Kohlberg’ theory of development

Theoretical assumptions (philosophy)

The picture of human nature Kohlberg begins with is that humans are inherently communicative and capable of
reason. They also possess a desire to understand others and the world around them. The stages of Kohlberg's
model relate to the qualitative moral reasonings adopted by individuals, and so do not translate directly into
praise or blame of any individual's actions or character. Arguing that his theory measures moral reasoning and
not particular moral conclusions, Kohlberg insists that the form and structure of moral arguments is
independent of the content of those arguments, a position he calls "formalism".[6][7]

Kohlberg's theory centers on the notion that justice is the essential characteristic of moral reasoning. Justice
itself relies heavily upon the notion of sound reasoning based on principles. Despite being a justice-centered
theory of morality, Kohlberg considered it to be compatible with plausible formulations of deontology[17] and
eudaimonia.

Kohlberg's theory understands values as a critical component of the right. Whatever the right is, for Kohlberg,
it must be universally valid across societies (a position known as "moral universalism"):[7] there can be no
relativism. Moreover, morals are not natural features of the world; they are prescriptive. Nevertheless, moral
judgments can be evaluated in logical terms of truth and falsity.

According to Kohlberg: someone progressing to a higher stage of moral reasoning cannot skip stages. For
example, an individual cannot jump from being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to being a
proponent of social contracts (stage five).[14] On encountering a moral dilemma and finding their current level
of moral reasoning unsatisfactory, however, an individual will look to the next level. Realizing the limitations
of the current stage of thinking is the driving force behind moral development, as each progressive stage is
more adequate than the last.[14] The process is therefore considered to be constructive, as it is initiated by the
conscious construction of the individual, and is not in any meaningful sense a component of the individual's
innate dispositions, or a result of past inductions.

Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each: pre-conventional,
conventional and post-conventional.[7][8][9] Following Piaget's constructivist requirements for a stage model, as
described in his theory of cognitive development, it is extremely rare to regress backward in stages—to lose
the use of higher stage abilities.[13][14] Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective,
more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated with them.[13][14]

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(Social norms)
(The good boy/good girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
 Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles
(Principled conscience)

Physical Development during adolescence

Physical Development

The adolescence period is featured by dramatic physiological changes that in practice leading
them to move forward from a child to an adult. Hence, adolescence period is a transitional
period, where an individual reaches to the physical maturity. This period distinguishes among
males and females quite evidently by developing sexual characteristics, however, the secondary
sexual characteristics become visible during prepubescent period.

In the prepubescent period, a female may begin to develop her breast buds around the age of 8
years, which take the mature shape with full breast development during late adolescent phase.
Apart from that, public hair growth - armpit and leg - has been observed during 9 to 10 years,
where the distribution pattern becomes prevalent at the age of 13 to 14 years. Another
significant physical change occurs in adolescent females with the menarche2. In general, the
menarche occurs after 2 years of prepubescent changes. A female may undergo menarche at
early at the age of 10 years and as late as 15 years.

However, the puberty is not identified with a sudden onset of pubertal changes in case of males, as it happens
with females with menstrual changes. In case of males, the scrotal and testicular changes occur during 9
years of age along with a lengthening of penis size, whereas it reaches to its adult size around
15 -16 years of age.

Public hair growth in the areas of armpit, leg and face is noted at the age of 12 years, whereas it
reaches to its adult distribution at the age of 15 to 16 years. The occurrence of nocturnal
emissions3 in around every 2 weeks interval consisting of seminal fluid may define the onset of
puberty among male adolescents. This typically occurs during the age of 13 years to 17 years.

A contemporaneous brisk of growth in height is noticed between ages of around 10.5 to 11

years and 16 to 18 years, with a peak period characterized around the age of 14 years. Another
significant change in males occurs with the changes in voice which is usually parallel to penile
development, whereas the occurrence of nocturnal emissions corresponds with the peak period
of height spurt.
Secondary Sex Characteristics

The hormonal changes during puberty stimulate the development of secondary sex
characteristics, features that set apart the sexes without being directly related to the
reproductive system. While secondary sex characteristics in girls include breast enlargement,
additional subcutaneous fat and widening of the hips, boys will experience penis growth, facial
hair growth and a deepening of the voice. Both genders will experience pubic hair growth,
underarm hair growth and increased oil production and sweat gland activity.

Brain Development

The brain isn't fully developed until a person reaches his 20s, according to Barbara Strauch,
author of Primal Teen and the medical science and health editor of The New York Times.
Connections between the neurons that control emotional, mental and physical capabilities are
incomplete in a teenager's brain. As a result, teens may have wildly fluctuating emotions and
can be more impulsive.

Time Frame

The majority of girls begin to develop sexually between the ages of 8 and 13 years, according to
KidsHealth. Most girls experience a growth spurt (or phase of extreme growth) between ages 10
and 14. Boys develop a little later, typically between ages 10 and 13, and continue through age
16.

Height and Weight Changes

An adolescent's ultimate height is mostly determined by genetics. Girls tend to gain height more
rapidly between ages 12 and 15, according to KidsHealth. Boys tend to hit their growth spurt
about two years later. An adolescent can grow up to four inches in one year. Adolescent bodies
also gain weight to take on a more adult shape. For boys, this means becoming more muscular.
For girls, this means developing additional body fat in the hips and breasts.

personality
Adolescence

The fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion (Fidelity), occurs during adolescence from age 13 or 14.
Maturity starts developing during this time; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-doubt
and experiments with different constructive roles rather than adopting a negative identity, such as delinquency.
The well-adjusted adolescent actually looks forward to achievement, and, in later adolescence, clear sexual
identity is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her), and gradually develops
a set of ideals to live by.

The Child Development Institute (CDI) rightfully points out that very little knowledge is available on the type
of specific environment that will result, for example, in traits of trust being more developed in a person's
personality. Helping the child through the various stages of emotional and personality development is a
complex and difficult task. Searching for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for most of the
research carried out in the field of child development today.

The Big Five personality traits are Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and
Openness to Experience. Extraversion refers to dominance and activity in interpersonal situations;
Agreeableness refers to the willingness to maintain positive and reciprocal relationships with others;
Conscientiousness refers to organizational and motivational aspects of a person’s behavior; Emotional Stability
indicates the ability to deal effectively with negative emotions; and Openness to Experience refers to how a
person deals with new information at a personal and experiential level.

How was this study done?

They did a longitudinal research project with a five-annual-wave with a 1-year interval between each wave.
The longitudinal sample was composed
of 1,313 adolescents. They were recruited from several randomly selected schools in a province of The
Netherlands. They were divided into an early to groups, a middle adolescent cohort (n=923; 70.3%), who were
12.4 years old on average, and a middle to late adolescent cohort (n=390; 29.7%), who were 16.7 years old on
average during the first wave of measurement. Because both age groups were assessed during five
measurement waves, a total age range from 12 to 20 years was available.

Not surprising girls were found to mature earlier than boys. The mean levels of Agreeableness and
Emotional Stability increased during adolescence. There was mixed evidence for increases in Extraversion and
Openness. They found evidence for age-related increases in rank-order stability of personality traits for boys
and even stronger in girls. Meaning that personality traits become more crystallized when growing older.
Also profile similarity increased as adolescents grew older, increases were somewhat larger in early to middle
adolescence than in middle to late adolescence. There was also a gender difference in profile similarity.
Girls displayed higher levels of profile similarity in early adolescence reaching their top in middle adolescence,
boys reached that same level in late adolescence. Overall, rank-order stability and profile similarity of
adolescent personality traits clearly increased from early to late adolescence.

The authors of this research confirmed that personality matures in all three facets during adolescents with
girls maturing at a younger age. Their finding of the increase in Agreeableness was different from earlier
studies, as in other studies they found little evidence for an increase in conscientiousness necessary for
academic achievement. The small increase of openness was also found in other studies.

Physical development during adolescence

and childhood
Growth Stages 1: Infancy and Early Childhood helps students to become better aware of all of
the natural physical stages of growth children experience in the first five years of life. In Growth
Stages 2: Middle Childhood and Early Adolescence, students focus on the kinds of physical
changes that children in their age range begin to undergo during puberty.
Research shows that children are fascinated by films and stories about early stages of human
development and they are particularly intrigued by comparisons of themselves now and earlier.
It may be helpful at this level to inform students about changes that will take place in them
during adolescence, since when they reach puberty, they may be too embarrassed to talk to
adults about it. The importance for growth of adequate rest, proper food, regular checkups, and
shots to prevent disease should be supported by some science behind the advice. (Benchmarks
for Science Literacy, p.132.)

Summary

Principles of Physical Development

Different systems of the body grow at different rates. Over time, physiological functioning becomes both
increasingly differentiated (e.g., different cells take on different functions) and increasingly integrated (e.g.,
different body parts work more closely together). Children seem to have certain targets in physical growth that
their bodies aim for, even if temporarily deterred by illness or inadequate nutrition.

The Brain and Its Development

The human brain is a complex organ that regulates basic physiological functions (e.g., heart rate), sensations of
pleasure and pain, motor skills and coordination, emotional responses, and intellectual processes. The brain
consists of millions of interconnected circuits of neurons that make up the distinct parts of the brain. During
prenatal development, neurons are created, and these cells migrate to places where they will do their work.
During infancy, the brain creates many connections among neurons; areas of the brain that support perceptual
learning show particularly rapid growth. During early and middle childhood, the brain protects those
connections that are used most often and lets the others die out; particular refinements also solidify language
skills and higher learning functions. During adolescence, the brain grows in areas that reflect forethought and
judgment.

Physical Development During Childhood

Predictable changes in physical functioning occur during childhood and adolescence. During infancy, survival
mechanisms, such as reflexes, are implemented, crying time peaks then decreases, feeding moves from milk to
a combination of milk and soft solids, and motor skills permit exploration. Early childhood consists of
vigorous physical activity and the acquisition of new motor skills. Middle childhood is a time of consolidation,
when growth rate slows down and children put motor skills to purposeful use. Puberty begins in early
adolescence and extends over several years. Adult height and sexual maturation are attained in late
adolescence.

Physical Well-Being

Health depends on several factors, including eating habits, physical activity, and rest and sleep. Some children
and adolescents show patterns of behavior (e.g., eating disorders, choice of sedentary activities,
overcommitments that result in insufficient sleep) that may jeopardize their physical well-being. In
adolescence, additional health-compromising behaviors may emerge as youths struggle with such temptations
as cigarette smoking, alcohol, drugs, and unprotected sexual activity.
Special Physical Needs

Youngsters with chronic illness, serious injuries, and physical disabilities often benefit from modifications in
instruction, equipment, and their physical environment. Ultimately, educators should strive to make
experiences as "normal" as possible for these children.

Transition of childhood to adolescence

Adolescence is the social and psychological transition period between the childhood and
adulthood or it can also be define as the transitional phase of human growth and development
where a juvenile individual matures to an adult. This transitional development engrosses the
biological such as pubertal, psychological, and social, changes among which the biological
changes are the simplest to measure independently. Adolescence is identified to consist of
dramatic transformations in the growth and development of the body, together with personnel
developments in academic career and psychology. The age of the adolescence is interpreted
differently by different culture. According to WHO (THE WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION), the
period of 10 to 19 years whereas in United States adolescence is considered the stage form 13
to 19 which generally regarded as the teenage. The fundamental for studying the adolescence
is not the age group but the developmental changes. Adolescence is one of the most
important stages in life where an individual enters the more responsive and matured adulthood
crossing the childhood stage. Adolescence is also defined as the transition phase of childhood
and adulthood and this stage is accompanied by several physiological, sexual, behavioral,
emotional and psychological changes. Depressions, anxiety, restlessness and several other
obsessions are reasonably observable during adolescence. Some psychologist has expresses
significantly as the stage of “stress and storm in an individuals life In the commencement of
adolescence, the individual generally complete basic school education and enters the secondary
stage like middle or high school.

The physical changes observed in adolescents are regarded as the puberty where the female
Adolescent experiences the onset of menstruation; development of mammary glands and
several secondary sexual organs and they turn to the sage of sexual maturity. In case of the
male adolescent seminal emission began, several bodily developmental changes like growth of
pubic hair, voice changes etc. during this stage the individuals are very curious about the
opposite sexes and sexual craze is very highly developed at this stage which may lead to
several undesirable social problems. It is therefore essential to educate the adolescents giving
the correct guidance and care. Adolescents are furthermore the socially conscious individuals
and they can not tolerate any injustice summoned to them thus the cases of juvenile
delinquency is highly prone during adolescence. Thus the adolescence stage needs suitable
guidance and the role of the matured members of the society mainly the parents and teachers
should provide best care and sexual knowledge must be cleared to them.
Planning for your child’s move from adolescence to adulthood is a very important step you can provide, and
one of the most important factors in building a successful future for your child. In most states, special
education transition services begin when a child with a disability is between 14 and 16 years of age. You will
be told that this is the time to look at developing new skills and working with your child together as he or she
moves toward independence. You will probably not be prepared. Unfortunately, teachers and professionals in
the field should be encouraging us to work on these skills much earlier in our child’s development.

As you encourage your child to take on more responsibilities you will want to find new ways to be supportive.
As you help your son or daughter maneuver through post-secondary challenges, you will be looking at
everything from college to employment, from housing to financial assistance. Depending on your child’s
disability, you may be considering other options as well.

Although the law (I.D.E.A.) tells us that during the high school years a transition plan will be established for
your son or daughter through their Individual Education Plan (I.E.P.), many of us with older children have
realized that the real transition starts much earlier in life, and rests with the family.

As parents, we have to help build our children’s self-advocacy skills. Hopefully, our children have gained a
strong sense of their own strengths, talents, abilities and areas of interest. If our children have a disability, they
should be conscious of how it can affect them in the community, work environment or academic environment.
They need to be able to discuss these issues and learn how to ask for and acquire any supports and
accommodations that they might need and be entitled to receive. They need to be familiar with the systems that
are in place so they can access these supports and accommodations.

When our children are in elementary and high school, the school system takes care of ordering their assistive
technology and instructional materials, with their much needed accommodations and adaptations. Once our
children are out of high school they are expected to find their own services or seek out the necessary assistance
on their own.

I have found that the basic foundation for advocacy skills begins when our children are much younger. It is
very important for us to encourage self-esteem in our sons and daughters. Without self-esteem and confidence
in their own abilities, it will be hard for them to advocate for themselves.

One factor to consider is to the opportunity to help others. Most people want to help our children because of
their blindness or other disabilities. Giving our children opportunities to take care of siblings, chores to help
within the family, or errands to run are all examples of opportunities that can be tailored to their abilities while
at the same time giving them confidence that they can succeed like any other child.

Giving your son or daughter domestic responsibilities at a very early age, such as putting away toys, taking out
the garbage, walking the dog with you or siblings, setting the table, helping to give the baby a bath, are
everyday tasks that lead to a mastery of chores and confidence. Parental attitudes are very important to your
children and are noticed by them at a very early age. Let your children know that you have confidence in them.
If you feel sorry for them and do everything for them, how can they feel good about themselves? Instead,
encourage them to try new things, ask them to help you when you need assistance with chores, and give them
plenty of opportunities to practice. My daughter hated to be seen in public with her cane, but I made her walk
to the corner store or to mail a letter in the mailbox, and then would thank her for helping me. Eventually, she
got used to performing tasks like this, which ultimately led to her independent traveling. These tasks also made
her feel important to the family, since we relied on her to help out with household tasks and run errands.
Social relationships and opportunities to participate in sports and recreational activities are more than just fun.
They are important tools that help integrate our children into the local community and increase the
opportunities for collaboration and building of a support network. Help your son or daughter connect with
other families, social groups, professional persons, sports programs, religious community members or any
other persons or groups that could help provide social, recreational, work or volunteer experiences for them.
Also, helping your child find community members with the same disability can often give them the
opportunity to see an older role model and get positive information on living and working independently.

Independent travel skills, social interaction skills, use of assistive technology, recreational and leisure skills,
independent living skills, career education and visual efficiency skills (the extended core curriculum) are very
important in the scheme of things and are not often taught in school as they should be. As parents, we must be
the initial advocates and teachers, so our children will learn these skills from us and learn how to advocate for
themselves when they are young adults. This is not an easy task but is possible if we partner with specialized
teachers and other parent mentors to work on these skills at an early age. Remember, the road to independence
begins at a very early age and real transition skills development should begin when your child is very young.

Common problems encountered by

adolescents
The most common problems in adolescence relate to growth and development; childhood illnesses that
continue into adolescence; mental health disorders; and the consequences of risky or illegal behaviors,
including injury, legal consequences, pregnancy, and infectious diseases. Unintentional injuries resulting from
motor vehicle crashes and injuries resulting from interpersonal violence are leading causes of death and
disability among adolescents.

Mental health problems, such as mood disorders and schizophrenia (see Mental Health Disorders: Childhood
Schizophrenia), may develop or first become apparent during adolescence, leading to a risk of suicide. Eating
disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (see Eating Disorders: Introduction), are
particularly common among adolescent girls.

When Puberty Starts Too Early

Precocious puberty and pseudoprecocious puberty are sexual maturation that
begins before age 9 in a boy or before age 7 or 8 in a girl.

True precocious puberty is caused by the early release of certain sex hormones
(gonadotropins) from the pituitary gland. These hormones cause the ovaries or
testes to develop and begin secreting other sex hormones, such as estrogen or
testosterone, which trigger puberty. This early hormone release may be caused
by a tumor or other abnormality in the pituitary gland or the hypothalamus (the
region of the brain that controls the pituitary gland). Neurofibromatosis (a
disorder where many fleshy growths of nerve tissue grow under the skin and in
other parts of the body) and a few other rare disorders also have been linked to
precocious puberty.

In pseudoprecocious puberty, high levels of testosterone or estrogen are

produced by a tumor or other abnormality in the adrenal gland or in a testis or
ovary. These hormones do not cause the testes or ovaries themselves to mature
but do trigger secondary sex characteristics to develop, including pubic and
underarm hair, adult body odor, acne, and changes in body shape. Boys develop
facial hair, their penis lengthens, and they take on a masculine appearance. Girls
develop breasts and may begin to menstruate, particularly in true precocious
puberty. In both sexes, the growth spurt may be triggered, leading to a rapid
height increase. This rapid height increase ends early, ultimately leaving these
adolescents shorter as adults than would be expected.

In true precocious puberty, the sex glands (ovaries or testes) also mature and
enlarge, whereas in pseudoprecocious puberty, the sex glands remain immature.
Precocious puberty is 10 times more common among and much more likely to be
of unknown cause (idiopathic) among girls.

Evaluation: Whenever a child has signs of premature, rapidly progressing, or

disordered puberty, doctors take an x-ray of the hand and wrist to estimate bone
maturity. If a child's bone age is very advanced, a more complete evaluation
usually is indicated. Tests may include blood hormone levels to determine a
cause, an ultrasound of the pelvis and adrenal glands to check for ovarian or
adrenal tumors, and computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) of the head to check for tumors of the hypothalamus or pituitary gland.

Treatment: Treatment is not needed for children who have only premature
pubic and underarm hair growth or breast development, but regular
reexamination is needed to check for later development of precocious puberty.

Treating an identifiable cause of precocious puberty, such as removing a tumor

or cyst, may stop the progression of puberty. When no treatable cause is
identified, drugs may slow the progression of puberty. Injections of a synthetic
gonadotropin-releasing hormone (such as leuprolide Some Trade Names
LUPRON
acetate, deslorelin, or histrelin Some Trade Names
SUPPRELIN LA
) may stop true precocious puberty by stopping the production of sex hormones.
Pseudoprecocious puberty can be stopped by drugs that inhibit the action of the
sex hormones.

Last full review/revision January 2009 by Sharon Levy, MD, MPH