surface.
Nurmi and Sivonan9 studied the natu-
ral reduction in the size of colour gamuts
of newsink on newsprint over a three-day
period. The volumes are calculated from
ISO 12642-1 (IT8.7.3) colour charts printed
on 42.5 g/m2 Kaipola newsprint and meas-
ured using an X-Rite Spectroscan scanning
spectrophotometer.
Six charts were printed with a single
100 % colour (C-M-K-R-G-Max ink) on the
reverse side and one with no printing on the
reverse side (“Paper”). The newsprint printed
with the chart on one side and nothing on the
other had the largest gamut. The following
are their results:
> The volume of the gamut decreases after
printing.
> The fastest changes are on paper with low
grammage and during the first day after
printing.
> The largest changes are with no printing
or maximum ink coverage on the opposite
side.
> Printing of the opposite side reduces the
gamut and changes the colour about 2-4
CIELAB ΔE*ab.
12 Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
4 Spectral Measurement
4.1 Laboratory conditions
Temperature and moisture content affect
the properties of most materials. Variations
in either or both can contribute to variations
in measurement data.
It is therefore important that the climatic
conditions are well specified when specimens
are preconditioned and tests are performed. If
this is not done, it will be almost impossible
to obtain reliable test results.
Temp. °C ±°C R.H. % ±%
ISO 554 23° 2° 50 % 5%
W. Europe 20° 3° 65 % 5%
Tropical 27° 3° 65 % 5%
Tab. 2: Laboratory temperature and humidity conditions
The arguments for the lower rela-
tive humidity conditions specified by ISO
include:
The facts that relative humidity changes
have less effect on paper properties at 50 %
relative humidity than they do at 65 %, that
50 % relative humidity is more typical of end
use conditions, and that heated, uncondi-
tioned laboratories used for paper testing have
relative humidities in the range 40 %–60 %.
The United States and an increasing number
of other parts of the world have standardised
on the ISO 554 conditions.
It is difficult and expensive to condition
laboratories and sometimes it is also almost
impossible. However, spectrophotometers
(and spectrodensitometers) and spectral
measurements are significantly affected by
temperature. Humidity can be treated as a
secondary influence.
The measuring place should be a flat
workbench – rigid, horizontal and with a
metal framework. It must not flex when leant
upon or under the weight of computers, com-
puter monitors, measuring instruments and
samples. A means should be built in to allow
for height correction. It should not be easily
marked but easily cleanable and preferably
a neutral light grey (Munsell 8) in colour. If
one wants to be precise and accurate, match
the CIELAB values of L* = 80, a*=0 and b*=0
(illuminant D65 lighting).
When buying the paint, if using a spec-
trophotometer is not feasible, an alternative
would be to purchase a sample of Munsell N8
and then match that10.
Internet access and networking of instru-
ments is a desirable feature that will become
increasingly more important.
4.2 Spectrophotometer design
There are many alternatives available to
the designer of colour measurement instru-
ments – even in the sub-category of small
hand-held instruments. Two of the most com-
mon design principles found are:
> Diffraction grating and diode
spectrophotometers
> Interference filter and silicon sensor
spectrophotometers
4.2.1 Diffraction grating type
With a diode array spectrophotometer,
polychromatic light is reflected from the
sample and is focused on the entrance slit
which starts a dispersion process that is fur-
ther refined and broadened by a diffraction
grating. The diffraction grating separates light
into its constituent wavelength components,
i. e., narrow bands of wavelengths, producing
Light Source
Object
Fig. 5: Spectrophotometer with ring illumination
Aluminium Coating
Epoxy Layer
Polished Substrate
Ruled Grating Replica
Fig. 6: Diffraction grating replicas
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
a rainbow of colours under white light illumi-
nation. Finally, the dispersed light falls on the
diode array with each diode measuring a por-
tion of the spectrum. While the operation of
a diffraction grating is visually similar to the
operation of a prism, the mechanism is very
different and considerably more efficient.
Diffraction gratings11
A diffraction grating is produced by
first ruling a master grating. Master grat-
ings are manufactured using the following
technologies:
> Holographic recording of photosensitive
coated surfaces using dual coherent laser
exposure and chemical development
> Ion-etching of a holographic master
> Mechanical ruling using a precision dia-
mond cutting tool
Gratings are usually designated by their
groove density, expressed in grooves per mil-
limetre (g/mm). The dimension and period of
the grooves must be in the order of the wave-
380 nm 730 nm
Diode Array
Diffraction grating
Holographic Grating Replica
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement 13

length in question. In the optical regime, in

which the use of gratings is most common, Peak Transmittance
this corresponds to wavelengths between Central Wavelength (Tmax)
(CWL)
380 nm–720 nm (1 nanometre = 10–9 metres).
The groove density can vary from about 3600
down to 300 grooves per millimetre, though
for colour measurement 600 grooves per mil-
50% of Tmax
limetre is usual. (Half PowerPoint)
The master is replicated into a large Halfbandwidth or
number of exact copies, called replicas, for Full Width Half Maximum 10% of Tmax
(HBW or FWHM)
cost savings and product consistency. The
1% of Tmax
grating structure is often replicated in epoxy
or UV cured adhesive. Reflecting diffraction
gratings are coated with a reflective coat-
ing of aluminium or gold, with aluminium Higher Higher
being preferred for the visible spectrum as Lower Tenthbandwidth (TBW) Upper Orders
Orders
Blocking Blocking
the reflectance of gold drops substantially Region Hundredthbandwidth (hBW) Region
for wavelengths below 600 nm and is not
recommended. Passband
(1st Order)
Usually the replicated gratings are dupli-
cates of a higher generation (copies of copies) Fig. 7: Interference filter terminology
but their efficiency comes closest to that of
the master gratings.
The holographic grating are now more
often placed on the photo-detector side,
rather than the light source side of the design,
so that the instrument can more accurately A C E B A D
assess the reflectance and fluorescence of the
sample. A second advantage is that it makes POLYCHROMATIC MONOCHROMATIC
LIGHT LIGHT
the instrument independent of the light
source: the same filter detector system can
A = Glass Substrate
operate in a radiometer mode and measure B = Multicavity Bandpass Section Glasträger
Glass Substrate
the emitted light from monitor displays. C = Blocker Section Hohe
High Index Dielectric (1/4 λ)(1/4 λ)
Dielelektizitätszahl
D = Color Glass Niedrige Dielectric (1/4 λ) (1/4 λ)
Low IndexDielelektizitätszahl
E = Epoxy Color Glass
Farbglas
Photodiode sensor array
F = Metal Ring Epoxy
Epoxydharz
Diode arrays are assemblies of individual
wavelengths sensitive photodiodes in a linear
array of up to 1024 elements. Light of all Fig. 8 Interference filter (typical) Fig. 9 Multi-cavity bandpass (section B)
wavelengths falls on the array and individual
intensities are measured simultaneously. The low cost, relatively efficient, simple to install cisely controlled and evenly deposited over
operation is fast enough to capture the spectra and provide good signal-to-noise ratios. the preceding layer. The thickness of each
of flashing light sources. layer is equal to a quarter wave (λ/4) of the
Interference filter manufacture12 filter central wavelength (λ). Alternating lay-
4.2.2 Interference filter type An interference filter is fabricated in 3 ers of dielectric materials with high and low
An alternative type of spectrophotometer sections: refractive indices make up a stack. A half
is that which uses a range of interference fil- > one section determines the central wave- wave (λ/2) layer, or a multiple thereof, depos-
ters mounted in a rotating wheel and illumi- length (CWL), half-bandwidth (HBW), and ited between symmetric stacks, forms a spacer
nated with a collimated light source perpen- shape of the transmittance curve of the layer. The half-bandwidth of an interference
dicular to the surface of the filter. Each filter pass band section filter is determined by the ratio of the indices
allows the transmission of a predetermined > two other sections control the degree and of the high and low refractive index materi-
wavelength while rejecting or blocking other range of blocking outside the pass band. als, the number of layers in a stack and the
wavelengths. Together with a suitable silicon number of half waves in a spacer. A spacer
sensor, the spectral response of a sample can The bandpass (passband) section of layer and adjacent stacks form a “cavity”, the
be captured at intervals along the visible an interference filter is made by repetitive basic element of an interference filter.
spectrum. vacuum deposition of thin layers of partially The number of cavities in the bandpass
Interference filters are particularly suita- reflecting dielectric compounds on a glass section determines the overall shape of the
ble where the required wavelengths for meas- substrate. A typical interference filter can transmittance curve. Some filters are made
urement are well known. They are relatively have over fifty such layers, each one pre- with three cavities, resulting in filters with
14 Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

steep slopes, improved blocking close to the
pass band and relatively flat tops. Rejec-
tion of wavelengths resulting from destruc-
tive interference is limited to within 15 %
of the central wavelength. Therefore, addi-
tional glass or metallic blockers must be
added to reduce out-of-band transmittance
of unwanted wavelengths of light. Metallic
blockers, which consist of layers of silver
deposited on the dielectric spacer layer, reflect
and absorb radiation outside the filter pass
band. The blocking capabilities of metallic
blockers are augmented in high performance
filters by the addition of colour transmitting
glass and custom dyes that absorb UV or long
wavelength radiation.
While the additional blocking eliminates
out-of-band light transmission and decreases
background noise, it also decreases the over-
all light transmission through the filter. Inter-
ference filters typically permit 10 % to 70 %
light transmission.
Temperature effects
Interference filters are affected by tem-
perature. The centre wavelength will shift lin-
early with, and in the direction of, changes
in temperature. This effect, which is due pri-
marily to the expansion or contraction of the
spacer layers and the concomitant change
in their refractive indices, is extremely small
over normal operating ranges. For example,
the temperature coefficient for a 400 nm filter
is about 0.015 nm/°C.
The recommended operating conditions
for interference filters is – 40 °C to + 70 °C,
and a maximum temperature change of
5 °C/minute.
An excessive cooling rate can cause the
glass substrate to crack or the filter to delami-
nate due to differential thermal contraction.
age, particularly the relatively soft coloured
glass.
The centre wavelength and maximum
transmission of interference filters can drift
with age, especially under conditions of high
humidity and variable temperatures. A filter
that is affected by age and humidity will show
discolouration around the outside diameter,
this discolouration will move toward the cen-
tre of the filter with time and additional dam-
age. A symptom of aging is a significantly
decreased maximum transmission which
results in less sensitivity for a fluorescent
sample.
Good quality filters are hermetically-
sealed to mitigate the affects of aging. Under
good ambient conditions, such as in a labo-
ratory, hermetically sealed filters show mini-
mum signs of aging after two years or more.
General handling of all spectrophoto-
meters/spectrodensitometers
Regardless of the make, model or design
of these measuring instruments, the critical
components are constructed to nanometre
accuracy and the optics carefully aligned.
Although portable instruments are often
robustly constructed for use in industrial
environments, they still need to be oper-
ated in conditions according to international
standards and handled as carefully as their
counter-parts in a scientific laboratory. If
you want to maintain accuracy, handle them
with care.
4.3 Spectrophotometer specifications
Spectral bandwidth
To measure the true shape, particularly
the true maximum of an absorption band, the
spectral bandwidth of the instrument must be
much less than the width of the absorption
band. A spectral bandwidth error results from
using too large a bandwidth relative to the
absorption band being measured.
Analytical spectrophotometers used in
the analysis of chemical solutions often have
resolutions of 0.1 nm or 1 nm. For the graphic
arts, 5 nm and 10 nm resolutions are more
usual. Even instruments with 20 nm band-
width intervals were common in the past
and, indeed, much good colour work13 was
done with 20 nm interval spectrophotometer
designs, which deliver 16 or 17 data points
across the visible spectrum and form the basis
for the instrument’s spectral response curves.
One conclusion that can be drawn from this

Humidity effects Fig. 10 Discrete spectrophotometer measurement points

Interference filters in- and around the
range of the visible spectrum are subject to
environmental deterioration due to moisture
penetration of the hygroscopic dielectric
layers. Though the bandpass and blocking
sections of interference filters are laminated
with epoxy, a high humidity environment
can cause delamination. A process known as
scribing results in excellent moisture protec-
tion. Scribing removes all dielectric material
from the periphery of a filter, allowing a glass-
to-glass epoxy seal that minimizes moisture
penetration. Most filters are also sealed in a
metal ring, but the primary purpose of the
ring is to protect the filter from physical dam- Fig. 11 Curve fitted and smoothed around the data points
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
is that these reflection spectrophotometers
measure reflectances at a number of finite
and fixed wavelengths and that the measured
colour is really a set of discrete data points.
Any plotted curves drawn subsequently,
can use mathematical curve smoothing rou-
tines to predict the “missing” reflection data
points. Cubic spline, exponential, polynomial,
La Grange or power function algorithms can
be used on the measured data to produce
smooth curves.
In arguing for 5 nm, 10 nm or 20 nm
bandwidths, the instrument designer pre-
dicts that the colour’s curve will do noth-
ing unusual in a region between any two
measured points. For reflective materials
this seems to be a valid supposition14. The
curves that arise from these pigments’ opti-
cal characteristics are typically smooth and
easily predicted. To be sure, the same cannot
be said about coloured liquids, coloured glass
and many organic dyes.
One well-known manufacturer of spec-
trophotometers samples at 3.5 nm bandwidth
intervals and reports the values at 10 nm
intervals. This enables spectra with steep
slopes in their spectral response curves to be
detected accurately. ISO 13655 recommends
data collection at 10 nm bandwidth and inter-
val for reflection prints and 5 nm for emissive
devices like self-luminescent LCD displays
and CRT monitors.
This final resolution depends on the grat-
ing, slit size, diode size and quality design of
the components, and is usually fixed for a
given instrument. These instruments use only
a single light beam, so a reference spectrum
is recorded and stored in memory to produce
transmittance or absorbance spectra after
recording the sample spectrum. The various
parts are constructed to be robust and to
maintain long-term optical alignment.
Accuracy
By convention, accuracy is conformance
to the correct or accepted test parameter. In
the case of the spectral scale calibration, an
accuracy of 0.1 nm or better is acceptable.
Numerous studies have shown that errors
in the central wavelength of each measured
data point are FAR MORE damaging to the
instrument’s accuracy than variations in the
instrument’s bandwidth characteristics. For
example, Strocka15 found that a 1 nm shift
in the peak frequency of the wavelength scale
(e. g. through misalignment of the optics) pro-
Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
duced ΔE(ANS)** of 1.08 (pigments in opaque
plastics) and 1.67 (colourants in transparent
plastics). Even a 0.25 nm shift produced the
same sizes of errors as the difference between
a 10 nm bandwidth instrument and a 20 nm
instrument.
Repeatability
Short-term repeatability is usually the
drift in the values when making 20–30 meas-
urements of a white or light grey ceramic tile
as quickly as the instrument allows. Values
above 0.2 ΔE*ab are unacceptable.
A second form or repeatability is a repeat
of 30 measurements over an 8-hour period.
Where the repeatability is not acceptable, it
indicates that re-standardisation is needed
more than once per shift.
Inter-instrument agreement
Inter-instrument agreement is usu-
ally indicated by a colour difference value
between two instruments or between a master
instrument and the average of a group of pro-
duction instruments. Although various ways
are used to describe this colour difference, a
common value is the average or mean value
for a series of twelve British Ceramic Research
Association (BCRA) Ceramic Colour Standards
Series II (CCS II) ceramic tiles. A value of
CIELAB 0.3 ΔE*ab is acceptable.
Instrument issues
CCDs have a temperature-dependent leak-
age current that flows even when no light
Fig. 12 Difference in reflectance due to thermochromism
** Adams-Nickerson-Stultz
15
impinges upon the element. This signal is
called dark current. Heat also causes the optics
in the instrument to expand. As described, a
common device used as a monochromator
is a holographic diffraction grating. When
the grating expands, the spectrum interval
detected by the sensor moves and the instru-
ment’s calibration is no longer valid. For this
reason never makes a long sequence of meas-
urements at the maximum speed allowed by
an instrument, but always wait for a short
cool down time of a few seconds.
The lamp in an instrument can also heat
the sample being measured.
A specification tolerance on the effects of
temperature would be:
Spectral reflectance: Within ± 0.1 %/°C
Colour difference: Within ΔE*ab 0.05/°C
4.4 Thermochromism effect
Thermochromism refers to a colour
change with temperature change. Accord-
ing to Azom16, suppliers of CERAM ceramic
colour standards, all highly coloured materi-
als show degrees of thermochromism under
standard daylight conditions.
Ceramic tile issues
Thermochromism occurs, among others,
with some tiles that contain selenium.
Compton17 reported that when a tile is
heated from 25 °C to 35 °C — a typical tem-
perature change in the instruments using pro-
longed polychromatic irradiation common at
that time — the effect is a small reduction in
16 Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
reflectance with an increase in temperature.
She observed that in general thermochromism
occurs on steep spectral profiles.
Hewlett Packard researchers took a spec-
trophotometer with a tungsten lamp and
measured a green CCS II tile 30 times at the
instrument’s maximum rate. With a precision
thermometer, when the tile’s temperature
increased by 0.2 °C, it introduced an error of
approximately 0.01 CIELAB ΔE*ab units due
to thermochromism18.
In Fig. 12, the green curve shows the
spectral reflectance data of a green reference
tile measured at 24.4 °C ± 0.7 °C. The pink
curve plots the National Physical Laboratory
(NPL) data for the difference in reflectance
caused by a 10 °C (25 °C to 35 °C) change in
temperature (units on right axis).
For this reason, HP kept the tiles at the
same ambient temperature as the instrument
during its normal use; if the tiles were kept
in a box or drawer, it would be opened half
an hour prior to use19.
Fairchild and Grum20 conducted a simi-
lar experiment with an instrument of 0°:45°
geometry. For the same temperature change
they observed a ΔE*ab value of 0.7 for a green
tile. However, they observed much larger
changes for the orange (1.6) and red (1.5)
BCRA CCS II tiles.
The following table shows the thermo-
chromic characteristics when the BCRA col-
our tile changes 10 °C from the room tem-
perature (ΔE*ab)21.
BCRA Tile
White
Pale grey
Mid grey
Diff grey
Deep grey
Deep pink
Orange
Red
Yellow
Green
Diff green
Cyan
Deep blue
Black
Tab. 3: Change of colour of BCRA CCS II ceramic tiles
with 10 °C increase in temperature
More recently NPL has released a compre-
hensive collection of spectral reflectance and
thermochromism data22 on the NPL Master
Set of the BCRA CCS II tiles.
If the temperature is stable for a period
of 30 minutes (the time for a ceramic tile
to adapt to a small temperature change) or
longer, and an accurate thermometer is avail-
able, for example a mercury in glass ther-
mometer graduated in 0.1 °C intervals, then
highly accurate measurements can be made
by correcting the spectral data for the tem-
perature difference before the colorimetric
quantities are computed. The correction data
is listed in the reference Fairchild and Grum.
Pantone inks on paper
Hiltunen23 investigated the thermochro-
mic behaviour of Pantone ink on paper sam-
ples using an Elmer double beam spectropho-
tometer. Although the samples were initially
heated up to 94 °C, steps were taken to iso-
late the instrument to prevent the heat from
affecting its normal temperature. The results
indicated a change of 0.093 ΔE*ab/°C for this
paper sample.
°C L* a* b* ΔE*ab
28 55.75 58.42 27.63
35 55.46 58.17 27.26 0.53
40 55.20 57.98 26.88 1.03
45 55.00 57.78 26.55 1.46
Tab. 4: CIELAB values for the Pantone Red 032 U sample
at four surface temperatures. The colour difference ΔE
was calculated from the lowest temperature curve.
Under normal operating conditions, both
the materials and the instrument are exposed
ΔE*ab to the same temperature change. Normally,
0.01 it is unknown how much of the change in
0.02 the colour measurement is due to thermo-
0.05 chromism of the material and how much is
0.05 due to uncorrected thermal drift of the meas-
0.05 uring instrument. Both would have an effect,
0.60
though manufacturers pay particular atten-
1.52
tion to the thermal stability of their instru-
1.32
ment and build in self-compensating circuitry
and try to ensure adequate cooling at the
0.92
design stage. This is one of the reasons why
0.92
a frequent white reference calibration should
0.91
be made during the measuring. Nevertheless,
0.46
as can be seen from the examples above, there
0.17
is no satisfactory automatic compensation for
0.02
temperature in spectrophotometry when the
exact thermal properties of the materials are
unknown. Correction values are dependent
on the instrument, the colour and the mate-
rial characteristics. Temperature control of the
laboratory is a better solution.
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
A practical temperature chosen by many
QC labs for colour measurement of printed
samples is 23 °C ± 2 °C.
The means of measuring temperature
range from the straightforward laboratory
mercury-in-glass thermometer to the micro-
processor-driven, digital thermometer.
The objective is to have a temperature
reading with approximately a 0.1 °C preci-
sion. The temperature of both the samples and
spectrophotometer or spectrodensitometer
measuring instrument should both be allowed
to stabilise in the controlled environment for
at least 30 minutes before measuring.
Glass thermometers are easier to keep
clean in a printing environment, while sili-
cone tipped probes prevent scratches when
checking the temperature of ceramic tiles.
Obviously adding a silicone tip to a thermom-
eter has the same effect. In any case, the room
temperature is the most important item that
needs to be controlled.
Interestingly, a glass thermometer with
a limited temperature range of 19 °C–27 °C
and a scaling in steps of 0.1 °C, can be more
accurate than the much more expensive elec-
tronic version with the thermocouple con-
nected. Adding the thermocouple can reduce
the accuracy to 0.7 °C or worse.
For each measurement performed for
certification purposes, both the current tem-
perature and the thermometer’s tolerance are
recorded.
4.5 Hygrochromism – relative
humidity variation effects on
measured colour
When ink on paper is measured, it is
also necessary to record the current humid-
ity, because humidity changes the way ink
interacts with paper. The change of colour
with humidity is known as hygrochromism.
The effect of humidity on the physical
properties of paper are well documented. Data
regarding the effect of humidity on printed
colour seems to be restricted to digital print-
ing and photo print finishing, where pig-
mented toners are more stable compared to
dye toners which can show lateral ‘bleeding’
and dot gain when the prints are stored under
high humidity24, 25, 26. There is some reliable
data on the effect of changes in humidity
on the colour of dyed natural and synthetic
textile fibres27.
Environmental conditions must be speci-
fied and continually controlled so as to mini-
mise colour variation for all samples to be
evaluated.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
4.6 Gloss and specular reflections
Many printed products, especially mag-
azines, appear glossy when viewed from a
particular angle. Gloss is caused by light
reflections from the top surface. Such reflec-
tions are also called ‘first surface’ or specu-
lar reflections and add a sense of heightened
colour saturation and density. However, first
surface reflections do not contain information
about the colour of the inked layer beneath.
A problem then arises as gloss contributes an
unknown quantity to the measurement values
and there is a discrepancy between colour
measurement and appearance.
Fig. 13: Specular gloss
The effects of gloss and first surface
reflections can be reduced or removed from
the sample measurement by using polarising
filters, but colour measurements are never
made using polarising filters as the correla-
tion between the measured values and appear-
ance of the print are made even worse. This
problem is likely to remain unresolved for
the immediate future and there will continue
to be difficulties in matching measurements
of proofs and prints where gloss levels are
different, even when using the same type of
spectrophotometer.
4.7 Fluorescence and UV filter
The expectation of many is that the
appearance of the print will eventually be
expressed in numerical colour measurement
terms. This is an area of on-going research
and development. One of the problems in
reaching this goal is fluorescence. Fluores-
cence, caused by optical brightening agents
(OBA) in the paper, is designed to improve the
appearance of the paper and print. However,
when it is desired, for example, to measure
the colour match between proof and press
sheet, fluorescence affects the relationship
between appearance, colour and density to
an unknown extent. Measured colour differ-
ences will probably not correlate well with
the visual judgement. While it is seldom
Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
CIE illuminant A
CIE illuminant C
Fig. 14: Spectral power distribution for CIE Standard Illuminants28 A and C
CIE illuminant D50
CIE illuminant D65
Fig. 15: Spectral power distribution for CIE Standard Illuminants28 D50 and D65
encountered in newspaper printing, it is a
very common problem in commercial printing
and needs to be considered when designing
the instrument and when measuring. Phrased
differently, one solution for colour measure-
ment would be to exclude the UV component
of light which would then effectively suppress
the fluorescence. However, the measured val-
ues cannot then reflect the normal appearance
of the print to the viewer. So, colour measure-
ment should include the effect of fluorescence
and the contribution of this energy should
be measurably the same in the proof and the
print.
One difficulty is that the illuminating
light source used in portable densitometers
and spectrophotometers is very often a gas-
filled tungsten light source, CIE illuminant
type A (with a colour temperature of about
2856 °C), and these tungsten light sources
vary by manufacturer, age and temperature
in the amount of UV energy radiated.
17
Another difficulty is that for colour
measurement, ISO 13655 specifies CIE illu-
minant D50, which has a defined UV compo-
nent included in the spectral characteristics.
Unfortunately, none of the spectrophotom-
eters that have yet appeared on the market
use a light source that can adequately meet
the ISO 13655 standard specification. A D50
light source is difficult to produce and manu-
facturing one in a size that fits easily inside
portable instruments is an additional problem.
Most spectrophotometer manufacturers know
about the D50 problem but are unable to pro-
vide a solution at present.
The current use of gas-filled tungsten
light sources in spectrophotometers means
that the spectral measurement data must
be transformed by the use of a numerical
weighting table from illuminant A to illu-
minant D50, but the effect of fluorescence
cannot be accurately factored in because the
UV component varies so much between the
different manufacturers’ light sources.
18 Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
Although tungsten lamps emit substan-
tially less ultra-violet (UV) radiation than the
D50 norm requires, they will still cause exci-
tation of fluorescing materials in any medium
measured. In tests using a range of normal
printing papers, most of which contained
fluorescent optical brightening agents, the
range of variation in the UV output on the
measurements of the paper and light colours
could easily amount to a CIELAB Δb* of 5
between instruments for the same sample.
Viewing booths are also frequently
poor performers when it comes to provid-
ing D50 illumination that conforms to ISO
3664:200029.
From tests made in preparation of ISO
13655, it was observed that samples that
matched in the viewing booth indicated a
mismatch when measured colorimetrically
and vice versa. Not all of these differences
were due only to the differences in the UV
component of the light sources in the instru-
ments and viewing booths, unavoidable
‘observer’ variation, viewing condition errors
and other systematic instrument errors also
contributed, as they would in normal prac-
tice, although measures were always taken to
minimise these.
A consequence of all this is that it is dif-
ficult to create a good correlation between the
visual evaluation of commercial prints and
spectrophotometer measurements.
Work is continuing on finding ways to
produce equipment that exactly meets the
illuminant D50 specification. As an interim
measure, the latest revision of ISO 13655
provides three alternative measurement
conditions:
a) M1 – must meet the D50 specification
b) M2 – use an arbitrary illuminant with no
UV content
c) M3 – use cross-polarisers and UV-cut fil-
tering (in special cases only).
These three options are written in order
of preference and can be implemented by the
manufacturer modifying existing equipment
retrospectively.
4.8 Colour difference formulae
There are currently two CIE colour dif-
ference formulae that are in use – CIE ΔE*ab
(1976) and CIE DE 2000. The latter has gener-
ally proved to be a better metric in the cor-
relation between measured colour difference
values and perceived colour differences. Quite
large and significant differences in the results
of the two formulae can occur. Therefore, in
reporting colour differences, it is necessary to
also report which formula was used.
Until more knowledge is available in
determining the correct values for the three
weighting parameters used in the CIE DE 2000
formula, the recommendation is to use CIE-
LAB ΔE*ab (1976) formula.
The colour difference formula CIE 94 is
no longer officially used.
4.9 Instrument diagnostics
Prior to measuring samples on the spectro-
photometer, perform diagnostic tests to check
the accuracy of the measurements. These
tests should include a drift test to check for
measurement to measurement repeatability, a
diagnostic tile test to insure long term repeat-
ability, and a standardisation or calibration
with a white tile. Only the white tile calibra-
tion is required at least once daily while the
other diagnostic tests can be performed on a
less frequent but regular basis, as described in
the next sections. Any poor test results should
be resolved prior to measuring any samples.
Long term stability of the instrument is criti-
cal due to the fact that standards and pigment
primaries are often used for many years.
Rich30 warns that for strongly metameric
samples, an error of a few tenths of a nano-
metre can result in a CIELAB ΔE*ab colour
difference of a similar magnitude. If the prod-
uct tolerance is to be 1.0 ΔE*ab colour-dif-
ference, then the instrument’s contribution
to that tolerance is required to be less than
20 % or about 0.2 units. That level of preci-
sion is very difficult to achieve and maintain
in a production environment. Maintaining
an accuracy and reproducibility of between
0.4 and 0.6 is much more typical in produc-
tion control applications and is more than
adequate for most imaging and electronic
publishing situations.
4.9.1 White calibration
White calibration*** must be performed
when one of the following events has
occurred:
> Beginning a new measurement session
> End of a pause
> A number of consecutive measurements
have been performed
> The ambient temperature has changed by
more than 5 °C.
*** The terminology of calibration has changed. The
word ‘calibration’ in the current ISO and ANSI docu-
ments is now referred to as ‘standardisation’.
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
Frequent white calibration is important
in the case of process control, because a drift
in the instrument might be interpreted as a
drift in the process. When an automatic stage
is used, the controller software must be pro-
grammed to perform the periodic calibration
automatically.
The number of consecutive measurements
between white calibrations depends on the
time interval between measurements. If this
interval is sufficient for the instrument to cool
down completely, several hundred measure-
ments can be made before recalibrating.
For example, in a printing characterisa-
tion situation, such as when making an ICC
profile, patches printed on a sheet of paper are
measured. When the measurements are per-
formed at the maximum rate possible with an
instrument based on a tungsten light source
that is switched on for each measurement, the
calibration becomes invalid after a few meas-
urements, mainly because the physical dimen-
sions of the diffraction grating change when
it warms up from the lamp. In this case, the
white calibration should be performed each
10 measurements, or after a row of patches in
a printing characterisation situation.
However, not all spectrophotometers use
diffraction gratings and there always has to
be a balance between too few white calibra-
tion readings and too many, which can also
introduce errors.
Today the white calibration reference is
often a ceramic tile. Before the calibration,
the reference should be checked for clean-
liness. Especially with ceramic tiles, it is nec-
essary to ensure that the reference is always
measured in exactly the same spot, because
ceramic tiles are never completely uniform.
Each manufacturer has instructions for the
exact procedure for their instrument.
Each spectrophotometer has its own white
reference tile. The absolute spectrum of the
tile is stored in the instrument; during the
calibration the spectral response is adjusted
so that it matches the stored spectrum within
a specified tolerance. A white calibration tile
is “married” to an instrument; if a white tile
is lost or damaged, the instrument must be
“married” with a new white tile. Sometimes
this means returning the instrument to the
manufacturer although some instruments
allow “marrying” in the field.
The tiles should be protected from soil-
ing. Avoid all chemical substances that attack
plastics, because they change the reflectance
properties. In practice the most dangerous
substance is acetone, because it is widely used
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
for cleaning purposes. Acetone will destroy
the calibration target. If a reference tile is
soiled, it can be cleaned with a clean soft
slightly damp cloth. Adding one or two drops
of water or isopropyl- or ethyl alcohol to the
cloth may be needed with more persistent
marks or discolorations.
The white reference tile can be used for
ten years from the date the manufacturer
has performed the absolute spectral charac-
terisation. The ceramic surfaces must not be
scratched and must not be exposed to perma-
nent direct sunlight.
4.9.2 Colour tile accuracy check
Hewlett Packard have developed a rou-
tine to monitor the accuracy of their portable
spectrophotometers. How often this procedure
is performed depends on the particular appli-
cation. At the very least, the accuracy check
should be performed each three months.
In a process control situation, where pre-
cision is very important and trend analysis
is performed on the data, the accuracy check
should be performed at least at each shift
change.
In the accuracy check, a single colour
reference tile is measured and the measured
colour values are within a certain tolerance
of the tile’s colour. If the tile’s colour can be
traced to an absolute standard, the certifica-
tion is absolute. If this is not the case and the
tile cannot be traced, then the certification
is relative.
Although an absolute reference colour tile
is not necessary, it is useful to have access to
one to show if the instrument ever worked
correctly. Such a reference tile can usually
be provided by one of the established col-
our laboratories or the instrument manufac-
turer, but a relation should be established in
advance, before colour measurement inac-
curacies occurs.
In a relative certification, the nominal
colorimetry of the tiles is not known and the
performance of an instrument is compared
to an aim value obtained with the instru-
ment itself. Ceramic tiles that have not been
characterised following procedures for trace-
ability to a primary standard are relatively
inexpensive.
For the colour reference tile there is a
wide choice of colours from the CCS II set
mentioned earlier. The neutral tiles are use-
ful to test photometric linearity, but are not
useful as a reference colour. Other tiles have
a pronounced lateral diffusion problem, are
very dark, or have a strong thermochromism
Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
Fig. 16: Spectral reflectance data for the green and cyan master tiles
effect. This leaves two choices, cyan and
green.
Hewlett Packard recommend green. Other
authors have suggested the cyan CCS II tile
because of its range of reflectance factor,
multiple well-defined inflection points, and
low sensitivity to temperature changes31.
Fig. 16 shows the spectral reflectance data
for the green and cyan master tiles meas-
ured at 25 °C over the wavelength range
320–780 nm for 0°:45° geometry32. The green
tile has more inflection points than the cyan
tile. It may also have steeper slopes in a more
sensitive spectral range that help improve the
detection of spectral shifts in the instrument’s
scale.
A single colour tile can be used for all
instruments at a location. In the HP labora-
tory, the tile is mounted in a holder like the
one supplied by the instrument maker for the
white reference tile. This ensures that the tile
is always measured at exactly the same loca-
tion and that the instrument is not tilted.
Coloured ceramic tiles usually have a rec-
ommended calibration life time of 5 years.
Handling and cleaning is the same as for the
white reference tile.
Initial characterisation
When a new spectrophotometer is put
into service, it is first necessary to measure
the relative green reference tile. The meas-
ured colour will be the aim value. Because
a colour tile can be used for several years, it
is suggested to measure it under a number
of viewing conditions, i. e., for a number of
19
illuminants and both CIE Standard Observers.
If the instrument can be fitted with filters, e. g.
a polarising filter for measuring wet inks, all
viewing conditions and filter combinations
should be measured.
To help diagnose instrument failures,
it is useful to record also the reflectance
spectrum.
The colour reference is measured like the
white reference. However, it is recommended
to average a small number of measurements
performed at a 10 second interval. The current
ambient temperature must also be recorded.
If the tile is stored in a closed container, the
container should be opened half an hour prior
to use.
Accuracy check
The accuracy check consists in measuring
the colour reference and calculating the col-
our difference to the aim value. If the check
is absolute, the tolerance will be generous,
like for example ΔE*ab = 0.6. If the check is
relative, the tolerance can be much tighter,
like ΔE*ab = 0.2.
Quarterly certification
Instrument error is not the only source
of incorrect measurements. More often the
error is in the measurement procedure. This
can have many causes, such as documenta-
tion error, personnel changes, etc. The best
insurance against this type of problems is to
participate in one of the collaborative refer-
ence programs like X-Rite’s NetProfiler. This
facility provides a means of re-calibrating
20 Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
the instrument based on measurements of
local references that are traceable to a vir-
tual standard instrument and authoritative
standards.
Long term calibration
Depending on usage, the manufacturer’s
recommend every 18 months, the instru-
ment should be sent to the manufacturer for
cleaning, maintenance, firmware updates and
re-certification.
4.10 Numerical tools to improve
inter-instrument agreement
One of the most useful advances in col-
our measurement in recent years has been
Dr. Danny Rich’s method for improving inter-
instrument agreement by the numerical mod-
elling of a few selected spectrophotometer
parameters.33
Following Robertson34, Rich’s model
identifies four parameters representing the
sources of major linear systematic errors in
colour measuring instruments. In his analysis
only four error sources had to be considered,
i. e.:
> the zero point error (zero offset or black
level),
> the signal magnitude error (the difference
in linear scaling between the black and
white points or scale calibration factor),
> the wavelength error (the linear difference
in the wavelength scale – first derivative),
and
> the bandwidth error (second derivative).
By statistically estimating values for these
four parameters, the model can then be used
as the basis for a method to adjust the read-
ings of one colour-measuring instrument to
another. Diverse instruments, including dif-
ferent models from the same manufacturer,
or instruments from different manufacturers
can be made to come into closer agreement
with regard to their colour measurements.
The model can show improvements in inter-
instrument agreement at a level that equals
or exceeds that of national standardising
laboratories.
In Rich’s model, there is a very definite
interaction of the surface character of the
sample with the photometric scale. If the
model is built with only glossy tiles, such as
the BCRA ceramic tiles, then matte materials,
like textiles, are poorly modelled. If the model
is built with textiles or with matte materials
like Spectralon**** then the model performs
very poorly with glossy samples like automo-
tive finishes.
In a similar manner, Rich and Martin35
included a range of chromatic (colour) and
achromatic (grey) samples in such a ratio as
to optimise the modelling of the photometric
scale without masking the wavelength scale.
If the number of chromatic and achromatic
samples is randomly reduced, the model
remains robust and constant. If the relative
ratio of achromatic to chromatic samples is
reduced, there will be a shift in the model.
Thus, in the field, it is important to obtain
a substantially larger number of achromatic
samples than chromatic samples.
The parameters should be statistically
determined at each 10 nm wavelength posi-
tion from 400 nm to 700 nm. Care is needed
in calculating these parameters to make sure
that the computer program retains all stored
numbers in 32-bit floating point accuracy.
The model cannot separate or compensate
for several types of residual or confounded
differences between instruments. The sources
of these differences include non-linearities
in the photometric scale and the translu-
cent blurring effect found in translucent
materials.
The model can be derived for either the
average production instrument or for unique
groups of customer instruments, using user-
Fig. 17 X-Rite NetProfiler remote spectrophotometer calibration
**** Spectralon™ – a thermoplastic resin that gives the
highest diffuse reflectance of any known material or
coating over the UV-VIS-NIR region of the spectrum.
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
supplied specimens; thus providing for very
close agreement within a user’s factory or
between factories.
Very good results have been observed
when applying the “average” model to an
individual instrument. Not only do the indi-
vidual instrument’s readings move closer
to those of the reference instrument (the
deviation), but also the relative differences
between two or more instruments of the same
family also seem to be slightly reduced (the
variation).
Fortunately, all these details and compu-
tations, as well many other statistical and sys-
tem management routines needed to improve
inter-instrument agreement among a range
of devices are now available in a commercial
package – X-Rite NetProfiler.
4.10.1 X-Rite NetProfiler
NetProfiler for the graphic arts consists of
software and certified printed colour stand-
ards. The physical standards are first measured
by X-Rite using a master spectrophotometer
and then by the NetProfiler customer using
a spectrophotometer that has been registered
and given an individual identity code. The
customer’s measurements are compared to an
established virtual standard for that type of
instrument via the Internet and a profile is
generated. Comprehensive performance sta-
tistics on every instrument within a network
are available.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
This is an important step forward in color-
imetry, as each type and design of instru-
ment will have a characteristic measurement
and performance profile. It is not realistic
to expect that measurements from spectro-
photometers with a 0°/diffuse geometry will
always agree exactly with those having a
0°/45° geometry, or that diffraction grating
spectrophotometers will exhibit the same col-
our values/temperature co-efficient as inter-
ference filter instruments. Consequently, for
the best inter-instrument agreement, it is bet-
ter to establish a virtual standard for each type
of instrument so that their performances are
comparable and congruent, globally. In this
way, and by minimizing the variance between
colour measurement data – either from one
instrument to the next or from one month
to the next, NetProfiler is able to remove
an important variable that can negatively
impact the colour measurement and colour
reproduction process. Through accessing the
NetProfiler server on a regular basis, it is pos-
sible to create and manage the quality of an
entire network of instruments, at all locations
– locally, nationally or worldwide – against
the certified standards to ensure instruments
perform accurately.
When connected to the Internet, NetPro-
filer acts by monitoring all the instruments
and includes remote diagnostic tools which
can be set-up to run on a regular basis. The
process can detect uncertainties and poten-
tial problems in the instrument. Should the
spectrophotometer no longer be within speci-
fication and agree with a network of instru-
ments, the NetProfiler can detect the problem
and, when possible, correct and restore the
instrument to meet its performance speci-
fication. Unlimited report access shows the
performance and history of every instrument
in a colour management network. The quality
certification(s) of each instrument on the net-
work can be viewed and printed at any time.
One of the fundamental differences
between the X-Rite method for improving
inter-instrument agreement and an alter-
native product from Datacolor or a testing
service from Collaborative Testing Services
(CTS), is that X-Rite NetProfiler use a certified
printed reference sample. Datacolor Maestro
makes use of the ubiquitous BCRA Series II
ceramic tile set while CTS uses paint chips.
As noted previously, it is far better to use the
reference materials that come closest to the
materials used in production.
While the National Physical Laboratory
supply thermochromism colour correction
Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement
data with all Ceramic Colour Standards
Series II (CCSII) ceramic tile sets, this data
cannot be used to correct colour reference
standards of other materials. X-Rite, however,
know the thermochromic behaviour of their
printed calibration standards of ink on paper
and, given the temperature of the measuring
environment of the NetProfiler customer, they
can check and re-calibrate their instruments
on-line.
4.10.2 Datacolor MAESTRO
Similar to X-Rite NetProfiler, Datacolor
MAESTRO corrects measurement differences
between colour measuring instruments due
to aging, the environment, or manufacturer’s
design. Datacolor MAESTRO software corre-
lates spectrophotometers with the Datacolor
master reference instrument. As a result, those
in agreement with the reference instrument
are “in tune” with each other. The differences
in colour measurement that occur within a
single laboratory, throughout corporate
infra-structures and across production sup-
ply chains are minimised.
Datacolor Maestro provides operational
accuracy checks on a selected series of their
own as well as certain other manufacturers’
spectrophotometers. However, the majority
of the selected Datacolor spectrophotometers
are 0°:diffuse integrating sphere geometries
and are unlike the 0°:45° geometries used in
the graphic arts field. Further, the MAESTRO
user is required to work with a Datacolor-pro-
vided BCRA ceramic tile set and there is no
continual feedback to the manufacturer via
the Internet, making global network colour
accuracy for the graphic arts less likely than
with X-Rite NetProfiler.
4.10.3 The CTS Collaborative
Reference Program for colour
Collaborative Testing Services Inc. (CTS)36
is an organisation that conducts inter-labora-
tory tests. In such a test, the performance of
a laboratory is not compared to an absolute
reference. Instead, multivariate comparative
statistical methods developed in conjunc-
tion with the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) are used to gauge
performance.
With these techniques a consensus value
among a large number of participating labo-
ratories using a variety of instruments and
methods is determined. The values of each
laboratory are then compared with this con-
sensus value. Such an analysis is also known
as a “real world” analysis.
21
Analysts measure a set of three opaque
colour paint chips made by Munsell Colour,
Macbeth Division. The colours are selected
from throughout the full colour spectrum. The
chips consist of a metameric and non-meta-
meric match with small colour differences.
The measurements are performed accord-
ing to the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) standard procedure for
the particular instrument geometry immedi-
ately after opening the sealed moisture-free
barrier bag containing the specimens. Each
specimen is backed with the other specimens
when making measurements. Each specimen
is measured twice, rotating the specimen 90°
for the second measurement. The relevant
standard here is ASTM E1349, “Standard Test
Method for Reflectance Factor and Color by
Spectrophotometry Using Bidirectional Geom-
etry”, which describes color measurement of
opaque samples using a spectrophotometer
with a 45°:0° or 0°:45° geometry.
4.11 Practical spectrophotometry and
colour measurement
No matter how well the colour spec-
trophotometer is maintained and operated,
its performance is limited to its inherent
capabilities.
Purchase the model spectrophotometer
that has the features and capabilities neces-
sary to meet the needs of the specific applica-
tion involved.
Although these colour spectrophotom-
eters are designed to measure samples both
accurately and with a high repeatability, they
accomplish these measurements only within
a range of applicable tolerances. Spectropho-
tometers are not perfect measuring devices,
and how well they measure is often depend-
ent upon factors under the control of the
system operator.
A constant temperature environment will
eliminate measurement variability caused by
thermal changes within the instrument and
the materials. It is best to maintain power to
the spectrophotometer or else allow a ‘warm-
up’ period to reduce thermal drift.
Any white calibration standard needs to
be maintained carefully, since the photometric
scale (0 to 100 %) of the spectrophotometer
is calibrated to these standards. Handle and
store any white tile so that it does not become
soiled or scratched. If soiled, clean the tile
using water (and if necessary a mild soap),
drying with a clean non-abrasive cloth. Don’t
use organic solvents like alcohol or acetone.
22 Chapter 4: Spectral Measurement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

Recalibrate often because the photometric

scale (0 to 100 %) of any spectrophotometer
may “drift” over time between calibrations,
due to temperature, light source and/or pho-
todetector factors. Any “drift error” is elimi-
nated at calibration, and greatly reduced by
recalibrating often.
Reflectance measurements should con-
form to ISO 13655 except that there should
be a removable, switchable or adjustable UV
filter to include, exclude or control the UV
component in the incident beam, and for
reflectance measurements a white backing is
generally recommended, unless there is print-
ing on the reverse side of the measured area.
For reflectance colour measurements the
use of polarising optics should be avoided.
Multiple measurements of each patch
should be averaged. The extent of this should
be consistent with the uniformity and/or tem-
poral consistency of the material, and tem-
poral consistency of the measurement instru-
ment and/or operator.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
5 Density Measurement
In offset litho, flexography and letterpress
printing, tone and colour gradation in images
depends on varying the size (conventional
screening) or frequency (stochastic screening)
of the halftone elements. The most appropri-
ate tone and colour value for each picture
element is determined during the pre-press
stage, knowing that the ensuing printing will
be carried out using a constant and specific
ink film thickness optimised for the chosen
inks and paper.
The choice of inks and paper largely deter-
mines the tone and colour ranges, the colour
fidelity, gloss, opacity and to some extent the
sharpness of the printed result. Optimisation
of the ink film thickness through pre-produc-
tion trials brings a degree of fine tuning to
the tone- and colour ranges and to important
print ‘runnability’ factors like set-off and dry-
ing. Once the optimum printing conditions
have been determined for the materials, it’s
the work of the pressman to maintain con-
sistent print quality during production and
to keep the thickness of the ink film con-
stant at all press speeds, which may reach
1.5 metres/sec and 90,000 tabloid newspaper
copies/hour.
Process
Offset litho
Flexography
Gravure
Screen
Fig. 18: Ink on newsprint
Chapter 5: Density Measurement
In offset litho and flexo printing, the
pressman is only able to regulate the thick-
ness of the ink layer i. e. a one dimensional
control parameter. If the printer is working
to ISO standards such as ISO 2846 for the
inks, ISO 12647 for the production of col-
our separated images, proofs and prints and
ISO 13656 for the print process control, then
optical density measurement provides a good
means of controlling this very thin ink film
layer. For the printer (and closed-loop press
ink control systems), optical density as a one-
dimensional metric is well suited as a control
measure – one that is certainly more sensitive
to changes, more accurate and more consist-
ent than simple visual control.
No doubt there are many laboratory and
production techniques for controlling ink
film thicknesses of 1–1.5 µm on a smooth,
non-absorbent surface with greater degrees
of precision, but density measurement is the
preferred techniques for printing because of
its speed, cheapness and a visual relationship
to colour intensity and brightness. Density
measurement for print process control is a
sufficiently fast and repeatable process.
Film Thickness
between 1 –1.5 μm
0.75 –2 μm
up to 6 μm (up to 30 μm for banknotes)
up to 60 μm
23
Densitometers and spectrophotometers
each measure density differently. Densitom-
eters calculate density based on the meas-
ured reflectance value, using the appropriate
complimentary colour or neutral density filter
for the ink colour to be measured and prefer-
ably after zeroing on the unprinted substrate.
Relative print density is the preferred mode,
since it reduces the influence of the substrate
and increases the linearity to ink thickness
variation.
Relative Print Density (i. e. after calibrat-
ing the densitometer to the manufacturer’s
reference strip and ‘zeroing’ the densitome-
ter on an unprinted area of the paper before
measuring the proof or production print).
Drel = -log10.(Rrel)
where R = Measured reflection value
or (with more difficulty)
Drel = Di+p (abs) – Dp (abs)
where
Di+p (abs) = Absolute density of ink and paper
(after calibrating the densitometer
to the manufacturer’s reference
strip, but without ‘zeroing’ on
paper)
Dp (abs) = Absolute density of paper (again fol-
lowing the above absolute density
procedure)
Equation 3 Colour filter density
A spectrophotometer calculates density by
measuring the reflected light response at a
number of discrete narrow bandwidth steps
across the visible spectrum (380 nm–720 nm)
and afterwards using an appropriate set of
numerical weightings for each central band-
width response in calculating the red, green
or blue ISO ‘filter’ density.
720
∑ (R x w)
Reflection Density(D) = -log10 λ = 380
__________
720
∑ w
λ = 380
where R = Measured reflection value
w = spectral product of Status E or T weighted
wavelengths
Equation 4 Reflection density from spectral
data
24 Chapter 5: Density Measurement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

5.1 Filters
Display
Lamp Currently, densitometers are equipped
IR Filter with a variety of filter sets – Status T, Sta-
Aperature Log
tus E, Status I. Further, the filter sets may be
Amplifier
supplemented with an additional set of cross-
polarising filters and, looking into the near
Optics Sensor future, an ultra-violet (UV) filter is likely to
Color Filter be added, too.
In the past, other graphic arts density filter
sets have appeared under such names as DIN
Ink 16536, SPI, Status G or Status A although,
Paper
happily, these names have gradually faded
from use in the print room.
Components of a Reflection Densitometer
Densitometer filters can be categorised
into three types:
Fig. 19: Components of a reflection densitometer37 > Broad band (coloured gelatine filters)
> Narrow band (can be gelatine filters or
glass interference filters)
> Neutral density filter
Incident light
5.1.1 Broad band “Wratten” filters
In the Graphic Arts, many densitometers
Sample have been fitted with gelatine filters, whose
spectral response have been standardised
Color filters and documented precisely in ISO 5-3. In the
Receivers case of gelatine filters, a number of sources
exist with filters that conform to the ISO
Measuring electronics specification.
For Status E and Status T filter sets, the
Display filters for the cyan ink (red filter) and the
magenta ink (green filter) are the same. The
Status E blue filter for the yellow ink is not
Density values as wide as for Status T.
Gelatine filters are made by dissolving
specific organic dyes into liquid gelatine.
The gelatine is coated onto prepared glass
and when it is dry, it is stripped off the glass
Fig. 20: Reflection densitometer colour filter function and coated with lacquer. Each filter is stand-

90 %

D = 0.05

50 %

D = 0.30

10 %

D = 1.00

1%

D = 2.00

Fig. 21: Percent reflection ( %) converted to density (D) Fig. 22: Variation of density with ink film thickness for a typical set of process inks38
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Chapter 5: Density Measurement 25

5.1.2 Interference filters

Interference filters can be fitted to both
spectrophotometers and densitometers. In
terms of spectral characteristics, interference
filters can have broad or narrow bandpasses,
or can be sharp-cut filters – please see Sec-
tion 4.2.2 on spectrophotometer design for
a description of these types of filters.

5.1.3 Neutral filter for ISO standard

visual density
To evaluate the darkness of an image
which is to be viewed directly or by projec-
tion, visual ISO density is measured. Such
measurements are most often made on black-
and-white images, but can be made on other
types of images as well.
The spectral products and weighting fac-
tors for visual ISO density are chosen to match
the spectral luminous efficiency function for
Fig. 23: ISO status E colour filter response photopic vision, CIE Vλ (pronounced ‘Vee-
lambda’), as defined in CIE Publication 18.

5.1.4 Polarisation filters

How polarising filters work
Common light sources, both natural and
man-made, radiate light with wave-like prop-
erties in which the waves oscillate in a multi-
tude of planes. A polarisation filter works by
filtering and reducing the planes of oscilla-
tion of the light waves to just a single plane
– causing the light to be polarised. A second
polarising filter placed in the light path of a
polarised light wave, but with its single plane
of oscillation at 90° to that of an already
polarised light source, will totally block all
light. Polarised light, having passed through
one polarising filter, and reflected once from
a smooth or glossy surface remains polar-
ised in its single plane of oscillation. This
polarised light, an unwanted element in the
Fig. 24: ISO status T colour filter response measurement of ink density and process con-
trol because it carries no information about
From the charts, the respective bandwidths are: the amount of ink deposited, is then removed
Status E Status T from a reflected light path by using a sec-
Blue 380-535 nm (155 nm b’width) 380-557 nm (177 nm b’width) ond cross-polarising filter. All other reflected
Green 465-630 nm (165 nm b’width) 465-630 nm (165 nm b’width) light that is needed for the measurement of a
Red 557-722 nm (165 nm b’width) 557-722 nm (165 nm b’width) density value shall have entered the printed
ink film and become de-polarised by multiple
internal reflection from the irregularly shaped
ardised for spectral transmittance and total 50 °C. Gelatine filters are not as stable as pigment particles and paper fibre surfaces.
transmittance. narrow band glass interference filters and This light that finally emerges from the ink
Like dyes in other applications, the spec- deteriorate more quickly. Calibration needs and paper is diffuse and non-polarised and
tral characteristics of the dyes used in fil- to be performed on a regular basis. Ideally, exactly that form of light needed for an accu-
ters may change depending on the dye used, the manufacturers of densitometers fitted rate measurement of printed ink density.
age, and exposure to heat and light. Gelatine with gelatine filters would like to inspect, and Polarisation filters serve to improve both
filters should be kept cool, dry and should possibly renew, these filters every two years. the short-term and the long-term accuracy of
not be subjected to temperatures higher than density measurements.
26 Chapter 5: Density Measurement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

a) They reduce specular reflections. Specu- a Light source

lar reflections, alternatively known as b Oscillating planes
‘first surface reflections’, are mirror-like c Direction of propagation
reflections from glossy surfaces. For a
densitometer and freshly printed ele-
ments, they are light reflections which
have not entered the ink film or paper
and have not been coloured or reduced
in intensity by either. Such light contains
no usable information about the amount Fig. 25: Light wave propagation
of ink present on the paper. Any specular
light that is captured by the measuring No light
instrument sensor only detracts from the
accuracy of the measurement of the ink
quantity transferred or, more exactly, the
degree of the red light (cyan ink), green
light (magenta ink), blue light (yellow ink)
or white light (black ink) absorption*****.
The same argument also applies to spectro- Polarizer filter 2
photometry in that specular light detracts
from the accuracy of colour measurement, Polarizer filter 1
but that’s for discussion outside of this
report. Planes of oscillation
The specular component of light directed
towards the sensor from wet or glossy Fig. 26: Cross polarised filters remove polarised light39
surfaces should be removed using polari-
sation filters.
b) Similarly, changes in the structure of the Light source
printed surface due to drying of the ink
film, cause a reduction in the measured
ink density value. Plane of Receiver
Particularly with coldset inks on uncoated oscillation (photodiode)

paper, when a wet film of ink is applied

to paper, the surface of the ink is fairly Polarization
smooth and in measuring the density, filter Polarization
part of the illuminating light is reflected filter
from the surface back to its source. This
Lens
fraction of the total illuminating light is
Surface reflection
not received by the sensor, but instead
has the same effect as absorbed light and
contributes to the overall density value.
As the ink dries, the surface of the ink
Coloured light White light
more closely follows the surface of the
paper but now some of this unwanted Fig. 27: Cross polarising filters in a reflection densitometer
light reflected from the top surface,
instead of being reflected towards the
source, is diffusely reflected towards the ink transferred
sensor – meaning that this part of the
light is recorded as non-absorbed light
and, therefore, resulting in a proportional
reduction in the measured density value.
The measured density decrease, caused
paper surface
by the rougher surface, the thinner, more

***** The same argument also applies to spectrophotome-

try in that specular light detracts from the accuracy
Fig. 28: Stages in absorption drying40
of colour measurement.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
compact surface ink layer and the dif-
fusion of the sub-surface colourant and
vehicle is called ‘dry back’.
The use of polarisation filters largely
eliminates the measurement differences
that can arise between prints where the
ink is still wet to some degree and those
where it is dry.
c) Another advantage of polarising filters is
that they reduce the influence of direc-
tional illumination.
Fig. 29: ISO 2846 cyan ink spectral data and ISO 5–3 status E/T filter response
Fig. 30: ISO 2846 magenta ink spectral data and ISO 5-3 status E/T filter response
Chapter 5: Density Measurement
Ring optic illumination or collection is
nearly the optimal in instrument design
for 45°:0° and 0°:45° geometry reflection
measurement. However, when there is a
need to use an alternative, and six to eight
points of illumination are too expensive to
contemplate, three points of illumination
spaced equally around the measurement
aperture can be sufficient. The quality of
this triangular light pattern is improved
by the use of polarisation filters as they,
27
again, remove or reduce the directional
polarised light and first surface reflec-
tions and only diffused light is used in
the measurement.
It is sometimes seen in literature that
0°:45° or 45°:0° instrument geometry removes
the effect of first surface reflection. While this
is true for relatively smooth optical surfaces
used as certified reference materials (CRM)
and described in ISO 14981, Annex A, it is not
applicable in the case of wet printing inks and
gloss reflections. 0°:45° or 45°:0° geometries
without polarising filters, do produce results
that change more with the drying of the ink
film than the same geometries with polarised
filters.
It should also be stated that with advances
in modern faster drying inks for higher speed
presses, the gloss from wet ink surfaces is
reduced and the need for polarising filters
maybe less, though higher weight paper coat-
ings and higher dry gloss inks counterbalance
this to some extent.
The effect of first surface reflections is
greatest when high gloss inks meet high
gloss papers – something often encountered
in commercial sheet-fed and web printing,
regardless of the printing process.
Exceptionally, newsinks on newsprint
have fewer problems with gloss and on-press,
high-speed, closed-loop systems that use
densitometry to monitor the ink film thick-
ness may operate without polarising filters.
In optical systems generally, speed and good
signal-to-noise performance work in opposi-
tion to each other and cross-polarised filters
invariably reduce the light transmission to the
sensor even further – by up to 60 %. Sensitiv-
ity can be adversely effected at high speed by
additional filters unless extra steps are taken
at the design stage.
For process control, in which we need to
control the ink film thickness by measuring
the amount of light absorbed, polarising fil-
ters are necessary to stabilise the readings of
wet ink films. Particularly, in the case of den-
sitometers as a print process control instru-
ment, polarising filters are needed. Further,
there are NO significant performance disad-
vantages if densitometers are designed from
the start to work with polarising filters – so
that the light source provides enough illumi-
nation and the sensor is sufficiently sensitive
that small changes in the black ink film thick-
ness can be detected.
Adding these polarising filters allows the
printer to take freshly printed copies straight
28 Chapter 5: Density Measurement © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

off the press and measure the density know-

ing that the same or very similar densities will
be measured hours or even days later by the
customer. Reducing or eliminating both spec-
ular reflections and ‘dry-back’ effects through
the addition of polarising filters to densitom-
eters are beneficial in process control41.

5.1.5 UV filter
Fluorescence, caused by optical brighten-
ing agents (OBA) in the paper, can affect the
measurement of colour and density. While
fluorescence is sometimes encountered in
newspaper printing, it is very common in
commercial papers and printing and can be
one of the contributing factors in the mis-
match between a proof and the print. Fluores-
cence needs to be considered when designing
the instrument and when measuring.
In the case of density measurements, they
should be according to ISO 5, which requires
CIE illuminant A, the UV component in the
illuminant can be filtered out. Fig. 31 ISO 2846 yellow ink spectral data and ISO 5-3 status E filter response
In print process control through density
measurements, any fluorescence effect also
detracts from the true measurement of the ink
film thickness and the UV light that excites
the fluorescent OBAs should be removed with
a UV-cut filter.
The UV-cut filter is complementary to
the use of polarising filters in that until now,
a prime cause of variation in polarising fil-
ters was the amount of UV light that was
transmitted by the polarising material. Some
polarising filters transmitted very little UV
and some an order of magnitude (10 x) more
UV, depending on the material used42. Previ-
ously, if the paper had fluorescent whiteners
added, then these polarising filters had a vari-
able effect on the measured density. Remov-
ing the UV light component helps standardise
the spectral response of polarising filters.
In recommending the adoption of just one
colour filter set for densitometers, Status E
with polarising filters, it would be convenient
to combine the functions of the polarising
filters and the UV-cut filter. Fig. 32 ISO 2846 black ink spectral data and ISO 5-3 status visual filter response

5.2 The densitometer filter dilemma

The final selection of a densitometer or
density measurement filter set is still bewil-
dering and the choice is often based on
arbitrary judgements rather than matching
the ink spectral characteristics to the colour
filter spectral responses in order to fulfil the
main function of a densitometer – ink film
thickness measurement for printing process
control.
The variety of standard filter sets, Status
E, T or I is a barrier to global standardised
printing. This is especially the case in recent
years, since the ISO 2846 1–5 ink standards
for the different print processes mean that
the basic colorants, pigments and spectral
curves are almost the same, whichever con-
ventional printing process is involved. The
spectral curves for each of the cyan, magenta,
yellow and black process inks used in the
sheet-fed and heat-set offset, coldest offset
(newspaper), gravure, screen and flexography
printing processes are shown below:
The data for these spectral response curves
is given in the recently revised ISO 2846 series
of standards and are measured according to a
D50 light source (0°:45° geometry, 2° observer,
absolute measurement). It is unknown if the
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Chapter 5: Density Measurement 29

spectral curves would appear very different become illuminant A but with the UV
to a densitometer’s light source, illuminant A, light removed through a UV-cut filter.
or another standardised light source.
In effect, a single class of densitometer 5.3.3 What needs to be changed in
filter set would work well for all the stand- ISO 5–3 and ISO 5–4 for densi-
ard inks and common paper types encoun- tometry
tered in both commercial and newspaper New or better definitions are needed for:
printing. A common agreement on ISO sta- > The illuminant spectral emission
tus E colour filter response would satisfy > The spectral response of the receiver
process control requirements for ISO 2846 > The linearity of the system
1-5 standard process inks. > The polarisation filter response
ISO 14981:2000, which is for densi- > The reflection density calculation from
tometer print process control and includes spectral data (not in ISO 5-3 or 5-4)
specifications for polarising filter perform-
ance, should be revised to point to ISO 5-343 Recommendation:
and stipulate the ISO status E filter set with > Update 5-3 and 5-4 first
additional UV and polarising filters. > Upon completion of 5-2, 5-3, 5-4, update
the terminology in 5-1
5.3 Improved ISO standards for
better inter-densitometer
agreement
5.3.1 What needs to be changed in
ISO 13656 for densitometry
> The wording that the filter selected for
density measurement of each of the four
inks – cyan, magenta, yellow, black – is
that which gives the highest density read-
ing needs to be modified. In the case of
the black ink, the correct filter is the
visual filter, CIE Vλ, always.

5.3.2 What needs to be changed in

ISO 14981 for densitometry
The following changes should be
pursued:
> One spectral response status for the colour
filter set – status E. Presently, ISO 14981
only points to ISO 5-3 for the spectral
response. In the amendment, it should
point specifically to status E of ISO 5-3.
> Polarising filters should be mandatory in
order to remove the effect of first surface
reflections in the light received by the
densitometer’s light sensor.
·> A relative density measurement standard
procedure is desirable, with the density
value of the paper removed before the start
of measurement (but after calibration).
> A separation of the measurement of
density from a densitometer with that
computed from the spectral response
data, because of the filter and procedural
differences.
> Support of a proposal already placed
before the ISO TC130 Committee, the lat-
est developments in ISO 14981 will bring
a change in the definition of the light
source, currently illuminant A. It will
30 Chapter 6: Future Systems © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

6 Future Systems

Ideally, the amount of UV content present

in the viewing, should also be present in the
colorimetric measuring. However, it’s unlikely
that there will be a D50 light source with the
full UV content for small portable spectropho-
tometers. Making such an illumination and
providing and controlling sufficient levels of
UV to meet the CIE standard is difficult.
Light booths of the future, however, may
have D50 light sources with the full amount
of UV energy. It is also possible that the UV
content from the light source may be more
than required and that a large filter will have
to be fitted to the viewing booth to reduce
the UV to within limits. Obviously, the light
source and filters age and will have to be
renewed periodically. There will be new addi-
tions to the ISO 3664 ‘Viewing Conditions’
standard to define the new conditions.
A more likely light source for hand-held
spectrophotometers will be a D50 (rather than
illuminant A) light source combined with a
UV-cut filter and no UV content.
On another plane, wireless networks
will be installed everywhere. In the future,
measurement systems will be built around PC
networks, performing many different tasks
including control software, control settings
and control log-files, to highlight human
intervention or any alteration of software
settings. Communication with the customer
will be wireless and electronic; this opens the
way for clients, agencies and staff to perform
inspection from a distance: they can log onto
the PC system, check if any settings have been
altered. With online reference equipment it
will even be possible to perform calibration
testing at a distance.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations 31

7 Conclusions and Recommendations

Separate instruments for colour and perature, humidity, cleanliness, diligence and of greater stability of the filter response, bet-
density measurements according to ISO measurement protocol, is ter short-term and long-term calibration and
In recent years there has been a trend extremely difficult under time pressure and accuracy, and integration into remote diag-
towards combining the functions of a spec- not at all practical. nostic and certification programs. However,
trophotometer and a densitometer, so that Further, a spectrophotometer that is built the instrument and the user interface should
colour and density measurements can be around a holographic diffraction grating and be improved to the point where the setup for
made with the same instrument – a univer- CCD array is probably more subject to the ISO optical density measurement is achieved
sal device for every printer and advertising environmental temperature than interference by selecting a single ‘Density’ option, with
agency. Obviously, this brings cost-saving filter instruments. Both types are affected by no possibility for other measurement refine-
benefits for the manufacturer through ration- the thermochromic behaviour of the print ments or setup error. ‘Dot gain’ (Tone Value
alisation of production, and for the user who sample. Pressrooms are rarely stable temper- Increase) and ‘dot area’ functions need to be
need buy and maintain only one instrument ature-wise, particularly in newspaper print included too. For the pressman, the need is
instead of two. sites. Without air conditioning, the tempera- for an instrument that is always available
However, the recommended instrument ture swings in a pressroom can be as much to him, without the complications of colour
set-up for colour measurement is different as 10°C, depending on the location, time of measurement.
to that for density. day, day of the week and whether the presses
are running or not. Although press control Portable spectrophotometers need to be
Colour measurement consoles of web presses may often be in a constructed so that the optical system is
CIE standard D50 cabin designed for noise and lighting control, absolutely stable
illuminant: temperature control is not high on the list Minute changes in the optical alignment
Observer angle: 2° of priorities. On a global scale, the ambient can mean the measurement data is useless.
Measurement Absolute temperature of commercial sheet and web Unless the owner implements a continuous
mode:
operations vary widely and density measure- certification procedure, he will have no indi-
UV filter: User selectable – switched in,
switched out or adjusted
ments must often be made by the printer in cation that his unit has become misaligned.
the pressroom, close to the press. Even a small change in the central wavelength
Colour filter: Not applicable. Other appropriate
illuminations and filter responses Part of the instrument design process is of the measurement bandwidth can lead to
are calculated. in producing an effective compensation for significant measurement errors. If good inter-
Polarisation None thermal ‘drift’ within a specific range. If the instrument agreement is the goal, it is not
filter:
instrument is operating beyond that range, a sufficient to calibrate the instrument to its
Backing White (CMS profiling or individual
material: process ink colours) or black (if re-calibration on the white measurement tile manufacturer’s white reference standard.
the substrate is translucent and or reference is necessary. Effective compen- Important properties of a portable spec-
the sampled areas have print on
the reverse side).
sation for material thermochromism is not trophotometer are:
implemented in current low cost portable > Ruggedness and reliability,
Density measurement: instruments. > Good inter-instrument agreement,
CIE standard A A densitometer and a spectrophotometer > Ease of use,
illuminant:
operate with different objectives: the den- > Good repeatability – long and short
Observer angle: Not applicable (fixed by instru-
ment design, 0° or 45°) sitometer is trying to measure the quantity term.
Measurement Relative (zeroed on paper) of colourant transferred during printing;
mode: the spectrophotometer is trying to measure These properties can all be combined in
UV filter: Permanently installed absolute colour, the visual appearance of a one instrument without compromising one at
Colour filter: Status E colour filters for cyan, colour or the visual significance of colour the expense of the other.
magenta and yellow inks, CIE Vλ differences. This mix of objectives require two
visual filter for black.
separate instruments. Recognition shall also X-Rite NetProfiler
Polarisation Two – cross polarised.
filters: be needed that spectrally computed density NetProfiler is an application that, through
Backing Black from an instrument configured for colour the Internet, can remotely monitor, diagnose,
material: measurement will be different from that of adjust, calibrate and certify each spectropho-
a densitometer using CIE illuminant A and tometer in a network. The instruments can be
In practice, the control of wet ink films filters conforming to ISO status E with polar- different models from the same manufacturer
on the press is best measured by the printer ising and UV filters. or even models from different manufacturers,
using a densitometer fitted with polarising At this point, it should be noted that as long as it is one of those supported by
filters. Asking a pressman to make sure that a recommending a separate instrument for NetProfiler – the instrument must be capable
spectrophotometer is correctly set-up and cal- densitometry does not define the instrument of being remotely tested and controlled. Ulti-
ibrated for press control, that measurements method. Spectral-based instruments can be mately, the concept will allow all instruments
are made under laboratory conditions of tem- used for densitometry, with the advantages of a similar type to have a traceable reference
32 Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

to their own virtual colour standard – using normative ISO response for densitometry for
industry-appropriate reference materials, the graphic arts and the Status T yellow ink
while using the Internet means the strategy filter become an informative specification. In
can be implemented globally. For the first effect, this would bring slightly more sensi-
time, it will be possible to effectively form a tive and better process control of the yellow
working consensus among colour-measure- ink during printing.
ment instruments and apply it to global col- Polarising filters should be included in
our management. At this point in time, colour densitometers.
shall be described more reliably and effec- Polarising filters provide improvements
tively by numbers to which similar instru- in controlling the ink film thickness dur-
ments all agree – a much better system than ing printing and in reducing or eliminating
visually matching samples and swatches. the effects of wet ink, relatively course and
A better system than buying a set of Brit- uneven surfaces, ‘dry-back’ (the difference
ish Ceramic Research Association (BCRA) between wet and dry ink density readings)
ceramic tiles is X-Rite’s Net Profiler 2. Net and directional instrument illumination.
Profiler 2 provides the means to improve the UV filters should be included in
precision of a range of spectrophotometers densitometers.
and to improve their inter-instrument agree- Fluorescence should be excluded from ink
ment and long-term accuracy and consist- density measurements made for print process
ency. Further, Net Profiler provides a certified control.
printed colour reference, ISO certification and Density measurements should be made
a traceable path to international standards. after zeroing the densitometer on the
If practicable, spectrophotometers would substrate
benefit from having a D50 light source Density measurements should be inde-
with a UV-cut filter that can be switched pendent of the paper. This means, density
in, switched out or adjusted. measurements should be relative to the sub-
Switching the UV filter in or out or strate. The point of interest in process control
adjusted on a spectrophotometer allows the is the ink film thickness and not the contribu-
effect of fluorescence, caused by fluores- tion of the paper to the overall density.
cent optical brightening agents (OBA) in the Measurement equipment should be
paper, to be measured and better appearance capable of being networked and the com-
matches made between proofs and prints. puter on-line to the Internet
LED light source technology for densito-
meters seems to be a positive attribute.
Battery power conservation means that
LED light sources will become more use-
ful over tungsten filament (illuminant A)
light sources. Battery life will be extended
because of the less frequent need to recharge.
Rechargeable batteries that are available
only through the instrument manufacturer
can have a surprisingly short life as they are
subjected to long periods of discharge and
occasionally periods of constant overcharge
(permanently connected to the charger, where
excess charge is converted to heat).
The number of ISO-standardised den-
sitometer filter sets in ISO 14981 and ISO
5-3 should be reduced to just one set for
the standard process inks defined in ISO
2846 1-5.
The differences between Status T and Sta-
tus E filters are minimal. Three of the four fil-
ters specified by ISO 5-3 are the same – those
for the cyan, magenta and black inks. Only
the filter for the yellow ink is different. The
recommendation is that the spectral response
for the Status E yellow ink filter should be the
 www.ifra.com/specialreports
8 Appendix A
8.1 ISO Calibration and Verification
Calibration, verification and metrologi-
cal confirmation are the important terms in
metrology. Calibration is one of the basic ele-
ments and forms the technical basis for veri-
fication and metrological confirmation, guar-
anteeing traceability and measurement results
both in legal and industrial metrology.
For example, in order to guarantee the
correctness of the verification result, the
uncertainty of verification must be less than
one third of the maximum permissible error
of the instrument. The same applies to the
uncertainty of calibration, which must be less
than one third of the tolerance of the instru-
ment calibrated if one wishes to achieve a
99.7 % confidence level.
Calibration
The definition of calibration can be as
follows: A set of operations which establish,
under specified conditions, the relationship
between values indicated by a measuring
instrument or measuring system, or values
represented by a material measure, and cor-
responding known values of a measured
quantity.
The result of calibration permits either
the assignment of measurand values to the
indication, or the determination of correc-
tions with respect to the indications. Calibra-
tion may also determine other metrological
properties such as the effect of influencing
quantities.
The calibration result may be recorded
in a document, sometimes called a calibra-
tion certificate or calibration report. From
this definition, we know that the purpose of
calibration is the determination of the met-
rological properties.
Verification
In connection with the management of
measuring equipment, verification provides
a means for checking that the deviations
between the values indicated by a measur-
ing instrument and corresponding known val-
ues of a measured quantity are consistently
smaller than the maximum permissible error
defined in a standard, regulation or specifica-
tion which is specific to the management of
the measuring equipment.
The result of verification leads to a deci-
sion to continue in service, perform adjust-
Chapter 8: Appendix A
ments, repair, downgrade, or desist from using.
In all cases, it is required that a written trace
of the verification performed be kept on the
measuring instrument’s individual record.
8.2 ISO Uncertainty Estimation
It is a basic experience of metrology that
a measurement always contains some error or
inaccuracy — a level of uncertainty.
In recent years, compliance with ISO/IEC
17025, as well as other testing and calibra-
tion standards, has elevated the importance of
estimating and reporting measurement uncer-
tainty. Measurements should be accompanied
by an indicator of reliability and quality.
ISO Guide to the expression of uncer-
tainty in measurement (GUM)44
ISO/TAG4/WG3 (the GUM) and ANSI/
NCSL Z540-2-1997 (the U.S. version of the
GUM) provide guidelines for conducting
an uncertainty analysis. Unfortunately, the
implementation of these guidelines can be a
daunting task, especially if one is not con-
versant in the necessary mathematical and
statistical concepts. Consequently, testing and
calibration personnel must often find off-the-
shelf tools that meet their analysis require-
ments. A comparison of seven Uncertainty
Analysis Tools has been done by Castrup.45
Sources of uncertainty
The measurement procedure must be
studied in detail and then an initial list of
factors having an influence on the test result
noted down. Each aspect which influences
the test will then be considered individually
in more detail and then the contribution type
is decided upon.
Measurement process errors are typically
the basic elements of uncertainty analysis.
The errors most often encountered in mak-
ing measurements include, but are not limited
to the following:
> Measurement bias – the bias in the meas-
uring device and/or the quantity being
measured.
> Random or repeatability error – the error
associated with repeat measurements.
> Resolution error – the error resulting
from the finite resolution of the meas-
uring device and/or the quantity being
measured.
33
> Digital sampling error – the error intro-
duced by digitizing an analogue signal.
> Computation error – the error due to
round-off or computer truncation, numer-
ical interpolation, empirically determined
equations, etc.
> Operator bias – the error introduced by
the person making the measurements.
> Environmental factors error – the error
introduced by variations in environmen-
tal conditions or by correcting for envi-
ronmental conditions.
> Stress response error – additional error
resulting from stresses incurred during
shipping and handling to the end-user
after calibration.
ISO basically identifies two types of
uncertainty contributions labelled type A or
type B.
Type A contributions are based on analy-
sis of a number of repeat readings, to obtain
the standard deviation. The number of obser-
vations must be large enough to obtain the
desired level of uncertainty. If the actual test
is performed more than once, this standard
deviation is divided by the square root of ‘n’
where ‘n’ is the number of times the particular
test is carried out. This is because every time a
test is repeated, knowledge of the measurand
increases. (A measurand is a physical param-
eter being quantified by measurement).
Type B contributions are those obtained
by non-statistical methods, e. g. previous
measurement data, experience or knowledge
of the measurement system and materials
used, manufacturer’s specification, calibra-
tion certificates, quoted uncertainties of
reference data quoted in handbooks. Type A
contributions are usually Gaussian distribu-
tions with n–1 degrees of freedom (where n
is the number of repeatability measurements
made). Type B are usually rectangular, occa-
sionally triangular or Gaussian with an infi-
nite number of degrees of freedom if they are
uncertainties taken from calibration certifi-
cates or the manufacturer’s specifications.
All the standard uncertainty contributions
of an uncertainty budget must be in the same
units. In most cases the input quantity will
be in the same units as the associated out-
put quantity. However, this is not always the
case. For example, how will a unit change in
temperature affect the weight of an object?
34 Chapter 8: Appendix A © 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt

A sensitivity coefficient has to be determined

in these cases so that it is known that a unit
change in the input quantity will produce a
known change in the output quantity. This
is then used as a factor by which the input
quantity is multiplied to obtain the effect in
terms of the measurement result. Sensitivity
coefficients can be determined using formu-
lae and partial differentiation or by numerical
means, often with the help of spreadsheets.
Once these fundamental error sources
have been identified, we can begin to develop
uncertainty estimates.
The errors in the Physical Property X and
Physical Property Y are the sum of the errors
encountered during the measurement process
and can be expressed as

εX = εX1 + εX2 + ... + εXn

εY = εY1 + εY2 + ... + εYn

where the numbered subscripts signify the

different measurement process errors.
Equation 5 General form of the Uncertainty
Estimation formula for measurements

Calculation of the budget

Once all the contributions and sensitivity
coefficients have been established and the
distribution types decided, the budget can be
calculated using the standard formulae con-
tained in the GUM. A computer spreadsheet is
well suited to perform the calculations.

Expanded uncertainty
All the contributions are combined by the
root sum square combination to produce a
standard uncertainty. The standard uncer-
tainty is then multiplied by a coverage factor
k usually ranging between 2 and 3 calculated
using statistical methods to give an uncer-
tainty at a level of confidence of 95.45 %
(approximately 95 %).
Provided the uncertainty of the test sys-
tem is small compared to the limits of error
for instruments under test, uncertainty is not
considered when using the test result for the
conformity assessment procedure. In this way
there will be an equally shared risk that a test
result for an instrument on the borderline of
the tolerances will be inside or outside these
limits.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Chapter 9: Appendix B 35

9 Appendix B

9.1 ISO standards for colour and tions. However, it is desirable to use only one of ISO 2846 may also apply to certain non-
density measurement and process of these. publication gravure applications. 13 pp.
control
ISO 1:2002 ISO 2846-1:2006 ISO 2846-4:2000
Geometrical Product Specification (GPS) Graphic technology – Colour and trans- Graphic technology – Colour and trans-
— Standard reference temperature for geomet- parency of ink sets for four-colour-printing parency of printing ink sets for four-colour-
rical product specification and verification. – Part 1: Sheet-fed and heat-set web offset printing – Part 4: Screen printing
lithographic printing. This part of ISO 2846 specifies the colour
ISO 5-1:1984 This International Standard specifies a set and transparency to be produced by a process
Photography – Density measurements of colours which will be produced by a series colour ink set, including extender, intended
– Part 1: Terms, symbols and notations. of inks intended for four-colour offset lithog- for four-colour screen printing when printed
Specifies definitions, symbols, notations raphy (both proof and production printing) under specified screen printing condition. It
and a coordinate system for applications in when printed under specified conditions, on also describes the test method to ensure con-
photography and radiometry to describe the a defined substrate, using a laboratory print- formance. It is applicable to screen inks for
geometric factors affecting optical transmis- ability tester. It also describes a method for conventional drying and radiation curing but
sion and reflection measures. Provides a sys- testing to ensure conformance. 19 pp. does not specify pigments (or spectral reflect-
tem for describing methods of measuring or ance) in order to preclude developments,
specifying the transmission and reflection ISO 2846-2:2000 which may enable different pigment com-
properties of photographic materials. Graphic technology – Colour and trans- binations to be used advantageously while
parency of ink sets for four-colour-printing still achieving the colorimetric requirements
ISO 5-2:2001 – Part 2: Coldset offset lithographic printing specified in this part. 12 pp.
Photography – Density measurements This part of ISO 2846 specifies the col-
– Part 2: Geometric conditions for transmis- our and transparency to be produced by inks ISO 2846-5:2005
sion density. intended for four-colour coldest web offset Graphic technology – Colour and trans-
printing when printed under specified condi- parency of printing ink sets for four-colour
ISO 5-3:1995 tions on a printability tester. It also describes printing – Part 5: Flexographic printing
Photography – Density measurements the test method to ensure conformance. This This part of ISO 2846 specifies the colour
– Part 3: Spectral conditions. part of 2846 does not apply to fluorescent and transparency to be produced by each ink
Specifies spectral conditions for the meas- inks and does not specify pigments (or spec- in a process colour ink set (including extender)
urement of several types of densities used in tral reflectance) in order not to preclude intended for four colour flexographic printing,
photographic image reproduction. Has been developments which may enable different when printed under specified flexographic
expanded to include additional spectral types. pigment combinations to be used advan- printing conditions. It also describes the con-
Replaces the first edition which has been tageously while still achieving the colori- formance test method. 20pp.
technically revised metric requirements specified in this part of
ISO 2846. 14 pp. ISO 3664:2000
ISO 5-4:1995 Viewing conditions – Graphic technology
Photography – Density measurements ISO 2846-3:2002 and photography
– Part 4: Geometric conditions for reflection Graphic technology – Colour and trans- This International Standard specifies
density. parency of printing ink sets for four-col- viewing conditions for images on both reflec-
Specifies the geometric conditions for our-printing – Part 3: Publication gravure tive and transmissive media, such as prints
measuring the reflection density of photo- printing (both photographic and photomechanical)
graphic and graphic art materials. Specifies This part of ISO 2846 specifies the colour and transparencies, as well as images dis-
illumination at all azimuth angles. Does not and transparency to be produced by a process played in isolation on colour monitors. It is
cover those situations where light has been colour ink set including extender intended not applicable to unprinted papers. 20 pp.
deliberately polarised. Also applicable to the for four-colour publication gravure printing
measurement of these characteristics for other when printed under specified gravure printing ISO 3664 (Viewing conditions—Graphic
materials. conditions. It also specifies the test method technology and photography) and ISO 13655
to ensure conformance. This part of ISO 2846 (Graphic technology—Spectral measurement
ISO 554:1976 does not specify pigments (or spectral reflect- and colorimetric computation for graphic
Title: Standard atmospheres for condi- ance) in order not to preclude developments arts images), while currently consistent with
tioning and/or testing – Specifications which may enable different pigment com- each other, are not consistent with current
This specifies three atmospheres approxi- binations to be used advantageously while industry needs and practices.
mated to the natural environmental condi- still achieving the colorimetric requirements
specified in this part of ISO 2846. This part
36 Chapter 9: Appendix B
ISO/CIE 10526:1999
CIE standard illuminants for colorimetry
This International Standard specifies
two illuminants for use in colorimetry. The
illuminants are defined are CIE standard
illuminant A and CIE standard illuminant
D65. Illuminant A has a relative spectral
power distribution of a Planckian radiator
at a temperature of approximately 2 856 K
and CIE standard illuminant D65 is intended
to represent average daylight and has a cor-
related colour temperature of approximately
6 500 K.
ISO 12645:1998 (R2003)
Graphic technology – Process control-
Certified reference material for opaque area
calibration of transmission densitometers
This International Standard defines
requirements for a half-tone certified refer-
ence material, which may be used for the
opaque area percentage calibration of trans-
mission densitometers of colorimeters for use
in the graphic arts. 10 pp.
ISO 12646:2004
Graphic technology – Displays for col-
our proofing – Characteristics and viewing
conditions.
This International Standard specifies
requirements for uniformity, size, resolution,
convergence, refresh rate, luminance levels
and viewing conditions for a colour display
used to simulate a hard copy proofing sys-
tem. 20pp.
ISO 12647-1:2004
Graphic technology – Process control for
the manufacture of half-tone colour separa-
tions, proof and production prints – Part 1:
Parameters and measurement methods.
This and other parts of ISO 12647 specify
parameters that define printing conditions for
the various processes used in the graphic arts
industry. 28 pp.
ISO 12647-2:2004
Graphic technology – Process control for
the manufacture of half-tone colour separa-
tions, proof and production prints – Part 2:
Offset lithographic processes
This International Standard specifies
a number of process parameters and their
values to be applied when preparing colour
separations for four-colour offset printing, or
when producing four-colour prints by one of
the following methods: heat-set web, sheet-
fed or continuous forms process printing, or
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
proofing for these processes; offset proofing ISO 13656:2000
for half-tone gravure. 26 pp. Graphic technology – Application of
reflection densitometry and colorimetry to
ISO 12647-3:2005 process control or evaluation of prints and
Graphic technology- Process control for proofs
the manufacture of half-tone colour separa- This International Standard applies to
tions, proofs and production prints – Part 3: process control and evaluation of single and
Coldset offset lithography and letterpress on multi-colour proofing and printing in the
newsprint graphic arts using densitometry and color-
This part of ISO 12647 specifies print- imetry. This standard: defines terms; speci-
ing conditions for news-paper single or four fies minimum requirements for control strips;
colour printing and proofing. Values of the specifies test methods; and specifies reporting
parameters can be used in the exchange of procedures for the results. 15 pp.
data to characterise the intended printing
condition and/or the process control of print- ISO 14807, 2001,
ing by practitioners wishing to work to com- Photography. Transmission and reflec-
mon goals. 8 pp. tion densitometers. Method for determining
performance.
ISO 12647-5:2001 This International Standard defines a com-
Graphic technology – Process control for mon set of reporting parameters and describes
the manufacture of half-tone colour separa- the methods to be used in the determination
tions, proofs and production prints – Part 5: and presentation of individual densitometer
Screen printing performance and manufacturer-reported per-
This part of ISO 12647 specifies a number formance specifications. This International
of process parameters and their values to be Standard applies to transmission and reflec-
applied when preparing colour separations tion densitometers typically manufactured for
for four-colour screen process printing when and used by the photographic, graphic arts
producing four-colour proof & production and radiographic trades
prints by flat bed or cylinder screen print-
ing. 10 pp. ISO 14981:2000
Graphic technology — Process control —
ISO 12647-6:2006 Optical, geometrical and metrological require-
Graphic technology – Process control for ments for reflection densitometers for graphic
the production of half-tone colour separa- arts use
tions, proofs and production prints – Part 6: This International Standard specifies
Flexographic printing requirements for measuring instruments to
This part of ISO 12647 specifies a number be used for the measurement of the reflection
of process parameters and their values to be densities and the tone values on half-tone
applied to four-colour process printing by the or continuous-tone multi-colour graphic arts
flexographic printing process for packaging reflection-copy material. 19 pp.
and publication, excluding news printing.
ISO 15790:2004
ISO 13655:2007 Graphic technology and photography
Graphic technology – Spectral meas- – Certified reference materials for reflection
urement and colorimetric computation for and transmission metrology – Documentation
graphic arts images and procedures for use, including determina-
This International Standard establishes tion of combined standard uncertainty
a methodology for reflection and transmis- This International Standard specifies the
sion spectral measurement and colorimetric documentation requirements for certified ref-
parameters computation for graphic arts erence materials (CRMs), procedures for the
images. Also applies to limited volume colour use of CRMs, and procedures for the computa-
images such as those produced with photo- tion and reporting of the combined standard
graphic, ink jet, thermal transfer, diffusion, uncertainty of reflectance and transmittance
electrophotography, mechanical transfer or measurement systems used in graphic arts,
toner technology (e. g., off-press proofs) when photographic and other imaging industries.
used for graphic arts applications. It is techni- 28 pp.
cally equivalent to, but not identical to, ANSI
CGATS.5. 18 pp.
 www.ifra.com/specialreports Chapter 9: Appendix B 37

ISO/IEC/EN 17025 urement of emission spectral data from video

General Requirements for the Compe- monitors nor does it supersede the specifica-
tence of Calibration and Testing Laboratories tion of other measurement geometries appro-
– Revised December 2005 priate to specific application needs, such as
Growth in the use of management sys- the evaluation of materials (e. g., ink and
tems generally has increased the need to paper) used in the graphic arts. 39 pp.
ensure that laboratories can operate to a
quality management system that is seen as ANSI CGATS.9 -2007
compliant with the more general management Graphic technology – Graphic arts trans-
standard of ISO 9001 as well as demonstrate mission densitometry measurements – Ter-
technical competency. ISO 17025 was writ- minology, equations, image elements and
ten to incorporate all the ISO 9001 require- procedures.
ments that are relevant to the scope of testing This standard defines terminology, equa-
and calibration services as well as specify- tions, process control elements, and proce-
ing the technical requirements for technical dures for measurement and communication
competence. of transmission densitometry data for graphic
Testing and calibration laboratories that arts halftone images. Graphic arts includes,
comply with ISO 17025 will also operate in but is not limited to, the preparation of mate-
accordance with ISO 9001. rial for, and volume production by, produc-
tion printing processes which include offset
ISO 9001 lithography, letterpress, flexography, gravure,
This is a generic management standard and screen printing.
that can be applied to any business enter- Although this standard addresses halftone
prise, public administration, or government applications, there are situations where non-
department. traditional halftones and/or continuous tone
materials are used for which these computa-
9.2 ANSI CGATS standards tions are also appropriate.
ANSI CGATS.4 – 2006
Graphic Technology – Graphic Arts ANSI CGATS.11/PIMA IT2.11 – 1999
Reflection Densitometry Measurements – Ter- Graphic technology and photography
minology, Equations, Image Elements, and – Reflection and transmission metrology Certi-
Procedures. fied reference materials – Documentation and
Defines terms, equations, image elements procedures for use, including determination
and procedures for measurement and commu- of combined standard uncertainty.
nication of data when using reflection densi- This standard specifies documentation for
tometer instrumentation for graphic arts. certified reference materials (CRMs), proce-
dures for the use of CRMs, and procedures
ANSI CGATS.5 – 2003 for the computation and reporting of com-
Graphic technology – Spectral meas- bined standard uncertainty, as applicable to
urement and colorimetric computation for the calibration, performance characterisation
graphic arts images. and verification, and routine use of reflect-
This standard establishes a methodology ance and transmittance measurement systems
for reflection and transmission spectral meas- in the graphic arts, photographic, and other
urement, and computation of colorimetric imaging processes. 18 pp.
parameters for graphic arts images.
Graphic arts include, but are not lim-
ited to, the preparation of material for, and
volume production by, production printing
processes that include offset lithography,
letterpress, flexography, gravure and screen-
printing. This standard also applies to images
to be manufactured in limited quantities such
as those produced with photographic, ink jet,
thermal transfer, diffusion, electrophotogra-
phy, mechanical transfer or toner technolo-
gies (e. g., off-press proofs) when used for
graphic arts applications. This standard does
not address any requirements on the meas-
38 Chapter 10: References (Endnotes)
10 References (Endnotes)
1 Rich, Danny, “Instruments and Methods
for Colour Measurement”. “Colour Engi-
neering”, edited by Phil Green & Lind-
say McDonald, John Wiley, ISBN 0-471-
48688-4, 2003.
2 ISO 14981:2000 “Graphic technology
– Process Control – Optical, Geometri-
cal and Metrological Requirements for
Reflection Densitometers for Graphic Arts
Use”.
3 ISO 5-4:1995 Photography – Density
Measurements – Part 4: Geometric Con-
ditions for Reflection Density.
4 ISO/CD 13655 “Graphic technology
– Spectral Measurement and Colorimetric
Computation for Graphic Arts Images”.
5 Dolezalek, F. et al, “Sampling Aperture
& Irradiated Area” (ISO TC 130/WG3,
26-27/04/2006)” and CGATS/STF N 045
“Procedures for Color Measurement Sys-
tem Agreement and Control”
6 Anon, Hewlett-Packard Development Co.,
TechNotable “HP Embedded Spectropho-
tometer with i1 Color Technology”, July
2006, http://akiradata.co.id/dsj_z/Tech-
Notable_Spectrophotometer.pdf.
7 Anon, http://www.olympus-global.com/
en/news/2006b/nr061113crystale.cfm
8 Anon, “ICC Recommendations for Col-
our Measurement”, ICC White Paper #3,
http://www.color.org/ICC_white_paper-
3measurement.pdf
9 Nurmi, O. and Sivonen, J., VTT Technol-
ogies, “ICC Profiles for Different Paper
Categories – the Effect of Time and Print
Through in the Gamut in Newspaper
Process”. IARIGAI Conference, 2001.
10 Color Order FAQ, Munsell Color Science
Laboratory, RIT. www.cis.rit.edu/mcsl/
outreach/faq.php
11 Anon, Optometrics Corp., “Diffraction
Gratings, 2006 Catalog”,
www.optometrics.com
12 Anon, Optometrics Corp., “Interference
Filters, 2006 Catalog”, www.optometrics.
com
13 Billmeyer F. and Saltzman, “Principles
of Color Technology”, 2nd Edition, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
14 McReynolds, John, “X-Rite Tech Talk for
Graphic Arts and Color Appearance Pro-
fessionals, Issue 1, Spectrophotometry:
10 nm vs. 20 nm”, X-Rite, 1992.
15 Strocka, Dietrich, “Are Intervals of 20 nm
Sufficient for Industrial Colour Measure-
ment?”, Colour 73, Adam Hilger, London,
pp. 453-456, 1973.
16 http://www.ceram.com/colour-standards
17 Compton, J.A. “The Thermochromic Prop-
erties of the Ceramic Colour Standard”,
in Color Research & Application, 9 1, pp.
15–22, Spring 1984.
18 Reniff, L., “Transferring the 45/0 Spec-
tral Reflectance Factor Scale”, in Colour
Research and Application , 19, 5, pp. 332-
340, October 1994.
19 Beretta, Giordano, “Spectrophotometer
Calibration and Certification”, 1999.
20 As for reference 10.
21 Anon, Konica Minolta “Precise Color
Communication”, 1998.
22 Fairchild, M.D. and Grum, F., “Thermo-
chromism of Ceramic Reference Tiles”, in
Applied Optics, 24, 21, pp. 3432–3433,
November 1985.
23 Hiltunen, J., “Accurate Color Measure-
ment”, Uni. of Joensuu, DoP, Väisälä Lab.,
2002
24 McCormick-Goodhart, M., and Wilhelm,
H., Wilhelm Imaging Research, “Humid-
ity-Induced Color Changes and Ink Migra-
tion Effects in Inkjet Photographs in Real-
World Environmental Conditions”, IS&T’s
NIP16:2000 Int. Conference on Digital
Printing Technologies, 2000.
25 Image Permanence Institute, “A Consumer
Guide to Traditional and Digital Print
Stability”, http://www.imagepermanen-
ceinstitute.org/shtml_sub/consumerguide.
pdf, 2004 (Good bibliography.)
26 Indigo Technology, “Digital Offset Tech-
nology”, www.colorline-usa.com/Digital_
Offset_color.pdf.
27 Butts, K., Datacolor International, “Effects
of Relative Humidity Variation on Meas-
ured Color”, 2002, http://www.datacolor.
com/index.php.
28 Schläpfer, K., “Farbmetrik in der grafischen
Industrie”, UGRA, 3rd Edition, ISBN 3-
9520403-1-2, 2002.
29 ISO 3664:2000 Viewing conditions
– Graphic technology and photography.
30 Rich, Danny, As for reference 1.
31 Burns, R.S. and Renff, L., “An Abridged
Technique to Diagnose Spectrophotomet-
ric Errors”, Colour Research and Applica-
tion, 22 1, 51–60, February 1997.
© 2007 Ifra, Darmstadt
32 Fairchild, M.D., and Grum, F., “Thermo-
chromism of Ceramic Reference Tiles” in
Applied Optics, 24, 21, pp. 3432–3433,
November 1985.
33 Rich, Danny C. CGATS, “Graphic tech-
nology — Improving the Inter-Instru-
ment Agreement of Spectrocolorimeters”,
2004.
34 Robertson, A. R., “Diagnostic Perform-
ance Evaluation of Spectrophotometers”,
presented at Advances in Standards
and Methodology in Spectrophotometry,
Oxford, England, 1986.
35 Rich, D. and Martin, D., ”Improved Model
for Improving Inter-Instrument Agree-
ment of Spectrocolorimeters”, Analytical
Chemica Acta, 380, pp. 263–276, 1999.
36 Collaborative Testing Services Inc. (CTS),
340 Herndon Parkway, Herndon, Virginia
20170-4820, USA.
37 Tobias Associates Inc., Technical Bulletins,
“Reflections Densitometry”, Figs. 13 and
15.
38 Anon, “Expert Guide on Color & Quality”,
Heidelberger Druckmaschinen, 2006.
39 Anon, Gretag, “Densitometry Made in
Switzerland”, 1987.
40 Young, L.C., “Materials in Printing Proc-
esses”, Focal Press, 1973.
41 Hull, Harry. H., “A Reflection Densitometer
Head for the Control of Ink Amounts on
Proofs”, TAGA Proceedings, 11, pp. 149–
155, 1959.
42 Ehbets, Dr. Peter, X-Rite, communication,
December 2006.
43 ISO 5-3:1995 Photography – Density
Measurements – Part 3: Spectral Condi-
tions.
44 ISO “Guide to the Expression of Uncer-
tainty in Measurement” (GUM), in English,
ISBN 92-67-10188-9; in French, ISBN 92-
67-20188-3, 1995.
45 Castrup, Suzanne, “A Comprehensive
Comparison of Uncertainty Analysis
Tools”, Measurement Science Conference,
Anaheim, CA, 2004. See www.isgmax.
com
All Ifra Special Report can be downloaded from www.ifra.com/specialreports

Other Ifra Special Reports you should consider reading:

Revision of ISO 12647-3 (ISR2.37)

The newspaper printing standard was revised in 2005. The report contains all specifications of
the new standard as well as a series of articles on the topic of “What does the new newspaper
printing standard bring?”. It is supplemented by a tabular overview with the title “A quick ref-
erence guide to standardised newspaper printing”. Published by Ifra, 2005

Colour deviation and colour variation in newspaper offset printing (ISR 3.30)
Due to the enormous increase in the use of four-colour printing in newspapers, reduced colour
deviations and variations in newspaper offset printing are needed. The ISO 12647-3 standard
served as a reference in verifying whether it is possible to keep within this standard during
normal production. However, the colour variations measured when overprinting were
unsatisfactory for high quality newspaper colour printing. After due consideration, a way
was found to keep the variations within tolerance throughout the print run without it being
necessary to significantly increase the monitoring work. Published by Ifra, 1999

Possibilities for the Automatic Control of Colour Print Quality (ISR 3.35)
The report investigates whether and under what conditions inline colour measuring systems
with closed-loop control can be used in coldset web offset newspaper printing. It deals also
with possible interim solutions. Therefore inline solutions without automatic closed-loop con-
trol as well as online and offline solutions are examined. Published by Ifra, 2002

The colorimetric description of production tolerances in newspaper printing (ISR 2.39)

The revised ISO 12647-3:2004 standard is in widespread use. This gives rise to a number of
practical questions which are dealt with in this Special Report. What is the relationship between
density and colour for the primary colours? How much can the density vary within the framework
of the specified colour tolerances? What influence does the colour sequence have on obtaining
the required colour values? What influence do tonal value fluctuations during printing have
on the colour result? A daily newspaper is not usually read until several hours after printing.
What colour changes happen in this time? Published by Ifra, 2006

Should you wish to receive one or several copies of Ifra Special Reports in printed form, please contact:

Ifra
Washingtonplatz · 64287 Darmstadt · Germany
Phone +49.6151.733-762 · Fax +49.6151.733-800
http://www.ifra.com

Ifra is a member of