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Source: ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 7
SPEED CONTROL OF
INDUCTION MOTORS

Until the advent of solid-state drives, induction motors were not used in many applications
requiring speed control. The normal operating range of an induction motor is within less
than 5 percent slip. At larger slip, the efficiency of the motor will drop significantly because
the rotor copper losses are directly proportional to the slip of the motor (PRCL ⫽ sPAG). The
speed of an induction motor can be controlled by varying the synchronous speed or the slip for
a given load. The synchronous speed can be varied by changing the electrical frequency or the
number of poles. The slip can be changed by varying the rotor resistance or terminal voltage.

SPEED CONTROL BY CHANGING THE


LINE FREQUENCY

The rate of rotation of the stator magnetic field depends on the electrical frequency. The no-
load point on the torque-speed curve changes with the frequency (Fig. 7.1). The base speed
is the synchronous speed at rated conditions.
The speed of the motor can be adjusted by using variable frequency control. A variable
frequency induction motor drive can control the speed from 5 percent of the base load to
twice the base speed.
There are limits on the voltage and torque as the frequency is varied to ensure safe
operation. When the speed is being reduced below the base speed, the terminal voltage to
the stator should be decreased linearly with decreasing stator frequency. This process is
called derating. If the motor is not derated, the steel in the core will saturate and large
magnetization current will flow in the machine.
The flux in the core of an induction motor is given by Faraday’s law:

d␾
υ(t) ⫽ N ᎏ
dt
Solving for the flux ␾ gives
1

␾ ⫽ ᎏ υ(t) dt
N

⫽ ᎏ 冕V sin ␻t dt
1
M
N

VM
␾⫽ ᎏ cos ␻t
␻N

7.1
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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

7.2 CHAPTER SEVEN

If the electrical frequency decreases by 10 percent while the voltage remains constant, the
flux in the core will increase by 10 percent. The magnetization current will also increase
by 10 percent in the unsaturated region of the motor’s magnetization curve. The magneti-
zation current will increase by much more than 10 percent in the saturated region.
Since induction motors are designed to operate near saturation, the increase in flux due
to the decrease in frequency will cause a large magnetization current to flow. The stator

FIGURE 7.1 Variable-frequency speed control in an induction motor: (a) The family
of torque-speed characteristic curves for speeds below base speed, assuming that the line
voltage is derated linearly with frequency. (b) The family of torque-speed characteristic
curves for speeds above base speed, assuming that the line voltage is held constant.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS 7.3

FIGURE 7.1 (Continued) (c) The torque-speed characteristic curves for all frequencies.

voltage is usually decreased in direct proportion to the decrease in frequency to avoid large
magnetization currents.
The flux in the motor remains approximately constant when the voltage is decreased
with frequency. Since the power supplied to the motor is given by
P ⫽ 兹3
苶VLIL cos ␪
the maximum power rating must decrease linearly with decreasing voltage to protect the
stator from overheating.
Figure 7.1a illustrates a family of torque-speed characteristic curves for speeds below
the base speed. The stator voltage was assumed to vary linearly with frequency.
When the frequency applied to the motor exceeds the rated frequency, the stator volt-
age is held constant at the rated value. Although the applied voltage can be raised above the
rated value without reaching saturation, it is limited to the rated voltage. This is done to pro-
tect the winding insulation of the motor. As the frequency increases while the voltage
remains constant, the resulting flux and the maximum torque will decrease with it.
Figure 7.1b shows a family of torque-speed characteristic curves for speeds higher than
the base speed, assuming that the stator voltage is held constant. Figure 7.1c shows a family
of torque-speed characteristic curves for speeds higher and lower than the base speed,
assuming that the stator voltage is varied linearly with frequency below base speed and is
held constant at rated value above base speed (the rated speed for the motor shown in Fig. 7.1
is 1800 r/min). Changing the line frequency with solid-state motor drives has become the
preferred method for induction motor speed control.

SPEED CONTROL BY CHANGING THE


LINE VOLTAGE

Since the torque developed by the induction motor is proportional to the square of the
applied voltage, the speed of the motor can be controlled within a limited range by varying
the line voltage as shown in Fig. 7.2.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

7.4 CHAPTER SEVEN

FIGURE 7.2 Variable-line-voltage speed control in an induction motor.

FIGURE 7.3 Speed control by varying the rotor resistance of a wound rotor
induction motor.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS 7.5

SPEED CONTROL BY CHANGING THE


ROTOR RESISTANCE

The shape of the torque-speed curve of wound rotor induction motors can be changed by
inserting extra resistances into the rotor circuit, as shown in Fig. 7.3. However, inserting
additional resistances into the rotor circuit will reduce the efficiency of the motor signifi-
cantly. This method is usually used for short periods.

SOLID-STATE INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES

The solid-state variable frequency induc-


tion motor drive is the preferred method for
speed control. A typical drive is shown in
Fig. 7.4. The drive is very flexible. Its input
can be single-phase or three-phase; 50 or 60
Hz; and any voltage in the range of 208 to
230 V. The output is a three-phase voltage
whose frequency can vary in the range of 0
to 120 Hz and whose voltage can vary in the
range of 0 to the rated voltage of the motor.
The control of the output voltage and fre-
quency is achieved by using the pulse-width
modulation (PWM) technique.
The output frequency and output voltage
can be controlled independently. Figure 7.5
illustrates how the drive controls the output
frequency while the root-mean-square (rms)
voltage is maintained at a constant level.
Figure 7.6 illustrates how the drive controls
the rms voltage while maintaining the fre-
quency at a constant value. FIGURE 7.4 A typical solid-state variable-
frequency induction motor drive. (Courtesy of
MagneTek Drives and Systems.)
MOTOR PROTECTION

The induction motor drive has a variety of features for protecting the motor. The drive can
detect and trip the motor under any of the following conditions:

1. An overload (excessive steady-state currents)


2. Excessive instantaneous currents
3. Overvoltage
4. Undervoltage

THE INDUCTION GENERATOR

Figure 7.7 illustrates the torque-speed characteristic of an induction machine. It shows


clearly that if an induction motor is driven at a speed higher than the synchronous speed by

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

7.6 CHAPTER SEVEN

FIGURE 7.5 Variable frequency control with a PWM waveform: (a) 60-Hz 120-V PWM waveform;
(b) 30-Hz 120-V PWM waveform.

FIGURE 7.6 Variable voltage control with a PWM waveform: (a) 60-Hz 120-V PWM waveform; (b) 60-Hz
60-V PWM waveform.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS 7.7

FIGURE 7.7 The torque-speed characteristic of an induction machine,


showing the generator region of operation. Note the pushover torque.

a prime mover, the direction of the induced torque will reverse and it will act as a generator.
As the torque applied to the shaft increases, the power generated increases. However, there
is a maximum possible induced torque in the generator region of operation (pushover
torque). If the actual torque is higher than the pushover torque, the machine will overspeed.
An induction machine operating as a generator has severe limitations. An induction gen-
erator cannot produce reactive power because it does not have a separate field circuit. In
reality, it requires reactive power. An external source of reactive power must be provided
to it at all times to maintain its stator magnetic field. The induction generator cannot con-
trol its own output voltage because it does not have a field circuit. The terminal voltage of
the generator must be maintained by the external power system which is connected to it.
The main advantages of the induction generator are its simplicity and its ability to oper-
ate at different speeds (higher than synchronous speed). Since no sophisticated regulation
is required, this generator is suitable for windmills and supplementary power sources con-
nected to an existing power system. In these applications, the power factor correction can
be provided by capacitors, and the terminal voltage can be controlled by an existing power
system (the grid).

Induction Generator Operating Alone


The induction generator can operate independently of any power system, if capacitors are
available to supply the reactive power required by the generator and by the load. This
arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.8.
The magnetization current required by the induction machine as a function of the terminal
voltage can be found by running the machine as a motor at no load and measuring its
armature current. This magnetization curve is shown in Fig. 7.9a. Therefore, the induction
generator can achieve a given voltage level if the external capacitors are supplying the mag-
netization current corresponding to that level. The reactive current produced by a capacitor
is directly proportional to the voltage applied to it (straight-line relationship). Figure 7.9b
illustrates the variation of voltage with current for a given frequency.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

7.8 CHAPTER SEVEN

FIGURE 7.8 An induction generator operating alone with a capacitor


bank to supply reactive power.

The induction generator must be flashed by momentarily running it as a motor. This is


done to establish residual flux in the rotor, which is needed to start the induction generator.
When the induction generator is starting, a small voltage is produced by the residual mag-
netism in its field circuit. A capacitive current flow is produced by the small voltage which
increases the terminal voltage. The increase in terminal voltage increases the capacitive
current, which increases the terminal voltage further until the voltage is fully built up.
The main disadvantage of induction generators is that their voltage varies significantly
with changes in load (especially reactive load). Figure 7.10 illustrates a typical terminal
voltage-current characteristic of an induction generator operating alone with a constant par-
allel capacitance.
The voltage collapses very rapidly when the generator is supplying inductive loads
because the capacitors must supply all the reactive power needed by the load and the gen-
erator. Any reactive power diverted to the load moves the generator back along its magne-
tization curve. This results in a major drop in generator voltage.
A set of series capacitors is included in the power line in addition to the parallel capac-
itors. The capacitive reactive power increases with increasing load. This compensates for
the reactive power demanded by the load.
Figure 7.11 illustrates the terminal characteristic of an induction generator with series
capacitors. The frequency of the induction generator varies slightly with the load. However,
this frequency variation is limited to less than 5 percent because the torque-speed charac-
teristic is very steep in the normal operating range. This variation is acceptable in many
applications such as isolated or emergency generators. The induction generator is ideal for
windmills and energy recovery applications. Since most of these applications operate in
parallel with the grid, the terminal voltage and frequency are controlled by the grid.
Capacitors are used for power factor correction.

INDUCTION MOTOR RATINGS

Figure 7.12 shows a nameplate for a typical high-efficiency induction motor. The most
important ratings are
1. Output power
2. Voltage
3. Current

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS 7.9

4. Power factor
5. Speed
6. Nominal efficiency
7. NEMA design class
8. Starting code

FIGURE 7.9 (a) The magnetization curve of an induction machine. It is a plot of the terminal voltage of
the machine as a function of its magnetization current (which lags the phase voltage by approximately 90°).
(b) Plot of the voltage-current characteristic of a capacitor bank. Note that the larger the capacitance, the
greater its current for a given voltage. This current leads the phase voltage by approximately 90°. (c) The no-
load terminal voltage for an isolated induction generator can be found by plotting the generator terminal char-
acteristic and the capacitor voltage-current characteristic on a single set of axes. The intersection of the two
curves is the point at which the reactive power demanded by the generator is exactly supplied by the capacitors,
and this point gives the no-load terminal voltage of the generator.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

7.10 CHAPTER SEVEN

FIGURE 7.10 The terminal voltage-current character-


istic of an induction generator for a load with a constant
lagging power factor.

FIGURE 7.11 (a) A “compounded” induction generator, one with


both “shunt” (parallel) and series capacitors. (b) The resulting voltage-
current characteristic of the generator for a load with a constant lagging
power factor.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS 7.11

FIGURE 7.12 The nameplate of a typical high-efficiency induction motor.


(Courtesy of MagneTek, Inc.)

The voltage limit is based on the maximum acceptable magnetization current flow because
as the voltage increases, the iron becomes more saturated and the magnetization current
increases. A 60-Hz induction motor can be used on a 50-Hz power system only if the voltage
rating is decreased by the same proportion as the decrease in frequency. The current limit
is based on the maximum acceptable heating in the motor’s windings. The power limit is
determined by the combination of the voltage and current ratings with the power factor
and efficiency.

REFERENCE

1. S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1991.

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SPEED CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS

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