Survey I

Introduction to surveying
Introduction
SURVEYING Definition…

Surveying is the art and science of

establishing angular and linear
measurements to establish the form, extent,
and relative position points, lines, and areas
on or near the surface of the earth through
applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipment and techniques.
CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Plane Surveying
is that type of surveying in which the earth is
considered as a flat surface, and where
distances and areas involved are of limited
extent that the exact shape of the earth is
disregarded.
CLASSIFICATIONS
2. Geodetic Surveying
Are surveys which takes into account the
true shape of the earth.
TYPES of SURVEY
1. Cadastral Surveys
Usually closed surveys which are undertaken
in urban and rural locations for the purpose
of determining and defining property lines
and boundaries, corners and areas.
TYPES of SURVEY
2. City Surveys
Are surveys of the areas in or near a city for
the purpose of planning expansions or
improvements, locating property lines, fixing
reference monuments, configuration of the
land, and preparing maps.
TYPES of SURVEY
3. Construction Surveys
Are surveys which are undertaken at a
construction site to provide data regarding
grades, reference lines, dimensions, and the
location and elevations of structures which
are of concern to engineers, and builders.
TYPES of SURVEY
4. Forestry Surveys
A type of survey executed in connection with
forest management and mensuration, and
the production and conservation of forest
lands.
TYPES of SURVEY
5. Hydrographic Surveys
Refers to surveying streams, lakes,
reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and other bodies
of water.
TYPES of SURVEY
6. Industrial Surveys
Refers to the use of surveying techniques in
ship building, construction and assembly of
aircraft, and in other industries where very
accurate dimensional layout is required.
TYPES of SURVEY
7. Mine Surveys
Are surveys which are performed to
determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to
fix surface boundaries of mining claims, and
etc.
TYPES of SURVEY
8. Photogrammetric Surveys
Are surveys which make use of photographs
taken with specially designed cameras either
from airplanes and other ground stations.
TYPES of SURVEY
9. Route Surveys
Involves the determination of alignment,
grades, earthwork quantities, location of
natural and artificial objects in connection
with the planning and design of highways,
railroads and other linear projects.
TYPES of SURVEY
10. Topographic Surveys
Are those surveys made for determining the
shape of the ground, and the location and
elevation of natural and artificial features
around it.
Measurement
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
Measurement
Is a process of determining the extent, size
or dimensions of a particular quantity in
comparison to a given standard.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
1. Direct Measurement
Is a comparison of the measured quantity
with a standard measuring unit or units
employed for measuring a quantity of that
kind.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
2. Indirect Measurement
Is done when a direct measurement is not
possible. In this type of measurement, the
observed value is determined by its
relationship to some known values.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
The “Meter”
One (1) meter is defined as a length equal to
1,650,736.73 wavelengths of the orange-red
light emitted by burning the element
krypton-86 at a specified energy level in the
spectrum.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
The SI Unit
Is the standardized and simplified units of
measurements throughout the world,
promulgated by the International System of
Units known as SI.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
The SI Unit
Units in SI of major concern to surveying are
[m] for linear meter, and [rad] for angles,
though [o] degrees is usually accepted in
practice.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
Prefixes
Mega [M] = 1 000 000
Kilo [k] = 1 000 deci [d] = 0.1
Hecto [h] = 100 centi [c] = 0.01
Deca [da] = 10 milli [m] = 0.001
micro [µ] = 0.000 001
Nano [n] = 0. 000 000 001
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
Linear, Area and Volume
The SI units for length (including width and
height), area, and volume are meter [m],
2 3
square meter [𝑚 ], and cubic meter [𝑚 ],
respectively.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
Angular Measurements
The SI unit for angles is radian [unitless].
However, angles in degrees and degrees-
minutes-seconds are common in surveying
practice.
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
Rounding Off Numbers
Digits less than 5
24.244 --------------- 24.24
24.24 --------------- 24.2
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
Rounding Off Numbers
Digits greater than 5
226.276 --------------- 226.28
226.28 --------------- 226.3
SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
Rounding Off Numbers
Digits equal than 5
26.175 --------------- 26.18
156.285 --------------- 156.28
Surveying
SURVEYING
Field Notes
Surveying field notes constitute the only
reliable and permanent record of the actual
work done in the field. If the notes are
incorrect or incomplete, all effort done in
gathering the survey data are wasted.
SURVEYING
Field Notes
Field work observations should be recorded
directly in the notebook at the time of
observation. Usage of scrap sheets of paper
for later transference in neat form to the
field book defeats the purpose of the latter.
SURVEYING
Field Book
SURVEYING
Types of Notes
1. Sketches
A good sketch will help to convey a
correct impression. They are drawn to free
hand and of liberal size.
SURVEYING
Types of Notes
2. Tabulations
Numerical values observed in the field
are best shown in a tabulated format.
Tabulated form of note keeping conveys the
required information simple and definite.
SURVEYING
Types of Notes
3. Explanatory Notes
It provides a written description of what
has been done in the field. These are
employed to make clear what the numerical
data and sketches fail to do.
SURVEYING
Types of Notes
4. Computations
Calculations often form a large part in
surveying. It should be clear and orderly in
arrangement in order for others to
understand.
SURVEYING
Field Notes
SURVEYING
Information Found in Notes
1. Title of the Field Work
The official name of the project or title of
the field work should always be identified.
The location of the survey and preferably the
nature or purpose should always be stated.
SURVEYING
Information Found in Notes
2. Time of Day and Date
These entries are necessary to document
the notes and furnish timetable, as well as to
correlate different surveys.
SURVEYING
Information Found in Notes
3. Weather Conditions
Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons,
storms, and other weather conditions have a
decided effect upon accuracy in surveying
operations.
SURVEYING
Information Found in Notes
4. Name & Designation of Group Members
This information will be necessary for
documentation purposes and other future
reference.
SURVEYING
Information Found in Notes
5. List of Equipment
All survey equipment used must be
listed. The type of instrument used have a
definite effect on the accuracy of a survey.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
1. Chief of Party
The person who is responsible for the
overall direction, supervision, and
operational control of the survey party.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
2. Assistant Chief of Party
The person whose duty is to assist the
Chief of Party in the accomplishment of the
task assigned to the survey party.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
3. Instrumentman
The person whose duty is to set up, level,
and operate the surveying instruments such
as transit, theodolite, and total station.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
4. Recorder
The person whose duty is to keep a
record of all sketches, drawings,
measurements and observations taken or
needed for a field work operation.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
5. Rodman
The person whose primary duty is to
hold the stadia or levelling rod when sights
are to be taken.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
6. Head Tapeman
The person responsible for the accuracy
and speed of all linear measurements with
tape.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
7. Rear Tapeman
The person whose duty is to assist the
Head Tapeman during taping operations and
other related works.
SURVEYING
Survey Party
8. Others
• Computer
• Flagman
• Pacer
• Axeman/Lineman
Errors
ERROR
Error Defined
An error is defined as the difference
between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity. It is beyond the control
of the one performing the operation.
ERROR
Mistakes Defined
Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements
which occur because some aspects of the
surveying operation is performed by the
surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor
judgment, and improper execution.
ERROR
Types of Error
1. Systematic Error
This type of error is one which always
have the same sign and magnitude as long as
the field conditions remain constant and
unchanged.
ERROR
Types of Error
Systematic Error
It will repeat itself in other
measurements , still maintaining the same
sign, and thus will accumulate.
ERROR
Types of Error
Systematic Error
In surveying, systematic errors occur due to
instrumental factors, natural causes, and human
limitations of the observer. This type of error will
continue to persist and impose regular effects in
the performance of survey operations.
ERROR
Types of Error
2. Accidental Error
This error is purely accidental in
character. The occurrence of such errors are
matters of chance as they are likely to be
positive and negative.
ERROR
Types of Error
Systematic vs. Accidental Error
Accidental errors are usually of minor
importance in surveying operations since
they are variable in sign and are of
compensating nature.
ERROR
Types of Error
Systematic vs. Accidental Error
Although the total error increases as the number
of measurement increases, the total error becomes
proportionally less compared with the number of
measurements, and the accuracy becomes greater as
the number of measurements increase.
ERROR
Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Error
This error is due to the imperfections in the
instrument used, either from faults in their
construction or from proper adjustments
between the different parts before use.
ERROR
Sources of Errors
Instrumental Error
• Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
• Using a rod with painted graduation not perfectly
spaced.
• Sighting on a rod which is warped.
• Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or
level.
ERROR
Sources of Errors
2. Natural Error
This error is caused by variations in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in
temperature, humidity, wind, refraction and
curvature of the earth.
ERROR
Sources of Errors
Natural Error
• Effects of temperature variation on the length of a steel
tape.
• Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the
earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.
• Errors in the measurement of a line with a tape being
blown sideways by a strong wind.
ERROR
Sources of Errors
2. Personal Error
This error arise principally from limitations
of the senses of sight, touch, and hearing of
the human observer which are likely to be
erroneous or inaccurate.
ERROR
Sources of Errors
Personal Error
• Error in the reading on a rod which is out of plumb
during sighting.
• Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be
applied on a steel tape during measurement.
• Erroneous recording of observation.
ERROR
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the
absolute or true value of the quantity measured.

The difference between the measured value of a quantity

and its actual value represents the total error in the
measurement.
ERROR
Accuracy and Precision
Precision
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency
with which any physical measurement is made. It is
portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of
repeated measurements of a quantity.
ERROR

Precise, Not Accurate Not Precise, Accurate

ERROR

Precise, Accurate Not Precise, Accurate

ERROR
Theory of Probability
Assumptions
1. Small errors occur more often than large ones and that
they are more probable.
2. Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less
probable; for normally distributed errors, unusually
large ones may be mistakes rather than error.
ERROR
Theory of Probability
Assumptions
3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen
with equal frequency; that is they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an infinite number of observations is the
most probable value.
ERROR
Frequent but Frequent but
extremely small extremely small
negative errors positive errors

Few but Few but

extremely large extremely large
negative errors positive errors

Most Probable Value

ERROR
Most Probable Value
Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based on
available data, has more chances of being correct than any
other.
From the theory of probability, it is the arithmetic mean or
average of a group of repeated measurements made under
similar conditions.
ERROR
Most Probable Value
σ𝑥
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝑥ҧ = = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 Τ𝑛
𝑛
Where:
𝑀𝑃𝑉 Most Probable Value
𝑥 Measurements
𝛴𝑥 Sum of all Measurements
𝑛 Total Number of Measurements
ERROR
Example 1
A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to
measure a distance between two points marked on the ground.
The students came up with the following six different values:
250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22 meters.
Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variations
result from accidental errors, determine the most probable
value of the distance measured.
250.51m Ans.:
ERROR
Example 2
The angles about a point Q have
the following observed values: 𝜃1
130°15’20”, 142°37’30”, and
87°07’40”. Determine the most Q
𝜃3 𝜃2
probable value of each angle.

130°15’10”, 142°37’30”, 87°07’30” Ans.:

ERROR
Example 3
The observed interior angles of a 𝐵
triangle are A = 35°14’37”,
B = 96°30’09”, and
C = 48°15’05”. Determine the 𝐶
discrepancy for the given 𝐴
observation and the most
probable value for each angle.
00°00’03”, A = 35°14’40”, B = 96°30’12”, C = 48°15’08” Ans.:
ERROR
Example 4 𝐷
Measurement of three horizontal 𝐶
angles about a point P: APB=12°31’50”,
BPC=37°29’20”, and
CPD = 47°36’30”. If the measurement 𝐵
of the single angle APD is 97°37’00”,
determine the most probable values of
the angle.
𝑃 𝐴

APB = 12°31’40”, BPC = 37°29’10”, CPD = 47°36’20”, APD = 97°37’10” Ans.:

ERROR
Quiz 𝐸
The measured interior angles of a 𝐷
closed traversed shown are as follows:
A = 87°25’51”, B = 162°46’03”,
C = 114°27’30”, D = 131°50’00”, and 𝐶
E = 43°30’50”. Determine the most
probable values of the angle.
𝐵
𝐴
ERROR
Residual or Deviation
Residual is defined as the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value (MPV).

𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑥ҧ = 𝑥 − 𝑀𝑃𝑉
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable error is a quantity which, when added to and
subtracted from the most probable value, defines a range
within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside the limits thus
set.
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable Error for a single measurement can be computed
using the following formula:

𝛴𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.674489
𝑛−1
ERROR
Probable Error
Probable Error of the mean can be computed using the
following formula:

𝛴𝑣 2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.674489
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
ERROR
Where:
𝑃𝐸𝑠 Probable Error of any single measurement of a
series
𝑃𝐸𝑚 Probable Error of the mean
𝑣 the residual or deviation
𝑛 number of observations
ERROR
Relative (Error) Precision
Relative Error or Relative Precision is the ratio of the
Probable Error and the Most Probable Value.

𝑃𝐸
𝑅𝑃 =
𝑀𝑃𝑉
ERROR
Summation of Errors
If several measured quantities are added, each of which is
affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum
is given by the squares of the separate probable errors
arising from several sources.

𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚 = ± 𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝐸𝑛2

ERROR
Product of Errors
For a measured quantity which is determined as the product
of two independently measured quantities such as Q1 and
Q2, the probable error of the product is given by

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ± 𝑄1 𝑥𝑃𝐸1 2 + 𝑄2 × 𝑃𝐸2 2

ERROR
Example 5
The following values were determined in a series of tape
measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48,
1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a. Most probable value of the measured line
b. Probable errors of single measurement and the probable
error of the mean
c. Final expression for the most probable length
d. Relative precision of the measurement. 1/20000 and 1/50000
Ans.: 1000.45, 0.05, 0.02, 1000.45±0.02,
ERROR
Weighted Observations
Measurements are usually done on various conditions. Such
measurements have different degrees of reliability. Thus, weight (or
reliability) are assigned to each measurement before the most probable
value is computed.
The assignment of the weight to different is usually based on (a) the
judgment of the surveyor, (b) the number of measurements taken for a
particular measurement, and (c) the assumption that weight is inversely
proportional to the square of the probable error for the said
measurement.
ERROR
Weighted Observations
𝑛
σ𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 ⋅ 𝑤𝑖
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = MPV for repeated measurements
𝑛

1 Weight is inversely proportional to the

𝑤= square of the probable error of a
𝑃𝐸 2
measurement
ERROR
Example 6
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18,
284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2,
and 4 respectively. Determine the most probable value of the
distance.

284.199 Ans.:
ERROR
Example 7
It is desired to determine the most probable value of an angle
which has been measured at different times by different
observers. The values observed were as follows: 74°39’45”
(measured two times), 74°39’27” (measured four times), and
74°39’35” (measured six times).

74°39’34” Ans.:
ERROR
Example 8
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over four
different routes. The observed elevations of the point with
probable values are given below. Determine the most probable
value of the elevation of the point.
219.832±0.006 m
219.930±0.012 m
219.701±0.018 m
220.021±0.024 m 219.847 Ans.:
ERROR
Example 9
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given by the
following measurements and corresponding probable errors:
162.54±0.03 m, 234.25±0.05 m, and 195.70±0.04 m. Determine the
most probable error of the sum and the most probable value of the
perimeter.

592.50±0.07 m Ans.:
ERROR
Example 10
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: 253.36±0.06 m and
624.15±0.08 m. Determine the area of the lot and the probable
error in the resulting calculation.
ERROR
Sea-it-Work
The distances travelled by a person are as follows: 156.20±0.03 m,
624.87±0.09 m, and 278.54±0.05 m. Determine the most probable
value and the probable error of the total distance travelled.
Measurement
Of Distance
Horizontal
Distance
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Pacing
A pace is defined as the length of a step in walking. It may be
measured from heel to heel or toe to toe. Pacing consists of
counting the number of steps for a required distance.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Pacing
Pacing is a way of checking measurements rapidly. It is suitable in
determining approximate distances where low precision
measurement is sufficient. A good pacing would only result to a
relative precision of 1/200.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Pacing
The length of one pace is called the pace factor. To determine the
length of a line, the pace factor is multiplied by the number of steps
(or pace).
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Taping
The most common method of measuring
horizontal distances is with the use of
tape. Taping consists of stretching a
calibrated tape between two points and
reading the distance indicated in the
tape.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Taping
The acceptable relative precision for
measurements using tape is 1:1000 to
1:25000 or better.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Tachymetry
Tachymetry is another method of determining distances based
on the optical geometry of instruments and is therefore an
indirect method of measurement.

Common methods in tachymetry:

1. Stadia Method
2. Sub-tense bar Method
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Tachymetry
Stadia method is a rapid means of
determining horizontal distances.
The equipment used for stadia
measurements consist of a telescope
with two horizontal hairs (called
stadia hairs) and a graduated rod
called the stadia rod. The relative
precision of this method is 1:300 to
1:1000.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Tachymetry
𝐷 =𝑑+ 𝑓+𝑐
𝑓
𝐷= 𝑠+𝐶
𝑖
𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶
Where:
D Distance from the center of the instrument to the rod
K Stadia interval factor, K = f/i
s Stadia or rod intercept, s = a – b
C Stadia constant
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Tachymetry
Sub-tense bar is convenient and
practical device used for quick
and accurate measurement of
horizontal distances. It consists
of a round bar precisely 2
meters long with marks on both
ends and is mounted on a
tripod.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Tachymetry
The relative precision of sub-
tense bar method is usually
1/3000.

𝑆ൗ
𝐻= 2
𝜃
tan
2
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Graphical Method
Unknown distances can be
determined through their
relationship with known
distances geometrically. This
method is widely employed in
table surveys, and in
triangulation works.
Measurement of Distance
Distance by Mechanical Method
There are few mechanical devices
that measure distances with lower
precision (i.e. odometer, wheel
meter). Wheel meter automatically
gives the distance when it is rolled on
the line to be measured. It is suitable
for irregular or curved lines and
boundaries.
Distance Measurement
Example 11
A 45-m course AB on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the
purpose of determining his pace factor. The number of paces for
each trial are shown in the accompanying table.
Trial Line No. of Paces
1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB 51
4 BA 53
5 AB 52
6 BA 53
Distance Measurement
Example 11 Continuation
a. Determine his pace factor.
b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces
in walking an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the
line?
c. Assuming that the taped length of the line CD is 667 m,
determine the relative error of the measurement performed.

Ans: 0.865 m/pace, 666.1 m, 1/741

Distance Measurement
Example 12
In five trials of walking along a 90 m course on a fairly level ground, a
pacer for a survey party counted 51, 52.5, 51.5, 52.5, and 51.5 strides
respectively. He then started walking on an unknown distance XY four
times which were recorded as follows: 88.5, 89, 88, and 87 strides.
Determine the following:
a. Pace factor of the pace.
b. Length of line XY
c. Relative Error in the measurement if the taped distance of XY is
150.5 m Ans: 0.869 m/pace, 153.2 m, 1.79%
Distance Measurement
Example 13
A stadia rod was held at a distant point B is sighted with an instrument
at A. The upper and the lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.3-
m and 0.9-m, respectively. If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100 and the
instrument constant (C) is zero, determine the length of the line AB.

Ans: 40 m
Distance Measurement
Example 14
The following subtended angles were read on a 2-m long sub-tense bar
using a theodolite: 0°54’13”, 0°22’20”, 0°32’06” and 0°19’46”. Compute the
horizontal distance from the theodolite to each position of the bar.

Ans: 126.81m, 307.86m, 214.19m, 347.83m

Distance Measurement
Example 15
A sub-tense bar 2-m long is set up near the middle of a traverse line PQ.
Using a theodolite at P, the angle subtended reads 0°20’14”. When the
theodolite was transferred and set up at Q, the corresponding
subtended angle was 0°23’47”, determine the horizontal length of line
PQ.

Ans: 628.9 m
Horizontal Distance
Electronic Distance Measurement
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM)
devices are advance surveying
equipment that allows rapid and
accurate determination of linear
distances, horizontal and vertical
angles, suitable for surveys that
require higher degree of precision.
Horizontal Distance
EDM Principle

Distance = Speed of Light x total time from the EDM to Reflector to EDM
Horizontal Distance
Advantages of EDM
1. Speed and Accuracy in the measurement
2. Lightweight and portable
3. Low power to operate
4. Easy to operate
5. Ease in measurement over inaccessible terrain
6. Applicable to long and short distance measurement
7. Automatically displays and records slope, azimuth, vertical
angle, horizontal and vertical distances, departure and
latitude.
Horizontal Distance
Measuring Tape
The most common method of measuring
horizontal distances is with the use of tape.
Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape
between two points and reading the distance
indicated in the tape.
Horizontal Distance
Measuring Tape
Measuring tapes are made in a variety of
lengths, materials, and weights.
Types of Measuring Tape
1. Steel Tape
2. Invar Tape
3. Fiber Glass Tape
Horizontal Distance
Taping Accessories
1. Range Pole
2. Clamping Handles
3. Chaining Pins
4. Tension Handle
5. Tape Thermometer
6. Plumb Bob
7. Wooden Stake
8. Leather Thong
9. Hand Level and Clinometer
Horizontal Distance
Taping Party
1. Head Tapeman – the person responsible for the accuracy and the
speed of all linear measurements with the tape. He determines and
directs the marking of points or stations and is the person who
carries the zero end of the tape ahead.
2. Recorder – keeps a record of all measurements, sketches and
observations taken during the measurement. He also checks by
pacing all measurements made by the tapemen for possible errors,
mistakes, and blunders.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Party
3. Flagman – the person whose duty is to hold the range pole at selected
points.

4. Rear Tapeman – the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman
during taping operation. He is the one who holds the end of
the tape or any intermediate meter mark of the tape during
the measurement.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
1. Aligning the Tape
• Mark both ends of the line to be measured using range poles that
will serve as a guide for the alignment of the tape. Intermediate
points will be marked using chaining pins.
• The head tapeman takes the zero mark on the tape and heads out
towards the other end of the line.
• The rear tapeman on the starting point unrolls the tape and sees
to it that there are no twists on the tape.
• Align the tape using hand signals.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
2. Stretching the Tape
• With the rear tapeman holding the tape steady, the head tapeman
pulls the tape. Use the tension handle as a guide in determining
the force of pull applied on the tape.
• Use the leather thong and the clamping handle to pull the tape
comfortably.

Note: Tapes are correct in length if the tape is stretched at a standard pull
(standard tension). If the tape is stretched below the standard pull the tape is
said to be “too short”, otherwise, it is “too long”.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
3. Plumbing
• When the ground has obstructions and irregularities, the tape
should be held above the ground in a horizontal position.
• The ends of the tape is marked with the plumb line to point of
consideration.
• The tape is leveled to a horizontal position using a hand held level.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
• When a full tape length is measured, the rear tapeman holds the
tape opposite the pin set on the ground. The head tapeman exerts
the standard pull on the tape and notes the zero end of the tape
using a chaining pin.
• The rear tapeman retrieves the pins and both tapemen moves
forward. The procedure is repeated until the other point is
reached. It may require sometimes to measure a fraction of the
length of the tape.
Horizontal Distance
Taping Procedure
5. Checking the Measurement
• A check is usually done by re-measuring the line from the end
point back to the starting point. The two results should agree to
the slightest error possible.
• From time to time, the each measurement to the full length of the
tape is checked using pacing to detect possible mistakes in taping
measurement.
Horizontal Distance
Slope Taping
Taped measurement is sometimes done along a sloping ground of
uniform inclination. Rather than breaking the tape, the tape is placed
along the sloping ground. The angle of inclination is then measured
using a clinometer. This method is fairly quick, easy, and accurate than
horizontal measurements.
Horizontal Distance
Correction in Taping
Corrections to taping are applied by the use of the following rules:

1. When the line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the
corrections are applied to the observed length by adding.
2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that
is “too long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length
to determine the corrected length to be laid out.
3. When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”,
the corrections are applied opposite to those stated in rules 1 and 2.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Absolute Length
Due to manufacturing defects, the absolute length of the tape may be
different from its designated or nominal length. Also with use, the tape
may stretch causing changes in the length, thus it is imperative that the
tape is regularly checked under standard conditions to determine its
absolute length.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Absolute Length
The correction for absolute length or standardization is given by
𝑐
𝑐𝑎 = 𝐿
𝑙
Where:
c = the correction per tape length,
l = the designated or nominal length of the tape, and
L = the measured length of the line
If the absolute length is more than the nominal length, the sign is positive and vice
versa.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Temperature
If the tape is used at a field temperature different from the standard
temperature, then the temperature correction to the measured length is
𝑐𝑡 = 𝛼 𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡0 𝐿
Where:
𝛼 = coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
= 0.0000116/°C
𝑡𝑚 = mean field temperature [°C], and
𝑡0 = standard temperature of the tape [°C]
L = the measured length of the line [m]
The sign of the correction takes the sign of 𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡0 .
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Pull or Tension
If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standard
pull, the pull correction is to be applied to the measured length.
𝑃 − 𝑃0
𝑐𝑝 = 𝐿
𝐴𝐸
Where:
𝑃 = the pull applied during measurement [kg]
𝑃0 = the standard pull [kg]
𝐴 = the cross-section area of the tape [cm2]
E = the modulus of elasticity if the tape material = 2000000 kg/cm2
The sign of the correction takes the sign of P − 𝑃0 .
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Sag
The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc
formed by the tape and the subtending chord.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Sag
If the pull applied to the tape in the field is different from the standard
pull, the pull correction is to be applied to the measured length.
1 𝑤 2
𝑐𝑔 = 𝐿
Where:
24 𝑃
𝑊 = weight of the tape per span length [kg/m]
𝑃 = the pull applied to the measurement [kg]
𝐿 = the length of the measured line [m]
The sign of the correction is always negative.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Slope
If the length L is measured on a slope, it must be reduced to its
horizontal equivalent L cos Ɵ.
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Slope
𝑐𝑠 = 1 − cos 𝜃 𝐿 (exact)
ℎ2
𝑐𝑠 = (approximate, Slopes Less than 20%)
2𝐿
ℎ2 ℎ4
𝑐𝑠 = + 3 (approximate, Slopes 20% to 30%)
Where: 2𝐿 8𝐿
ℎ = difference in elevation of the ends of the tape [m]
𝐿 = the length of the measured line [m]
The sign of the correction is always negative.
Distance Measurement
Example 16 (standardization)
A rectangular lot was measured using a 50-m steel tape which was
found to be 0.025 m too short. If the recorded length and width of the
lot are 180.455 m and 127.062 m, respectively, determine the following:
a. Actual dimensions of the lot.
b. Error in the area introduced due to the erroneous length of tape.

Ans: 126.998 m, 180.365 m, 22.979 m2

Distance Measurement
Example 17 (standardization)
A building 38 m x 45 m is to be laid out with a 50-m long metallic tape. If
during standardization the tape is found to be only 49.950, determine
the following:
a. Dimensions to be laid out using the tape, in order that the building
shall have the desired dimensions.
b. Using the same tape, what should the diagonals read?

Ans: 38.038 m, 45.045 m, 58.957 m

Distance Measurement
Example 18 (temperature)
A steel tape with a coefficient of thermal expansion of 0.0000116/°C is
known to be 50 m long at 20°C. The tape was used to measure a line
which was found to be 532.28 meters long when the temperature was
35°C. Determine the following:
a. Temperature correction per tape length
b. Temperature correction for the measured line
c. Correct length of the line.

Ans: 0.0087 m, 0.0926 m, 532.37 m

Distance Measurement
Example 19 (temperature)
A steel tape, known to be of standard length at 20°C, is used in laying
out a runway 2,500.00 meters long. If its coefficient of thermal
expansion is 0.0000116 /°C, determine the temperature correction and
the length to be laid out when the temperature is 42°C.

Ans: 0.638 m, 2499.36 m

Distance Measurement
Example 20 (pull or tension)
A heavy 50-m tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2 has been
standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If E = 2100000 kg/cm2, determine
the elongation of the tape if a pull of 12 kg is applied.

Ans: 0.003 m
Distance Measurement
Example 21 (pull or tension)
A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of standard length under a pull of
5 kg, supported for full length. The tape was used in measuring a line
938.55 m long on smooth level ground under a steady pull of 10 kg.
Assuming E = 2000000 kg/cm2 and the unit weight of steel to be 0.0079
kg/cm3, determine the following:
a. cross-sectional area of the tape
b. Correction for the increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured
Ans: 0.06 cm2, 0.04 m, 938.59 m
Distance Measurement
Example 22 (sag)
A 30-m tape is supported only at its ends and under a steady pull of 8
kg. If the tape weighs 0.91 kg, determine the sag correction and the
correct distance between the ends of the tape.

Ans: 0.0162 m, 29.9838 m

Distance Measurement
Example 23 (sag)
A 50-m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end points
and at the 8-m and 25-m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine
the following:
a. Correction due to sag between 0-m and 8-m marks, 8-m and 25-m
marks, and 25-m and 50-m marks.
b. Correction due to sag of one tape length.
c. Correct distance between the end of the tapes.

Ans: 0.0009 m, 0.0091 m, 0.0289 m, 0.0389 m, 49.9611 m

Distance Measurement
Example 24 (slope)
Slope distance AB and AC measures 330.49m and 660.97 m,
respectively. The differences in elevation are 12.22 m for points A and B,
and 10.85 m for points B and C. Using the approximate slope correction
formula for gentle slopes, determine the horizontal length of line ABC.
Assume that line AB has a rising slope and BC falling slope.

Ans: 991.14 m
Distance Measurement
Example 25 (slope)
A line AB cannot be measured directly because of an obstruction on the
line. Accordingly, the two lines AC and CB were measured as 2400.85 m
and 1320.42 m, respectively. Point C was set up at a perpendicular
distance of 155 m from point D on line AB. Using the approximate slope
correction formula, determine the length of AB.

Ans: 3707.134 m
Distance Measurement
Example 26 (combined)
A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m
steel tape supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a
mean temperature of 35°C. Determine the correct length of the line if
the tape used is of standard length at 20°C under a pull of 5 kg. The
cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03 cm2, its coefficient of thermal
expansion is 0.0000116/°C, and the modulus of elasticity of steel is
2000000 kg/cm2.

Ans: 3707.134 m
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work (combined)
A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when
supported throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05 kg/m, has
a cross-sectional area of 0.04 cm2, and being made of steel, its modulus
of elasticity is 2100000 kg/cm2. This tape was used in the field to
measure a distance that was determined to be 458.650 m. At the time
the measurement was made, the constant pull applied was 8 kg with
the tape supported only at its end points. Determine the correct length
of the line.
Ans: 456.836 m
Distance Measurement
Example 27 (Other Applications of Tape Measurement)
In a quadrilateral ABCD, the following lengths were measured by tape:
AB = 760.5 m, BC = 390.8 m, CD = 371.6 m, DA = 595.8 m, and AC =
765.4 m. Compute the interior angle at each corner of the quadrilateral.

Ans: A = 58°01’05”, B = 75°51’22”, C = 124°01’55”, D = 102°05’38”

Distance Measurement
Example 28 (Other Applications of Tape Measurement)
The angle between two intersecting fences is to be determined with a
tape. A point on each fence line is established 30 m from the point of
intersection. If the distance between the established points is 12.20 m,
what is the intersection angle of the two fence lines?

Ans: 23°27’50”
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Reduction to Mean Sea Level
The determination of the equivalent mean sea
level length of the measured length is known as
the reduction to mean sea level. The reduced
length at mean sea level is given by
′
𝑅
𝐿 = 𝐿
𝑅+𝐻
Where:
𝑅 = the mean earth’s radius (6372 km)
H = the average elevation of the line
𝐿 = measured line
Horizontal Distance
Correction for Reduction to Mean Sea Level
When H is considered small compared to R, the
correction to L is given as

𝐻
𝑐𝑚𝑠𝑙 = 𝐿 (approximate)
𝑅

The sign of the correction is always negative.

Distance Measurement
Example 29 (Super combined)
A base line was measured by tape suspended in catenary under a pull of 145 N, the
mean temperature being 14°C. The length of various segments of the tape and the
difference of the tape and the difference in level of the two ends of a segment are
given in the table shown. If the tape was standardized on the flat under a pull of 95
N at 18°C, determine the correct length of the line.
Cross-sectional area of the tape = 3.35 mm2 Span Length (m) Difference in Level (m)
Mass of the tape = 0.025 kg/m 1 29.988 + 0.346
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 0.000009 /°C 2 29.895 - 0.214
Modulus of elasticity of tape material = 148000 Mpa 3 29.838 + 0.309
Mean Height of the line above MSL = 51.76 m 4 29.910 - 0.106
Radius of the earth = 6370 km
Ans: 119.624 m
Distance Measurement
Example 30 (Super combined plus Application)
It is proposed to widen a highway by increasing the gradient of the side
slope to 1 in 1.5. The difference in level between the bottom and top of
the embankment at a critical section was measured as 15.0 m. the
length of the embankment along the side slope was measured as
29.872 m using a steel tape under a pull of 151 N at a temperature of
27°C. Determine the additional road width which will be available with
the new slope. The tape was standardized at 18°C under a pull of 47 N.
The cross-sectional area of the tape is 6.5 mm2, E = 208000 MPa and α
= 0.000011/°C.

Ans: 3.34 m
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work (Combined)
A tape of standard length 20 m at 85°F
was used to measure a base line. The Segment Length (m) Difference in Level (m)
measured distance was 882.50 m. The 1 100 2°20’
2 150 4°12’
following being the slopes for the
3 50 1°06’
various segments of the line. Calculate
4 200 7°48’
the true length of the line if the mean 5 300 3°00’
temperature during the measurement 6 85.5 5°10’
was 63°F and the coefficient of thermal
expansion of the tape material is
0.0000116/ °C.
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work (Application)
A group of students wanted to measure the distance of line AB. However,
it is impossible to have a direct measurement of the line because of an
obstruction. The group decided that they should circumvent around the
obstruction. The following are the results of several lines they have made
from A to point B. Determine the length of the line AB and its direction
with respect to point A.
Line Length (m) Direction
AC 75.21 S54°35’E @ Point A
CD 123.65 N57°51’E @ Point C
DB 55.15 N29°33’W @ Point D
Vertical
Distance
Vertical Distance
Levelling or Leveling
Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring
vertical distances to determine the elevation of points or their
differences in elevation.
Vertical Distance
Terminology
1. Mean Sea Level – an imaginary surface of the sea which is
midway the high and low tides.
2. Datum – it is any convenient level surface parallel with the
mean sea level to which elevations of a particular area are
referred.
3. Elevation – the vertical distance above or below the mean
sea level or any other datum.
Vertical Distance
Leveling Methods
1. Direct Leveling – a common method of determining the
elevation of the points some distance apart by a series of set
ups of a leveling instrument along a selected route.
2. Profile Leveling – is used to determine differences in
elevation between two points at designated short measured
intervals along an established line to provide data from
which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.
Vertical Distance
Leveling Methods
3. Stadia Leveling – differences in elevation are computed from
observed vertical angles and three intercepts on a rod held on
each point. The optical geometry of the instrument is employed
for its computation.
4. Barometric Leveling – difference in elevation between points
are determined by measuring the variation in the atmospheric
pressure at each point by means of a barometer.
Vertical Distance
Types of Level
• Dumpy Level
• Wye Level
• Automatic Level
• Transit as a Level
• Theodolite as a Level
Vertical Distance
Leveling Rod
A leveling rod is a graduated rod which is used for
measuring the vertical distance between the line
of sight through a leveling instrument and the
point whose elevation is required or known.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
The telescope of a surveying
instrument is a metallic tube
containing a system of lenses
which are used to fix the
direction of the line of sight
and in magnifying the
apparent size of objects in its
field of view.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Eyepiece – is a form of
microscope containing either
two or four lenses and is used to
enlarge altogether the image
and the cross hair.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Objective lens – it is a
compound lens composed of
crown and flint glass mounted in
the objective end of the
telescope and has its optical axis
concentric with the tube axis.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Cross hair – consists of a pair of lines
which are perpendicular to each other
and are used to define the
instrument’s line of sight.
Vertical Distance
Telescope
Level vial – is a sealed graduated glass
tube containing some amount of
liquid and a small air bubble. It is used
to determine the direction of gravity.
Vertical Distance
Tripod
Tripods – serves as a base to prevent
movement of the instrument after it
was set up.
Vertical Distance
Differential Levelling
Differential leveling is the process of determining the difference
in elevation between two or more points some distance apart
through a series of set ups of instrument along a general route
and, for each set up, a rod reading back to the point of known
elevation and forward to a point of unknown elevation are
taken.
Vertical Distance
Terms
1. Benchmark (BM)
A fixed point reference whose elevation is either known or
assumed.
2. Backsight (BS)
A reading taken on a rod held on a point of known elevation.
Sometimes referred as the “plus” sight since they are added
to the elevation of points being sighted to determine the
height of the instrument.
Vertical Distance
Terms
3. Foresight (FS)
A reading taken on the rod held on a point whose elevation is to be
determined. A foresight is usually referred as the “minus” sight since it
is always subtracted to the height of the instrument to determine the
elevation of the point on which the rod is held.
4. Backsight Distance (BSD)
The distance measured from the center of the instrument to the rod
on which a backsight is taken.
Vertical Distance
Terms
5. Foresight Distance (FSD)
The distance measured from the center of the instrument to the rod
on which a foresight is taken. It is usually approximated that the BSD
and FSD are equal.
6. Turning Point (TP)
It is an intervening point between two benchmarks upon which,
foresight and backsight readings are taken to enable a leveling
operation to continue from a new instrument position.
Vertical Distance
Terms
7. Height of Instrument (HI)
The elevation of the line of sight of an instrument above or below a
selected reference datum. It is determined by adding the rod reading
on the backsight to the elevation of the point on which the sight is
taken.
Vertical Distance
Equations
Height of Instrument
The backsight reading is added to the known or assumed
elevation of the initial benchmark (or turning point TP) to
determine the height of the instrument.

𝐻𝐼 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵𝑀𝑎 + 𝐵𝑆 or
𝐻𝐼 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑇𝑃𝑛 + 𝐵𝑆
Vertical Distance
Equations
Elevation of Turning Point and Benchmark
The foresight reading is subtracted to the height of the
instrument to determine the elevation of the turning point or
the next benchmark.

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝑇𝑃 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆 or
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵𝑀2 = 𝐻𝐼 − 𝐹𝑆
Distance Measurement
Example 31
Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the
customary check.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM1 1.256 - - 127.133
TP1 1.116 1.886
TP2 1.228 1.527
BM2 1.189 2.246
BM3 1.070 2.017
TP3 1.831 2.656
BM4 - 2.765
Distance Measurement
Example 32
Prepare and complete the differential level notes for the information
shown. Include customary arithmetic check.
Distance Measurement
Sea-It-Work
Determine the elevation of BM2 from the following field notes. Perform
customary check.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
BM1 1.21 - - 50
TP1 6.20 4.65
TP2 4.82 3.11
TP3 3.03 5.22
BM2 - 3.16
Vertical Distance
Double Rodded Levelling
Double Rodded Differential leveling is a method of determining
differences in elevation between two points by employing two
level routes simultaneously. It differs from the conventional
differential levelling in that two turning points are established
such that at each set up of the level instrument, two sets of
independent backsights and foresights are taken. One
advantage of this method is that it provides a continuous check
while the work is in progress.
Distance Measurement
Example 33 (Double-rodded Levelling)
Complete the following differential level notes for a double-rodded line
from BM1 to BM2. Show the customary arithmetic check.
Station BS HI FS Elevation
1.964
BM1 - - 205.549
1.964
TP1 H 2.187 1.104
TP2 L 2.629 1.549
TP2 H 1.393 1.794
TP2 L 1.780 2.202
TP3 H 0.317 2.991
TP3 L 0.741 3.415
2.634
BM2 -
2.634
Distance Measurement
Example 34 (Double-rodded levelling)
The following figure shows a
schematic arrangement of a
double-rodded differential
levelling. The values indicated
represent the backsight and
the foresight readings taken
on two sets of turning points.
Prepare and complete the
differential notes for the
information shown and
perform arithmetic
customary check.
Vertical Distance
Three-Wire Levelling
Three-wire levelling is a more precise method of differential
levelling compared to the previous two. It determines the
elevation and difference in elevation of points wherein, three
horizontal hairs are read and recorded rather than a single
horizontal hair reading.
 Vertical Distance

Where:
a = upper stadia hair reading
b = lower stadia hair reading
c = horizontal cross hair reading or rod reading at P
m = mean of the three readings
HD = horizontal distance from the level to the rod at P
K = stadia interval factor
C = Instrument constant
HI = Height of the instrument
Distance Measurement
Example 35 (Three-wire levelling)
Complete the BS FS
Station HI Elevation
differential notes Hair Rdgs Mean Rdg s Hair Rdgs Mean Rdg s

shown below and BM1

1.152
0.935 - - - - 444.242
perform the 0.718
2.784 1.117
customary check. TP1 2.420 0.899
2.057 0.682
1.713 1.900
TP2 1.440 1.537
1.116 1.172
2.591 1.450
TP3 2.094 1.177
1.599 0.904
2.210
BM2 - 1.714
1.218
Vertical Distance
Profile Levelling
Profile leveling is the process of determining differences in
elevation along a fixed line at designated short measured
intervals. It provides data from which a vertical section of the
ground surface can be plotted. A profile is necessary for the
design and construction of bridges, roads, canals, culverts, and
etc.
Vertical Distance
Terms
1. Profile
Profile is a curve line which graphically portrays the intersection of a
vertical plane with the surface of the earth. It depicts ground
elevations of selected critical points along a surveyed line and the
horizontal distances between these points.
2. Stationing
A numerical designation given in terms of horizontal distance any
point along a profile is from the starting point. Each stake is marked
with its station and plus.
Vertical Distance
Terms
3. Intermediate foresights
Also known as ground rod readings, are sights taken along the
centerline of the proposed project to provide an accurate
representation of the ground surface. They are observed at regular
intervals and at points where sudden change in elevation occur.
4. Full stations
Full stations are points which are established along the profile level
route at uniformly measured distances. These points are usually made
in multiples of 100, 50, 30, 20 or 10 meters.
Vertical Distance
Terms
5. Plus Stations
Any other intermediate points established along a profile level route
which is not designated as a full station.
6. Vertical Exaggeration
It is the process of drawing the vertical scale for a profile much larger
than the horizontal scale in order to accentuate the differences in
elevation.
Vertical Distance
Procedures of Profile Leveling
1. A transit and tape survey is undertaken starting at the beginning of
the line which is designated as 0+00. The length of the level route is
measured and stakes are set at each full station to define the path to
be followed.
2. The instrument is set up at a convenient location and a backsight is
taken on a reference bench mark near the initial point to determine
the elevation of the height of instrument.
Vertical Distance
Procedures of Profile Leveling
3. A series of intermediate foresights are taken along the centerline to
determine the elevation of ground points. This is done without
transferring the instrument. By the time it is no longer possible to
continue with the foresights, a turning point is established. This
permits the instrument to be moved to a new location which will
allow additional foresights to be taken forward.
Vertical Distance
Stationing
Stationing are used to indicate the distance of any ground stake from the
beginning point of the level route.
Example: Full stations 100, 200, 1300 meters from the initial point
1+00, 2+00, and 13+00 for full stations of 100 m.

Stationing 1650 meters from the initial point

16+50 for full stations of 100 m.

Station 228.35 meters from the initial point

2+28.35 for full stations of 100 m.
Vertical Distance
Plotting Profiles
The plotted profile should give an accurate and useful representation of
the existing ground configurations. It is plotted on a linear scale which
shows the correct length of the surveyed line. The profile is plotted as a
curve in which the distance of each station from the initial point is shown
in the abscissa and the elevation of each station is plotted on the
ordinate.
Vertical Distance
Example 36
a. A turning point along a profile level route measures 126.44m
beyond station 8+24.50. Determine the stationing of this turning
point.
b. Determine the stationing of the turning point from 8+24.50m if it is
located 83.45m from the given station.
c. Determine the distance between station 33+45.02 and station
26+62.75
Vertical Distance
Example 37
Complete the following set of profile level notes.
Vertical Distance
Example 38
The following figure shows a schematic arrangement of a profile level
route from BM33 to BM34. The values indicated represent the
backsight, foresight and intermediate foresight readings taken on
stations along the route. Prepare and complete the level notes for the
portrayed information.
Vertical Distance
Curvature and Refraction
The effects of earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction are
taken into account in leveling work since the measurements are
made in vertical planes and these effects all occur in the same
plane. These effects cause the telescope’s line of sight to vary
from a level line by approximately 0.0785 (curvature) minus
0.0110 (refraction) or 0.0675 m in one kilometer, varying as the
square of the sight distance in kilometers.
Vertical Distance
Curvature and Refraction

ℎ′ = 0.0675 𝐾 2

Where:
ℎ′ = is the departure of a telescope line of
sight from the level line (in meters)
𝐾 = is the length of the line of sight in
kilometers.
The value 0.0675 is called the coefficient of
refraction.
Vertical Distance
Example 39
A man on the shore standing close to the sea’s water edge looks out
toward the direction of the sea. If his eyes measure 1.72m above the sea
level, determine how far out to the sea is his visible horizon, neglecting
the effects of the waves.
Vertical Distance
Example 40
A woman standing on a beach can just see the top of a lighthouse 24.140
km away. If her eye height above sea level is 1.738m, determine the
height of the lighthouse above the sea level.
Vertical Distance
Example 41
Neglecting the effect of tide and waves, determine how far out to the sea
a boat will be when a light on its mast 60 meters above the water
disappears from the sight of a man on shore whose eye level is 1.583m
above the water level.
Vertical Distance
Reciprocal Leveling
Reciprocal Leveling is employed to determine the difference in
elevation between two points when it is difficult or impossible
to keep backsights and foresights short and equal. It is usually
done when the leveling line crosses a body of water, ravines or
places when it is impossible to conduct differential leveling. In
this method, two sets of rod readings are observed. One set is
taken with the instrument set up close to one point and another
with the instrument set up close to the other point.
Vertical Distance
Reciprocal Leveling
Difference in elevation

𝑎 − 𝑏 + (𝑎′ − 𝑏 ′ )
𝐷𝐸 =
2
Vertical Distance
Trigonometric Leveling
Trigonometric leveling or indirect leveling is defined as the
determination of differences in elevation from observed vertical
angles and either horizontal or inclined distances. This method
of leveling is used when undertaking a survey over rugged or
rolling terrain since it provides rapid means of determining
vertical distances and elevation of points.
Vertical Distance
Trigonometric Leveling
Difference in elevation
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = ℎ. 𝑖. + 𝑑 tan 𝛼 − 𝑅𝑅
𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏 = ℎ. 𝑖. + 𝑠 sin 𝛼 − 𝑅𝑅

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐵 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣 𝐴 + 𝐷𝐸𝑎𝑏

Vertical Distance
Example 42
In leveling across a deep and wide river, reciprocal level readings were
taken between two points X and Y, as follows:
a. With instrument set up near X, the rod reading on X are 1.283 and
1.285 meters; on the distant point Y, the rod readings are 2.618,
2.619, 2.621, and 2.622 meters.
Vertical Distance
Example 42 Continuation…
b. With instrument set up near Y, the rod reading on Y are 3.478 and
3.476 meters; on the distant point X, the rod readings are 2.143,
2.140, 2.146, and 2.144 meters.
Determine the true difference in elevation between the two points and
the elevation of Y if the known elevation of X is 290.082 meters.
Vertical Distance
Example 43
In leveling across a wide river,
reciprocal level readings were
taken between two points A
and B as known in the
accompanying tabulation.
Determine the following:
a. Difference in elevation
between two points.
b. Elevation of B if the
elevation of A is 951.750 m.
Vertical Distance
Example 43 Continuation…
Vertical Distance
Example 44
A vertical angle of -12°25’ is
measured to the top of a water tank
from an instrument set up on a hill
585.00 meters away from it. The
telescope of the instrument is
1.45m above the ground whose
elevation is 462.73m. Making due
allowance for the earth’s curvature
and atmospheric refraction,
determine the elevation of the base
of the tank if the tank is 32m high.
Vertical Distance
Example 45
Let A be a point of elevation 130.48m
above datum, and let B and C be points
of unknown elevation. By means of an
instrument set 1.22 m above B, vertical
angles are observed, that to A being -
14°45’ and that to C being +8°32’. If the
horizontal distance AB is 547.20m and
BC is 923.95m, determine the
elevation of B and C, making due
allowance for earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
Vertical Distance
Barometric Leveling
In barometric leveling, differences in elevation of points are
determined by observations of the prevailing atmospheric
pressure. It is based on the principle that the pressure caused
by the weight of the column of air above the observer decreases
(or increases) as the observer goes higher (or lower) in
elevation.
Vertical Distance
Barometric Leveling
Barometers:
1. Mercury Barometers – this type of
barometer measures atmospheric
pressure by the height of the column
of mercury supported by the
atmosphere in an evacuated glass.
Vertical Distance
Barometric Leveling
Barometers:
1. Aneroid Barometers – The
instrument functions by using an
airtight metal box which responds to
changes in air pressure.
Vertical Distance
Altimeter Surveys
The difference in elevation is
computed based on the ratio of
the differences in elevation and
the altimeter readings on the
base stations.
Vertical Distance
Example 46
Given the following data gathered
from an altimeter survey:
Elevation of high base, 518m;
elevation of low base, 122m;
altimeter reading of high base,
5954; and altimeter reading of
low base, 2708. If the altimeter
reading at a field station is 4150,
determine the elevation of that
station.
Angles &
Directions
Angles and Directions
True Meridians
The true meridian is sometimes known as the geographic
meridian. It is generally adapted reference line in surveying
practice. This line passes through the geographic north and
south poles of the earth and the observer’s position.
Angles and Directions
Magnetic Meridians
A magnetic meridian is a fixed line of reference which lies
parallel with the magnetic line of forces of the earth. Its
direction is defined by a freely suspended magnetic needle of a
compass held at the observer’s position. This lines converge at
the magnetic poles of the earth.
Angles and Directions
Assumed Meridians
An assumed meridian is an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of
reference which is taken for convenience. This meridian is
usually the direction of from a survey station to an adjoining
station or some well-defined and permanent point.
Angles and Directions
Units of Angular Measurement
1. Degree – the sexagesimal system is used in which the
circumference of a circle is divided into 360 parts or degrees.
The angle of one degree is defined as the subtended by
1/360 part of the circumference of the circle. The basic unit
is the degree, which is further subdivided into 60 minutes,
and the minute is further subdivided into 60 seconds,
represented by the symbols ° , ‘ , “ , respectively.
Angles and Directions
Units of Angular Measurement
2. Grad – The grad unit is the unit of measure in the centesimal
system. In this system, the circumference of the a circle is
divided into 400 parts called grads. The grad is subdivided
into 100 centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is
further subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds, represented
by the symbols, 𝑔 , 𝑐 , 𝑐𝑐 , respectively.
Angles and Directions
Units of Angular Measurement
3. Mil – The circumference of a circle is divided into 6400 parts
called mils, or 1600 mils is equal to 90 degrees. It is
commonly used in military operations as in fire directions of
artillery units.
Angles and Directions
Units of Angular Measurement
4. Radian – One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the
center of the circle by an arc length equal to the radius of the
circle. One radian equals 180/π or 57.2958 degrees. It is
sometimes referred to as the natural unit of angle because
there is no arbitrary number in its definition.
Vertical Distance
Example 47
1. Convert the angle 238°25’50” into its equivalent decimal degrees.
2. Convert 325.7541667° into degrees, minutes and seconds (DMS) form.
3. Convert 270° into its equivalent value in grad, mils and radians.
4. Convert 350 𝑔 into degrees mils and radians.
5. Convert 1600 mils to its equivalent in grads, degrees, and radians.
6. Convert π/4 radians into degrees, grads and mils.
Angles and Directions
Designation of North
1. True North – is the north point of the true meridian. It is
portrayed in the direction of the actual location of the
earth’s geographic north pole and is always shown along a
vertical line.
2. Magnetic North – a north point established by means of a
magnetized compass needle when there are no local
attractions affecting it. It usually points to the earth’s
magnetic north pole.
Angles and Directions
Designation of North
3. Assumed North – is used to portray the location of any
arbitrary chosen north point.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
The direction of a line is defined as the horizontal angle the line
makes with an established line of reference. There are various
kinds of angles which can be used to describe the direction of
lines: interior angles, deflection angles , bearings, and azimuths.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
1. Interior angles – the angle
between two adjacent lines
in a closed polygon is an
interior angle.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
2. Deflection angles – the angle between a line and the prolongation of
the preceding line is called a deflection angle. It may be turned to the
right (clockwise) or left (counterclockwise) and it is always necessary
to append the letters R and L.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
3. Bearings – The bearing of a line is
the acute horizontal angle
between the reference meridian
and the line. A quadrantal system
is used to specify bearings such
that a line may fall under one of
the following quadrants: NE, SE,
SW, and NW.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
Bearings – either the letters
N or S precedes the bearing
angle and the letters E or W
follows the indicated value
of the angle.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
Forward bearing is obtained
when the end of a line is
observed in the direction of
the survey. If the bearing is
viewed in the opposite
direction it is called back
bearings.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
4. Azimuths – The azimuth of
a line is its direction as
given by the angle between
the meridian and the line
measured in a clockwise
direction from either the
north or south branch of
the meridian.
Angles and Directions
Direction of Lines
Forward and Back Azimuth
Rule 1: If the forward azimuth
of the line is greater than 180
degrees, subtract 180 degrees
to obtain the back azimuth.
Rule 2: If the forward azimuth
of the line is less than 180
degrees, add 180 degrees to
determine the back azimuth.
Angles and Directions
Example 48
Compute the angles AOB, COD, EOF and GOH from the following set of lines
whose magnetic bearings are given:

a. OA, N 39°25’ E and OB, N 75°50’ E

b. OC, N 34°14’ E and OD, N 53°22’ W
c. OE, S 15°04’ E and OF, S 36°00’ W
d. OG, N 70°15’ W and OH, S 52°05’ W
Angles and Directions
Example 49
Compute the angles APB, CPD, and EPF from the following set of lines whose
azimuths are given:

a. Azim (N) of line PA = 39°48’; Azim (N) of line PB = 115°29’

b. Azim (S) of line PC = 320°22’; Azim (S) of line PD = 62°16’
c. Azim (N) of line PE = 219°02’; Azim (S) of line PF = 154°16’
Angles and Directions
Example 50
Convert the following bearings to equivalent azimuths from south.

a. AB, N 25°25’ W
b. BC, Due East
c. CD, S 50°10’ E
d. DE, S 45°50’ W
e. EF, N 66°30’ W
Angles and Directions
Example 51
Convert the following azimuths to equivalent bearings:

a. Azim (S) of line AB = 230°30’

b. Azim (N) of line BC = 112°46’
c. Azim (S) of line CD = 270°00’
d. Azim (N) of line DE = 228°15’
e. Azim (S) of line EF = 135°00’
 Tupi-Kalkam Road (0+00 to 5+49) Profile
253

252
Elevation

251

250

249

248
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Horizontal Distance
Angles and Directions
Definition of Terms
1. Traverse – A traverse is a series of lines connecting successive
points whose lengths and directions have been determined
from field measurements.

2. Traversing – The process of measuring the lengths and

directions of the lines of a traverse for the purpose of
locating the position of certain points.
Angles and Directions
Definition of Terms
3. Traverse Station – Any temporary or permanent point of
reference over which the instrument is set up. Traverse
stations are sometimes called the angle points because an
angle is usually measured at stations.

4. Traverse Lines – Lines connecting traverse stations and

whose lengths and directions are determined.
Angles and Directions
Interior Angle Traverse
The interior angle traverse is
used principally in land
surveying. The angles formed
between the adjacent sides of
the closed figure shown are
known as interior angles. These
are the angles at stations A, B,
C, D, E and F.
Angles and Directions
Deflection Angle Traverse
The deflection angle traverse
is used frequently for the
location survey of roads,
railroad, canals, transmission
lines and similar structures. A
deflection angle is a
horizontal angle measured
clockwise or counterclockwise
from the prolongation of the
preceding line to the
succeeding line.
Angles and Directions
Example 52
The interior angles of a five-sided closed traverse were measured as follows:

A = 118°30’
B = 95°33’
C = Not Measured
D = 134°10’
E = 140°50’

Determine the value of the angle at C. Also determine the bearing of each line if
the bearing of line AB is N 15°30’ E
Angles and Directions
Example 53
The observed interior angles of a closed traverse are as follows: A 153°30’00”; B
58°20’20”; C 139°19’00”; D 78°21’20”; and E 110°28’00”. Determine the angular
error of closure and adjust the measured angles by assuming that the angular
error is of the same amount at each station.
Angles and Directions
Example 54
Following are the observed deflection angles of a closed traverse:

A = 28°25’00” (L) E = 108°13’30” (L)

B = 68°03’30” (L) F = 16°50’00” (R)
C = 120°34’00” (L) G = 110°00’30” (L)
D = 58°30’00” (R)

Compute the angular error of closure and adjust the angular values by assuming
that the angular error is of the same for each angle.
Angles and Directions
Azimuth Traverse
Angles and Directions
Example 55
Given in the accompanying tabulation are the observed data for a closed
traverse.

Determine the bearing and the azimuth from north of all the traverse lines.
Angles and Directions
Latitude and Departure
Latitude of a line is its projection onto the reference meridian or
a north-south line. Latitudes are usually referred to as northings.
Latitudes directed to the north are positive (+) and to the south,
negative (-).

Departure of a line is its projection onto the reference parallel

or an east-west line. Departures to the east are positive (+) and
to the west, negative (-).
Angles and Directions
Error of Closure
The linear error of closure (LEC) is usually a short line of
unknown length and direction connecting the initial and final
stations of the traverse. It is computed as the hypothenuse of a
right triangle whose other sides are error in closure of the
latitudes and departures.
Angles and Directions
Error of Closure

−𝐶𝐷 𝐿𝐸𝐶
𝐿𝐸𝐶 = 𝐶𝐿 2 + 𝐶𝐷 2 tan 𝜃 = 𝑅𝑃 =
−𝐶𝐿 𝐷
Where:
𝐿𝐸𝐶 = Linear error of closure
𝐶𝐿 = error in closure in latitude or the algebraic sum of north and south latitudes
𝐶𝐷 = error in closure in departure or the algebraic sum of east and west departures
𝜃 = bearing angle of the side of error
𝑅𝑃 = relative precision of measurement
𝐷 = total length or perimeter of the traverse
Angles and Directions
Example 56
Given in the accompanying table the observed data for a closed travers.
Determine the following quantities: latitude and departure of each traverse
line, linear error of closure, bearing of the side error, and the relative precision
of the measurements.
Angles and Directions
Traverse Adjustment
Compass Rule
𝑑 𝑑
𝑐𝑙 = 𝑐𝐿 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑐𝐷
𝐷 𝐷

Where:
𝐶𝑙 = correction to be applied to the latitude of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝑑 = correction to be applied to the departure of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝐿 = total closure in latitude
𝐶𝐷 = total closure in departure
𝑑 = length of any course or traverse line
𝐷 = total length or perimeter of the traverse
Angles and Directions
Traverse Adjustment
Compass Rule
2 2
𝐷𝑒𝑝′
𝐿′ = 𝐿𝑎𝑡′ + 𝐷𝑒𝑝′ tan 𝛼′ =
𝐿𝑎𝑡′
Where:
𝐿′ = adjusted length of a course or traverse line
𝐿𝑎𝑡′ = adjusted latitude of a course or traverse line
𝐷𝑒𝑝′ = adjusted departure of a course or traverse line
𝛼′ = adjusted bearing angle of a course or traverse line
Angles and Directions
Example 57
Given in the accompanying table the observed data for a closed traverse.
Determine the latitude and departure of each traverse line by employing the
transit rule. Also determine the linear error of closure, bearing of the side error,
and the relative precision of the measurements, as well as the adjusted length
and bearings of each course.
Angles and Directions
Traverse Adjustment
Transit Rule
𝐶𝐿 𝐶𝐷
𝑐𝑙 = 𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑑 = 𝐷𝑒𝑝
σ𝑁 −σ𝑆 σ𝐸 −σ𝑊
Where:
𝐶𝑙 = correction to be applied to the latitude of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝑑 = correction to be applied to the departure of any course or traverse line
𝐶𝐿 = total closure in latitude
𝐶𝐷 = total closure in departure
σ 𝑁 = summation of North latitude
σ 𝑆 = summation of South latitude
σ 𝐸 = summation of East departure
σ 𝑊 = summation of West departure
Angles and Directions
Example 58
Given in the accompanying table the observed data for a closed traverse.
Determine the latitude and departure of each traverse line by employing the
transit rule.