Dept.

of EIE

ENGINEERING IMMERSION LABORATORY

ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

LAB MANUAL

FIRST YEAR B.Tech – I SEMESTER

(2018 -2019)

Prepared by
Dr.E.Sathish – A.P (S.G) /EIE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Exp.No. Name of the experiment Faculty Sign

1. Study of Active and Passive Components

2. Study of Logic gates

3. Making simple circuit using Electronic components

4. Measuring of parameters for signal using CRO

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Ex No: 1 Study of Active and Passive Components

Date:

AIM:

To Study the Electronic active and passive Components along with various Electronic
measuring equipment’s.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Resistors, Capacitors.

2. Cathode ray oscilloscope (0-30) MHz

3. Function generator (0-1) MHz

4. Probe

5. Bread Board

THEORY:

An electronic circuit is made up of a large number of components and a necessary

interconnection between the components is made to produce the desire functionality. Electronic
components are broadly classified into mechanical, electromechanical, passive and active
components. Passive and active components are very important to design electronic circuits.

ACTIVE components increase the power of a signal and must be supplied with the signal
and a source of power. Examples are bipolar transistors, field effect transistors etc. The signal is
fed into one connection of the active device and the amplified version taken from another
connection. In a transistor, the signal can be applied to the base connection and the amplified
version taken from the collector. The source of power is usually a dc voltage from a battery or
power supply.

PASSIVE components do not increase the power of a signal. They often cause power to
be lost. Some can increase the voltage at the expense of current, so overall there is a loss of
power. Resistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes are examples of passive components.

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Resistor:

Resistor Color code

Color Value Multiplier(10^) Tolerance

Black 0 0

Brown 1 1

Red 2 2

Orange 3 3

Yellow 4 4

Green 5 5

Blue 6 6

Violet 7 7

Grey 8 8

White 9 9

Gold - ±5

Silver - ±10

None - ±20

a b × 10cΩ ± d%

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Resistors

A resistor is a passive component. It introduces resistance in the circuit. Resistance is

basic property of conducting material and is given by

ρ = Resistivity.
L = Length of the material.
A = Area of cross section of material.
The resistivity is measured in units of ohm-meters.

Capacitors

The capacitance of a set of charged parallel plates is increased by the insertion of a

dielectricmaterial. The capacitance is inversely proportional to the electric field between the
plates, and the presence of the dielectric reduces the effective electric field.

Capacitance

This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that
more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very
large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.

Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

µ means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000µF = 1F

n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1µF

p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

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Capacitor:

Symbolic representation Disc capacitor Polarity representation

Diodes:

Bread Board:

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Diodes

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device (except that thermionic diodes may also
have one or two ancillary terminals for a heater). Diodes have two active electrodes between
which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional current property.
The varicap diode is used as an electrically adjustable capacitor.

The directionality of current flow most diodes exhibit is sometimes generically called the
rectifying property. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass
in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block it in the opposite direction
(the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a
check valve. Real diodes do not display such a perfect on-off directionality but have a more
complex non-linear electrical characteristic, which depends on the particular type of diode
technology. Diodes also have many other functions in which they are not designed to operate in
this on-off manner.

Bread Boards

The bread boarding area on the experimental box has holes for component leads, #22
solid wire and IC pins. Don't try to force larger wire into these holes because it will spring them
too far and ruin the board. The horizontal rows of holes on the top and bottom of the breadboard
are connected together horizontally. The left and right halves are independent. We suggest that
you use these horizontal rows for power supply voltages and ground. You may wish to put a
jumper wire between the left and right halves so that the voltages are the same across the board.
The vertical columns of holes are connected electrically in groups of five along a vertical line.
The top and bottom halves are independent. Typically one inserts an IC chip straddling the centre
trough. There are then four empty holes for making connections to each IC pin. When you plug
IC’s into the breadboard, a common convention is to put pin 1 on the left. For other components,
make sure the leads are not in the same column of five unless you want them connected together.

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Multimeter:

A multimeter is an instrument which measures electrical parameters such as AC or DC voltage,

current, and resistance. Rather than having separate meters, a multimeter combines a voltmeter,
an ammeter, and an ohmmeter. The two main kinds of a multimeter are analog and digital. Refer
fig 10. A digital multimeter has an LCD screen that displays the value of the parameter being
measured. while in an analog multimeter display, a needle moves through a graduated scale.
Topmost scale is usually for resistance and the readings increases from right to left while other
scales readings increase from left to right. Another name for an analog multimeter is Volt-Ohm-
Milliammeter (VOM). Each type of meter has its advantages and disadvantaged. When used as a
voltmeter, a digital meter is usually better because its resistance is much higher, 1 M or 10 M,
compared to 200 Ω for an analogue multimeter for a similar range.

Function Generators

Function Generators are instruments capable of generating an ac signal of any frequency (~

100Hz – hundreds of kHz), voltage(~1 mv – 20V) and various forms (e.g. sine wave, Square
pulse, Saw tooth wave, Triangular wave or noise waveform). They also provide a continuously
variable dc offset, variable duty cycle. They are usually of 2 types: (i) analog and (ii) Digital.

Some of the front panel controls of a typical function generator are:

1 Power Switch For switching on the power supply

2 Digital Display This is a 4 digit frequency meter

3 OFFSET This knob is for adding a dc voltage to the output signal

4 Amplitude This does the continuous adjustment of output voltage

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5 Speed This is for setting speed

6 Width This knob is for setting the width

7 Frquency This knob is for selecting the frequency range from 0.3 Hz to

3MHz in decade steps.

8. Sweep On This is a push button for activating internal sweep

9 Mode Selection Push Button for triangular, sine Square etc.

10 BNC connector This is a 50 Ω output BNC connector

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11 -20 db, - 20 db A push button control for -20 db attenuation. When both buttons are
pushed then a total of 40 db attenuation is got.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

CRO is an instrument which is used to measure voltages that change with time and to display the
waveforms in real time mode. There is a graphical scale present on the screen which is used to
calculate the voltage or frequency value. A very important specification of a CRO is its
bandwidth which gives the maximum frequency of a signal which a CRO can measure. A simple
oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube, a vertical amplifier, a time base, a horizontal
amplifier and a power supply. Fig 12 shows the block diagram of a CRO. Cathode-ray tube is a
vacuum tube in which a beam of electrons is produced and focused onto a fluorescent screen.
The electrons’ kinetic energy is converted into light energy as they collide with the screen. It is
an essential component of television receivers, computer visual display units, and CRO. Between
the electron gun and the screen are two pairs of metal plates : (i) Horizontal Deflection Plates
and (ii) Vertical deflection plates. These are driven by Horizontal Deflection system and
Vertical deflection system respectively.

1 Intensity This knob controls the brightness of the trace by adjusting the number of
electrons emerging from the gun

2 Focus This control is for making the trace on the screen sharper. It is connected
to the anode of the electron gun whose voltage collimates the electron beam.

3 Vertical Position & Horizontal Position Through these controls the beam can be
positioned at variable vertical or horizontal positions as desired. These knobs apply a dc voltage
to the vertical and horizontal deflection plates.

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4 V / Div. This control is used to control the voltage sensitivity. This is internally
connected to an attenuator of the vertical system. It determines the voltage required by the
vertical plates to deflect the beam vertically by one division.

5 Time / Div- This determines the time taken for the spot to move horizontally across one
division of the screen when the sweep is generated by triggering process. The signal which is fed
to the vertical deflection plates provides the triggering to the waveform. Each position of the
time/ div knob is applicable for a particular frequency. This determines the horizontal sensitivity
of the observed signal.

6 Trigger Source This selects the source of the trigger to be applied to the saw tooth
waveform. There are usually three possible sources (i) Internal: This is mostly used for all
applications. The vertical signal applies the triggering signal. (ii) Line: This is generally used
when the voltage to be measured is related to the line voltage. This selects the 50Hz line voltage.
(iii) Ext. In this case an external signal is applied to trigger the saw tooth waveform.

7 Slope This determines whether the time base circuit responds to the positive or negative
slope of the triggering waveform.

8 Level This determines the amplitude level on the triggering waveform which can
start the sweep

9 AC, DC, GND: This selects the coupling mechanism for the input signal to the
CRO.

10 X-Y mode: In this mode of operation two signals are superimposed at right angles on
each other. The saw tooth time base circuit is disconnected from the horizontal deflection plates
and the external signal which s fed to channel two is given to time base instead. Hence if two
sine waves are fed to two channels respectively then the electron beam will undergo deflection
according to right angle superposition of two sine waves. It will trace lissajous figures.

RESULT:

Thus the various Electronic components and measuring equipment’s were studied.

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EX.No.:2 STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
Date:
Aim:
To study and verify the truth table of logic gates.

Apparatus Required:

S.no Components Required Quantity

1 Digital trainer kit 1

2 IC 7404(NOT gate) 1

3 IC7408(AND gate) 1

4 IC7432(OR gate) 1

5 IC7486(Ex-OR gate) 1

6 IC 7402(NOR gate) 1

7 IC 7400(NAND gate) 1

THEORY:

Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one output
Signal. Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals are either low or High
voltages. Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be analyzed using Boolean
algebra.

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NAND GATE: IC7400

It is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate. It is also called as universal gate. The
output of this gate will go to logic 0 if all its inputs are at the high state.
NOR GATE: IC 7402
It is the combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It is also called as universal gate.
The output of this gate will go to logic 1 if all its inputs are at the low state.
NOT GATE: IC7404
A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an inverter. The
output will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output will be at Logic 0. Thus its
output is the complement of its input. The Boolean expression for NOT GATE Y =Ā
AND GATE: IC7408
An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output can go to
Logic 1 if all its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a two input AND gate is:
Y=A.B
OR GATE: IC7432
An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output will be at Logic
1 if any or both of its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a two input OR
gate is: Y= A+B
EX-OR GATE: IC7486
It has two or more inputs and a single output. The output of the EX-OR gate is high if the
inputs are different and low if the inputs are same.

PROCEDURE:
1) Connections for all the gates namely NOT, AND, OR and EX-OR are given as per the
circuit diagram.
2) Pin No.7 is connected to ground and pin No.14 is connected to +Vcc of +5V.
3) Outputs are noted for various combinations of inputs and the truth table is verified.

RESULT:
Thus the logic gates are studied and their truth tables are verified.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

FORWARD BIAS:-

REVERSE BIAS:-

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Ex.No.:3 Making simple circuit using Electronic components

Date:

Aim:-To make an simple circuit using P-N Junction diode to observe and draw the Forward bias V-I
Characteristics of it.

Apparatus required:

S.No Equipment/Component name Specifications/Value Quantity

1 PN Diode 1N4007 1

2 Regulated Power Supply (0-30V) 1

3 Resistor 1KΩ 1

4 Ammeters (0-100 mA, 0-500mA) 1

5 Voltmeter (0-20 V) 1

6 Bread Board - 1

7 Connecting Wires - As required

THEORY:-

A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode
are curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero,
circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is
zero. When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected to –ve
terminal of the supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in
the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and
current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The
current increases with increasing forward voltage.

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OBSERVATION:-

S.NO APPLIED VOLTAGE (V) VOLTAGE ACROSS CURRENT THROUGH

DIODE(V) DIODE(mA)

MODELWAVEFORM:-

When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected –ve terminal of
the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction increases.
Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse saturation current)
flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current is due to minority
charge carriers.

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PROCEDURE:-

FORWARD BIAS:-

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode and RPS –ve is connected to
the cathode of the diode,

3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps.

4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for each
and every step of the input voltage.

5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.

6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.

REVERSE BIAS:-

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2 . For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode and RPS –ve is connected to
the anode of the diode.

3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in Steps

4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the diode for each and
every step of the input voltage.

5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated

6. Graph is plotted between voltage and current.

PRECAUTIONS:-

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the Analog meters.

RESULT:- A simple circuit was made to study the Forward Bias characteristics for a p-n diode and the
graph had been plotted.

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EX.No.:4 Measuring of parameters for signal using CRO.
Date:

AIM: - Study of CRO & Measuring of parameters for signal using CRO.

APPARTUS REQUIRED:-

S.No Equipment/Component name Quantity

1 CRO 1

2 Function Generator 1

THEORY:

The cathode ray oscilloscope is the most versatile measuring instrument available. We can measure
following parameters using the CRO:

1. AC or DC voltage.

2. Time (t=1/f).

3. Phase relationship

4. Waveform calculation: Rise time; fall time; on time; off-time Distortion, etc.

We can also measure non-electrical physical quantities like pressure, strain, temperature, acceleration,
etc., by converting into electrical quantities using a transducer.

Major blocks:

1. Cathode ray tube (CRT)

2. Vertical amplifier

3. Horizontal amplifier

4. Sweep generator

5. Trigger circuit

6. Associated power supply.

1. The cathode ray tube is the heart of CRO. The CRT is enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope to
permit the electron beam to traverse in the tube easily. The main functional units of CRO are as follows.
Electron gun assembly, Deflection plate unit, Screen.

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Block Diagram of CRO

Cathode-ray tube: (a) schematic, (b) details of the deflections plates

2. Vertical Amplifier is the main factor in determining the bandwidth and sensitivity of an oscilloscope.
Vertical sensitivity is a measure of how much the electron beam will be deflected for a specified input
signal. On the front panel of the oscilloscope, one can see a knob attached to a rotary switch labeled

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volts/division. The rotary switch is electrically connected to the input attenuation network. The setting of
the rotary switch indicates what amplitude signal is required to deflect the beam vertically by one
division.

3. Horizontal amplifier under normal mode of operation, the horizontal amplifier will amplify the sweep
generator input. When the CRO is being used in the X-Y mode, the horizontal amplifier will amplify the
signal applied to the horizontal input terminal. Although the vertical amplifier mush be able to faithfully
reproduce low-amplitude and high frequency signal with fast rise time, the horizontal amplifier is only
required to provide a faithful reproduction of the sweep signal which has a relatively high amplitude and
slow rise time.

4. Sweep generator and Trigger circuit These two units form the Signal Synchronization unit of the
CRO.

5. Associated Power Supply: The input signal may come from an external source when the trigger
selector switch is set to EXT or from low amplitude AC voltage at line frequency when the switch is set
to LINE or from the vertical amplifier when the switch is set to INT. When set for INT (internal
triggering), the trigger circuit receives its inputs from the vertical amplifier.

MEASUREMENTS USING CRO:-

Measurement of Voltage Using CRO :

A voltage can be measured by noting the Y deflection produced by the voltage; using this deflection in
conjunction with the Y-gain setting, the voltage can be calculated as follows :

V = (no. of boxes in cm.) x (selected Volts/cm scale)

Measurement of Frequency Using a CRO:

A simple method of determining the frequency of a signal is to estimate its periodic time from the trace
on the screen of a CRT. However this method has limited accuracy, and should only be used where other
methods are not available. To calculate the frequency of the observed signal, one has to measure the
period, i.e. the time taken for 1 complete cycle, using the calibrated sweep scale. The period could be
calculated by

T = (no. of squares in cm) x (selected Time/cm scale)

Once the period T is known, the frequency is given by

f (Hz)= 1/T(sec)

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1.4. Measurement of Phase:

The calibrated time scales can be used to calculate the phase shift between two sinusoidal signals of the
same frequency. If a dual trace or beam CRO is available to display the two signals simultaneously (one
of the signals is used for synchronization), both of the signals will appear in proper time perspective and
the amount of time difference between the waveforms can be measured. This, in turn can be utilized to
calculate the phase angle , between the two signals.


phase shift in cm.
one period in cm.

PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN TWO SIGNALS

Referring to figure.1, the phase shift can be calculated by the formula

Phase shift in cm .
 x 360
One period in cm .

Note that the calculation does not involve the actual calibrated time base setting. In fact, the observed
waveforms can be varied using the horizontal amplifier venire adjustment to obtain as many boxes for one
full scale as desired. Another method for fast calculation is to multiply the scale factor by the phase
difference (in cm) where the scale factor is degrees per box or degrees per cm.

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OBSERVATIONS:-

Measurement of frequency Vp-p of the input signal = ......................V

S. Selected Horizontal Extent of Period of Measured Phase

No. frequency sensitivity single cycle signal T = frequency Shift
f (Hz) S(s cm−1 ) x (cm) x × S (s) (Hz) (degree)

RESULT:- Thus the various parts their working of CRO were studied with various parameters are
measurements.

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