Programming Methodologies Quick Guide

7/11/2019 Programming Methodologies Quick Guide
Programming Methodologies - Quick Guide

Advertisements
 Previous Page Next Page 
Programming Methodologies - Introduction

When programs are developed to solve real-life problems like inventory management,
payroll processing, student admissions, examination result processing, etc. they tend to be
huge and complex. The approach to analyzing such complex problems, planning for
software development and controlling the development process is called programming
methodology.
Types of Programming Methodologies

There are many types of programming methodologies prevalent among software
developers −
Procedural Programming
Problem is broken down into procedures, or blocks of code that perform one task each. All
procedures taken together form the whole program. It is suitable only for small programs
that have low level of complexity.
Example − For a calculator program that does addition, subtraction, multiplication,

division, square root and comparison, each of these operations can be developed as
separate procedures. In the main program each procedure would be invoked on the basis
of user’s choice.
Object-oriented Programming
Here the solution revolves around entities or objects that are part of problem. The solution
deals with how to store data related to the entities, how the entities behave and how they
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/programming_methodologies/programming_methodologies_quick_guide.htm 1/27
interact with each other to give a cohesive solution.
Example − If we have to develop a payroll management system, we will have entities like
employees, salary structure, leave rules, etc. around which the solution must be built.
Functional Programming
Here the problem, or the desired solution, is broken down into functional units. Each unit
performs its own task and is self-sufficient. These units are then stitched together to form
the complete solution.
Example − A payroll processing can have functional units like employee data
maintenance, basic salary calculation, gross salary calculation, leave processing, loan
repayment processing, etc.
Logical Programming
Here the problem is broken down into logical units rather than functional units. Example:
In a school management system, users have very defined roles like class teacher, subject
teacher, lab assistant, coordinator, academic in-charge, etc. So the software can be
divided into units depending on user roles. Each user can have different interface,
permissions, etc.
Software developers may choose one or a combination of more than one of these
methodologies to develop a software. Note that in each of the methodologies discussed,
problem has to be broken down into smaller units. To do this, developers use any of the
following two approaches −
Top-down approach
Bottom-up approach
Top-down or Modular Approach

The problem is broken down into smaller units, which may be further broken down into
even smaller units. Each unit is called a module. Each module is a self-sufficient unit that
has everything necessary to perform its task.
The following illustration shows an example of how you can follow modular approach to
create different modules while developing a payroll processing program.
Bottom-up Approach
In bottom-up approach, system design starts with the lowest level of components, which
are then interconnected to get higher level components. This process continues till a
hierarchy of all system components is generated. However, in real-life scenario it is very
difficult to know all lowest level components at the outset. So bottoms up approach is used
only for very simple problems.
Let us look at the components of a calculator program.
Understanding the Problem

A typical software development process follows these steps −
Requirement gathering
Problem definition
System design
Implementation
Testing
Documentation
Training and support
Maintenance
The first two steps assist the team in understanding the problem, the most crucial first
step towards getting a solution. Person responsible for gathering requirement, defining the
problem and designing the system is called system analyst.
Requirement Gathering
Usually, clients or users are not able to clearly define their problems or requirements. They
have a vague idea of what they want. So system developers need to gather client
requirements to understand the problem that needs to be resolved, or what needs to be
delivered. Detailed understanding of the problem is possible only by first understanding
the business area for which the solution is being developed. Some key questions that help
in understanding a business include −
What is being done?
How is it being done?
What is the frequency of a task?
What is the volume of decisions or transactions?
What are the problems being encountered?
Some techniques that help in gathering this information are −
Interviews
Questionnaires
Studying existing system documents
Analyzing business data
System analysts needs to create clear and concise but thorough requirements document in
order to identify SMART – specific, measurable, agreed upon, realistic and time-based –
requirements. A failure to do so results in −
Incomplete problem definition
Incorrect program goals
Re-work to deliver required outcome to client
Increased costs
Delayed delivery
Due to the depth of information required, requirement gathering is also known as detailed
investigation.
Problem Definition
After gathering requirements and analyzing them, problem statement must be stated
clearly. Problem definition should unambiguously state what problem or problems need to
be solved. Having a clear problem statement is necessary to −
Define project scope
Keep the team focused
Keep the project on track
Validate that desired outcome was achieved at the end of project
Identifying the Solution

Often, coding is supposed to be the most essential part of any software development
process. However, coding is just a part of the process and may actually take the minimum
amount of time if the system is designed correctly. Before the system can be designed, a
solution must be identified for the problem at hand.
The first thing to be noted about designing a system is that initially the system analyst
may come up with more than one solutions. But the final solution or the product can be
only one. In-depth analysis of data gathered during the requirement gathering phase can
help in coming to a unique solution. Correctly defining the problem is also crucial for
getting to the solution.
When faced with the problem of multiple solutions, analysts go for visual aids like
flowcharts, data flow diagrams, entity relationship diagrams, etc. to understand each
solution in depth.
Flowcharting
Flowcharting is the process of illustrating workflows and data flows in a system through
symbols and diagrams. It is an important tool to assist the system analyst in identifying a
solution to the problem. It depicts the components of the system visually.
These are the advantages of flowcharting −
Visual representation helps in understanding program logic
They act as blueprints for actual program coding
Flowcharts are important for program documentation
Flowcharts are an important aid during program maintenance
These are the disadvantages of flowcharting −
Complex logic cannot be depicted using flowcharts
In case of any change in logic or data/work flow, flowchart has to be redrawn

completely
Data Flow Diagram

Data flow diagram or DFD is a graphical representation of data flow through a system or
sub-system. Each process has its own data flow and there are levels of data flow
diagrams. Level 0 shows the input and output data for the whole system. Then the system
is broken down into modules and level 1 DFD shows data flow for each module separately.
Modules may further be broken down into sub-modules if required and level 2 DFD drawn.
Pseudocode
After the system is designed, it is handed over to the project manager for implementation,
i.e. coding. The actual coding of a program is done in a programming language, which can
be understood only by programmers who are trained in that language. However, before
the actual coding occurs, the basic operating principles, work flows and data flows of the
program are written using a notation similar to the programming language to be used.
Such a notation is called pseudocode.
Here is an example of a pseudocode in C++. The programmer just needs to translate each
statement into C++ syntax to get the program code.
Identifying Mathematical Operations

All instructions to the computer are finally implemented as arithmetic and logical
operations at machine level. These operations are important because they −
Occupy memory space
Take time in execution
Determine software efficiency
Affect overall software performance
System analysts try to identify all major mathematical operations while identifying the
unique solution to problem at hand.
Applying Modular Techniques

A real-life problem is complex and big. If a monolithic solution is developed it poses these
problems −
Difficult to write, test and implement one big program
Modifications after the final product is delivered is close to impossible
Maintenance of program very difficult
One error can bring the whole system to a halt
To overcome these problems, the solution should be divided into smaller parts called
modules. The technique of breaking down one big solution into smaller modules for ease
of development, implementation, modification and maintenance is called modular
technique of programming or software development.
Advantages of Modular Programming

Modular programming offers these advantages −
Enables faster development as each module can be developed in parallel
Modules can be re-used
As each module is to be tested independently, testing is faster and more robust
Debugging and maintenance of the whole program easier
Modules are smaller and have lower level of complexity so they are easy to
understand
Identifying the Modules

Identifying modules in a software is a mind boggling task because there cannot be one
correct way of doing so. Here are some pointers to identifying modules −
If data is the most important element of the system, create modules that handle
related data.
If service provided by the system is diverse, break down the system into functional
modules.
If all else fails, break down the system into logical modules as per your
understanding of the system during requirement gathering phase.
For coding, each module has to be again broken down into smaller modules for ease of
programming. This can again be done using the three tips shared above, combined with
specific programming rules. For example, for an object oriented programming language
like C++ and Java, each class with its data and methods could form a single module.
Step-by-Step Solution
To implement the modules, process flow of each module must be described in step by step
fashion. The step by step solution can be developed using algorithms or pseudocodes.
Providing step by step solution offers these advantages −
Anyone reading the solution can understand both problem and solution.
It is equally understandable by programmers and non-programmers.

During coding each statement simply needs to be converted to a program

statement.
It can be part of documentation and assist in program maintenance.
Micro-level details like identifier names, operations required, etc. get worked out
automatically
Let’s look at an example.
Control Structures
As you can see in the above example, it is not necessary that a program logic runs
sequentially. In programming language, control structures take decisions about
program flow based on given parameters. They are very important elements of any
software and must be identified before any coding begins.
Algorithms and pseudocodes help analysts and programmers in identifying where control
structures are required.
Control structures are of these three types −
Decision Control Structures

Decision control structures are used when the next step to be executed depends upon a
criteria. This criteria is usually one or more Boolean expressions that must be evaluated. A
Boolean expression always evaluates to “true” or “false”. One set of statements is
executed if the criteria is “true” and another set executed if the criteria evaluates to
“false”. For example, if statement
Selection Control Structures
Selection control structures are used when program sequence depends upon the answer to
a specific question. For example, a program has many options for the user. The statement
to be executed next will depend on the option chosen. For example, switch statement,
case statement.
Repetition / Loop Control Structures

Repetition control structure is used when a set of statements in to be repeated many
times. The number of repetitions might be known before it starts or may depend on the
value of an expression. For example, for statement, while statement, do while
statement, etc.
As you can see in the image above, both selection and decision structures are
implemented similarly in a flowchart. Selection control is nothing but a series of decision
statements taken sequentially.
Here are some examples from programs to show how these statements work −
Writing the Algorithm

A finite set of steps that must be followed to solve any problem is called an algorithm.
Algorithm is generally developed before the actual coding is done. It is written using
English like language so that it is easily understandable even by non-programmers.
Sometimes algorithms are written using pseudocodes, i.e. a language similar to the
programming language to be used. Writing algorithm for solving a problem offers these
advantages −
Promotes effective communication between team members
Enables analysis of problem at hand
Acts as blueprint for coding

Assists in debugging
Becomes part of software documentation for future reference during maintenance

phase
These are the characteristics of a good and correct algorithm −
Has a set of inputs
Steps are uniquely defined
Has finite number of steps
Produces desired output
Example Algorithms
Let us first take an example of a real-life situation for creating algorithm. Here is the
algorithm for going to the market to purchase a pen.
Step 4 in this algorithm is in itself a complete task and separate algorithm can be written
for it. Let us now create an algorithm to check whether a number is positive or negative.
Flowchart Elements
Flowchart is a diagrammatic representation of sequence of logical steps of a program.

Flowcharts use simple geometric shapes to depict processes and arrows to show
relationships and process/data flow.
Flowchart Symbols
Here is a chart for some of the common symbols used in drawing flowcharts.
Symbol Symbol Name Purpose
Used at the beginning and end of the algorithm to

Start/Stop
show start and end of the program.
Indicates processes like mathematical operations.

Process
Used for denoting program inputs and outputs.

Input/ Output
Stands for decision statements in a program, where

answer is usually Yes or No.
Decision
Shows relationships between different shapes.

Arrow
Connects two or more parts of a flowchart, which

On-page are on the same page.
Connector
Connects two parts of a flowchart which are spread

Off-page over different pages.
Connector
Guidelines for Developing Flowcharts

These are some points to keep in mind while developing a flowchart −
Flowchart can have only one start and one stop symbol
On-page connectors are referenced using numbers
Off-page connectors are referenced using alphabets
General flow of processes is top to bottom or left to right

Arrows should not cross each other
Example Flowcharts
Here is the flowchart for going to the market to purchase a pen.
Here is a flowchart to calculate the average of two numbers.
Using Clear Instructions

As you know, computer does not have intelligence of its own; it simply follows the
instructions given by the user. Instructions are the building blocks of a computer
program, and hence a software. Giving clear instructions is crucial to building a successful
program. As a programmer or software developer, you should get into the habit of writing
clear instructions. Here are two ways to do that.
Clarity of Expressions
Expression in a program is a sequence of operators and operands to do an arithmetic or
logical computation. Here are some examples of valid expressions −
Comparing two values
Defining a variable, object or class
Arithmetic calculations using one or more variables
Retrieving data from database
Updating values in database
Writing unambiguous expressions is a skill that must be developed by every programmer.

Here are some points to be kept in mind while writing such expressions −
Unambiguous Result
Evaluation of the expression must give one clear cut result. For example, unary operators
should be used with caution.
Avoid Complex Expressions

Do not try to achieve many things in a single expression. Break into two or more
expressions the moment things start getting complicated.
Simplicity of Instructions
It’s not just for computers that you need to write clear instructions. Any one reading the
program later (even you yourself!!) should be able to understand what the instruction is
trying to achieve. It is very common for programmers not to get a hang of their own
programs when they revisit it after some time has passed. This indicates that maintenance
and modification of such programs would be quite difficult.
Writing simple instructions helps in avoiding this problem. Here are some tips to write
simple instructions −
Avoid clever instructions − Clever instructions might not look that clever later if
no one is able to understand it properly.
One instruction per task − Trying to do more than one thing at a time
complicates instructions.
Use standards − Every language has its standards, follow them. Remember you
are not working alone on the project; follow project standards and guidelines for
coding.
Correct Programming Techniques

In this chapter, we will cover how to write a good program. But before we do that, let us
see what the characteristics of a good program are −
Portable − The program or software should run on all computers of same type. By
same type we mean a software developed for personal computers should run on all
PCs. Or a software for written for tablets should run on all tablets having the right
specifications.
Efficient − A software that does the assigned tasks quickly is said to be efficient.
Code optimization and memory optimization are some of the ways of raising
program efficiency.
Effective − The software should assist in solving the problem at hand. A software
that does that is said to be effective.
Reliable − The program should give the same output every time the same set of
inputs is given.
User friendly − Program interface, clickable links and icons, etc. should be user
friendly.
Self-documenting − Any program or software whose identifier names, module

names, etc. can describe itself due to use of explicit names.
Here are some ways in which good programs can be written.
Proper Identifier Names

A name that identifies any variable, object, function, class or method is called an
identifier. Giving proper identifier names makes a program self-documenting. This means
that name of the object will tell what it does or what information it stores. Let’s take an
example of this SQL instruction:
Look at line 10. It tells anyone reading the program that a student’s ID, name and roll
number are to be selected. The names of the variables make this self-explanatory. These
are some tips to create proper identifier names −
Use language guidelines
Don’t shy from giving long names to maintain clarity
Use uppercase and lowercase letters
Don’t give same name to two identifiers even if the language allows it
Don’t give same names to more than one identifier even if they have mutually
exclusive scope
Comments
In the image above, look at line 8. It tells the reader that the next few lines of code will
retrieve list of students whose report card is to be generated. This line is not part of the
code but given only to make the program more user friendly.
Such an expression that is not compiled but written as a note or explanation for the
programmer is called a comment. Look at the comments in the following program
segment. Comments start with //.
Comments can be inserted as −
Prologue to the program to explain its objective
At the beginning and/or end of logical or functional blocks
Make note about special scenarios or exceptions
You should avoid adding superfluous comments as that may prove counterproductive by
breaking the flow of code while reading. Compiler may ignore comments and indentations
but the reader tends to read each one of them.
Indentation
Distance of text from left or right margin is called indent. In programs, indentation is used
to separate logically separated blocks of code. Here’s an example of indented program
segment:
As you can see, indented program is more understandable. Flow of control from for loop
to if and back to for is very clear. Indentation is especially useful in case of control
structures.
Inserting blank spaces or lines is also part of indentation. Here are some situations where
you can and should use indentation −
Blank lines between logical or functional blocks of code within the program
Blank spaces around operators
Tabs at the beginning of new control structures
Programming Methodologies - Debugging

Identifying and removing errors from a program or software is called debugging.
Debugging is ideally part of testing process but in reality it is done at every step of
programming. Coders should debug the smallest of their modules before moving on. This
decreases the number of errors thrown up during the testing phase and reduces testing
time and effort significantly. Let us look at the types of errors that can crop up in a
program.
Syntax Errors
Syntax errors are the grammatical errors in a program. Every language has its own set of
rules, like creating identifiers, writing expressions, etc. for writing programs. When these
rules are violated, the errors are called syntax errors. Many modern integrated
development environments can identify the syntax errors as you type your program.
Else, it will be shown when you compile the program. Let us take an example −
In this program, the variable prod has not been declared, which is thrown up by the
compiler.
Semantic Errors
Semantic errors are also called logical errors. The statement has no syntax errors, so it
will compile and run correctly. However, it will not give the desired output as the logic is
not correct. Let us take an example.
Look at line 13. Here programmer wants to check if the divisor is 0, to avoid division by 0.
However, instead of using the comparing operator ==, assignment operator = has been
used. Now every time the “if expression” will evaluate to true and program will give output
as “You cannot divide by 0”. Definitely not what was intended!!
Logical errors cannot be detected by any program; they have to be identified by the
programmer herself when the desired output is not achieved.
Runtime Errors
Runtime errors are errors that occur while executing the program. This implies that the
program has no syntax errors. Some of the most common run time errors your program
may encounter are −
Infinite loop
Division by '0'
Wrong value entered by user (say, string instead of integer)
Code Optimization
Any method by which code is modified to improve its quality and efficiency is called code
optimization. Code quality determines life span of code. If the code can be used and
maintained for a long period of time, carried over from product to product, its quality is
deemed to be high and it has a longer life. On the contrary, if a piece of code can be used
and maintained only for short durations, say till a version is valid, it is deemed to be of low
quality and has a short life.
Reliability and speed of a code determines code efficiency. Code efficiency is an

important factor in ensuring high performance of a software.
There are two approaches to code optimization −
Intuition based optimization (IBO) − Here the programmer tries to optimize

the program based on her own skill and experience. This might work for small
programs but fails miserably as complexity of the program grows.
Evidence based optimization (EBO) − Here automated tools are used to find
out performance bottlenecks and then relevant portions optimize accordingly.
Every programming language has its own set of code optimization tools. For
example, PMD, FindBug and Clover are used to optimize Java code.
Code is optimized for execution time and memory consumption because time is scarce and
memory expensive. There has to be a balance between the two. If time optimization
increases load on memory or memory optimization makes the code slower, purpose of
optimization will be lost.
Execution Time Optimization

Optimizing code for execution time is necessary to provide fast service to the users. Here
are some tips for execution time optimization −
Use commands that have built-in execution time optimization
Use switch instead of if condition
Minimize function calls within loop structures
Optimize the data structures used in the program
Memory Optimization
As you know, data and instructions consume memory. When we say data, it also refers to
interim data that is the result of expressions. We also need to keep a track of how many
instructions are making up the program or the module we are trying to optimize. Here are
some tips for memory optimization −
Use commands that have built-in memory optimization
Keep the use of variables that need to be stored in registers minimum
Avoid declaring global variables inside loops that are executed many times
Avoid using CPU intensive functions like sqrt()
Program Documentation
Any written text, illustrations or video that describe a software or program to its users is
called program or software document. User can be anyone from a programmer, system
analyst and administrator to end user. At various stages of development multiple
documents may be created for different users. In fact, software documentation is a

critical process in the overall software development process.
In modular programming documentation becomes even more important because different

modules of the software are developed by different teams. If anyone other than the
development team wants to or needs to understand a module, good and detailed
documentation will make the task easier.
These are some guidelines for creating the documents −
Documentation should be from the point of view of the reader
Document should be unambiguous
There should be no repetition
Industry standards should be used
Documents should always be updated
Any outdated document should be phased out after due recording of the phase out
Advantages of Documentation
These are some of the advantages of providing program documentation −
Keeps track of all parts of a software or program
Maintenance is easier
Programmers other than the developer can understand all aspects of software
Improves overall quality of the software
Assists in user training
Ensures knowledge de-centralization, cutting costs and effort if people leave the
system abruptly
Example Documents
A software can have many types of documents associated with it. Some of the important
ones include −
User manual − It describes instructions and procedures for end users to use the
different features of the software.
Operational manual − It lists and describes all the operations being carried out
and their inter-dependencies.
Design Document − It gives an overview of the software and describes design

elements in detail. It documents details like data flow diagrams, entity
relationship diagrams, etc.
Requirements Document − It has a list of all the requirements of the system as

well as an analysis of viability of the requirements. It can have user cases, reallife
scenarios, etc.
Technical Documentation − It is a documentation of actual programming

components like algorithms, flowcharts, program codes, functional modules, etc.
Testing Document − It records test plan, test cases, validation plan, verification
plan, test results, etc. Testing is one phase of software development that needs
intensive documentation.
List of Known Bugs − Every software has bugs or errors that cannot be removed
because either they were discovered very late or are harmless or will take more
effort and time than necessary to rectify. These bugs are listed with program
documentation so that they may be removed at a later date. Also they help the
users, implementers and maintenance people if the bug is activated.
Program Maintenance
Program maintenance is the process of modifying a software or program after delivery
to achieve any of these outcomes −
Correct errors
Improve performance
Add functionalities
Remove obsolete portions
Despite the common perception that maintenance is required to fix errors that come up
after the software goes live, in reality most of the maintenance work involves adding minor
or major capabilities to existing modules. For example, some new data is added to a
report, a new field added to entry forms, code to be modified to incorporate changed
government laws, etc.
Types of Maintenance
Maintenance activities can be categorized under four headings −
Corrective maintenance − Here errors that come up after on-site

implementation are fixed. The errors may be pointed out by the users themselves.
Preventive maintenance − Modifications done to avoid errors in future are called

preventive maintenance.
Adaptive maintenance − Changes in the working environment sometimes

require modifications in the software. This is called adaptive maintenance. For
example, if government education policy changes, corresponding changes have to
be made in student result processing module of school management software.
Perfective maintenance − Changes done in the existing software to incorporate

new requirements from the client is called perfective maintenance. Aim here is to
be always be up-to-date with the latest technology.
Maintenance Tools
Software developers and programmers use many tools to assist them in software
maintenance. Here are some of the most widely used −
Program slicer − selects a part of the program that would be affected by the
change
Data flow analyzer − tracks all possible flows of data in the software
Dynamic analyzer − traces program execution path
Static analyzer − allows general viewing and summarizing of the program
Dependency analyzer − assists in understanding and analyzing interdependence

of different parts of the program
 Previous Page Next Page 
Advertisements
Privacy Policy Cookies Policy Contact

© Copyright 2019. All Rights Reserved.
Enter email for newsletter go

Programming Methodologies Quick Guide

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Programming Methodologies Quick Guide

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

7/11/2019 Programming Methodologies Quick Guide

Programming Methodologies - Quick Guide

 Previous Page Next Page 

Programming Methodologies - Introduction

Types of Programming Methodologies

Example − For a calculator program that does addition, subtraction, multiplication,

interact with each other to give a cohesive solution.

Top-down or Modular Approach

Let us look at the components of a calculator program.

Understanding the Problem

Training and support

What is being done?

How is it being done?

What is the frequency of a task?

What is the volume of decisions or transactions?

What are the problems being encountered?

Some techniques that help in gathering this information are −

Studying existing system documents

Analyzing business data

Incomplete problem definition

Incorrect program goals

Re-work to deliver required outcome to client

Define project scope

Keep the team focused

Keep the project on track

Validate that desired outcome was achieved at the end of project

Identifying the Solution

These are the advantages of flowcharting −

Visual representation helps in understanding program logic

They act as blueprints for actual program coding

Flowcharts are important for program documentation

Flowcharts are an important aid during program maintenance

These are the disadvantages of flowcharting −

Complex logic cannot be depicted using flowcharts

In case of any change in logic or data/work flow, flowchart has to be redrawn

Data Flow Diagram

Identifying Mathematical Operations

Occupy memory space

Take time in execution

Determine software efficiency

Affect overall software performance

Applying Modular Techniques

Difficult to write, test and implement one big program

Modifications after the final product is delivered is close to impossible

Maintenance of program very difficult

One error can bring the whole system to a halt

Advantages of Modular Programming

Enables faster development as each module can be developed in parallel

Modules can be re-used

As each module is to be tested independently, testing is faster and more robust

Debugging and maintenance of the whole program easier

Identifying the Modules

It is equally understandable by programmers and non-programmers.

During coding each statement simply needs to be converted to a program

It can be part of documentation and assist in program maintenance.

Let’s look at an example.

Control structures are of these three types −

Decision Control Structures

Selection Control Structures

Repetition / Loop Control Structures

Writing the Algorithm

Promotes effective communication between team members

Enables analysis of problem at hand

Acts as blueprint for coding