In his m o n u m e n t a l research in a n c i e n t

Sanskrit literature, the a u t h o r has restored

gaps in lexicons, a n d removed d o u b t s in
the later Sanskrit works a b o u t the identity
of a very large n u m b e r of birds of the
Indian sub-continent.The a n c i e n t sages
of India were great lovers of n a t u r e , with
k e e n powers of observation a n d an ex-
t r a o r d i n a r y sensitivity a b o u t a n i m a l
behaviour. T h e Vedas, Puranas, Epics a n d
Samhitas are full of descriptions of birds,
animals a n d plants, b u t the exact identi-
fication of n a m e s h a d got lost or con-
f o u n d e d over the centuries.
Acharya V.M. Apte, the great Sanskrit
scholar described this contribution of the
a u t h o r in the following words: "It will b e
a study—the fascination of which will b e
m a t c h e d only by its utility. Scholars intel-
lectually constituted with a purely theo-
retical bias a n d studying N a t u r e n o t in
the o p e n b u t t h r o u g h books, have n o t a
leg to stand o n in this field a n d we will
feel highly i n d e b t e d to a scholar who
introduces the ancient (and also m o d -
ern, because surviving still) Birds in Vedic
a n d Classical Sanskrit Literature to us in
such a way as to m a k e us feel that we can
actually a d m i r e their colourful p l u m a g e
a n d appreciate the effusions of their vo-
cal chords."
This b o o k fills a void in Sanskrit litera-
ture, a n d should prove useful n o t only to
scholars, b u t also to researchers w h o may
be inspired by it to delve d e e p e r into
Sanskrit texts a n d ancient I n d i a n culture.
 K.N. D A V E , was b o r n in 1884 in Panna,
t h e n a princely State a n d now in Madhya
Pradesh. H e h a d his schooling in Sagar
a n d took the B.Sc. degree f r o m Allahabad;
t h e n h e taught Chemistry at St. J o h n ' s
College, Agra, simultaneously studying
Law. H e practised at the Bar, served as a
Civil J u d g e in C.P. a n d Berar, a n d later
j o i n e d the newly created I n c o m e Tax
D e p a r t m e n t , retiring as an Assistant Com-
missioner in 1940. After I n d e p e n d e n c e ,
h e was a M e m b e r of the Madhya Pradesh
Public Service Commission f r o m 1948 to
1953.
Dave h a d a k e e n interest in Indian lit-
e r a t u r e since 1904, a n d in N a t u r e Study
f r o m a very early age. Birds a n d bird
behaviour fascinated h i m ever since h e
started k e e p i n g birds as pets, a h o b b y h e
c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t his life. An e x p e r t
ornithologist, a n d a scholar of e m i n e n c e
in the Vedas, P u r a n a s a n d classical San-
skrit works, Dave devoted nearly two de-
cades to systematic research with a view to
identify birds described in Sanskrit litera-
ture by relating the details of their habi-
tat, coloration a n d various characteristics
to m o d e r n scientific observations, and to
the names current in Hindi and other lan-
guages and dialects of the country.
At the time of his d e a t h in N o v e m b e r ,
1983, the a u t h o r was working o n a f u r t h e r
m a j o r research contribution o n "The Mys-
dc Cult of H o n e y e d Soma a n d Symbolic
Victims of the Veda". It is a m a t t e r f o r
d e e p regret that h e could n o t live to
complete that work. However, it is h o p e d
that a brief m o n o g r a p h p r e p a r e d by him
earlier will soon b e m a d e available to
scholars who may wish to delve d e e p into
the Vedic mysticism u n c o v e r e d by Dave.
 First Edition: 1985
Revised Edition: Delhi, 2005

© M O T I L A L BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE L I M I T E D

All R i g h t s R e s e r v e d
CONTENTS
Introduction jx
I S B N : 81-208-1842-3 Works Read/Consulted x v j j

List of Colour Plates xx j

1. Crows a n d Their Allies j
A. Ravens and Crows j
M O T I L A L B A N A R S I D A S S B. Choughs 9
41 U A B u n g a l o w R o a d , J a w a h a r N a g a r , D e l h i 1 10 0 0 7 C. Nutcrackers jj
8 Mahalaxmi C h a m b e r , 22 Bhulabhai Desai Road, M u m b a i 400 026
2 3 6 , 9 t h M a i n III B l o c k , J a y a n a g a r , B a n g a l o r e 5 6 0 0 1 1 D. Magpies jj
120 R o y a p e l l a h H i g h R o a d , M y l a p o r e , C h e n n a i 600 0 0 4
Sanas Plaza, 1 3 0 2 Baji R a o R o a d , P u n e 411 002
E. J a y s and Rollers j5
8 C a m a c S t r e e t , Kolkata 700 017 2. Tits 21
A s h o k R a j p a t h , P a t n a 800 0 0 4
C h o w k , V a r a n a s i 221 001
3. Parrot-bills and Suthoras 23
4. Nuthatches 24
5. Laughing Thrushes & Babblers 28
A. Birds equal in size to or
larger t h a n the common M y n a 28
B. Birds of the size of a Sparrow 31
6. Bulbuls 34
7. T r e e creepers 40
8. Wrens 42
9. Dippers 43
10. T h e T h r u s h Family 44
11. Fly Catchers 53
12. Shrikes 57
13. Minivets 53
14. Swallow-shrikes gl
15. Drongos g2
16. Warblers 53
17. Gold-crests 70
18. T h e Fairy Blue-bird 71
19. Orioles 72
20. Grackles or Hill-Mynas 81
21. Starlings and Mynas 84
22. Weaver-birds and Munias 88
A. Weaver-Birds 88
P r i n t e d in I n d i a B. M u n i a s 39
BY IAINENDRA PRAKASH JAIN AT SHRI JA1NF.NDRA PRESS,
A-45 NARAINA, PHASE-I, NEW DELHI 110 0 2 8
23. Finches a n d Buntings 92
AND P U B I I S H F D BY NARENDRA PRAKASH JAIN FOR A. Finches 92
M O T I I A I . BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED,
B. Buntings 95
B U N G A L O W ROAD, DELHI 110 007
 ( xii )
( vii )
24. Waxwing 97
54. Sand-Grouse 265
25. M a r t i n s & Swallows
55. Pea-Fowl, J u n g l e Fowls, Pheasants & Quails 268
26. Wagtails a n d Pipits 102
A. Peafowl 270
A. Wagtails 102
B. J u n g l e Fowls and Pheasants 271
B. Pipits 107
C. Tragopans, Blood Pheasants & Partridges 279
27. Larks 108
D. Quails and Bustard Quails 284
28. T h e White Eye 112
56. Magapodes 290
29. T h e Ruby-cheek 113
114 57. Bustard Quails 291
30. T h e Sun-Birds
58. Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks & Coot 292
31. Flower-peckers H®
117 59. Masked Finfoot 303
32. Pittas
l i 8 60. Jacanas 394
33. Broad-bills
61. T h e Painted Snipe 307
34. Wood-peckers I19
123 62. Cranes 309
35. Barbets
63. Bustards 325
36. Honey-guide I26
127 64. Stone-Plovers 332
37. Cuckoos
65. Coursers & Pratincoles 333
A. Parasitic Cuckoos I27
66. Crab-Plovers 335
B. Non-Parasitic Cuckoos I37
67. Skuas 337
38. Paroquets or Parrots 141
68. Gulls 333
39. Rollers I46
69. Terns 345
40. T h e Bee-eaters I47
70. Skimmer or Scissorbill 351
41. T h e Kingfishers
71. Plovers 357
42. Hornbills 159
72- Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper etc. 364
43. Hoopoes 162
44. T h e Trogons 164 73. Pelicans 370
45. Swifts 165 74. Cormorants & D a r t e r 371
46. Nightjars 170 75. G a n n e t or Booby 375
47. Frogmouths 172 76. Tropic Bird 377
48. T h e Barn Owl 173 77. Erigatebird 373
49. O t h e r Owls 175 78. Petrels 379
50. Osprey 185 79. Spoonbill 339
51. Vultures & Lammergeyer 188 80. Ibises 33 j
52. Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds: 198 81. Storks 339
A. T r u e Eagles 198 82. Herons, Egrets a n d Bitterns 400
B. Hawk Eagles, Serpent Eagles and Buzzard Eagles 210 83. Flamingos 408
C. Sea Eagles, Fishing Eagles 212 84. Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 422
D. Falcons and Hawks 215 85. Grebes 45 j
I . Introductory 215 86. Divers 453
I I . Falcons 221 Index 465
I I I . Hawks 235 Sanskrit-Pali-Prakrit Index 483
E. Kites, Harriers a n d Buzzards 242
53. Pigeons and Doves 250
A. Introductory 250
B. Pigeons 252
C. Doves 257
 INTRODUCTION

I have been interested in birds from my younger days and have kept
talking Parrots, the smaller Skylarks, Mynas, Lai Munias, Racket-tailed
Drongo, and Love-birds. This led my friend, K a m t a Prasad Sagreiya,
I.F.S., to ask me to prepare a list of Hindi names for the birds exhibited
in the Museum at Nagpur. In the course of that work I had often to con-
sult Sanskrit lexicons for derivation of names in Hindi. T h a t done, I
naturally turned to the identification of bird-names in Sanskrit, for the
dictionaries rendered a good few of them as ' a kind of bird' only. Soon
after this was completed, I was closely associated with my friend, the
late Dr. Raghuvira, Director, International Academy of Indian Culture,
in the compilation of his book, Indian Scientific Nomenclature of Birds of India,
Burma and Ceylon, according to the trinomial system of the Fauna of British
India by S t u a r t Baker (1922-1930). I n my present work, I have followed
the order of bird-families of S. Baker, and the absence of birds of certain
families in Sanskrit books consulted by me has been noted under the related
chapters.
II
1. T h e Rgveda, concerned chiefly with the mystic Soma cult, men-
tions only about twenty birds which, however, does not imply that the
Vedic poets' knowledge was confined to those birds only. T h e y must have
been familiar with birds of their neighbouring forest. Their powers of
observation, love of birds, and prejudice againt some m a y be briefly
illustrated: R V 1.164.20 presents a beautiful picture of two birds—one of
beautiful plumage ( g w e.g. the Golden Oriole) and the other a bird of
prey (gTW—an Eagle)— sharing as friends a common tree for their abode,
and while the former enjoys the sweet berries of the tree (Ficus religiosa)
the other, not eating the berries, keeps a lookout (for prey) perched high u p
on the tree. 1 R V 2.42 and 43 describe the welcome pleasant notes of the
auspicious Grey Partridge (^PHRT) and the poet lovingly blesses the bird
that it may not fall prey to a hawk or to a bow-man. Further, he pays it
high compliment by describing its sweet notes as a (song of praise)-.
O n the other hand the Rock Pigeon (F^R) and the Hooting Owl (^FT) are
condemned as birds of ill omen in R V 10.165.4.
1. I t is n o t necessary to b r i n g out here the highly mystic transfer of the p i c t u r e to a
p a r t i c u l a r aspect of the mystic S o m a cult in the n e x t two verses of the h y m n (consisting of
 ( - ) ( xi )

2. T h e A t h a r v a v e d a also shows familiarity with birds of p r e y like the lakes earlier, have come back a g a i n to t h e m (and r u n the risk of being killed
! f , a r 7 n F f " 0 r t h e R e d - h e a d e d M e r l i n who h u n t in pairs by archers for f o o d ) . " I n R a g h u v a m s a X I I I . 5 5 flocks of the ^ T ^ ^ r a r e said
AV 7.70.3). T h e m u t u a l a t t a c h m e n t of a p a i r of the B r a h m i n y Ducks to visit I n d i a f r o m the M a n a s a r o v a r a lake, a n d the H i m a l a y a n passes
(TOT*) who keep together d u r i n g the day a n d move a p a r t d u r i n g the night through w h i c h these birds a n d the cranes fly over to I n d i a a r e called
m search of food a m o n g w a t e r plants b u t keep in touch with one a n o t h e r and respectively.
by m u t u a l calls u the basis for p r o n o u n c i n g a blessing for m u t u a l love u p o n 5. By the time A V 20.135 c a m e to be composed, the prejudice against
a newly m a r r i e d couple in A V 14.2.64. the pigeon h a d disappeared, for in verse 12 of the h y m n , I n d r a is said to
3. By the time the S a m h i t a s of the Y a j u r v e d a c a m e to be com- have helped a w o u n d e d pigeon w i t h food a n d w a t e r ; a n d we also note it
posed (c. 1000 B.C.) the I n d o - A r y a n s h a d become familiar with m a n y as a pet bird ('l^+'-fld) in ^Mfa+ir'nCHd 4.17. W e have seen above how as
m o r e birds a n d able to teach the Hill M y n a a n d t h e P a r r o t (*rrft a n d « * ) » early as the age of the Y a j u s Samhitas, Parrots a n d M y n a s were trained to
t o r e p e a t h u m a n speech, a n d the priests a t the horse-sacrifice dedicated talk, a n d we m a y n o t be surprised if the practice of keeping n u m b e r s of
them to the goddess of speech, a n d to ( V S 24*33) T h e y pretty birds h a d become c o m m o n with kings a n d the rich, for we find in
h a d also observed the parasitic h a b i t of the I n d i a n K o e l laying its eggs in the Act I V of v^Wfifcf t h a t the courtesan TO^RfrT m a i n t a i n e d a large variety of
nests of crows, a n d allotted it u n d e r the n a m e of a r a r o to the half m o n t h s birds in her p a l a c e including a. p a r r o t w h i c h could repeat even verses f r o m
because it assigned the work of b r o o d i n g on its eggs a n d bringing u p the the V e d a . P e t birds were also c o m m o n in all hermitages.
y o u n g to others ( V S 24.37). T h e Yajus S a m h i t a s m e n t i o n a b o u t sixty
6. Love of the calls of certain birds explains the comparison of the
birds in all in the litany of the horse-sacrifice.
tones of music w i t h the pleasant voices of b i r d s like the Peacock, H a w k -
4 T h e broad V - f o r m of a flight of Demoiselle C r a n e s was copied cuckoo, Sarasa C r a n e , a n d the Kokil in 1.3.46. O n the other
by the P a n d a v a s in their w a r against the K a u r a v a s for t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of h a n d , the silly p r i d e of a physician w e n t so far as to c o m p a r e the pulse-
a s q u a d r o n u n d e r the n a m e of (MBh 6.51.1) a n d this formation beats of certain patients with the gait or steps of Geese, Peacock, Dove,
has b e e n well-defined in ch. 4, sec. 7. 297: - A s the flight of cranes Pigeon, Cock, Q u a i l , P a r t r i d g e etc. in t h e book TT^Mwr w h e r e the a u t h o r
across the a i r assumes a regular f o r m a t i o n , so should the state's a r m y proudly declares t h a t he has indicated the best m e t h o d of j u d g i n g ailments
( ^ f ) b e a r r a n g e d w h e n a t w a r like the ^ r . " Like the Crane, the for the i g n o r a n t physicians:
B a r h e a d e d Goose is also a winter visitor in I n d i a a n d a flock 7. Some p o p u l a r maxims have also been coined after the ways of
3
takes to wing in V - f o r m a t i o n , a n d the Monkey-force of R a m a c a n d r a birds, e.g. T M N ^ F K HJFT, s r ^ f S f A y^rre , etc. T h e last
assuming the f o r m of Geese in the air attacked the demon- of these is based u p o n a wrong belief t h a t the crow has only one eye-ball
force of R a v a n a ( R a m . V I . 69.36-37). T h e r e t u r n o f t h e geese to the I n d i a n because the b i r d , w h e n looking d o w n f r o m a high perch turns its h e a d
lakes a n d tanks in winter has been very compassionately m e n t i o n e d in Visnu b o t h right a n d left. T h e qkak^TR is clearly reflected in the s r r f ^ r V I .
P u r a n a , V.10.9: " L i k e a n imperfect ^ who n a t u r a l l y suffers f r o m worry 28, w h e r e the p - (Goose) is credited with the h a b i t of sucking u p only
a n d m a n y a n obstacle, the Geese (sprr:) who h a d deserted the tanks a n d pure milk f r o m a m i x t u r e of milk a n d water. This, however, seems to be
poetic extension of the V e d i c picture of the S u n as a Swan or Goose (p-:
wf^r?, R V 4.40.5) who sucks u p p u r e w a t e r (aft, R V . 1.164.7) with his
r i d d l e s ) . T h e single verse, d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e o t h e r t w o is d i f f e r e n t l y i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e
m u c h later y * . ^ a n d the f ^ . the tree as the h u m a r l b o d y a n d ^ birds rays f r o m even m u d d y pools.
as t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e S u p r e m e spirits. 8 . I n the Bh. P. X . 1 5 . 1 1 - 1 3 fondness of Sri K r s n a for sweet notes
As f o r t h e t w o b i r d s s h a r i n g a c o m m o n t r e e for t h e i r a b o d e i n R V 1.164.20 compare a n d songs of birds a n d the d a n c e o f t h e Peacock, is said to be so- great
the s t o r y of t w o b i r d - f r i e n d s , b o t h w o o d p e c k e r s , one quite strong a n d the other quite weak that he l e a r n t to i m i t a t e t h e m q u i t e correctly. I n the G l t a ( 1 0 . 3 0 ) he
T h e latter w a n t e d to share the h a r d w o o d e d tree occupied by the former, b u t despite the identifies himself w i t h F^ta, the best of the b i r d s — ^ J T was the one w h o
strong one's advice against the idea, t r i e d to p e c k a hole in t h e tree a n d lost its life ( J a t a k a , robbed t h e tfftT or anjcT well-guarded by t h e w r s in the
I I - 1 6 2 ) . T h e two b i r d s w e r e t h e G o l d e n b a c k e d a n d the R u f o u s W o o d p e c k e r s ; t h e l a t t e r 9. T h e slow a n d graceful gait of p r e t t y young w o m e n has often been
does n o t d . g a h o l e i n a t r e e b u t nests i n t o t h e l e a f y bowls of t r e e - a n t s , a n d as it feeds on the poetically c o m p a r e d to that of a domestic Goose, e.g. in 8.59; jirrc.
ants It e v e n shares it w i t h t h e m . T h e J a t a k a of t h e P a l i T e x t Society c o n t a i n s m a n y b i r d - 1.34; II.2.37; few^r 8.29; J j ^ p f c p 4.28.
stones, a n d t h e story of t h r e e b i r d s in V . 109 c l e a r l y shows t h a t t h e a n c i e n t I n d i a n g a i n e d
3. C o m p . t h e r e n d e r i n g in S a n s k r i t of t h e first h a l f of the A r d h a M a g a d h i N y a y a
k n o w l e d g e of b i r d s f r o m the i n d i g e n o u s tribes ( f s p r p j s ) as well.
verse quoted in s r f ^ T U M t h e A r d h a M a g a d h i lexicon: "ipqT ^ m S Z ' f m ScTTPT I
2. F o r these b i r d s T S 5.5.12 h a s i f c r o r f f c a n d where we must render the
W •mi'MX'Hl' ( t h e s a m e as " E g g first o r t h e h e n first").
w o r d ( f t as ' b r i g h t ' o r b e a u t i f u l , for t h e r e is n o w h i t e M y n a o r P a r r o t in I n d i a a t all
 ( xii ) (
10. T h e authors of the original Epics would seem to have p r e s e n t e d
a more a c c u r a t e picture of the wild scenery including animals, birds a n d
trees, of palaces known to them, b u t we cannot say the same of the later
interpolations, 4 e.g. the extravagant description of the a r e a of the
Himalayas in JTfWTCT I I I . 158.44-45 where the tropical trees, coconut and
the jack-fruit (Trft^T a n d i m ) a r e s a i d to grow; verses 43-47 of this chapter
of the JTfTflTCr have been copied with slight changes in the TOW ch.
V I . 10-22 to describe the jungle surrounding the holy city ofsrfeJT so that
the H i m a l a y a n bird ^nffa a n d the tree a p p e a r to be n a t u r a l there.
11. T h e practice of divination from the ways, movements etc. of birds
( a n d animals) was common to all primitive cultures (Ency. Rel. and Ethics,
s.v. A u g u r y ; Divination; Omens) a n d I n d i a was no exception to it. Books
like a n d also Puranas (e.g.srfajtfW chs. 230-232,
chs. 51.66-72) deal with t h e subject.
12. T h e fftfcsrte aprsrresf recommends the protection of auspicious
and even other pleasant a n d cheerful birds a n d animals in pleasure grounds
a n d the practice of sending information a b o u t the enemy by letters tied to
homing pigeons carried with h i m by the king's spy is c o m m e n d e d a n d it
is also referred to i n ^ c + ^ i ^ f t .
13. W e have a good example of sympathetic magic in the hi<.«><. I^T^T
where the first solid food c o m m e n d e d for a six-month-old baby-boy is, 1)
flesh of the female Skylark (^TTOTsft) if his father wants h i m to b e a fluent
speaker; 2) the flesh of the auspicious Grey Partridge (^pssrer) associated
with field crops for a b u n d a n c e of food; or 3) the flesh of the Little Ringed
Plover ( f w ) for long life; or 4 ) the flesh of the Black Ibis (anfe) for
holy lustre sr^rH^T. T h e Black Ibis (a holy bird in Egypt) 5 wears a trian-
gular p a t c h of crimson warts on the crown of its bare black head, a picture
of a conical pile of red embers (sffrT) indicative of its holiness.
14. I n d i a being rich in birds, their place in I n d i a n d r a m a is well
indicated in the TO^raw of C h a p t e r I I of the book refers to the
indication of the features of birds like the Goose, Cock, Pigeon, a n d the
Eagle by a n actor or actress with special movements of the h a n d s a n d
fingers; Ch. X I . 58 tellsus t h a t t h e presentation of birds ( w p t ) by gesti-
culation is very interesting to watch, a n d the birds to be indicated in this
m a n n e r are n a m e d in Ch. X X V I , while Ch. X X X I I deals with the topic
of repetition of a particular voice as a sort of burden, a n d its modifications
in pitch, tune, or quality (sweet, soft, or coarse) are indicative of different
call-notes of certain birds a n d copied by characters of high, middle, or low
social status. T h e Tfmrer X I I . 103.10 mentions an expert bird-catcher who
invites birds with their call-notes to catch or trap them.
4. I n T^rW^XT I I I t h e cffarlT^T c o n s i s t i n g of Chs.' 8 0 t o 156,
a l a t e r i n t e r p o l a t i o n b y its priestly a u t h o r f o r t h e b e n e f i t of his o w n class.
5. I b i s w a s " t h e s a c r e d b i r d of t h e G o d T h o t h ( G o d of W i s d o m ) w h o w a s believed to
h a v e t h e f o r m of t h a t b i r d " (Ency. of Rel. and Ethics, V I , p p . 6 5 0 b , 6 5 1 b ) .
xiii )
I have briefly indicated above that the ancient Indians closely observed
and studied the ways, calls and songs of birds in nature, and utilized their
knowledge to enhance the quality of their literature and d r a m a . T h e y also used
them for purposes of secret news transmission. T h e tffMta s m T ^ , I I , stotw 34
mentions the use of royal homing pigeons for carrying news. A p a r t from d i f f a -
ent and alternative meanings often noticed in Sanskrit lexicons, e.g. ITOWT,
fafafr a n d w in t h e s ^ T f f ^ T or the absurd equation ' ^ T ^ r m f t & in
t h e ^ r ^ w m I m a y refer to the variant renderings of bird names like
rc ftftratfa, TO a n d y W K mentioned in the Vedic Index of M a c D o n e l l a n d
K e i t h which clearly point to the difficulty in identifying the names w i t h
their proper owners. ^ ^ is said therein to m e a n usually a ' h e r o n ' , but in
the same passages it also denotes 'some bird of prey', a n d in support of the
latter references to t h e t f t f f a and TORTM*^ are given. T h e truly my-
stic shape of the sacrificial Fire-altar in the form of a particular WT (a
H a w k ) has been vainly extended by the priests to the a n d even
WTO (crematorium) in «ftr.sf*rr V.4. 11.3. This is really the Fishing
Eagle Bird No. 1779 in S. Baker's Fauna of British India—Birds still called
^ r i n Nepal. I t is also a carrion eater, including the flesh of soldiers killed
in war as is clearly stated in. I I . 1214, where ^ (the
Imperial Eagle, No. 1747, ib.) and TO ( V u l t u r e ) are said to find t h e *
food on the battlefield. is one of the birds of prey in gqer I . 46, V . 74
and as a sharp-billed, bold a n d cruel flesh e a t e r i n T T ^ T W X V I I I . 107. T h e
common Pond Heron 6 , the fish eater, is also a ^ (ib. v. 119), a n d a n o t h e r
water-bird, t h e ^ R ^ f ( s r O T ^ ) is the A d j u t a n t Stork w h o " o f t e n con-
sorts with kites a n d vultures to feed at carcasses" (Salim Ali'sSooA of Indian
Birds) a n d stands about 4 ft. high.
I n the Vedic Index ftrfetfa a n d TO have been treated as two different
birds, the former 'perhaps the blue j a y ' , b u t according to the commentator
'a partridge', a n d the latter the 'blue woodpecker', b u t in point of fact,
however, both =TFT a n d f ^ f o are one a n d the same bird, viz. the blue j a y ,
fefctfr being its epithet in Rgveda 10.97.13, with reference to the
bird's indistinct calls like ' and its playful flight in the air. T h a t is
why the bird is mentioned simply as TO in VS 24. 23; 25.7; M S 3.14.4;
15.9; a n d as frfetfa in T S 5.6.22.1, a n d h ^ t t (sr^rsr) 10.2. Again,
TO of the phrase, 'TOW f W l f W of R V 10.97.13, has b e e n replaced
with' WT in the parallel fofeftPHT' in T S 4.2.6.4, where the wft is the
H i m a l a y a n Kestrel, a winter visitor to the plains, whose flight a n d
calls are described by Salim Ali: " C h i e f l y distinguished for its spec-
tacular method of hunting. Checks itself in flight now a n d again and
remains poised and stationary in mid-air on rapidly hovering wing tips for
would seem to be m a n y seconds. Call: A sharp ftr-ftr-fcor faff... uttered on the wing, some-
6. T h e H e r o n does n o t fly very h i g h , a n d keeps his eyes fixed d o w n o n t h e w a t e r for
fish, a n d does n o t suit t h e c o n t e x t of T S a n d V S .

( xxii )
times when hovering." Now we also have the n a m e < jf«i (sporting, playful,
or dancing) as a n a m e for a bird of prey in p. 327, verse 90 so
that a Kestrel should be the T f # T with which the of the Rgveda has
b e e n replaced by the sporting with far-far as its call in the T S . Finally,
it is interesting to quote both S. Baker on Bird Nos. 1516-17, and Salim
Ali on the Roller or Blue J a y : T h e Kashmir Rollers "spend much of their
time performing acrobatic feats in the air, first twisting one way, then the
other and often making a complete turn...accompanied by much harsh
creaking and shrieking..." ( S . B a k e r ) ; " H a s a variety of loud raucous
creaks a n d chuckles. Indulges in a spectacular courtship display, somer-
saulting and nosediving in the air to the accompaniment of harsh grating
screams" (Salim Ali). We thus see the correctness of the derivation of the
name or epithet,farfa^Vfa.for the ^TTT and both 'partridge' and 'blue wood-
pecker' have nothing to do with it. T h e 3|*u+|!ti, srf^mwf^xmfn' of tr^F? and
<mPiw treat ^rrr and f+f+^fa as synonyms, and the last named lexicon also
stresses the'auspicious nature of the bird with the epithet of yiresfa: in its
fe^rf^t, v. 157.
In the Vedic Index qpfrwre 'sitting on the lotus' is the name of an animal
at the horse sacrifice in T S , MS, a n d VS and the authors do not accept
Zimmer's rendering of it as a 'snake' but are inclined to accept either the
suggestion of R o t h as a 'bird', or of the commentator as a 'bee' (TS
5.5.14.1). It is, however, the name of the bird, the I n d i a n Whiskereds
T e r n which places its nest on top of tangled floating water-plants and also
upon leaves of the totus as is clearly stated by S. Baker in Vo' V I , p. 112,
of his Fauna—Birds : T h e Whiskered Terns make their nests "of reeds and
rushes which are built partly or wholly supported by lily leaves and other
water plants—in large colonies". T h e female is '^H^llfa+l' in g^arafpT and
with 'y.H^llfa'^l in the as a water-bird, the following verse
presents a beautiful picture of the females nesting in a colony amongst the
lotuses under the diminutive name of $<["<+!:—in contrast with their larger
cousins, the River Terns JTft which make no nest a n d always lay their
eggs in deep hollows scratched in sand (Bird No. 2080, in S. Baker), a
fact which brings out the full significance of the epithet or name, jsfrc
(crjr)-*Tre or who are gathering back with their wings their
half-fledged younglings sprawling away from their beds on the lotus leaves:
STTT: "TftPFSTTcPP fTfaFT: ff'T^'T: II
T h u s the guess of R o t h was correct, and not the 'bee' of the commen-
tator, nor the 'snake' of Zimmer.
T h e short notes on a few bird-names from the Vedic Index given above
should make it clear that if one wants to know with a fair degree of cer-
tainty the particular kind of bird meant in a given context, one cannot
always go by the dictionary meanings of the names, or by the published
commentaries or translations, b u t must try to examine the overall context
( xv )
in each case with reference to the period of the composition of a work
(Vedic, Epic or Classical), the geographical setting, the picture an
author wants to present, and the object he has in view. This however,
is easier said than done, for many an example in the Puranas would
be found to be extremely vague, and it is perhaps true to say that the
authors have striven in their compositions more after general effect and
word sympathy than faithfulness to Nature. At the same time it cannot be
denied that there is a considerable volume of hight class poetry which is
quite as close to Nature as poetry can be.
T u r n i n g to the commentaries, we must note that they are generally of
a much later date than the original texts and cannot always be accepted as
correct, for the commentators themselves are not quite sure of their own
renderings of many a name of wild birds or animals, as is evident from
the advice given by in his note on VS X X I V . 20, which mentions
six different birds dedicated as symbolical victims to the six Vedic seasons
of the year: " W h e n the victims cannot be identified one should seek help
from etymology, commentary of on R W grammar, duilPs^d lexicons,
and from the people of the forests." T h e same advice is also given by Acarya
M a h i d h a r a , the second commentrator of VS, as a preliminary to his notes
on the formulae 21-40.
T h e ^TWfffpT and g'f=re%rT divide the birds empirically into four groups:
srg?: (the peckers), faffeprr: (the scratchers), (the water-birds), and SRTfT:
(the birds of prey), but I have tried in this book to follow the scientific
classification of Indian birds and to identify their names in Sanskrit; I have
tried to do my best by a comparative study of their names in Prakrit, Pali,
Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, and at times even in South Indian languages. I
m a y well have gone wrong with a number of both obscure and possibly
corrupt terms for lack of sufficient material, and otherwise too, a situation
not uncommon even with the best of scholars who have dealt with ancient
culture a n d literature.
Ill
T h e probable usefulness of this book on birds for students of Sanskrit
has been anticipated by my friend, Prof. Dr. V. M . Apte, in the following
rather highly colourful words: " I t will be a study—the fascination of which
will be matched only by its utility. Scholars intellectually constituted with a
purely theoretical bias and studying Nature not in the open b u t through
books, have not a leg to stand on in this field and we will feel highly in-
debted to a scholar who introduces the ancient (and also modern, because
surviving still) Birds in Vedic and Classical Sanskrit Literature to us in
such a way as to make us feel that we can actually admire their colourful
p l u m a g e and appreciate the effusions of their vocal chords".
rv
I owe a great debt of gratitude to my friend, the late Dr. Raghuvira
who encouraged me in my work and also lent me some important books
 ( xvi )
from the rich library of the International Academy of Indian Culture. I
also acknowledge my deep obligation to my friend, P a d m a Bhushana, Dr.
Siddheshwar V a r m a , who went through my work with great interest from
the point of view of a general reader, and offered m a n y a valuable
suggestion both with reference to the presentations of particular topics
and the grammatical derivation of some of the Sanskrit and vernacular
bird-names. I was a member for a few years of the Bombay Natural History
Society and am thankful to it for some factual information furnished to
me regarding certain birds and animals.
Finally, I am grateful to the Ministry of Education, Government of
I n d i a for the financial support it has given to the publication of this work.
K
Jabalpur, - N. Dave
J u l y 25, 1980
Postscript
T h e author passed away on the 6th of November, 1983 and could
neither see his work in print-, nor revise this introduction.
I wish to place on record our debt of gratitude, on his behalf, to the
great ornithologist Dr. Salim Ali and the Oxford University Press for their
permission to use the picture plates of birds that greatly enhance the
readability of this work. T h e Oxford University Press deserve our special
thanks for printing the plates.
O u r thanks are also due to the publisher, Motilal Banarsidass for
bringing out this valuable contribution to the study of Sanskrit literature.
A considerable labour of love has been put into the publication of this
work by my brother, P. K. Dave and my wife, Smita.
New Delhi A. K. Dave
J u n e 15, 1984
WORKS READ/CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION
OF THE PRESENT VOLUME
I. T h e Rgveda, Atharvaveda, and Samhitas of the Y a j u r v e d a — t h e
Taittiriya and Vajasaneyi, with translations in English by Griffith,
Wilson, Macdonell, M . Muller (hymns to the M a r u t s ) , H . Olden-
berg (hymns to Agni), W h i t n e y ( A V ) , and Keith (TS)\
II. T h e Epics; R a m a y a n a of Valmiki and the M a h a h h a r a t a together
with the Harivamsa.
I I I . T h e P u r a n a s : V a y u P . (AnandasramaPress, P o o n a ) ; M a t s y a P . (do.);
Markandeya P. (SyamakasiPress, M a t h u r a ) ; Siva M a h a p u r a n a ( d o . ) ;
K u r m a P. (Venkatesvara Press, Bombay) ; Padma P. (do.) ; B r a h m a -
vaivarta P. (do.) ; Brahma P. ( d o ) ; S k a n d a P . ( d o . ) ; V a r a h a P. ( d o . ) ;
B r a h m a n d a P. ( d o . ) ; Naradiya M a h a . ( d o . ) ; Linga P. (do.) ;
Bhavisya P. (do.) ; G a r u d a P. ( d o . ) ; Bhagavata P. (Gita Press, Gora-
k h a p u r ) ; Visnu P. (do.) ; the J a i n a M a h a P. (Adi P. and U t t a r a P.
by Jinasenacarya and G u n a b h a d r a c a r y a , Syadvada G r a n t h a m a l a
No. 4 ) .
IV. All the works of Kalidasa a n d B h a v a b h u t i ; Anargha-raghava of M u r a -
r i ; Prasanna-raghava o f j a y a d e v a ; Prabodha-candrodaya of K r s n a
Misra Y a t i ; Venlsamhara of Bhatta N a r a y a n a ; Mrcchakatika of
Sudraka; S u b h a d r a - D h a n a n j a y a and Tapati-samvarana of Kulas-
ekhara V a r m a ; Sisupala-vadha of M a g h a ; S a u n d a r a n a n d a of Asva-
ghosa; Kiratarjuniya of Bharavi; Naisadha-carita of Sriharsa;
G l t a - g o v i n d a o f j a y a d e v a ; Bhartfhari's S a t a k a t r a y a m ; Natya-sastra
of Bharata M u n i ; Bala-Ramayana of Kavi-sekhara; R a m a y a n a -
m a n j a r l & Bharata-manjarl of K s e m e n d r a ; A m a r u - S a t a k a ; K a d -
a m b a r i Purva-bhaga; P a n c a t a n t r a ; Hitopadesa; Aryasaptasati of
G o v a r d h a n a ; Vikramankadeva-carita of Bilhana; Bhojaprabandha
of Ballala; Buddhacarita of Asvagbosa; Kautiliya Arthasastra;
Mudra-raksasa of Visakhadatta; Works published in K a v y a m a l a
series Nos. 3-7, 9 & 14; Subhasita-ratna-bhandagaram (Venkates-
vara Press, Bombay) and quotations under Bird-names in Sabda-
k a l p a d r u m a ; Yasastilaka-campu of Somedeva Suri; Nala-campu of
T r i v i k r a m a ; Bj-hatsamhita of V a r a h a m i h i r a , and Vasantaraja-
sakuna, for birds of a u g u r y ; Katha-sarit-sagaxaj Kausika Sutra,
edited by M . Bloomfield, J A O S Vol. X I V ; S a m a d h i r a j a - S u t r a
(Gilgita Mss. Vol. I I ) ; Smrtinam Samuccayah, Poona; Yajnavalkya
Smrti; Dharm-shastra-sahgraha, Vol, 1; Apastamba D h a r m a - S u t r a ;
 ( xxii ) (
Manusmrti; Mrga-paksi-sastra of Hamsadeva, translated by M.
Sundaracarya.
V. Protection of birds:
T h e fifth Pillar Edict of Emperor As'oka prohibits the killing of about
ten birds; and so do several Smrti works, e.g. Manusmrti, ch. 5.
11-14; Visnusmrti, ch. 50. 32—38, and ch. 51. 29-31, prescribes
expiation for eating t h e m ; the Parasarasmrti or samhita,ch. 6.2-8,
provides expiation for the killing of different birds numbering about
thirty-six in all.
V I . Prakrit and Pali works :
Lalita-vistar, D r . R a j e n d r a l a l a Mitra's edn.
Supas-nahacariam (Suparsvanathacaritam) of Laksmana-gani.
Oyavaiya-suttam ( A u p a p a t i k a S u t r a m ) , edited by N.G. Suru,
Poona.
Panhavagarnaim (Prasnavyakaranam), the tenth Anga of the J a i n a
canon, ed. by Amulya C a n d r a Sen ( W u r z b u r g ) , Section 3, ch. 1,
mentions over fifty-birds.
Sutta-Nipata; Digha-Nikaya; Anguttara-Nikaya; Majjhima-Nikaya,
of the Pali T e x t Series. Sandesa-Rasaka of A b d u r - r a h a m a n a
Singhi J a i n a M a l a , No. 22, ed. by Shri J i n a Vijaya Muni. Verses,
140 & 144, mention the pleasant notes of certain birds during the
rainy season; others in 164 & 165, during a u t u m n ; and others in
217, during spring.
The J a t a k a : quite a n u m b e r of J a t a k a stories have bird-titles, e.g.
Tittiri J a t a k a ; K u k k u t a J . ; H a m s a J . ; Baka J . etc., and more than
fifty different birds are mentioned in them.
V I I . Medical works:
T h e Mamsa-Varga of the Samhitas of Garaka and Susruta classify
the birds empirically u n d e r four groups a n d describe the properties
of their flesh for use as medicine, b u t while the book Hastyayur-
veda does so for the treatment of the wounds and diseases of the
elephant, it also recommends the keeping of the royal m o u n t in the
jungle and near water during the spring, rains, a n d autumn, where
he is expected to improve his health and also poetically to enjoy the
company and the music of the birds—also the roar of the tiger. T h e
Bhela-Samhita, said to be older than the Garaka, prescribes the flesh
of the various birds more often than Caraka and Susruta for the
treatment of various h u m a n diseases.
V I I I . Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and other lexicons:
Amarakosa; Abhidhana-cintamani and Anekartha-samgraha of
H e m a c a n d r a , the , latter with the coram of M a h e n d r a , ed. by T h .
Zachariae ( V i e n n a ) ; A b h i d h a n a - r a t n a m a l a of H a l a y u d h a ; R a j a -
nighantu o f H a r i h a r a P a n d i t a ; Bhavaprakas'a-nighantu of S r i B h a v a
M i s r a ; Visva-prakasa of Mahesvara SudhI; Anekartha-kosa of
Sasvata; Trikancjasesa of Puru?ottama; Visvalocana or Muktavali-
xix )
kosa of Sridhhara-senacarya; Astanga-hrdaya-kosa compiled by
K . M . Vaidya ( T r i c h u r a ) ; Kalpadrukosa of Kesava (Baroda);
Vacaspatyam o f T a r a n a t h a Bhattacharya; Abhidhana-Ratnamala of
H a l a y u d h a ; Ratnasamanvayakosa o f R a j a Sabaji; Vaijayantlkosa of
Yadava Prakasa; M a n k h kosa, ed. by T . Zachariae; Medinl-kosa;
Sabdartha-cintamani-kosa; Dhanvantari-nighantu; Madanpala-
nighantu; Sabda-Kalpadruma of R a d h a k a n t a Deva; several U n a d i
Sutras; a n d Hindi Sabda-Sagara; Paia-sadda-mahannavo (Prakrit-
sabda-maharnava; a comprehensive Prakrit-Hindi Diet, with Sanskrit
equivalents) ; Desinama-mala of H e m a c a n d r a ; Paialachhi-nama-
mala of D h a n a p a l a ; A b h i d h a n a - r a j e n d r a ; Ardha-magadhi-kosa;
Abhidhanappadipika by M u n i J i n a Vijaya; Bird-names extracted
from tho Pali Dictionary compiled by the Pali Text Society; M u n d a r i -
English Diet, by N.B. Bhaduri; Maha-vyutpatti-kosa (Bibliotheca
Buddhica, X I I I ) .
A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, and English and Sanskrit Dictionary,
by M . Williams; Practical Sanskrit-English Diet, by V.S. Apte;
Sanskrit Worterbuch (by O t t o Bohtlingk & R u d o l p h R o t h ) from
which references for about fifty bird-names were extracted; Diction-
ary of KashmirianLanguage, by Sir G.A. Grierson.
Books on birds:
Fauna of British India—Birds, 1st ed. by E.W. Oates, a n d 2nd ed. by
S. Baker; Birds of India, by T.G. J e r d o n ; Popular Hand-book of
Indian Birds, by H. Whistler; I n d i a n Birds or Avifauna of British
India, by J a m e s A. M u r r a y ; G a m e Birds of India, 1. by H u m e and
Marshall (Vols. 2 & 3), 2: by S. Baker; Indian Ducks a n d Their
Allies, by S. Baker; Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali; Birds of
Prey of P u n j a b , by G.H. Donald (Bombay N.H.S., vol., X X V I ) ;
Baz-Nama-i-Nasiri, by Hussain a n d Lt. Gol. D.G. Phillot; Birds of
the Indian Garden, by T. Bainbrigge; Birds of Darjeeling a n d India,
by L . J . Mackintosh and G.M. Inglis; Common Birds of India, by
Douglas Dewar and Yeats; Cambridge Natural History, Vol. IX., by
A . H . Evans; Several Vols, of ornithology of the Naturalists Library,
and also of Stray Feathers by A. O. H u m e & others; Cassell's Book of
Birds edited by T . R . Jones; H u m e ' s Nest and Eggs of Indian Birds;
and few others. Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, by Macdodell &
Keith, for birds in Vedic literature; Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics; Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th and 14th edns.
 LIST OF C O L O U R PLATES
PLATE I
Fig.
1
1. I n d i a n Grey Shrike
2. I n d i a n Bay backed Shrike 2
3. Rufous backed Shrike 3
4. I n d i a n White-bellied Drongo 4
5. I n d i a n Golden Oriole 5
6. Crow-billed Drongo 6
7. White-breasted Swallow Shrike 7
8. Marshall's Iora 8
9. Grey Hypocolius or Shrike—Bulbul 9
10. Waxwing 10

PLATE II
Fig.
1. European Tree Pie 1
2. T a w n y Pipit 2
3. R e d t h r o a t e d Pipit 3
4. Central Asian W a t e r Pipit 4
5. U p l a n d Pipit 5
6. Blue-headed Yellow Wagtail
H e a d of Grey-headed
Head of Turkestan Black-headed 6
7. I n d i a n White Wagtail
H e a d of Masked Wagtail 7
8. N o r t h e r n Yellow-headed Wagtail 8

PLATE III
Fig.
1. Red-faced Malkoha 1
2. Sirkeer Cuckoo 2
3. Hawk-Cuckoo 3
4. Blossomheaded Parakeet 4
5. Layard's Parakeet 5
6. Ceylon Lorikeet 6
7. Violet Cuckoo 7
8. Banded Bay Cuckoo 8
9. Small Cuckoo 9
10- Drongo Cuckoo 10
 ( xxii ) ( xxiii )

PLATE VIII
PLATE IV
Fig.

1. Changeable Hawk-Eagle 1 1. Demoiselle Crane — 1

2. White-bellied Sea-Eagle 2 2. T h e Black-necked Crane 2
3. Hodgson's H a w k Eagle 3 3. T h e Hooded Crane 3
4. Short-toed Eagle 4 4. T h e Great White or Siberian Crane 4
5. Eastern Steppe-Eagle 5 5. T h e Eastern Common Crane 5
6. Greater Spotted Eagle 6 6. Macqueen's Bustard (or H o u b a r a ) 6
7. Golden Eagle 7 7. T h e Little Bustard 7
8. Imperial Eagle 8 8. T h e Lesser Florican 8
9. T h e Great I n d i a n Bustard 9
10. T h e Bengal Florican 10
PLATE V

Fig. PLATE IX

1. Rufous-bellied H a w k Eagle 1 Fig.

2. Crested Serpent Eagle 2 1. Rosy Pelican 1
3. 3 2. W h i t e Stork 2
Forest Eagle Owl
4 3. Black Stork 3
4. Crested Hawk Eagle
5. Grey-headed Fishing Eagle 5 4. Flamingo 4
5. Lesser Flamingo 6
6. Bearded Vulture 6
PLATE VI /. H i m a l a y a n Griffon 7
8. Scavenger Vulture 8
1. Spotted Sandgrouse 1 9. Common Peafowl 9
2. Large Pintail Sandgrouse 2
3. Tibetan Sandgrouse 3 PLATE X
4. Coronetted Sandgrouse 4
Fig.
5. Imperial Sandgrouse 5
1. Red-tailed Tropic Bird 1
6. Indian Sandgrouse 6
2. Great White-bellied Heron 2
7. Painted Sandgrouse 7
3. I n d i a n Reef Heron 3
4. Bittern 4
5. Giant Heron 5
PLATE VII
6. Black Ibis 6
7. Glossy Ibis 7
Fig.
8. Spoonbill 8
1. Nakta 1
9. Yellow Bittern 9
2. White-winged Wood Duck 2
10. Little Bittern 10
3. Cotton Teal 3
4- Greylag Goose 4
5 PLATE XI
5. Lesser Whistling Teal
6 Fig.
6. Barheaded Goose
7 1. Blue-breasted Banded Rail 1
7. Brahminy Duck
8 2. Purple Moorhen 2
8. Large Whistling Teal
9 3. Painted Snipe 3
9. Spotbill Duck
10 4. Pheasant-tailed J a c a n a 4
10. Mallard
 ( xxiv )

5. Chinese White-breasted Waterhen 5

6. Moorhen 6
7. Bronze-winged J a c a n a 7
8. Coot 8
9. Masked Finfoot 9
10. Kora or Water-cock 10
[Do please observe well the area full of wild animals a n d birds in this
great forest.]
PLATE XII
Fig. f? * ^ srfavTTfk traprik i
1. Wigeon 1 f f^iTTftTTcT ! gfecTTScSfa II
2. Gadwall 2
qsi I
3. Common Teal 3
4. Pintail 4
5. White-eyed Pochard 5 MBh 12.150. 14-15
6. T u f t e d Duck 7 [This magnificent picture of thine is very charming indeed, O Lord of
7. Garganey 8 the forest, when these birds are happily enjoying themselves upon trees,
8. Shoveller 6 O dear ! and their sweet musical notes are distinctly heard as they sing
9. Greater Crested Crebe 9 beautifully during the season of fragrant flowers (the Spring).]
10 Little Grebe 10

Plates I to V I placed immediately after C h a p t e r 50;

Plates V I I T o X I I immediately after C h a p t e r 60
 1

CROWS & THEIR ALLIES

A. RAVENS & C R O W S
1 I n the Crow tribe we find "bird brains at their highest", and recogni-
tion of the virtues and vices of the common Crow is writ large in Sanskrit
literature, the Jataka-Stories and Folk-Tales. The of the T ^ I W
for examlpe, is fully illustrative of the wisdom and shrewd cunning of our
friend, the House-Crow. Popular tradition places him on a footing of
equality with that universal character, the barber :

JTTTWT ^TTfacft TO: Tfawt TO ^TTTO.

- S u b h a . 159, 279.
2. Among Indian birds, the Crow enjoys the distinction of having the
largest number of names and adnouns or epithets in the Sanskrit language.
T h e srs^TJT has collected no fewer than 36 synonyms for the common
Crow and yet the list is by no means exhaustive. T h e expression ^Rwuftr
used in frckrcrfpT, ch. 11, stands for the 'the Crow family or Corvidae, and
both and 3TTO are in general use for any Crow. T h e poets, however,
have often used synonyms like T>vct RrnwT, srfaj^, etc., to suit their verse.
3. Generally speaking, Indian Crows may be placed in the following
seven easily recognizable categories :-
(i) The all-black Punjab and Tibetan Ravens (length 26"-28")
which are quite as large as, though lighter than, the Common Pariah Kite
( w j f t ) , and they are the frowf^r or ^ s r f f a 1 of the Vedas and s W i *
f^TF?) of literature.
(ii) The Brown-necked Raven of Sind (22") of an umber-brown
colour, more so on the neck and shoulders, is the TWJK of T l f ^ jtrw and
probably ^OTTO of the lexicons.
(iii) The Carrion and Jungle Crows (19"), entirely black, heavier
than the House-Crow but much smaller than the Raven is the
^TFPfa or simply the proper in a specific sense. They are also the e^tsst
o f A V . 11.9.9 and 12.4.8. -

1. T h e s e a n d other S a n s k r i t n a m e s in this p a r a are discussed l a t e r on.

 12 Crows and their Allies 2
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

(iv) The Rook (19") is wholly black but the adult bird has the basal
third of its bill almost white. It is the fira-fl^H^ or the Black-and-
white-billed Crow of stwu^r and probably the tot* of the lexicons.
(v) The Eastern Hooded Crow (19") has the entire head and neck,
the central part of the upper breast, the wings and tail glossy black. T h e
upper and lower back and underparts are drabgrey. It is the •AHIHI
the'Black-faced' Crow of ^r^rcrsr.
(vi) The House-Crow (17") which appropriates the daily qfa^f^T of the
twice-born, and the offerings to the dead is the or 2TFTCT. It bears
the distinctive name of^H-^fa+l* after its grey neck and breast in 4«'d<H.
It the 5rT*ft"r*Ffr of the lexicons.
(vii) The Jackdaw of Kashmir (13") , migrating in winter to the near-
by plains, is the (thieving Crow) of M a h a b h a r a t a and T^W^T* of
WxTTTsr.
4. As a preliminary to a detailed consideration of these varieties, a
workable classification of Crows may be referred to here. The *TfT=aTPTf%*tw
mentions three kinds of Crows, viz., (a) iV<\*\*, the Raven, (b) the
all black Crow like the Carrion and Jungle Crows, and (c) ST^TCT, the
House-Crow. The TsfVsraT^fW, 6. 8. also distinguishes between and
TO, and the distinction has been observed in the M a h a b h a r a t a and the
Puranas where punishments based upon the doctrine of re-birth are provid-
ed for petty larceny. Persons stealing fish or flesh, for instance, are destin-
ed to be reborn as the carrion-eating ^Ffr1 while those filching iron goods
would become ^rm. 2 Again, the punishment for theft of milk is rebirth as
an all-white Egret (SRTT*T, ^ 5 T T F * * T ) 3 based upon a similarity of colour, or
a *r* 4 by way of a complete contrast of colour. Similarly, in poetic compari-
sons between the Crow and the Indian Koel the former is invariably a
and not a WPT5T, thus emphasizing the jet black o f t h e plumage com-
mon to both. Speaking generally, however, this distinction between the
and the ^rTsrcr has faded away both in the lexicons and the popular mind.
Even Varahamihira and others have not observed it.
5. sFRwrsr has afar and TOrtsr for the Raven, and sttto, etc., for
other species including the House-Crow, srfao F ^ T F R F W , and TTSTPTTC
have adopted this two-fold division but give additional names under each
of them. The common names for a Crow need not detain us but the so-
called synonyms for the Raven require some consideration. These are :—
(a) <TT." ( e a c h of these
epithets followed by the word ^T^r:) ^TPSRSJ ^T^pf:
—3Tfaro f ^ c n r f t r
(b) m w R t t : i 3T<uAMRr*rt sfror:
1 ^ r s r m : k sffa?r: ^ n i r f a
(cj Jlur+'W: FTRT ^T^t^ftST^T^TW: I
^rsrm: ^TT^t ( w ? ) fspr:1 n
The has a mixed list :
(d) 3tiT: TfcSrsftsfTsfr W.^Z ^ f q f r I
2
t.^r+r^T nfe ^fr^r srrgT:3 n
An
examination of the above synonyms for the Raven shows that lexico-
graphers have treated all black Crows including the Raven as varieties of a
common type. Nevertheless, some at least of the above names, based as
they are on some characteristic of each bird, offer the best clue'to the ident-
ity of their respective owners. T h e lexicons, as is well known, were prepared
as help to the poets to enable them to pick out words that would suit the
metre in hand, and this has resulted in a mix-up of names of allied forms
everywhere. The point is that some of the apparent synonyms for
are really specific for other black Crows while a number of descriptive epi-
thets like JTfnrrr, TOW, etc., have been converted into adnouns or subs-
tantive names. It may well be that when the Indo-Aryans spread beyond
and away from the Punjab the Jungle Crow (sst^st or f u r o r e ) replaced the
Raven in their minds and thus came to be equated with it in the lexicons.
At the same time the Brown-necked Raven, the Rook and the Jackdaw were
forgotten or lost their identity.
6. p-^r, author of an alleged book of the 13th century entitled wrfsr-
siror, perhaps available in translation only, has arbitrarily selected twelve
names for describing as many varieties of the Crow and given fanciful des-
criptions of them. His treatment of other birds also, with exceptions here
and there, is equally fanciful but even his absurd classification 4 makes it
1. F o r t h e "fiwfsrT-^PFS See S e c t i o n G of this article.
2. T h e n a m e , (lit. son of I n d r a ) , is b a s e d u p o n a story r e l a t e d in P a d m a P u r a n a ,
U t t a r a K h a n d a , C h . 242, N r s i m h a P., C h . 43, a n d in t h e i n t e r p o l a t e d c h a p t e r , b e t w e e n
chs, 95 a n d 96, of A y o d h y a K a n d a of V a l m i k i R a m a y a n a ( B o m b a y e d . ) . j a y a n t a , the
son of I n d r a , a s s u m i n g t h e f o r m of a c r o w , insulted S i t a a n d R a m a p u n i s h e d h i m b y
d e p r i v i n g h i m of o n e of his eyes. S i n c e t h e n c r o w is s u p p o s e d to h a v e o n l y o n e eye which,
h o w e v e r , m o v e s f r o m o n e eye-socket i n t o t h e o t h e r , for does n o t t h e c r o w t u r n his h e a d
f r o m side t o side w h e n h e looks at t h i n g s b e l o w f r o m a h i g h p e r c h ? T h i s story is also
t h e basis of t h e r u l e of logic k n o w n as ^>WTf$T'ft?T=fnTPT.
3. STTgT h e r e simply m e a n s d e m o n - l i k e a n d s m j ^ frppfa- ( t h e devil of a crow) can
only b e t h e R a v e n . N o lexicon gives or for a crow.

1. M . Bh. 1 3 . 1 1 1 , 1 2 3 ; B r a h m a P . 217, 108. 4. H e p o s t u l a t e s twelve varieties of c r o w u n d e r t h e n a m e s — 1 . 2. 3. M y d

2. M . Bh. 13.111, 102; M a r k . P. 15,; G a r u d a P. 1 . 2 2 6 , 2 5 ; B r a h m a P. 217, 107. 4. H ^ s r , 5. etct, 6. s r r m H 7. q w , 8. 9. f^rVfinr, 10.
3PTt- in t h e last t w o is c l e a r l y a w . r , f o r apfto ( i r o n ) .
and 12.
3. M . Bh. 13.111, 110; M a r k , P. 15, 2 2 ; G a r u d a P . 2 . 2 , 8 0 ; B r a h m a P . 217, 98.
4. M a n u , 12, 6 2 ; Y a j n a v a l k y a , 3, 214.
12 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Crows and their Allies 5

clear that he was aware of the fact that all Grows did not fall into two as evil and inauspicious by the Vedic Indians who had a pastoral and agri-
classes only, and, undoubtedly, this awareness must have been shared by cultural economy. ''With all the Raven's solemnity of voice and stateliness
the more widely travelled lexicographers though unfortunately they did not of carriage, the great bird is an enemy." This "magnificent felon" is, most
care to connect particular names with particular birds. prabably the ^ 9T|pT o f R v . 10. 16, 6 and Av. 12. 3, 13, t w r f f a of Av. 7.
64, a n d IFATT W F A , ch. 1 7 , and simply WJfa of #. STK^R?, 4.35. 1 The terms
7. STTJ'PT, a treatise on augury describes five different kinds of
srjH and wjfa in these names imply the large size of the bird as explained
Crow according to the five-fold division of the Hindu society, viz., fas,
in M . W . and the Vedic Index of Names and Subjects. Later names for the
5Tf5PT, STsT and ...a method of classification which was much in
Raven are JTWPF, srPjT-^TCH (the devil of a Crow), ^ wvz TO :
favour during a certain period of Indian literary history. 1 T h e descriptions,
bird of the god of Death), and ^^TRT (the great Crow) as found in the
however, are sufficiently clear and enable us to identify the species intended
lexicons (e.g. s>r: fS^PTfT—TijtT.). T h e name ( — f o r a Crow
by the author :
should also belong to it as ^ is the lamb-killing wolf.
(i) f f c s n m f t 'resHgo^f w-^T- ff fas: i 9. T h e Brown-necked Raven has been named most appropriately as
(ii) fa^STH^nwfefa'-TspJT: PTTcSrfkzft ^STT^TSfcTWT: I the W5TT. This name occurs in what appears to have been the original
reading of the 9th verse of ch. 15 of the Ti^'fT TOT as quoted by Sayana
(iii) 3TT1T0fHfa: ftTcT^fr^T^: TTW^STT ^fe^SJ f w I
in his commentary on the TRrar ept#%tt, srrafHfr Ch. 12, Bom.
(iv) STCT^^fa: ST?: f ^ T ^ : ^ T^ftfcT^ST: I Sansk. Series, Vol. 64, p. 265 :
(v) ^ T ^ T CT-T: fesr^: ^^SRT frW^T "fSnrfa "TOnTTfWFf ^cTSfaTSg 5TPRI" |

—Varga, 12. 3-5 It also points to ^er^r^ (Vsr, of a brown colour) of the lexicons as an-
other name for it. M. Williams renders ^ET^T^ as an inauspicious Crow or
(i) describes the all-black Crow of large size, possessing a long and a Raven which is partly correct. T h e explains the term as
heavy bill. I t is clearly the Raven later on called by him the st®PPR>. I t is as if burnt, but goes on to specify the colour as black and then
the prarnp (^fcSPTFl) of tsRcft. identifies the name with 5>R which again is partly correct, MM+'IU) in his
(ii) refers to a black-faced Crow of different colours (evidently, black describes hay that has changed into a brown colour through long
keeping or otherwise as wm s?Erfasnr (p. 164). Again, the body of sage
and drab-grey) and brown eyes. It is the Hooded Crow the t'kitH+i*.
N a r a d a browned by penance is described as in the FF^ TOT, Sffio^,
(iii) describes a Crow of black colour but with a different shade
2,1, 48 :
and with a black and white bill. It is the Rook the ftiai'V.i^wH?.
cTTtfT f^jr^fa^qrmir: i
(iv) contains a description of the slim, partly ash-coloured and very
noisy Crow. I t is the H o u s e - C r o w — t h e of Vasantaraja, >TfJ>PP It will thus be seen that the word in stands for 'fire-scorched
of arffajTTW and the s r f a y j of the lexicons. or sun-burnt' and hence for a brown colour, and accepting this meaning
(v) defines the self-possessed and confident looking bird with a not un- of the epithet I would identify as the Brown-necked Raven.
pleasant voice ( f t w , with fa as privation prefix; cf. ^ST^r of the second 10. T h e Rook is black all over with a purplish blue gloss (srrqr'^fta')
and riM^ggT of the third variety) and a small bill and body. This is the on the head, neck and lower parts and violet purple on the back. T h e
Jackdaw the WfHTFT ^ of Vasantaraja, and the ^ f e w of M a h a b h a r a t a . base of the bill and face are white and devoid of feathers and the rest of
8. T h e Punjab a n d Tibetan Ravens are entirely black and have powerful the bill is black. It feeds chiefly in ploughed fields and grasslands on in-
bills. They are the boldest among Crows and attack birds, weak mammals sects, seeds and grain. O n e of the names for a Crow is JfteTftr, descendant
including freshly dropped lambs and the eyes of lambing ewes, young pup- of 'T5T5T, from a kind of pulse-grain, and it may belong to
pies, etc., wherein probably lies the germ of these birds being regarded this bird as he is more of a vegetarian than his cousins (cf. 'j^Tsftsfr
for a horse), unless it is the same as Jftefir2 for which see Para 12 below.

1. See ^fte^, ? T, a n d ^ in Even gems have been so classified in

1. It is however m o r e than likely that the ^TSTJpT of post-Vedic literature refers to
2. This 13" bird with a bill of 1.5" a n d tail a little over 5" as against the 17.5" the C a r r i o n a n d J u n g l e crows,
House-crow with a bill of 2" a n d tail of 7" has been supposed to have a comparatively 2. T h e fSRJFSWT gives j f t e l f t r as v.l, for j f t j f a .
long neck, i.e., as c o m p a r e d to its size, unless the text is c o r r u p t .
 12 Crows and their Allies
Birds in Sanskrit Literature 7

OTP? is yet another name for a kind of Crow which, if from root TO1 'to the smaller black Crows like the Jungle or Carrion Crow (^TOTsr) and the
disappear' may belong to the Rook because he is only a winter visitor to Raven the same as *J>5ur sppq-) 0 n the one hand and between these
the North-West of India including the P u n j a b and Kashmir. 2 It must and the House Crow (^PRT) on the other :—
however be admitted that the etymology and correct significance of the
TCT: =PTtcT: ^T^T^TT <PT*fr Tc\^ f a I
names, tfjfa, Jfterfo and ntenfw, are not at all clear. c

11. T h e names for the Hooded and the House Crows have already s p ^ R t 3T l i f t rft?T: <*<"TRrPT: ST^sfa: II
been given, but two other excellent names for the latter m a y be men- — M a r k . P u r a n a , 40. 8.
tioned. They are ^ (the Crow of civilization) and 'Tf^T'P (House-
T h e name is evidently coined after the Vedic fsw?rj3pT. T h e mention
Crow). T h e last n a m e occurs in arfrmrr, 317, 37 as a substitute for irpnxt
of three different types of Crow in this verse agrees exactly with the three
of Manu, 12, 66. It may also be stated that it is the House Crow which
types named in the viz., rf>i+i+, and (Sec. 213).
is the commonest victim of the Koel (Art. 37) and hence the epithet
E=rri;«T and ^i^r are therefore synonymous with one another for the
TWcr for it.
Carrion and Jungle Crows, but in literature they are mentioned simply as
12. Turning to names like spw - or =nr w , tot W , tMn.iy. swtsr,3 and
or sorter :—
and also perhaps jftffa and Tfarfcr it would appear that they are more
appropriate to the jet black Carrion and Jungle Crows than to the Raven. RTreST 3TTfoJTTf*Pm?cPqT I
c o
These all-black birds have been distinguished by <HigfH[g,<. as a m n p r a m ^
^trt n — 9 . 1 1
(black-plumaged like the Koel), ch. 94. 11, and by ^ r r t s t as w w w r e
(black-necked in contrast with the grey-necked or ch. 12. 6, as cv > c o
a sub-class of the Raven. According to Vasantaraja the best Crow for pur-
—Bhoja-prabandha, 269.
poses of augury is the R a v e n and the next in order of preference is
This term includes not only the Carrion and Jungle Crows but also the ^FT^jf f%5T JT«rr W I
—Kavya-mala, pt. 7, Vairagyasataka, 98.
Hooded-Crow, while the House Crow comes as the last but one of his
series (ch. 12. 6-8). T h e srfsgTfsm^fa, however, follows the lexical division EPTTOq-Tr^fMw mfam 1
of Crows into two groups and places the Raven and other black Crows in —Suhhasita. 222, 38.
the spl^ta group and the House Crow in the other : fsor: fq^r; fftstr: <pt I
—Ibid . 225. 120,
STST-RT: ?qTfr«rT fe=r I
also 225, 122; 221, 205.
^wt tort i r r ^ CT^TT^T: II
The afhifs+Hsiofa of ^ w f t has a list of items of a black colour in Section, 3
pp. 393-394
and ^i^r, but not W is one of them. This distinction between the two is
T h e ^ i W r , however, is helpful in a proper subdivision of the black birds further strengthened by the following :—
into two types, for the Raven is equated with arrcrc:" or a r m ^ m - r ,
and it follows that the others are simply ^T^FT. This fits in admirably with
c. — CN
the name s f t f j ^ m w for the jet black Red-billed Chough discussed in the
—Bhela Samhita, p. 108
next seetion. T h e following verse maintains a clear distinction between
T u r n i n g to the names anw^nP, m'ff^W, or ^refta, it is not possible to allocate
any of them to a particular species as both the Eastern Carrion Crow and
1. isrfa TOTS: See, for similar formations, gHIHIHiaTrforffr:, 3.34. the Himalayan Jungle Crow are found in the Himalayas, the former in
2. Poet J y o t i r i s v a r a of Bihar compiled his book V a r n a - R a t n a k a r a early in the
Kashmir and the latter from Afghanistan to Bhutan, while the Indian
fourteenth century. It is a collection of items a n d suggestive phrases for the use of poets
a n d story-writers u n d e r various heads. O n e of these is ^ T H H T (description of a thief) in Jungle Crow occurs throughout India south of the Himalayas, and since
the eighth Kallola, p. 66. It contains the p h r a s e ^ f e m f e " , i.e. a thief it is not easy to distinguish the three varieties in the field these names
should be described as possessing eyes like those of the or the variety of crow, must be regarded as synonymous with fwi+rar and for them. in
for both these names are f r o m root TO to disappear or fly a w a y (Apte's Dictionary) a n d
would seem to refer to the Rook. I n the alternative these n a m e s m a y well belong to the
j a c k d a w , a resident bird of K a s h m i r b u t a winter visitor to t h e P u n j a b . 1. wr: — b o t h being jet black. T h e flag of consists of a huge

3. Synonyms like <M*<fl<rtl, W p ^ r a n d E^RFST^Tff for the d e e p blue-black fruit of ^T^STor black crow m a d e of iron W H t ^ T z f t E^Tgsrft —^^JTTW,
E u g e n i a J o m b o l a n a support t h e view p u t forth here. ^ C h . 16.
12 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Crows and their Allies 9

the following example, placed with the vulture and jackal in a battle-field, T h e white Ibis also has been occasionally mentioned as a sinr?!^. i.e. the
presumably in the plains of North India, is the Indian Jungle crow :— white water-crow (Art. 80).

^TTOSPTTT^FfaT: S ^ T T ^ TfWT I
— i r o ?rro 1 2 , 9 8 , 1 6 . TT3TT ^T cT5T ff ^ t3TT fjpmfcT II
—JTc^JTriT, 237, 1 1
13. T h e case for jftjftr 1 (v. 1. ifl^fir ?) is perhaps a little different.
g^n^ri rrT|r?Rf w r f q t ^ p r m i
H e m a c a n d r a equates it with which shows that it is a black Crow,
SfrmrTTfa5*- s f t f ^ j S^fa" ff ?T f^TPTTOfa 11
and when we find that a flock of Crows has been placed in the
—srmftRrsRfr, 465.
forest near the Godavari in South-India by poet Bhavabhuti it is but
reasonable to conclude that it is the southern variety of the Jungle Crow. 16. All Crows including the R a v e n were regarded as inauspicious and
This, according to Whistler, is a highly gregarious species and large evil throughout the Vedic period and contamination of sacrificial or
numbers collect to roost in special patches of forest, though never so ceremonial objects, food, and the h u m a n body by one was a dreaded
many together as in the case of the House Crow, m j f a like ^ T ^ is thus thing, but with the development of the science of augury (spp ?tft) there
found to be specific for the Jungle Crow :— came about a slight change in their status for the better. Books on the
subject contain chapters upon the interpretation of their behaviour and
voice for good or ill, and instances are not wanting e v e n , in ancient
f ^ s n ^ r w ^ t f fa'J'yn ^ s f R c f t S T firfr: I literature where the sight or call of a Crow has been held to be
— U t t a r a Ramacarita, 2, 29 auspicious 1 :—

14. T h e brief description of the f^TFT^FP given byTO^^rcrwis fully

— K a u s i k a Sutra, 34. 24
borne out by what Whistler has to say about the Jackdaw. They are "as w r i t e r : srfcjirfq- ^ f a
tame and impudent as the House Crow ...The call is more musical ...The * * * * % *

whole demeanour is pert and knowing ... though the irresistible attraction Tt 5 fesirar^T: tfjftT^mcjrfr
which small bright articles have for the J a c k d a w often makes it a — R a m a y a n a , 4.55, 56
nuisance about a house when tame enough to be allowed out of its cage" See M." Bh. 6.3.67
T h e last trait, described elsewhere as " a notoriety for thieving" helps us
to appropriate the name ^ f e t ^ to it :— Agni Purana, 223, 13.
Finally, even the best of us has something to learn from the wily but
sagacious bird, for in the chapter on TTSTSHT in ARFFCR TOW, 225, 30 a king is
—uimrar 12. I l l , 123 (Gal. Ed.) advised always to be on his guard, i.e. suspicious, like a Crow :

T h e Bombay edition reads which, however, is the Green Magpie,

and in a way both are equally correct, for both the birds are champion " T i m i d like a crow" for ^ r i w f t in M. Williams is perhaps a little in-
thieves of glittering trinkets and other small objects lying about the house. correct. See also verse 402 at page 162 of where no fewer than five
T h e propriety of the punishment lies in the fact that a person who steals good points of the bird have been commended.
salt—a most precious thing in olden times—is condemned to be a thief for
all his life in the next birth. B. CHOUGHS
15. Albinism is not unknown in crows and a completely white bird
Choughs resemble the true Crows and are of a glossy black colour but
of the House Crow variety is occasionally met with. T h e Museum at differ from them all in having the bill and feet brilliantly coloured. The
Nagpur has a specimen. It is known as Wd+I+ or JfPPrT ^ and is always bill is fairly long, slender and pointed, with a gentle curve throughout.
considered inauspicious. ^^TTW calls it srew m^tf a t 12.127 :—

1. T h e c r o w and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e R a v e n a n d their voice are r e g a r d e d as u n l u c k y —

occasionally auspicious as well—in m a n y p a r t s of the w o r l d . See E n c y . Religion a n d
1. This n a m e may be from a half open b u d , a f t e r t h e bird's semi-erectile Ethics, V o l . 10, p. 367.
feathers of the head.
10 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
T h e Red-billed Chough, known in England as the 'Red-legged Crow',
has vermilion-red bill and legs while its cousin, the Yellow-billed Chough,
is characterized by a yellow bill but vermilion legs. Both are very social
and noisy birds, haunting h u m a n camps and the wilds alike. T h e y nest
on rocky cliffs and are found throughout the Himalayas from 5,000 ft.
in winter to 16,000 ft. above the sea level in summer.
2. If the adjective qt^T in q ^ F P is in apposition to 3 r w or ^ r in a r m -
or for the Jungle Crow as also to the plains of the Punjab and
U t t a r Pradesh next below the Himalayas, the name qt^ren^ may well
belong to these denizens of the Himalayas. I n any case they are the
Crows designated as H^T srmT: in the story related in M a h a b h a r a t a ,
6.6, 14-15. Here the Vulture, flW, proud of his noble descent from the
great sqw, regrets that Mount Meru does not observe any distinction of
high and low, and offers equal hospitality to the mean Crows merely
because they too, like him, have gold on their bodies, and decides, there-
fore, to quit the place permanently :—
fefJT: g;WT fa^T I
m fapsrcrcprra a f a r f a ^"tesr ^ r r w r ^ 11
irewwETTTmsjiMt 1 I
a r f a w p f r jnwrrrcm^f e r s n w r f * 11
Now WW3 is the Black Vulture with red head and neck (Art. 51) and the
Golden Crows are indeed the Coughs with red or golden bills and red
feet contrasting beautifully with their glistening black plumage. T h e y
occupy the central Himalayas while the Black Vulture does not rise
higher than the outer and lower ranges and is quite at home in the plains
below. The story is thus a mythical explanation of these facts of nature
and gives us the beautiful name of g ^ t WPTff1 for the Choughs.
3. T h e Red-billed Chough (17.5") with its fiery looking, conical, and
pointed bill reminds one of the trafor or—^JTCf—red-billed Crows—who
torture sinners in hell according to statements in some o f t h e Puranas :—
s f t ^ ^ a r ^raw: I^WR:
P a d m a P., Uttara K h . 250, 13
* Sk. P., Kasi Kh. 5, 75
f f a f t r : c f l W Sfteg^SJ
Siva P. 5 . 9 , 11
1- H t e o f a r r o . lit. the beautifully coloured b i r d . W e thus h a v e f f f for gold a n d red-
ochre, a n d for t u r m e r i c , while the female lac-insect has been described t f ^ n m t
golden, after the light o r a n g e r e d of the body a n d the rich red fluid it contains in A V
5.5. See Lac a n d the L a c Insect in the A t h a . v a - V e d a by the a u t h o r ( T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Academy of C u l t u r e , N a g p u r , 1950).
Crows and their Allies 11
T h e name Ti^tW is fully justified for these birds as they are as black as
the Jungle or Carrion Crow. W e thus have the following three types of
iFprrtw or jet-black Crows :—
(i) —the Jungle and Carrion Crows;
(ii) —the Red-billed Chough; 1
(iii) amp +1+1 <h—the Raven.
4. T h e authors of the above Puranas must have visited sacred places
like A m a r n a t h , Badrinath, Gangotri, etc., in the Himalayas and seen the
Choughs which are common in those parts. T h e Yellow-billed bird is
comparatively small (16") and his ineffective looking yellow bill has
helped to exempt him from Satanic duties in hell, but if by any chance
his services were needed, one m a y be sure, he would have been summoned
under the name ofw>T<j<i* Wrfcr.
C. NUTCRACKERS
T h e Nutcrackers are smaller than the House-Crow being about 15
inches in length. T h e y h a v e a chocolate-brown plumage with head and
neck streaked white, and back and breast marked with oval white drops.
T h e Larger-spotted Nutcracker is the darker bird, more profusely marked
with white than the Himalayan Nutcracker. T h e former occurs from
K a s h m i r to Sikkim and the latter from Nepal eastwards. As the name
indicates, they subsist largely on the seeds of the pine, cedar, fir, spruce,
etc., also fruits and insects.
Names like <ficrfspT-, UK-jj--, and sfai- ( w ^ ) a r e given merely as synonyms
for a Crow in some of the lexicons but they clearly belong to these fruit-
eating and spotted members of the Crow family. ( f r ) is the spotted
deer and SVPPT the (spotted) leopard, and these help to fix the identity of
the birds as above. M . Williams does not mention all the birds that go
under the name of wrc^ but the Hindi Sabda-sagara gives it for a Grow as
well. T h e ^i^cqfa^far para. 213, gives stfq towards the end of its bird-
list where bats and some insects are named and it is therefore doubtful how
far the name fffq corresponds to J R of M . Williams. It is however quite
probable that the n a m e stfa is shared by animal, bird and insect having
spotted bodies or wings.
D. MAGPIES
Magpies are an interesting group within the Crow family some
species of which occur practically throughout India and some are confined
1. T h e s p T f ^ ' ^ n r R t ^TTfTT: of M a h a v y u t p a t t i K o s a , 2.15.21 is n o other than the
STrefteT a n d clearly points to these names being specific. T h e substitution of
for must be taken in the sense of copper-red.

12
to the outer Himalayas and the valleys to the south including Nepal. T h e y
are long-tailed birds of arboreal habits, and their attitude when perched
on trees or the uncommonly long tails of some of them drooping in a
gentle curve probably suggested to the highly imaginative ancients the
striking resemblance which their body-lines bear to the shape of the
village-plough or its long shaft, or perhaps to a long-shafted h a m m e r
cf. their Hindi name jt^TO, fr. h^T great, and Jife—, ms ^ r f e s — a stick or
pole) and they gave them the common name of or , 1 and differ-
entiated three principal types as under :—
(i) ( M . W.) —the Indian, the Bengal and the Himalayan Tree-
pies, the smallest of the series.
(ii) -TH+i ( M a t s y a P . ) — a l l i e d forms like the Kashmir and
rumped Magpies; and
(iii) ^ T ^ ( V a r a h a m i h i r a ) — t h e Red-billed and the Yellow-billed
Crows and their Allies 13
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
showing up a three quarters crescent of the moon. 1 T h a t leaves the name
jiff which may be explained in two ways : ( a ) 'approached or seen with
difficulty' and hence, found in inaccessible places; and (b) having the
dark or bluish complexion of the goddess of that name, described as "SRTHY-
jor^rnfiTT" in ^ifa'tlH<IT, quoted under frf in Sabdakalpadriima. T h e
expression means, 'of the colour of the linseed flowers, i.e., of a light
blue colour, fif for a Magpie, therefore, should properly belong to the
Blue Magpies of the Himalayas, p f is also the Blue Rock Thrush
(Art. 10).
3. T h e classification of the — series may now be considered
further :—
(i) T h e Indian and the Himalayan Tree-pies belong to genus Dend-
Black- rocitta and closely resemble one another. They have sooty black head and
neck, and buffish-brown upperparts with a tail of eight to eleven inches.
Being the smallest of the group they are the ( s w small), §pc=PP,

Blue Magpies, having the longest tails. (barking like a dog), 2 sfnrftm etc., as noted above. I n the commentary on
Vasantaraja it is described as ^ T H ^ r STfrnrrprT? and the position in which
2. T h e treatment of these noisy birds by V a r a h a m i h i r a and Vasanta- its movements and voice are to be studied for augury is when the bird is
r a j a from the point of view of augury goes to show that their sight or 51% <rwrr (ch. 11, 3), i.e., when it is perching on a tree outside the
calls have the same value and this accounts for a mix u p of the names of village or on an outer or exposed branch of a tree. Its voice is syllabified
at least two different Magpies in the synonymy given in the and by Varahamihir as and by Whistler as 'kokli' or 'googely'. These
in the terms used by V a s a n t a r a j a at several places in his work :— particulars are more than sufficient to identify ^njfafrr with the Tree-pie.
Superstition surrounds the Magpie not only in India but also in
fK^fT, cg-T^. ^rrrfq-^r, T W ^ t I T : England and Europe even at the present day. T h e Britannica, eleventh
—Var. Br. S., 87, 4. edition, refers to it in the following words : "Superstition as to the
^nrfipFT, f w , ^ g r , tftefc^r2 a n d appearance of the pie still survives even among m a n y educated persons,
Vasant. 4.21, 56-65; 11.2 & 5 and there are several versions of a rhyming adage ... (which) all agree
that the sight of a single pie presages sorrow". T h e authors of " O u r Bird
It will be seen that names like f W P , f^ffasraT and ^TTfa^T (j-ufa+r?) Book" (1947) also mention the common saying, "one for sorrow and
are after the harsh call-notes of the birds and have their analogues in two for j o y " and add t h a t in the former case people take off their hats to
^t and ^ r f c i m of the Hill-men for the H i m a l a y a n Tree-pie ( F . B . I . ) . ward off the evil effect. In Indian literature too there is an occasional
These names belong to the Tree-Pies which are the commonest members reference to the unlucky nature of the birds :
of the group found all over North India and elsewhere too. ^([ii+i of
TR is clearly an incorrect reading of the earlier =fnrfq^r of the Samhita. JTqTS$m: ^JTSft fW^cT: I
wtrfeJT, on the other hand, which may be rendered as 'the bird marked If s r f a s f e IRIT c r e r CT^pt II
with a crescent' should be a Common n a m e for all magpies (^"reft) as — P a d m a P., Bhumi K h „ 103, 70.
the white, lilac white or rufous red of the lower break has a sharp
crescentic outline against the black upper breast in everyone of them O n the other hand V a s a n t a r a j a mentions certain situations where the
birds prove auspicious to the observer.

1• also m e a n s a trick or a n i g m a , a n d ^ T s f t m a y well i m p l y a m y s t e r i o u s b i r d ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y as a b i r d of o m e n .
2. T h e H i n d i a n d U r d u n a m e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o this a r e ^ T ? a n d T ^ a W b o t h m e a n - 1. Cf. ^ " ^ F r T f o r t h e w h i t e - b r e a s t e d k i n g f i g h t e r — A r t . 4 1 .
' t h e M o o n ' . If t h e n a m e ^XlPt^T is b y a n y m e a n s t h e s a m e as ^ ^ n f a w w h i c h a g a i n m e a n s 2. ( a d o g f r o m its h a b i t of e a t i n g its o w n v o m i t ) in t h e list of birds in
^KnTO (sFfri TTfa) i.e., t h e m o o n , it w o u l d b e t h e s a m e a s a n d it is is t h e s a m e as W of t h e ^OTft^TT. «TT?TTC in M . W . is i n c o r r e c t . I n t h e first p a r t of t h e
possible t h a t ^TTfSr^T is a s c r i b e ' s e r r o r f o r "TOpT^r, p r a k r i t f o r •PHTfa'PT, m e a n i n g a little list of ST^IvT: in TOP t h e d o g is m e n t i o n e d a s as o n e of t h e a n i m a l s of p r e y .
m o o n or p a r t of a m o o n .
 12
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
(ii) T h e Kashmir and the Black-rumped Magpies of genus Pica have
the head, neck, upper breast, and upperparts black, and the wings are
partly white and partly black, brilliantly glossed with blue. T h e tail also
is black with a green and purple gloss. O n the whole, therefore, the
black colour predominates in their plumage and they should be the
<t»M*g black) birds of the Himalayan hermitage described in the
Matsya Purana :—
JTTT'T ^f^T 1 SSTfTOfsSTT I
—118, 50
(iii) T h e Red-billed and the Yellow-billed Blue Magpies of the
Himalayas belong to genus Urocissa and are characterized by very long
blue tails measuring 18-19 inches. I n these as in others the head, neck
and breast are black: the back is purplish blue or ashy; the wings have
purplish blue on them; and the lower plumage from the breast downwards
is greyish white or lilac-tinged with blue or purple. T h e long tail accounts
for their Hindi name (efrf^r; S^r a feather; i.e., long-tailed; cf.
TS3rs?rfor the long-tailed Paradise Flycatcher, Art. 11). They are clearly
the marking the nearest approach to a f z in shape. T h e Variants
^•JTt and given in p a r a . 2 above are Prakritisms of y f a ^ .
4. The Green Magpie of genus Gissa differs very considerably in
extremal character and plumage from others, and not having a long tail,
stands outside the series. Its body plumage is generally green and
the wing coverts are red. Bill and legs are a coral red, the former of a
deeper colour. Its Sanskrit name is (Wft+l^ (Parrot-Grow, fr. a
Parrot) after its red bill and green plumage. It must have been a cage
bird in former times as it makes an excellent pet and can be trained to
talk. It is known as ftrPm in Hindi and Bengali which is perhaps a
Prakrit form of f ^ f o n v . 1 In certain dialects the letter ^ is often replaced
by ?r, and H by T, while in the present instance the nasal has been inserted
for the sake of euphony; cf. Hindi for Sansk. for lime-stone nodules.
T h e nasal also helps to maintain the value of the long vowel of the
penultimate in T h e name occurs in the Southern recension of
the M a h a b h a r a t a :—
—13. I l l , 123; also Brahma P. 217, 108.
T h e Bengal recension reads ^tfaPrP which has been identified with the
J a c k d a w in Section A of this Article. T h e reason for the punishment also
Cf. — ^ T R , f i p T R for the S h i k r a H a w k ^ T f — a
corrupt Gujarati; — s f f a F f T — A z a d i r a c h t a i n d i c a , t h e N e e m tree. Sansk- ^ t T , fwfx
a n d T a l e g u f+fci or ^ f ' T for a P a r r o t a p p e a r t o b e allied forms.
b i r d ; •sftWT-fll* 1 rice in
14
Crows and their Allies
has been hinted at there. T h e Jackdaw, no doubt, loves thieving, "still,
he is not the champion sneakthief that his first cousin the Magpie is" (Our
Bird Book, pp. 64-65).
5. M a n u Samhita in its present editions reads ^taPF 1 - at 12.63 in
the same context as the M a h a b h a r a t a and Brahma Purana, which is evi-
dently a wrong reading of fafaSTC?. There is ample authority for this
presumption, for we find Sayana Madhavacarya quoting M a n u , 12, 63
with the reading of in his commentary on the TTm EPT?r%rr publi-
shed in the Bombay Sansk. Series, No. 59 (1888), where the learned
editor has pointed out in a foot note at p. 254 of Vol. 2, Pt. 2 that two
MSS. of the commentary have ^Wfaw in the verse in question. It would
therefore appear that the writer of the Bengal recension of the Maha-
b h a r a t a substituted Wtft^r^ for which is also the reading in the
•s^mi'jr. T h e Verse does not suffer in sense as both the~jackbird and the
green magpie are noted thieves. O n the other hand, it is quite likely that
both f*r<+i+ and ^ f e r o belong to one or the other of the two birds.
E. JAYS AND ROLLERS
" T h e Jays are birds of bright plumage, the wing especially being
marked with vivid blue. T h e y inhabit woods, have harsh cries, are rather
shy, and live on all kinds of food". Two varieties of the bird occur in the
Himalayas ranging from 3,500 feet in winter to 8,000 feet in summer.
T h e Black-throated J a y (13") has a black crested head, black wings closely
barred with bright blue, vinous grey body and a blue tail barred with
black. T h e Himalayan J a y (12") lacks the black head and crest of the
former and is of a rich vinaceous fawn-colour all over including the head
except for a good bit of white both above and below the tail. Both are very
noisy and live on fruits, insects, small mammals, birds and reptiles and
other birds' eggs. During flight they often indulge, like the Rollers, in wing-
flappings a n d contortions. Their cousin, the Siberian J a y , of the pine forests
of Northern Furope and Asia is considered a lucky bird by the people of those
parts ( t h e Britannica, 11 th E d n ) . T h e Rollers have a more plumage, their
wings a n d tail consisting of various shades of blue, from pale turquoise to
dark ultramarine, tinted in parts with green. They are, however, entirely
insectivorous and also include mice, small reptiles, frogs and harmless
snakes in their dietary, and are for this reason placed in the srwj? group
of birds in and Both the Jays and the Rollers were formerly placed
1. V e r s e 13 of ch. 44 of t h e Institutes of V i s n u edited b y J u ^ u s Jolly
( C a l c u t t a , 1181) r e a d ^ftfaqi'* in t h e s a m e context. T h e original h e a d i n g of faff or
^ K t ^ J ^ i w o u l d seem to h a v e b e e n c o r r u p t e d t h r o u g h scribal e r r o r to in some
copies of or a n d t h e e r r o r has been r e p e a t e d a n d s h o r t e n e d to ^"tft in
5.215.
12
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
with in the Crow family even by systematists b u t the latter have now been
separated as. a family under a different suborder. T h a t Rollers were regarded
as a kind of J a y is also clear from the fact that M. Williams renders their
Sanskrit name, TO, as " t h e Blue J a y " . In India also both Jays and Rollers
were looked upon as varieties of TO and the former were distinguished simp-
ly as S R T O , for the Hindi name siwtf for the Black-throated J a y is appa-
rently a corruption of s p t t o — ^ T T O f r — s n r a T f l T T — ?
T h e common Sanskrit name for a Roller is to (V. L. to), but as it is
one of the most auspicious birds of India and one whose form god Siva
loved to assume on occasion it has earned for itself several complimentary
epithets. Some of these like w^prtft a n d fftspTO are from the list of attri-
butes of god Siva contained in the pprerfWTO section of the Siva Purana,
3-koti-rudra Samhita, ch. 35, 118. Epithets descriptive of the bird's plu-
mage, voice and habits, though apparently set down as synonyms for TO,
are really applicable not to any particular species but to different species
taken separately, while a third set of epithets emphasizes their lucky
aspects as birds of augury. T h e following brief description of the three
species of Roller found from Kashmir to Nepal would help to allocate
the adjectives a p p r o p r i a t e to every one of them.
(1) T h e Kashmir Roller (12") has the whole head, neck and lower
parts under wing-coverts and auxiliaries pale blue, darkest and streaked
with brilliant small-blue on the breast and t h r o a t ; back rufous-brown;
r u m p blue; and tail bluish-green. T h e bill is black. Its local n a m e is
'Nila krosh' 1 (jfr-TTO, the same as n t a r f - T O ) from the predominance
of the blue colour in the bird's plumage not only on the wings a n d tail
as in others but also on the head, neck and lower parts. It is confined to
Kashmir and the North-West.
(2) T h e Broad-billed Roller has a dark brown head tinged with olive
(yellowish-brown); tail and wings black suffused with deep blue; the back
and lower parts greenish-brown with the centre of chin, throat a n d fore-
neck deep purple-blue. T h e bill is deep vermilion. It is a much quieter
bird and of more crepuscular habits t h a n the others. "All through the
hotter hours of the day it may be seen perched quietly high u p on the
loftiest tree of that particular bit of forest, or on the topmost branch of a
dead tree in a clearing. As it is motionless its head sunk into the puffed
out feathers of its shoulder and breast, it seems to be fast asleep except
for a harsh croak, uttered every quarter of an hour or so." But it is quite
wide-awake all the time; cf. below. It is the Hto-or nfw-TO proper
and therefore sacred to fer who occasionally loved to assume its form—see
M a h a b h a r a t a , 13. 15, 146.
This Roller occurs in the foot hills of the Himalayas and the adjacent
plains, and also in the hills and nearby plains of the West coast from Wynad
southwards and in Ceylon.
1. Grierson's K a s h m i r Dictionary. Nila Kias in F.B.I, is incorrect.
16
Crows and their Allies
( 3 ) T h e Indian Roller (13") is a bird of the plains and fields and
is commonly seen in the more thickly inhabited parts. It is bluish-
green on the crown and nape and purplish red marked with broad
creamy shaft-stripes on the throat and upper breast, fading into
rufous-brown further down. T h e back is greenish-brown, and the remain-
ing parts, including the tail and wings, consist of various shades of blue.
T h e point to be noted is that there is no yellowish brown on the head
nor any blue on the throat or fore-neck. T h e bill is blackish brown. T h e
Rollers, when at rest, appear to be rather sombre coloured and not at all
conspicuous but when on the wing they give us a most "vivid display of
colour". T h e courtship exhibitionism is much the same in all species but
the Indian Roller is not only the noisiest but also the most demonstrative
of all three. T h e male "indulges in a series of fantastic acrobatics, rocket-
ing into the air, somersaulting and nose-diving to the. accompaniment of
harsh grating screams and with the brilliant plumage flashing in the s u n "
(Salim Ali).
Now, since everyone of the above three is a n auspicious bird (Fffer*)
a n d fulfils the requirements o f a u g u r y , t h e names and epithets of all of
them have been mixed u p in the so-called synonyms for TO :
(a) Trfws, fainfar, spiTrfcra, etc. in
(b) frfwtf*, ^ R t T t , sfoTTlJ, f T O T O , etc. in
(c) jfr^HTO, ^^rys®, m ^ f , TrsffafffW, firaft, etc. in M . W .
(d) 'ft^Bfta, etc. in the verse q u o t e d at the end.
T h e truly descriptive adjectives in the above lists are fa^TO (having
variegated wings); ^ w r j f (blue-bodied), «rf>PP>5, or (blue-
1
throated; cf. JTfw^oCT , in the same sense as the name of the Peacock of
Pururavas in Vikramorvasiya, 5. 54 where J#r stands for 'a sapphire') ;
^ r e (gold-headed, i.e., with a yellowish-brown h e a d ) ; (golden,
i.e.,"red-billed) ; foPretfa (calling <ki ki' aloud during a sportive flight, or
calling, and shining beautifully on the w i n g ) ; and w m (frequenting, or resi-
dent in dry waterless areas). It will be seen that all these cannot be true
of a n y s i n g l e species of Roller and must be allocated to their respective
owners. I n a general way, and f^^TW would seem to apply to all the
three- species but since the lower parts of the K a s h m i r Roller are blue
throughout the first epithet would seem to be specific for it, particularly
as fasnrra for any Roller does stand in some contrast to ^ r r f f (see below),
j r f w ^ a n d its variants apply to the Kashmir and the Broad-billed varieties
but not to the Indian Roller. T h e epithets a n d ^ - s clearly belong
to the broad-Billed species and to no other. Lastly, faPretfa2 (if it is really
1. is also the c o m m o n cock after its red Lappets.
2. fa fa? % fit ^ T ^ J T f i r ^ t s f i r . I t a p p e a r s t h a t the n a m e s ftft a n d
a r e shared by (i) a noisy kingfisher which is a water b i r d a n d (ii ] the I n d i a n Roller
 12
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Crows and their Allies 18

one of these birds), can only be the Indian Roller, the most playful and •o
noisy member of the series, JTTW too must be the same as it occurs in the
sfTTfafft irfe? ^TErfTS^cT
drier areas of the P u n j a b and Rajasthan. "mr^TO also enumerates this w r
as one of the birds common in arid places ( I I I . 6, p. 397). ^ ^ refers to n ^ r m j H ^ T f e r HTE^fcr
the slow u p and down movement of this Roller's tail every half minute or SimPTOfa^ sfffTTO^T"
so when perched upon a branch or telegraph wire. T h e Indian Roller —Bala-Ramayana, 5.15.
being the commonest, the epithet perhaps belongs to it. T h e remaining
epithets are shared in common by all the species as birds of happy augury. T h e shining blue steel of an excellent sword has been compared with
Some of these, like wfeffr, JT^RW, and fWtv-are also applied to the domes- the deep blue of the Roller's wing :
tic Cock who by his morning crow is supposed to herald a prosperous day.
"<spJJT fpTczpWTfa < m : J ^ i q ^ B W s f t "
again, is descriptive of the body-colour of a Peacock, one of the
Khadga-satakam, 29;
Cranes and the Blue Heron; and is shared by the Peacock, the
Kavya-mala, Pt. 11.
Magpie Robin, the white Wagtail and others.
Finally, a few examples of the Roller in literature : T h e beautiful Recitation of the following eight names of the Roller, at the sight of
Broad-billed Roller with its deep vermilion bill would seem to be the one, is said to ensure not only the object of one's desire but also a good
bird dedicated to the deities, 3rf% and tfta : dinner.
"srfmtoTwit w ^ t " — V a j a . Samhita, 24.23.
"arcrt^r, fesrTf^, jfercjT:,
In the Rgveda asthmatic cough is transferred from the patient to
either the fafaftfir-^, or to ^ and fafanftfa birds both of which seem to
delight in their raucous calls and would be glad of a further reinforcement : W t = 3 7 ^ "TTTTf-T § If:

sr T?T fofotftfW
9T«?r<TfcRtmfw u n d e r
10. 97. 13
Here firftnftfir is either a simple epithet of ^T<T referring to its ki-ki cries But a visit to an aviary will not do the trick !
(root-sfa) or a different bird as held by *mrwrsn4 and Griffith, the latter
taking it for a Kingfisher. (Art. 41).
T h e ease a n d surety with which a Roller catches an insect have ser-
ved as an excellent simile :

f f STCt^FTt m i 5T5 SWfaTa":

— M a h a b h a r a t a , 7. 125, 39.

T h e proverbial beauty of the J a y ' s wings, so well admired in

Europe, has not been lost on Sanskrit poets too :

" f e r ^ f r iTw ^srs®?-

1
^ f a t f a ^ f a f T ? J r r ^ ro "Tif^cTT:"
c

— M a l a t i - m a d h a v a , 6.5.

which does not f r e q u e n t water a n d has therefore been distinguished as H l ^ M — ?

of their trappings. This picture is c o m p a r e d with the sporting a n d joyfully crying flights
See Art. 41. T h e formation of TT3RT is perhaps analogous to T 1 W for a steady a n d
of a n u m b e r o f ^ W birds t h e glorious beauty (®PTT) of whose expanded
plucky variety of dog n a m e d in the Vedic Index of N a m e s a n d Subjects, a n d T T P W
wings as they t u r n and roll in the air ( f ^ j f a f T : ) exhibits rainbows as it were ( g f f d I W r t
for a b a t which does not descend to the ground, WW.
WJ^T T h e cries of the birds m a t c h the clanging of the bells—SPT 5 f t f T f R of the
1. T h e reference is to t h e glittering jewellery of the gaily dressed h e t a e r a e seated on
preceding passage.
tall royal elephants moving in a procession. T h e elephants carried clanging bells as p a r t
20 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers

T h e crow family—^PPWW

Crow, choughs & Nutcrackers Magpies JaYs—

1. T h e Raven—JTT-or 1. T r e e Pie—wppi Rollers*—Trw

2. T h e Brown-necked R a v e n — 2 . K a s h m i r and Black- 1. Kashmir
r u m p e d Magpies— Roller—•

3. T h e Hooded C r o w — 3. Red-billed and Yellow- 2. Broad - billed

2
billed Magpies Roller—IT^-
or TITS
—

4. T h e J u n g l e a n d c a r r i o n 4. Green Magpie—faf^rc? 3. I n d i a n Roller

crow—^wt-or ^ri^lcr TFT
1. T h e great majority of Tits are small sparrow-like birds four to six inches
5. T h e Rook—isrre or HEJ^T^, long, some with and others without a crest. All the species are very much
fmsNrsr^-Tm alike in their habits and behaviour. Extremely active and sprightly, they
spend much of their time on trees, clinging to twigs and flowering stems in
6. T h e House Crow—nf-or a variety of acrobatic postures often hanging upside down like little bats, in
search of their insect food. T h e y also eat buds and small berries. T h e males
7. T h e Jackdaw—^ftftw^, q^TO- have a cheerful, loud, and clear whistling song during the breeding season
f r o m spring to a u t u m n . Most of the species occupy the outer Himalayas but
8. T h e Choughs— the Grey and the Yellow-cheeked Tits are resident in the plains. T h e Grey Tit
9. T h e Nutcrackers—wtf'wi or
is bluish and black above and white below with a black neck and a broad
black stripe running down from the throat to the abdomen and a white
cheek-patch. T h e Yellow-cheeked species is a greenish and yellow bird with a
pointed black crest and a black band (<rfe or vzfz) down the lower parts as
in the Grey Tit. Both are of arboreal habits.
2. T h e only vernacular names available for any of these birds, other
than in the Hill dialects of Assam, are (i) Sabzaroshan ('the light or charm
of the green trees') in U r d u and ( i i ) R a m a - g a n g r a ( T I T : I M W F + L S

'the beautiful voiced'?) in Bengali for the Indian Grey Tit. T h e first n a m e
is used by bird-fanciers in Central India and the second is noted in
F.B.I, and this last would seem to agree in sense with Sanskrit sr? ^ r f w (the
little sweet-voiced bird, ^ — ^ w i ) 1 which occurs only in its Pali form
in the C o m m e n t a r y on the D h a m m a - p a d a edited by H.C. Nor-
man, Vol. 3, p. 223. T h e Pali-English Dictionary (P.T.S. edition) renders
the n a m e as 'a small song-bird'. ^rrf~r also means a bat and ST3 ^ r f i r
should be a small bat or a pipistrelle, and having regard to the behaviour of
the little Tits of often hanging upside down described above it would seem
that they are the of the Commentary.
T h e expression W f n : arnr^r used for the ^ w f o by the commentator
refers to their penduline attitudes when engaged upon a search for insects

1. Since m e a n s b o t h a little b a t a n d a bat-like b i r d a n d as b o t h

these roost
* T h e Rollers, t h o u g h p l a c e d in a s e p a r a t e f a m i l y by scientists, w e r e r e g a r d e d by t h e a n d n e s t in holes it is p e r h a p s b e t t e r to d e r i v e t h e n a m e f r o m ^ T , a h o l e :
cf. and
ancients as allied to the j a y s a n d h a v e therefore been included here. ' J H t o for a b r i d l e w h i c h goes i n t o t h e h o l l o w ^ , <=f ) of t h e horse's m o u t h .
22 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers
along the rough and broken roof of an open mountain cave, ^ p f t of the
srcj? list in w^cT should be the same.
3. ire^T,1 (Hindi, Kfi, or *?t»rr from hzi a crest)is another Sanskrit
bird-name which may well belong to a crested Tit like the Yellow-cheeked
Tit. The term also means a musical instrument, probably a child's whistle so
named after the little bird's whistling call (cf. Hindi a whistle).
4. If the equation, iff: of the firRWt^FT-^ refers to ^JTfk as a
bird it gives - us a third name for such of the Tits as have either a tiara
i.e. an ornamented crest or a broad black band stretching from the neck to
the abdomen, and these like the Grey and the Yellow-cheeked Tits would
be Tff^'1%. For iff in the above sense see "Tff, and IX: iffin under cT?r-
flrfctfT, in M. W. and cf also 3 cT^ffrcW—srfa. fa^TTrfar. has
iwmH^yfl which has been illustrated by his commentator with " w r ^
(ww?) csra"—'the WTT is in a pendant attitude in the ficus infectoria
tree.' No lexicon equates WPTT with 'a bat' and the term, therefore, refers
to the (bat-like birds), viz. the Tits.
5. The largest member of the Tit family is the eight inch long Sultan
Tit of Nepal and Eastern Himalayas. T h e cock-bird is shining black with
a beautiful brilliant yellow crest and deep yellow lower parts. It has a var-
iety of shrill calls, the commonest being 'chip-tree-tree', and an occasion-
al plaintive high-pitched 'pway, pway, pway'. Now a certain bird named
r ^ l f w or (v.l. figures in a story related in ^smrfenir, 10.
9 where a young prince playfully snatches away a musical instrument
called fT^src^2 from his sister and she thereupon curses him to be immediately
transformed into the ^R^NRT bird, presumably because of a close similarity of
the sound of the instrument with the bird's voice. M. Williams conjectures
that the bird is probaly the Blue Jay or the Indian Roller because one of
the names for it is F r f a s , but the voice of the Roller is anything but musi-
cal. N . M . Penzer 3 , on the other hand, identifies with the Hoopoe but
the crest of this bird is practically of the same rufous-fawn colour as the head,
neck and breast, and is also tipped black. As against this, the name clearly
implies a sharp contrast with the colour of the adjacent parts, and it is sub-
mitted that the Sultan Tit with its brilliant and entirely golden-yellow
crest, worn jauntily on a shining black head, has a much better claim to the
name.
6. We have therefore and or ST? a ^ f a as common names for
the Tits as a group, WTTR^ofa or ^fir-STOr for the dark coloured Grey Tit,
and hu'i[vi<sI or H ^ t i for the beautiful Sultan Tit.
7. It is possible, as suggested in the article on Bulbuls (Art. 6), that
Tits possessing white ear-coverts, e.g. the Grey Tit, the Black-Tits and other
allied forms were regarded as little Bulbuls of the «fan>r type. The
identifications in this article should thus be regarded as tentative rather than
conclusive.
1. CTCTT may be f r o m HS-t-TiJ c o n t a m i n a t e d by WST or imitative of the bird's call.
2. M e a n s also 'yellow o r p i m e n t ' which is significant.
3. See Penzer's O c e a n of Story ) Vol. 5 foonote at p. 160.
3
PARROT-BILLS AND SUTHORAS
1. The striking feature common to this curious group of birds is
their bill which resembles a parrot's. I have not been able to find a name
for one in Sanskrit but from the fact that some of them are known in Hindi
as 55m I am satisfied that they certainly had a name in Sanskrit though
it has not been preserved in the lexicons that are extant. The name
f s k r (Suthora) is evidently derived from Sanskrit w ^ which is syno-
nymous with srwtfe a parrot, and eftfc, a bill),"thus : . q ^ — g v + g f t
-spft+ar-g^r, from ^ meaning a beak, in Hindi.* Certain plants are
also known as w ^ m r a n d ' ^ m r , and I would not be surprised if at least
one of these was also a name for the birds in question just as the
words m x * and fiiffccra m e a n both a particular plant and a parti-
cular bird—the Racket-tailed Drongo and a parrot or cuckoo respectively—
Arts. 15, 37 & 38. V f ^ m > etc _ a r e o t h e r n a m e s w h i c h ^
similar double meanings.
2. According to of ^ g and the frronranftr "<?>f<r"
means a kind of bird, and it appears to me that owing to a misunder-
standing of an older text which gave something like <9iwtfr: m ' the
compound name w ^ t f e was split up into ^ and «ftfc, and each was
taken for a kind of bird. Once this was done others followed in the wake
and sftfeby itself became a kind of bird. The Hindi name 55kT thus
clearly points to as r a name for this group of birds, unless by
itself is established as a specific name for a particular bird. T h a t compound
bird-names have occasionally been misunderstood and split up may be
seen from the example of frfeftfc mentioned by I w f t in his afklfer 1 5 m •—
3 fafeftft 3 jtuptI i s i f w r " — P a r t 4, 168.
Similarly the name v V Z - ^ z for the Neophron Vulture has been wrongly
split up into (i) and p f s in M. W. as discussed under Vulture No. 6,
Art. 51. A mistake of this kind, once made, is copied and re-copied by
subsequent compilers of lexicons and obtains a fictitious authority.
i r ^ t f i r is a kind of fish having a mouth resembling the bill of the
Common Heron and this offers the strongest argument in support of the
name sr^rtft for the Parrot-Bills and Suthoras, formed in the same way
while we have very probable synonyms in SPPFR- and W^TRT as well.
1. Hindi Shabda Sagar. = STI^S = w^ftfe.
 Nuthatches 25

" i m ^ f s m ^ r f f e f r t ^fsT^CT^rr" —fm^f)-

fsT^fr ~ I r f r , a kind of worm — I t ^ S " , 5fiR
f ^ f t ^ Frf^yftff —
= TfST^ — I T T ^

4
NUTHATCHES
1 The Nuthatches of North and Central India are small birds, not
over 6 inches long, and have similar habits. In colouration also all are
blue-grey or bluish above, and different shades of chestnut below. They
are birds of mango-topes and other trees and keep to tree-trunks or
branches a n d feed on insects and worms and also nuts if available. I hey
are more often heard than seen, and it is their sharp notes and the sound
of hammeringon the bark of a tree or on hard seeds or nuts which help to
locate them All have black-bills except the velvet-fronted Blue Nuthatch
which has a coral-red bill. They are known as ftmft or fir* in Hindi
TO* (the invisible Little Dove in Bengal) and ffeft to (the 'feaft' bird) * in
Assam and I think they s h o u l d be connected with some of the Sanskrit
bird names like firitHft, W,
below :—
(1) "farter ^ s f r j ^ ^ ^ f a j n ^ m :
^ or ^ f ^ T
Mushroom—M. Williams.
Now feret being both 'a worm' and 'the top of a column' offers a reason-
able derivation of fvn-fcsft from the two different senses of the word ftr*fr with
root 'to hold.' A s a catcher of worms fcf^ET %vould be a bird, and as
resting on or holding the top of a column ftra^ET^would be ssrnro a
mushroom. If the bird also is in the habit of holding on to the trunk
(column) of a tree it could be properly called a firmer, and its small size
would justify the form finfreft just as ft^ft should mean a small bird 1 in
addition to being the feminine o f f e f r (any bird).
2. means 'a new shoot' (snrrsr) which is often of a delicate
shade of red and hence also'a light red colour' ( 3 w ) . The propriety of this
name for a particular bird should depend on these senses. The red colour
of the bill (resembling a new shoot) of the Velvet-fronted Nuthatch, when
it is resting face up against a tree-trunk— quite a common attitude for it
occurring as —with the body colour merging with the dark colour of the tree, would
seem to justify the name for it. The orange-red bill of^nferr (Indian
Crackle) has been compared with ^rsnft (a red shoot) by erfor : -
" wprr^'ft

(2) "ftr^frw ^iffe'gsreqql:

faptfafr" — • f o w r e m ^ P T R s ^ f t , 9-201
This seems to strengthen the above identification.
(3) JfTTftr — ^ ^
"fimtaro" is also the flower of the banana which has a maroon red
(4) "qroro: ^TcT *<Tfeft f ^ T F c ^ " 2 —Wl^m.
calyx when open. The Cinnamon-bellied Nuthatch, which has deep
(5) TITT^ FTTcT fcWSHiHr. chest-nut lower parts, can well claim the name for itself. For similar reasons
as a JJT2 would be the large Red Flying Squirrel.
(6) w t a wrefrenJ ^ m f ^ n r —fawsffarotar

The f o l l o w i n g subsidiary equations should help in construing the above : - 3. according to M. Williams is either a squirrel or a bird, but
in view of the equations :

a n d f P f in H i l l d i a l e c t s m e a n a ' b i r d ' . Cf. Sanskrit**, a bird. T h e local

n a m e s given a b o v e a r e f r o m F . B . I . r, •3.0. ^ t f a - ^ T p f : 7_
verse
2 ^ as a h o m o n y m in this s y n o n y m y m e a n s ( . ) a D o v e or p g e o n - ^ S T ^ < m
a sma11 bird an a r e
( M W S T T f t ) a n d (ii) * f t * ™ ^ TfennTR I**"*' " , . , . fiJLZ^ J? ^ a l t e r n a t i v e r e a d i n g s in arf'T. f ^ T > # r , a n d S T S ^ m has
(M t W m f r f t ^ ^ S e e also # v f e which includes among
" 3. T h e N u t h a t c h L c a l l e d . W because when holding a n t o f f g f i g
a n i m a l s t h a t yield useful skins. T h e s e large squirrels live in holes in trees a n d also u n d e r -
a m u s h r o o m j u t t i n g o u t f r o m a tree in a .similar p o s i t i o n ; cf. also i j f t ^ ^
3 . 3 4 . B y g i v i n g t h e s e d e r i v a t i o n s I d o not a t all , m p l y that they a>e g r o u n d . T h e y a r e of t h e T ^ f n : g r o u p as living on trees a n d g r o u p as living
c o r r e c t . The'y a r e m e r e l y suggestive a n d given as m e r e possibUit.es.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Nuthatches 27
26

'•^^f ftr^SPM'' — itf^fr, and

him not to, for accustomed as he was to work upon soft-wood only,
he could not bore into the hard Catechu wood for insects, but he would
^cr r f s r f s r e m t : ' ' — f s n m w s r
not listen, and actually broke his bill and neck at the first attempt against
a Catechu tree-trunk and died. This interesting story leaves hardly any
it would appear that and ^ ^ f f o (both with ^ r ) became W.H^W,
doubt as to the identity of and supports the identification of
and in Pali by metathesis, and both the latter like the former mean
with a Nuthatch.
a kind of squirrel and a kind of bird. T h e bird is of course, the Nuthatch,
5. Synonymy No. 4, taken by itself, would appear to mean that
and as for the squirrel it appears to be the Large Indian Squirrel (Sciurus
t r i w or Pigeon is a kind of ^pfta or Dove, and ^cffcr (Dove) is a differ-
indicus maximus) of the plains, which is maroon-red above and buff
ent bird. In other words, wfct is a larger category which includes
below, or the Large Red Flying Squirrel of Kashmir and Nepal which is
both Pigeon and Dove as varieties within itself. Such an interpretation
chestnut above and pale below. They have a soft fur and are of a good size
seejns reasonable enough but the next two equations which run almost
to yield a useful skin. It is suggested that these are the ^WWT of the
parallel to the first show that the latter half of the first, viz. 'VrftrT fafrr-
lexicons, and one of these, probably the Large Indian Squirrel, gave the
actually refers not to sprier in the sense of a Dove but to 37W
name of ffRiT (v. 1. ^rf^T^ fa=rnr) to a Buddhist Grove in jrw^TT where
(= as a different bird altogether. W e have also seen that w^p
the life of a certain prince, sleeping under a tree and on the point of being
or wvfi is the same as the small bird known as OiM'Wr. It follows therefore,
bitten by a snake, was saved by the local sprite assuming the form of a
that ftraFsfr is also known by the name o f w H including the feminine
squirrel and screaming a warning to him. T h a t is definitely a
3 1
forms <Wldi or +H)ld+l which would be a diminutive of Wcf and therefore
squirrel is also proved by a little story in faf^M ^ where one is described
comparable with the n a m e fsrafc^rt as R^'Fl, a little bird. 1 T h e aptness
as frightening away its enemy by raising its puffed out tail. O n the other
of the name w f w T becomes apparent when we recall the blue-grey of
hand, trustful of m a n as the Nuthatches are, it is equally probable that
the upper parts of all Nuthatches, resembling the colour of the Blue Rock
the fa^TT derived its name from the o r ^ H ^ birds. T h e resemblance
Pigeon. Cf. ^wlcn^spf for collyrium.
of the bird's movements on a tree-trunk, including its ability to scuttle
6. Lastly attention m a y be invited to the vernacular names given above
quickly down a tree-trunk head foremost, sideways or upside down along a
which do seem to have some connection with Sanskrit fwrreff—particularly
branch, to those of a squirrel accounts, perhaps better still, for the name
the name which is perhaps a corruption of it. frro is also an
for the Nuthatch group as a whole. T h e voice of these birds is a
abbreviation of fircNft (ftraWV).
'chwit-chwit' or a sharp 'tsit' and as a musical instrument must have
T h e fqR><t><. birds drawing out worms from the barks of trees referred to
been a small soft-toned whistle for children named after the call of a
by srrvfir in :—
Nuthatch.
' '^rraprfH. I ,JI ft R-+ < W ^ l T T ^ f f e r c ! ^ : ' '
4. Again, the ^F^WF bird in the wra^r (v.l. in 5rfrraf=r?src)
- f r a i i H f ^ q - 2.9.
is no other than the ^fn^ft or ^n^rer bird, viz. the Nuthatch, the
are either Nuthatches or Woodpeckers. T h e y have been called faf^c2
Chestnut-bellied or the Cinnamon-bellied variety. It is necessary
as they dig out their insect-food from the bark or soft rotten wood of various
to state, before setting out the story, that Nuthatches resemble Wood-
trees like the common fowl on the ground. T h e alternative reading of
peckers in the way they hunt and creep all over the trunks and bran-
3FTT for srrarr is incorrect and goes ill with (bark).
ches of trees for insects, that they have hard-pointed bills with which they
bore holes in the hardest of nuts for their contents, and that they breed
in natural holes in trees, and one of them, the Velvet-fronted Nuthatch,
selects a nest-hole deserted by a Barbet or a Woodpecker or enlarges a
small natural crevice in a tree with its bill. T h e story is that a
Woodpecker ( s w i.e. or +i<>i+d) living in
and a w r a f w e r e friends and the latter happened to pay a friendly
visit to the former. H e was entertained with plenty of succulent
and soft worms so that he was tempted to shift permanently from
his soft-wooded forest to the Catechu-forest. T h e Woodpecker advised
1. C a m p a r e the Bengali n a m e o f t h e invisible dove ' for a N u t h a t c h quoted above.
2. F r o m fa" with T to scatter, cleave, split, e t c . — M . W .
1. VII- W N o . 3.
fopftf wraMfe —wm^rw,
2. Forest of catechu trees.

5 yan White-Crested, the Indian Black-gorgeted, the Indian Necklaced, and
LAUGHING THRUSHES & BABBLERS
A. BIRDS E Q U A L I N SIZE T O O R L A R G E R T H A N
C O M M O M MYNA.
1. The members of this group have powerful legs and feet and short roun-
ded wings which means that they are not good fliers. They are mainly
terrestrial in their habits and feed on the ground on berries and insects
for which they turn up leaves and other rubbish. Their gregarious and
noisy habits have secured for them a place among the well-known birds
of augury. Some of the Babblers are also birds of the plains. The White-
Crested Laughing Thrushes indulge every few minutes "in an outburst
of cackling and laughing calls in which each member tries to out-shout the
rest." Similarly the Rufous-necked laughing Thrushes burst "every now
and then into a perfect babel of shrieks, laughs and expostulations" and the
noisiness of the Common and Jungle Babblers of the plains is a matter of
common knowledge. I n short, they "are all one blood."
2. Properly speaking they belong to the "peckers" or a c l a s s and
appear to be the ^ W T 1 ( ^ t ^Tfa, i.e. noisy or cacophonous)
of TO and TiTWT of ^ s p m 2 but as they also scrape the ground
with the bill and sometimes with the feet in search of food (Jerdon)
they have been placed in the fafan: class in g ^ r under the name of
f ^ p r (very noisy). Local names of these birds often emphasize
their noisy character e.g. the Himalayan White-Crested Laughing
Thrush is Trfer w f r in Hindi (cf. and Nepali or Hindi
f W f t for the Rufous-necked and Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler is
evidently the same as f ^ f , f o r m is fa^T or fwarin Pali and f f t is the
1. Cf. ^TnTWn: ( o n e w h o recites) in
Hindi for garrulity.
2. "qrr ST^FTCt where m ( f a s s ^ R f t — s r m ^ T ) refers to the harsh calls
a n d noisy n a t u r e of the birds a n d is in contrast with the sense of
like W P etc. s p ^ T f p r S f 1.7 gives q w h while P a r a d k a r ' s edition of
Sagar, 1939) quotes an alternative reading of tfieCTT in a foot-note at p. 95, both giving
t h e same sense.
29
Laughing Thrushes and Babblers
same as JT* (harsh voice). Both these occur in Nepal where the influence
of Pali and Buddhism was predominant in ancient times. JTJPF,
and are therefore, common Sanskrit names for- these noisy birds.
It may be added that J W f S is a better reading in ^ than
though both mean the same thing. M. Williams gives the former as
j^TTg1 and g^Tranr renders it as J ^ p ^ , noisy.
T h e w t o birds of the following extract should be the Himala-
the White-throated, Laughing Thrushes of the Western Himalayas ranging
between 2,000 and 5,000 ft. and common in the foot-hills of the Punjab,
Garhwal, Nepal, etc. All these are allied forms and have similar habits.
Some four or five birds get on the path or open space and begin to dance
with lowered wings and spreading their tails, threading in and out amongst
THE
themselves in the most complicated figures while the rest of the mob watches
and applauds from every branch of the surrounding busfies or trees in the
heartiest and jolliest fashion (Stray Feathers, 6,286, and S. Baker in
F.B.I.):—
3T HTf^fiTfT M. Bh. 13,54,10
The name would seem to be connected with JJFlt, sound of a
hand-drum, snflrft, a dancer, 3m: a choir of musicians, and TO
sounding or p'laying a musical instrument; cf. <nf«TTO clapping the hands
in approbation. O u r birds certainly dance, sing and applaud one
another. The Red-headed Laughing Thrush of Nepal is neither noisy
nor gregarious and some of its louder notes are quite mellow and sweet.
It should be the J ^ T f 5 * bird of a Himalayan hermitage described in
JT^T JTIT, Ch. 118. This Thrush has a chestnut head and the adjective
j S f T signifies the same colour in the plumage of the Brahminy Kite
described as (Art. 52-E).
3. Names for members of the Starling group and for the Common,
the Large Grey, and the Jungle Babblers (with yellow feet and, therefore,
"TTCPTFTT like the TtUm or M y n a ) have been mixed up in T . ^ A ^ F I , U ^ F I I F
and other lexicons. T h e reason for this seems to be their apparent
similarity to the common Myna in size, noisiness and the habit
of feeding on the ground. T h a t this confusion prevails in the popular
mind as well may be seen from the fact that the Bengal Jungle Babbler is
known as "TOW or <BTT in Hindi and the %3TSR®T*RR<p: defines TFW THT,
5jT and t't? 2 , names for the Bengal Jungle Babbler and the Large
1. TOrT«Rr (the H o r n b i l l ) is also a very-noisy bird a n d ^ f m applies the epithet
Vol. 2, 105 and
i.e. very noisy to it. 5r^T%TT (87.4) calls the noisy Magpies as J T ^ F <.<»*>
Tn M . W . )
2. These H i n d i names a r e f r o m Sanskrit roots f q ^ r ^ — f t f a f — P r ^ and ' T S — T ^ T
or TSJ in names
to m a k e a sound, all, m o r e or less, of onomatopoetic origin. A n o t h e r n a m e for the 97fWT is
(N. SRT *of<4i| which is shortened to -H<4H'f in Prakrit and this last again becomes TTTT-T'TT in
Hindi-
 30 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Grey Babbler, "as a bird of the M y n a tribe, commonly known as the
Seven Brothers" (cf. the popular n a m e 'Seven Sisters' for t h e m ) . T h e
Large Grey Babbler is also ^rr in Hindi and the J u n g l e Babbler is irmftr
in Marathi, both, these names going back to ^IFC-fti of <HPI>N'Z :
= — ^ n — ^ r r (H. #TT)
4. Names like iftTrcl, 'itf+'idl or <fir*<ifd+i have again been regarded
as synonymous with *uft.+i by and others, but they are
perhaps easy to distinguish and allocate between their respective
owners. T h e Common M y n a is noisy in day-time only when excited or
quarrelling with others of its kind, but when roosting in the evening on
trees in large numbers as usual they are very noisy and " t h e fuss and com-
motion accompanied by endless harsh chattering must be seen and heard
to be a p p r e c i a t e d " (F.B.I.). T h e n a m e »flTi2t ( f t srre" Tzfir) is, therefore,
perfectly true of it and equally so of the Babblers. T h e names JflPuiJ) and
'frProferT, however, seem to have a different derivation, t f a far
sra^T—a bird that moves (and works) on the ground like a pig, and this
admirably describes the habit of the Babblers which turn u p dead leaves
and refuse for insects, berries, etc. Wilson gives this derivation, and
perhaps correctly. Curiously enough the T a m i l name for some Babblers
like the Large Grey Babbler is 'the Pig-bird' 1 , which is an exact
equivalent of iftfaxiff. I n the alternative, the n a m e may be derived from
nt+frrrat, Tfa vtf ^T f w j r f=r i.e. working on the ground or talking
like women of the foTRT tribe living in the forests. T h e occupation
of digging out medicinal roots has also been attributed to girls:
10.4.14.
T h e language of the Kiratas was nothing better than the chatter of
these birds to the Indo-Aryans and this m a y well have been an additional
reason for the name 'ftf+ildl as suggested above. It was perhaps
subsequently changed, under the influence of Prakrit, to jfrf^rm. 2 T h e
epithets JFORM^fr and (for *HR+I ) in refers to the dirty-
grey, and untidy plumage of these Babblers.
5. Lastly, ffgifa+i (hysterically noisy; cf. is one of the
names in the i^Tir synonym for the Myna-group and corresponds to Hindi
'fi^f'TS to shout)and t i t (fq^sr and Gujarati
w to call) for the Common and J u n g l e Babblers, f f t f c m must therefore
refer to these birds who start shouting hysterically at the slightest provo-
cation. S. Baker 3 devotes a whole p a r a g r a p h to a description of the noisy
1. Per J e r d o n in " T h e Birds of I n d i a " .
2. Cf. Prakrit jfsiTC, for the Malkohas, Art. 37-B.
3. F.B.I. 2nd Edition Vol. I. 192.
Laughing Thrushes and Babblers 31
habits of the Seven Sisters. For a remotely possible reference to these birds
as in the R g Veda see Art. 13.
6. t P t ^ (red-billed; cf. ^fuMK+, the Sarus, whose eyes are red,
Art.62) is a familiar bird in the garden of I n d r a in the Himalayas:
"HWMW ?FHI">HrH*?t:
^"Ijwlar^: Tfwi^NJMLLFAFA":"
m ^ F T , 39, 18.
It probably refers to the beautiful and sweet-voiced Coral-billed Scimitar
Babbler which does not shun observation, unless the Grey-winged Black-
bird with a red bill is intended. T h e red-billed Black Bulbul cannot be
meant as it has very harsh notes and does not deserve a place with the
beautiful and multicoloured (-lMKHdH<s>|:) little gems of the bird-world—
the Sun-birds, Art. 30. It is however possible that the name n f t l ^ as a
^r homonym in the plural refers to both the above Babbler and the
Black-bird.
B. B I R D S O F T H E SIZE O F A S P A R R O W
1. Coming to the smaller members of the family there is, first, the widely
distributed I o r a 1 of the road-side trees, groves and gardens of the plains
and lower hills, wandering u p to the outer Himalayas. I t is black and
greenish-yellow above and deep yellow beneath, duller and greenish below
the breast. T h e wings have two white bars. T h e male has a variety of
pleasant and powerful whistling notes some of which resemble the $ (soo)
and others the at (see) call, uttered as a single or multiple whistle, u p to eight
notes in succession. It has besides a long drawn wee-e-e-e-tu or see-e-e-e-u-
whistle. I t is mentioned as a bird of augury u n d e r the n a m e f r d or
^ f m ffcr unar'^dfir) in sr^s'fpT, 85.37;87.9 where it is described as a
small Sparrow-like bird ("srw^fe^T ^ q+R+i"). also mentions it
at 4.51. Hindi for the bird is from Prakrit gferr for Sans. wPrtt,
incorrectly rendered as the T-TT (starling) in <TTO^TO, I F F T T T . SIJ+.+I is thus
another name for the Iora. But the most beautiful and fully appropriate
names for it are WF andsffa?, descriptive of its sweet whistling' notes,
given in tuftnmtiHi where JTgsrt (Tiffr: ^spT TSIT i t is defined as "sftspn^T:
i s f t , s f h f f r s^fa-
2. T h e Black-headed Sibia of Nepal has a " L o u d " ringing call T i t -
teree, titteree, tueeyo" and its • local n a m e RTSJTT ( # W ? ) is clearly
reminiscent of sfcr?, the titteree note being the 4r call. If so it would be
simply srlcR and the far sweeter Iora, TTSFF-sffcr?.2
1. Probably f r o m Latin I o — a cry of joy.
2. F o r other birds bearing the n a m e see Art. 10, 13.
 32
30
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Laughing Thrushes and Babblers

3. T h e beautiful Red-billed Liothrix 1 of Nepal has an excellent song ^sfH^r *rf?rsr. It has clear loud whistling notes and a p a r t y of these pretty
during the breeding season and is a favourite cage bird for its song and little birds " f o r m a wonderful spectacle of bright colour in front of heavy
beauty. Its Nepali n a m e recorded in F. B. I. is •T^TT (T?? R3T from green bushes and u n d e r g r o w t h " (S. Baker in F. B. I . ) . Like its cousin,
the Liothrix, it is also a favourite cage-bird of N o r t h India.
^^r, a pleasing or excellent Sparrow?). O n the other hand the Ttf^T
bird of s w i W is almost certainly the Liothrix (cf. for a bright 5. T h e last bird o f t h e group to have a Sanskrit name is the Chloropsis 1 ,
fire):— known as jr^rr (fr. ffcr, green) in Hindi. Corresponding Sanskrit names
" f t R ^ r tfarf^ns^ are and w r a which clearly imply t h a t the bird is effectively
^rrfaH ui^^r^fr^R^: i camouflaged or rendered invisible in the foliage as the colour of their
plumage merges with that of the trees in which they live. This is
perfectly true o f t h e Chloropsis. " T h e green Bulbul (i.e., the Chloropsis)
S m w w t f^rft: ll" is a bird of talent and it is a wag. It mocks a King-Crow, now
10,31.
a Sparrow-Hawk and now a Sun-bird. You stare into the tree and see none
This verse is f r o m a description of H i m a l a y a n scenery, apparently some- of t h e m Not till he flits across to another tree will
where in Nepal, an important centre of Buddhism, and the brief pen-picture you find out who has been fooling you. For this reason few even of those
of the poet sufficiently declares the bird's identity. T h e verse may be freely who take an interest in birds know how very common the Green Bulbul
translated: really is". 2 This reminds one of what Wordsworth has said about the Cuckoo
"The birds with their fiery-red aspect and bills, song sweeter in England.
than the nymphs', and so attractive to look at, are sporting here and t h e r e . "
" N o bird but an invisible thing,
T h e Liothrix has a brilliant orange-red bill and bright orange-yellow throat
A Voice, a Mystery."
and breast, and to quote Whistler, " I t is a very lively cheerful little b i r d . .
going about in parties. I n the breeding season the cock has a delightful Theqsrwof Section 213 and the auspicious w a ofsrftra-
song of some variety and compass." I need not add a word more, for no fensTT, Ch. 5, a r e f therefore, no other than the golden-fronted and the
other bird matches the beautiful description of sisWK. Orange-bellied Chloropsis both of which occur in the outer Himalayas.
4. T h e same a u t h o r portrays another beautiful bird in the following It is also interesting to note that the Green Finch which invariably nests
verse:— in the trees has been called 'brother of the leaves'. 3 For a possible
reference to these birds as ffcrr: in. the a m ^ f see Art. 34.
T"T:f
WrfSTfa":

( V L ssrrfar) q ^ - d w r f ^ r r r t :
U l N w i a M H <n#: ll Ibid. 10.28
2
T h e Silver-eared Mesia , closely allied to the Liothrix described above,
makes the nearest approach to the poet's description. T h e Cock-bird's
golden-yellow forehead, orange-yellow chin and throat, and yellow-ochre
bill, red-brown iris, wing-coverts edged with green, wings brown edged
with crimson, crimson upper and lower tail coverts, the former showing u p
close to the folded wing-tips, and legs and feet fleshy-yellow, answer fully
to the colour pattern described in the above verse. T h e only a p p a r e n t
difficulty is as regards the colour of the eyes which are said to resemble
psfop, ordinarily supposed to be colourless and transparent, but reddish
and dark-coloured rock-crystals described as snfm^T^BFT, wrfpwn: and
were a W k n o w n varieties of PCfotf (oi-^+^W quoting qfw+wrHi) so
that it is not incorrect to describe the red-brown eyes of the bird as
1. G r . chloros, light g r e e n ; opis, a p p e a r a n c e .
2. E H A in t h e C o m m o n B i r d s of B o m b a y .
1. F r o m G r e e k leios, ' s m o o t h ' a n d t h r i x , ' h a i r ' , a f t e r t h e sleek p l u m a g e of t h e b i r d .
3. " A d v e n t u r e s in W o o d c r a f t , " p . 68.
2. Greek mesos, 'middle' ?
 Bulbuls 35

w^T crest, top or head). also mentions the ^ts^T1 and the ^ r % J T
has t f l W and T5FT which last is not a bird but an insect and the name
has been listed in ^ f t j by mistake. To my knowledge ^WTRTrt^Ttr is the
only major work on augury which mentions all the bird and insect-
names listed in the above extract from It is really a mixed list for
Bulbuls, other birds and a couple of noisy insects, and I believe that the

6 author of has drawn a good deal upon «t*M<.M for compiling

his long list of birds. The above names occur in w t R , 8. 46-52
(pp. 247-250).
BULBULS
2. The commonest Bulbuls of North India, viz., the Central Indian
and the Bengal Red-vented Bulbuls were probably the fkst recipients of
1. The Bulbuls constitute a large and widely distributed family of small the now popular name of'Bulbul' at the hands of the Muslims who, wanting
birds, and every part of India claims at least a few varieties as familiar deni- to find an Indian substitute for their favourite Bulbul, the Persian Nightin-
zens of towns, gardens, or the forest. They are arboreal by habit, keeping gale, immortalized in song by great poets like Hafiz and others, chose these
to the trees and bushes, and are fairly bold. Having short, weak legs they cheerful birds for the compliment. The name has stuck so well that the
do not often "descend to the ground. They have pleasant notes arid are people have almost forgotten their old Hindi name, <1 ('black-
"extremely cheerful birds, always in an optimistic frame of mind and any headed', the same as ^ K ^ * of and its later equivalent, f ^ n r r
garden is the richer for their lively, restless presence and constant gay notes". of Q ' g - ^ D R M I I I ) . It is worth noting that the F.B.I, also-records VH^T
Sanskrit names are available for three distinct groups of Bulbuls common as a Hindi name against the above named Red-vented Bulbuls and
in North India, viz.: (i) the dark-grey and black-headed Red-vented no others.
Bulbuls; (ii) those with contrasting colours about the region of the ear, 3. The author of -TFrxwr has given either his own emendations
e.g. the White-cheeked, the White-eared, and the Red-whiskered Bulbuls, or alternative readings of and TOfte^T for ifter*,
all of a grey-brown colour; and (iii) the Black Bulbul with noisy and and respectively of where TWT and are mentioned
discordant notes. The following lexical information is available about these together:—
birds:—
T^rraftmt- ^ ^rnft w ^ t Jnmr" —1-8.47.
(1) i i w t W r jssF^mrmffcT:"—sF^Rrfrftw;
If ^ f r m like W is also some noisy insect, as there is reason to believe,
(2) "wi f f f a w r T^sTHT X T W W
•ftFufowii also will have to be excluded from the bird-list of (see
> last paragraph). The name sfr*»T corresponds to Hindi *FTETTT or
lysvsi: qWnfs«r qj^r: qrfew: (wearing an ear-ornament, probably by association with WSTRT, the
sfarsff nlcHi* w n ^ : " 2
— name of a beautiful Apsara) which has been incorrectly recorded as
( 3 ) "fituMs: f f q f g : f r f ^ t HTHIM^-I:" — 3 'Kandghara' and ' K a n g d h a r a ' in F.B.I, against the White-cheeked
and White-eared Bulbuls through a phonetic error. Similarly Hindi
Of the above names mentions ^zwt alone but furnishes an f^TT for the Bengal R.ed-whiskered Bulbul is from Sanskrit which
additional name SF^TT^*4 for the black-headed and black-crested is common to several plants including Nerium odorum, having beautiful
Bulbuls taken together (arfR charcoal, hence 'of a dark or black colour'; flowers worn by women in their ears for ornament and hence the name
(cf. ^ftreran ear-ornament and also the name of a certain w r r ) . is
1. iR* is d e s c r i p t i v e of t h e g e n e r a l l y d a r k c o l o u r of t h e p l u m a g e of these b i r d s .
fj^TT in Prakrit and in Hindi so that the name for the Red-
2. S u b j e c t t o t h e a l t e r n a t i v e r e a d i n g s of 'fHc*M> and for and
whiskered Bulbul is fully significant.
e v e r y n a m e in this list s t a n d s f o r a p a r t i c u l a r b i r d o r insect in W ^ c R M .
3. ^ r f t ^ r is d e s c r i p t i v e of t h e g e n e r a l l y 'brown* b o d y - p l u m a g e of the black- 1. The name as a h o m o n y m h a s b e e n a p p l i e d to s e v e r a l b i r d s e.g., (i) fr. ^eq
h e a d e d or b l a c k - c r e s t e d B u l b u l s . P e r s i a n ' B u l b u l ' h a s b e e n S a n s k r i t i z e d i n t o ST5W ! ' a c u r l of h a i r on t h e f o r e h e a d ' it is t h e W h i t e - c h e e k e d B u l b u l as e x p l a i n e d l a t e r on • (ii)
4. In the M a r a t h i notes on ( f r . tfTTT 5TCT,. 1922) has been fr. ^ R ^ " ' a d a n c i n g boy', ' a d a n c i n g g i r l ' , it is the Fan-tail Flycatcher, Art. 11,
correctly rendered as Bulbul. a n d in t h e s a m e sense (iii) t h e S h o r t - t o e d L a r k , A r t . 27.
 37
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers

4. I t is clear from the first two synonymies given in p a r a . 1 t h a t T h e n a m e refers to a beautiful (fee) bird which is wearing
(v. 1. ?) and ntWrHT ( M . W . and have perhaps the more correct as it were a pair of flora] ear-tops, and this Bulbul with w h a t
form, l i t e r s ) refer to Bulbuls with red under-tail coverts, and qz^T — looks like a spray of red and white petals of Nerium odorum,
a curl on the forehead) is the White-cheeked Bulbul which alone the (Hindi w : ), stuck in front of the ear answers
has a long a n d poinled crest curling forward and yellow under-tail best to this p r e t t y n a m e which also agrees very well vfrith H i n d i
coverts (js^re: qfa^rf). It will thus be seen t h a t ^cRT on and ^ u i H i q SFTTT for it. T h e following parallels for (wearing a
on have erred in rendering ?T3<TT as the <f.=Hi+ or i»aiid+ described floral o r n a m e n t in the e a r ) should prove interesting:
by them as having a red patch u n d e r the tail (T^WTsfhTPT:). O n the
other hand, ^rfc^^ftr rightly differentiates 'fMctfl (v.l. >rtac?pfr), the R e d - "snft f«iO<WMMd?rr:"—T^^nir,
o '
16.61
vented, from ^ T , the yellow-vented White-cheeked Bulbul, a n d b y
"WNrr^Tf^m^ift"—^t^wfr, p. 230
extension the latter term would include the crestless but yellow-vented
White-eared Bulbul as well. T h e terms, ^r, in M . W . a n d in "Tnr^Fft^t..M'w'M'dU'—Wfft. 1§4.53.
1
the foot-note in W , should be a w.r. of this), and MU-^M* seem
T h e Red-whiskered Bulbul, as already stated, is a m u c h
to be allied forms which according to and <ig$HHm*, supported
smarter looking bird t h a n the c o m m o n Red-vented variety
by sj^cffr, denote the Red-vented Bulbuls. Now and 'Tfac^PF are
and this is not merely because it wears a beautiful floral orna-
two different birds according to gw^Tsr, and they should therefore be
ment in its ears but chiefly because it has a stylish, upright a n d
two different species of Bulbul with red u n d e r the tail, and these are (i)
pointed crest a n d a broad, dark b a n d across the almost white
the familiar sub-crested forms, the ' C e n t r a l I n d i a n ' and 'Bengal' R e d -
breast more or less broken in the centre. I t iss this sprightly
vented Bulbuls, and (ii) the m u c h smarter looking and fully crested 'Bengal'
and trim a p p e a r a n c e of the bird t h a t has won for it the addi-
and 'Southern' Whiskered Bulbuls. W i t h these preliminary observations
tional H i n d i n a m e of f^nTT^l" (the Soldier-Bulbul).
I proceed to allocate the above names, together with the pretty n a m e
Besides it shares the crimson p a t c h u n d e r the tail with its cou-
gsTFRRR? of the R a m a y a n a amongst the c o m m o n e r Bulbuls of N o r t h I n d i a ,
sins. T h e of SRPTTCTSI, defined u n d e r the n a m e of
the n a m e s r ^ i w n being of course a c o m m o n n a m e foi all of them,
in is this bird. T h e etymology and the propriety
in M . W . is a graphical error.
of the n a m e is not at all a p p a r e n t t h o u g h a suggestion or two
5. ( I ) T h e Bengal and Central I n d i a n Red-vented Bulbuls are the m a y be risked with, however, hardly any chance of probability:
^ and u ^ r of the lexicons and and "fi^rraw: of the com- (i) TRFT"^TJTV — (a) 'like a toddler on the g r o u n d ' , in
mentaries on TO; and g ^ r . reference to the weak legs of the b i r d ;
(2) T h e White-cheeked, the White-eared, and the Red-whi- (ii) "ft ' h a i r ' , ^fT 'chcst'—-after the divided dark-brown
skered Bulbuls should share the n a m e sffamf as they all have band a p p e a r i n g to descend from the neck like pendent
beautiful ears, as it were ("«ft: sfftnr W ^clHi f ^ m f e m locks of hair falling on the breast 1 ;
wtmfsrWRTSTTc^r"— This n a m e may also refer to (iii) i f a <rf«narr —after the Vedic singer ^ r who success-
the white-cheeked Grey T i t which looks like a m i n i a t u r e
fully passed through a fire-ordeal to establish his
Bulbul—Art. 2. T h e Red-whiskered Bulbul 2 would seem to
h o n o u r a b l e Brahmanic parentage. This vain and confi-
claim the n a m e fSMMcKt^ for itself in a special sense:
dent looking Bulbul also with its sweet and cheerful
"f^cqrrf^: wsrfert: notes remains unscathed despite fire (the red p a t c h )
u n d e r its tail. the sage is now in heaven but
THTHTW 5,15.7.
the bird acting his p a r t on e a r t h is still with us. See
1. T h e s e a p p e a r t o b e S a n s k . a d a p t a t i o n s f r o m n a m e s like ' P h a k i - p h o ' , 'Chinchiok-
M a n u s m r t i , 8.166 14.6.6.
p h o ' or ' C h i c h i a m ' u s e d b y the H i l l - t r i b e s of o u t e r H i m a l a y a s , e.g. for B u l b u l s Nos. 386.
(3) ^rs^T f r o m a 'curl on the forehead' is specific firstly for
394 a n d 397 in F . B . I . T h e f o r m s ^ R T (fcf w i t h ^ T r q V r ) and (the same as
the White-cheeked Bulbul with a yellow vent as defined in
t f i o ^ n u ) h a v e o c c u r r e d in l i t e r a t u r e also; see t h e last p a r a g r a p h of this article.
and secondly, by extension for the White-eared Bul-
2. T h i s B u l b u l has t h e " h i n d e r p a r t s of cheeks a n d e a r - c o v e r t s w h i t e s u r r o u n d e d w i t h
bul, also w i t h a yellow seat. T h e Black-crested Yellow Bulbul
b l a c k ; a t u f t of c r i m s o n - s c a r l e t f e a t h e r s u n d e r t h e eye a n d e x t e n d i n g o v e r t h e l o w e r ear-
c o v e r t s " (F.B. I. 2 n d E d n . ) . It is t h e r e f o r e a R e d a n d w h i t e - e a r e d B u l b u l rather than a
1. Cf. the tuft of h a i r o n t h e chest of fwr.
Red-whiskered one.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers
38

too, having a long crest and bright yellow lower parts, should the ^pfT, either the Flying Fox or the Stone Plover bird, both noisy
at night, and a bat. T h e great majority of birds have diurnal
share this name.
habits and consequently placed as it is with .W and other
(4) The Himalayan Black Bulbul (10") is distinctly larger than
nocturnal animals, should be some other insect, probably the
the common Red-vented Bulbuls (8"). It has orange-red bill
Cicada fly (also Ts?^ in Sansk.) noted for the prolonged shrill
and feet, a decidedly forked tail and loud discordant notes,
notes of the male. It is generally heard till late in the evening and
and as it keeps to the tree-tops "it is frequently mistaken for a
often at night during the summer; cf. for insects that may
Drongo". 1 It "goes about regularly in flocks all through the
accidentally enter a person's ear and make a buzzing noise inside. Both
winter,. . . .and they have a curious follow my leader style when
T5TT and are therefore out of place in the bird-list of It is
flying from one tree to another. It is a very bold bird. . . .but it
also interesting to note that the commentator of W T O ? does not explain
is naturally restless . . . . (and) soon flits away out of sight"
W ^ f W t and contents himself with the remark that they are known in
(F.B.I. 2nd Edn.) This Black Bulbul should thus be the
other parts of the country (TC%9Tsrftre>).
wfe^rr (qft with srs ? the wanderer: v . l . Tqft^T in
7. It may be noted that the little Bulbul has also contributed something
8.2.46). The name has been incorrectly rendered as a Drongo
) in the commentary on where W for the Drongo to princely vanity as its bright red under-tail coverts were used to embellish
has not been explained at all (Art. 15). The has royal jewellery and to set off the neck-bands of riding a r d polo ponies made
apparently amended wfcFT into "Wfa^Frr and the name fully from white beads:
suits "the wandering habit of this Bulbul. Its harsh notes
gqTjffqfc f & j m ^ T H T C ^ T r f a ^ ll"—HMfllHKT, 2, p. 93.
are also quite useful for purposes of augury. Its names in
Hindi are "JfV ((|:^T, 'harsh-voiced') and (wild
goat) after its wandering habit and harsh call-notes.
Ibid. 2, p. 221.
6. Finally, a few words about w and ^fopw of ^-THM and ^FW^frT
of T^T^Tto. It has already been suggested above that the latter has taken
all these names from the former but in doing so the author has modified
and into iftactfT and +("!(++1 probably under a mistaken belief BULBULS W I T H A BLACK HEAD O R C R E S T
that the terms were synonymous and were common to a female calf (<ikwi-
'a heifer') and a particular bird or birds. The s t i f f e n mentions T h e Black Common Red-Vented Bulbuls with a white
W with at 85.37 and again at 8 7 . 6 . w ^ i s SS^rCt, the common 'mole' Bulbul: Bulbuls of North or white and red patch
and w is defined as follows: qtffe^T India: Ti5^, in the ear-region:
"•Mtfblft+I ^ T^TT I
^fj-K^^r faftr PT^mftT ll" ibid., 87.6.
It is thus a kind of ground insect, a little over an inch long, and noisy like with a long crest with a pointed crest,
a cricket at night. This description, I venture to suggest, refers to the Mole- and yellow under red under the tail,
Cricket of the genus Gryllotalpa or Scapteriscus which is about the same the tail: ^ f T and a white and red
length and is very noisy at night in wet ground. ^-tHM who must cheek - patch — The
have had the fffenT before him when he compiled his work on Red whiskered^Bulbul:
augury, seems to have added one more noisy insect, the (deafen- garret.
ing, fr. piercing or W ^rofa to his list of creatures that
are noisy in the evening, for the science of augury must include
omens for journeys begun at the close of day or at night. The half
verse quoted in para. 3 above also includes, in addition to •(.iitifrii^,

1. T h e W h i t e - b e l l i e d a n d t h e B r o n z e d D r o n g o s of N o r t h I n d i a a r e u n d e r 9 i n c h e s a n d
t h e r e f o r e s m a l l e r t h a n t h e B l a c k B u l b u l . T h e C o m m e n t a t o r of would seem to
h a v e m a d e t h e s a m e m i s t a k e as p o i n t e d o u t s a f e w line l o w e r d o w n .
 Tree-Creepers 41

"imiT 24.35.

The permanent association of the Tree-creeper with large trees (^TFrfir)

is a well-known fact. Monitor Lizards (>mrT) are mostly ground crea-
tures and climb trees occasionally in search of food and cannot have
been intended here. T h e Drongo nests in the leafy crown 'of a tall tree
7 and during the nesting period drives off all the large predacious birds
l ; ke the Crows, Tree-pies, Kites, Hawks etc. from its vicinity and,
TREE-CREEPERS indirectly as it were, keeps watch over the tree. T h e female is mentioned
as she is naturally more zealous in these respects. The Woodpecker is of
course permanently wedded to a tree-life, and herein lies the propriety
of the Vedic allocation of the three birds to the Deity of the Trees.
Tree-creepers are inconspicuous grey-brown birds of the size of a common
Sparrow. They are wholly insectivorous and spend their entire life hunting
for insects on the trunks of the larger trees, working in zigzags up the bole
"rather like a jerky brown mouse". They never perch on the twigs and may
frequently be seen working along the under-side of a bough with their backs
parallel to the ground. After working in this manner at one tree, from the H
lower bole upwards, they fly from the top of one trunk down to the lower
part of another. They are resident birds of the Himalayan forests but come
down to the nearby plains in winter. An allied form seeks its food in a similar
way from perpendicular rock-faces, boulders, etc. and it is for this reason
named the Wall-Creeper. This is a foreign bird and visits India during the
winter.
Sanskrit f^fT 1 , means 'a little mouse', 'a kind of bird' (i.e.
'a mouse-bird'), and a kind of tree, and from the fact that the Tree-creeper
is known as ^ T ^ n r f , or Mouse-bird in Assam there is hardly any doubt
that the name f^fT: ( ^ f ) refers to this particular bird. The Wrens, with
similar mouse-like habits on the ground, also share the name.
A particular bird named *itsFF(from >itaT, a lizard, with s i c t f t V t , and there-
fore meaning 'a little lizard') is mentioned in tw'cn: ^TIOT2 and it is most
probably this bird, for what Whistler has described as 'the movements of
a jerky brown-mouse'appeared to the ancient Indians as the zig-zag
movements of a lizard, and they very aptly n a m e d it %rr or msTF, cf. sTt^frPFT
(srftm a lizard) for the Yellow Wagtail.
The Tree-creeper, the female of the Black Drongo ( F r ? m ) s a n d the
Woodpecker have been assigned to the deity presiding over the larger trees
at the Horse Sacrifice:
1. t : T f t r g s r f ^ : — t r ^ , farwsr^nr and
2. Verse 2009.
3. Commentator renders jftgT a n d +W + 1 as particular b i r d s — q f s r f ^ W :
though his rendering of SFTTW (the, woodpecker) as iJTCT is incorrect. =t)M<t>l is
proabably the same as the female of the bird in H d ^ t a T ^ T W T 6.3.34.
is the Black D r o n g o (Art. 15) and, as ai^-lR+l means a fire-pan a n d the black
a n d red bird of the tree, it is possible to explain the separate n a m e of sFrfa^FT (the
black one; STJTTW also m e a n s ' b l a c k ' ) for the female as some sort of a necessity.
 8
WRENS
The Wrens are very small brown birds of the densest under-growth in
the ever-green hilfy forests. They live entirely on insects which they pursue
with great energy, Scrambling over mossy boulders and fallen trees. "Great
skulkers and very shy, they are loath to take flight and prefer to creep away
silently, if disturbed". The Brown Wren of Nepal is "a dark brown bird
that creeps about under-growth like a mouse; the under-parts, which one
seldom sees are white with blackish markings. Its ordinary note is a single
'zip' uttered at long intervals; in the breeding season it attempts a little
song. If forced to fly it rises with a sharp 'chick' 'chick', 'chick'
(Smythies). The Wrens of Kashmir and Nepal thus appear to be another
group of little birds with mouse-like ways known as "fajfr' ( W f f t r j p t f t t —
—making the 'chi' or 'chick' sound) in Sanskrit, and the propriety of
the name would seem to be highly probable.
9
DIPPERS
The Dippers are curious little grey-brown birds not over nine inches
long. Their short, rotund and stout bodies are specially fitted for an aquatic
life. They have a dense and waterproof plumage with even the eyelids
covered with feathers. Two or three species of them are found in the Hima-
layas from Kashmir through Nepal to Assam. They live on water-insects
and their larvae which are captured by wading, swimming and diving. They
even possess the faculty of walking on the bed of the stream under water
and are as perfectly at home on the most turbulent Himalayan stream as
on a placid pool of water. The Brown Dipper is a common bird in Kashmir
and Nepal as in other parts of the Himalayas and must hav& been observed
by the curious ancients and named by them. Now is the name of
a bird that can walk or move under water: "^rfn ^rfir ^r^sr^r:"1
and as the most striking characteristic of the Dipper is its power of
walking under water—not possessed by any other bird—the name ^ s ^ r
should belong to it by right. It is known as in Hindi, perhaps a
mistake in F.B.I, for wsprt, the same as 4 J H as explained above. T h e
Dabchick or the Grebe is also because of its love of reeds and cane-
brakes, known as ^ f ^ r , amongst which it places its nest and skulks about
in case of danger. It is from this habit of the Grebe that the water-cane
is named also ^ ^ f s p r (beloved of the ^P^r/T bird). The Grebe too swims
under water and can well claim, its name in the etymological sense of
the word cT^sr as brought out in the commentary of the Unadi Sutra as
quoted above.
i. 3 ° r r f a p n f > r with n M m w of h k h i u i , i.93.
 The Thrush Family 45

size of a common sparrow was named by reason of a certain

10
THE THRUSH FAMILY
1. This family includes the Chats, Indian and Magpie Robins, Blackbirds,
Rock and Ground Thrushes, etc. of which the Chats, Robins, and Rock
Thrushes are of a comparatively small size. They are active little birds and
Whistler's characterization of some of them is typical, at any rate of the
majority of birds constituting the family. The Indian Bush Chat, he says,
is very restless and fairly shy, and is incessantly flirting its wings and tail.
The Stone Chat also behaves in a similar way. The flight of the Pied Wheat-
ear is strong and fast and always low over the ground, and perching or
hopping, the carriage of the bird is very spry and upright. The Black bird
hops and runs, while the Red-Start shivers its tail and bobs its head like the
Brown Rock-Chat and the Blue Rock-Thrushes. The demeanour of the
Indian Robin again, is very sprightly, hopping about with the head held
stiffly high and the tail cocked well forward over the back These points
in the behaviour of this bird have also been emphasised as prognosticating
attitudes by ^-TKM :•—
^ftftr S^fcSTWt I
^^F^TWte'JT q T W r t ^ F T f t c ^ H^MHlfefPrftll''
1
"gfS^cMi' cTTTT3T q i f o = r f c r f o 4 d T HTIl"
fancied similarity of habits with a frisky little colt. The latter is active and
handsome, carries its neck and head high, flicks its tail now and then, and
has otherwise a sprightly demeanour. In the avian fauna of North India
no other birds, except perhaps the White Wagtails, make a nearer approach
to this picture of a little colt than the Chats and Robins, and it must be a
happy inspiration of some observant sage which gave them the name of
3Tfep?r.i It seems to be a very ancient name and though its true significance
was forgotten in later times the name itself was happily preserved in some
of the manuscript lexicons for a "Sparrow" as even though
a particular type of it may well have been intended, just as t m ^ gives
iftrf., etc. for *§Pr instead of " y i w V ' o r and yet they are
names of particular birds. It is the same with other lexicons and ^rrfe lists.
The name srw^, however, gives us very much more information as to the
sort of sparrow it is than a brief and vague lexical definition like the
above. It is also interesting to note that the Northern Indian Stone-Chat
is known asfaSTor W l P ^ i ;the White-tailed Bush Chat as ^ ^ ( m c a thorny
p l a n t on which the bird often perches); the Red-Spotted Blue-throat as
jffcrsret fafi all in Hindi, and it is suggested that the name fasr has something
to do with Sanskrit fas (probably the Goral. Goat known as fasr in
Kashmir) or <fsr (the mythical horse). Hindi qte?'*2 for any insignificant
bird is related to Prakrit faftfir or fafcrt for the White-throated Munia and
allied forms. It would seem, therefore, that the term arw^ denotes a
particular type of Sparrow-like birds and that type is represented by certain
members of the Chat and the Robin group. T h e name, based on certain
habits, may well include the smart and active Wagtails which are known as
'iftarat *fm' (winter-pony) in Gujarat. In this name f l w r signifies
the time when Wagtails are plentiful in the country and 'qteT1 their smart-
ness, power of running on the ground and their tail-wagging habit.
^ffaTMUHi of gives us a specific bird-name 3rraw or srrcrwsfr ( ^ i w ,
7.76 Cf aii^W? for s m ^ s r ) which goes a great way to strengthen
the above hypothesis regarding the type of sparrow-like birds indicated
7.115.
by the term (see below).

2. M. Williams renders " w f " as a sparrow and a toy horse, and the 3. The Indian Robin is a common plains bird, about the size of a sparrow,
term also means a small pony. Apparently a particular class of birds of the with blackish brown upper parts, glossy black head and breast, a small
white patch on the shoulder and a conspicuous chestnut patch under the
tail which is offen flicked and spread out and carried erect. The female is
1. 3RT is a descriptive epithet of when it shoots off in different directions like
dark brown all over and has a chestnut patch under the tail. It is mentioned
a meteor or shooting star (cfRTJ — I b i d . 7.107.9. assHFTT and +i"lct+l in and (v.l. Hld+1) in TORK4. The
"5T5ffT" refers to the R o b i n ' s fast tripping movement on the ground, like a
rolling little ball pjfi-FPT, a Prakritism) a n d it is called the when executing such
1. srfa^ft; to—7.1.154. a n ^ f r — a sparrow, M . W .
a movement. Other styles of the bird are named ^ w ^ c w f a " (hopping or Prakrit (3T93TST) has been defined m o r e clearly as we shall see presently.
leaping), ^ r f e l (faulty g a i t ) , ifmjOTT(zig-zagging on the wing) and 2. f f . ST. Ifr. equates fa^ff and with faff, feminine of fa^T. This is p e r h a p s
(straight arrow-like flight) —ibid. 7.113-16. T h e s e clearly exhibit a certain questionable as no masculine form of fa^ft or MU^T like fas'fT or cftefT is known.
amount of parallelism with the c^tT, ^ f e f ( a defect) a n d 3RT types of motion in a 3. C h . 87.5.
4. Ch. 7.4.
horse as described in ^rfetfT of ^ f W C h . 8, cited in under and
in ifftHlfdqK, 4.7.144-49, Jeevanand's Edn. (1898).
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 47
46 The Thrush Family

description of a pair of given by the latter leaves no d o u b t in regard authors of the Puranas, a n d Pali ^ ^ of the smrs. For different types
to the identity of the bird. 1 — of see Art. 23A.
5. H e m a c h a n d r a defines arrow i.e. m ^ m as the WT (bird with a n
"JJTKPJT J^TST: I
auspicious song, or sftfrfr TOfift, uttering sft or like w h i s t l e ) . ^ m a y
^r^ff aRfr sfrf^TT qrft II" also be rendered as a song-bird—-Mt srt*PT Now it is well-known
that the Magpie R o b i n has, in addition to its beautiful song, a long
T r a n s : — E q u a l in size to the House-sparrow the cock-bird is of a
whistling call, principally heard during the non-breeding season. It is a
black colour and has a white wing-patch. T h e hen is smaller a n d of a
bird of the group, so t h a t a r ^ m and p r o b a b l y also arwni are
smoky-brown colour. This is how a pair is identified. specific for it according to the rule of H e m a c h a n d r a "BTO^tsfa fcsTT
T h e prayer formula to be addressed to the bird a t the time o f p u t t i n g a —arftTOT^rmPT- 1 i.e. as the particular or typical m ^ .
question to it for purposes of augury contains not only names t h a t really 6. T h e Magpie R o b i n is mentioned as in which corresponds
belong to it b u t also of other birds of the same g r o u p and several flattering to Hindi tf^JT or for it. T h e * s n t ^ S T 1 of Godbole, Poona
epithets consisting of n a m e s of goddess qr^Rft2 (1872) equates w i t h "snrc", the same as H i n d i effort. O t h e r H i n d i
names for the bird a r e and both m e a n i n g ' a milk m a i d ' or seller
"WTTT TPJpft fTTTt, f l f =3" ^ f f ^rf^H" cT^m I
of milk and curds while ^ in Prakrit also means a songstress.
r? q^qSt qTO^-^T c^PT'?, c? fif^RiT ^11
^f^RT, for ought one can say, may be a Prakrit form of Sanskrit Slfa*
(seller of c u r d s ) , or sHppjsns^ (sfaHT a r f ^ r : ) , srar* (sfsnrr sr?g?r:) , anc"
the idea underlying the n a m e is perhaps the supposition t h a t the original
It has also been called s ^ ' J l f f a and fWTlsfr respectively 3 . T h e n a m e black plumage of the bird has been splashed over w i t h curds as it were.
TterrY is evidently connected with Pali a n d Prakrit and TRP?> for 'a T h a t the idea is not foreign to the I n d i a n mind m a y be seen from the
litte child, a young bird or a n i m a l ' , cf. ,'qt^T—Ttf^RT, ^TRTcT: presum- mwTcR? (274) where a Crow is deprived of its feathers a n d p a i n t e d white
ably like a frisky young goat or colt; • f T a r r f — 1 - arftrsjFr- w i t h curds as a punishment for stealing food from the kitchen of a B r a h m a n a .
item,^TT,^zm (the Sparrow p a r excellence), 4 f ^ r f r f w r ^ r and T h e M a g p i e R o b i n is d^T in Prakrit as well :—
w m are names t h a t properly belong to it while the others are merely
intended for its glorification and to stress its exceptional i m p o r t a n c e in TOT M R j f r t ^rrrfa s r ^ t a fa
augury. I t shares the names wrar and j*TKt w i t h the S h a m a proper, and f H K m e r g f e f o r (427)
the n a m e fwirTsft (f^jprfo^) with the Blue-headed Rock-Thrush. T h e t e r m
fwrfsrofr though of the feminine gender like the others, refers to the 7. WITT means, a m o n g other things, (i) of a d a r k or bluish colour;
male which has a white wing-bar. T h e p o p u l a r H i n d i n a m e wsft faft for (ii) 'a pretty young w o m a n possessing by implication a beautiful voice as
it is the equivalent of f r w q^fr. well'; and (iii) musk or As a bird-name the t e r m applies to the
S h a m a (Turdus M a c r o u r u s ) 3 a n d the I n d i a n R o b i n , a n d there is reason
4. T h e S h a m a a n d the M a g p i e R o b i n are the two of the best songsters of
to believe that other blue or brown song-birds also went by this name with
India. T h e head, neck, breast, and u p p e r p l u m a g e of the male in b o t h are
qualifying epithets, e.g. the Brown Rock C h a t is known as Tferr OTTTT
glossy black; b o t h have a black and white tail; b u t as against the chestnut
(*TfoTT earthy b r o w n ) in H i n d i and the Blue Rock thrush is WTO in the
under-parts of the S h a m a those of the M a g p i e R o b i n are p u r e white. T h e
N o r t h a n d TFS in the South and must have been known in Sanskrit as
latter has also a broad white wing-bar in a d d i t i o n while the S h a m a has a
W WTTT because of its light blue colour. for 'a kind of S p a r r o w '
longer a n d a g r a d u a t e d tail. Because of the black head and neck b o t h are in M . Williams a n d m ^ P w a p p r o p r i a t e d by to the I n d i a n R o b i n ,
the — ^ w f r f of the lexicons, qsrfrg proper of the poets and should be the same. Again, the n a m e $rf 4 i f n o t purely honorific, would also
seem to be a misappropriation, for it implies a bird of a blue colour; Cf.
1. 7.25. the complexion of goddess fof described as blue like the linseed-flower:—
2. 7.23-24. I n t h e s a m e w a y fc^TT, a n O w l e t , h a s b e e n c a l l e d W^TJeff in tTHctWRT,
1, p p . 107, 108. N a m e s of g o d d e s s q T ^ f t i n c l u d e WPTT, fSTT, f T R f r , f ^ l l H ^ d i , ^TTTT,
1. 404.
3TTT, and grrfT.
2. 8.2,52.
3. 7 . 1 9 ; 7.344.
3. N o w r e n a m e d K i t t a c i n c l a m a c r o u r a in F . B. I . 2 n d E d n .
4. Cf. fPF^T^T^hrt, viz.. t h e c h i e f B i r d - g o d d e s s of a u g u r y , a n d from
4. See P a r a 3.
its n a m e in G u j a r a t .
 46 48
Birds in Sanskrit Literature The Thrush Family

c u c k o o in the sense of a bird with a passionate c a l l — a f f e c t e d by TTT

— u n d e r or love and voice. Similarly 5TOTO 'a kind of small bird' in Wilson's
Both f t ? and like TFsf^frr should, therefore, be the Blue Rock Dictionarv may well be the Red-spotted Blue-throat, another winter
Thrushes as both' mean also the flax or srfrat plant : "snrT fTTsnfr Fprr"— visitor of the same area. Its Hindi name feT is 'fully synonymous
OTrfe^ffa (^S^SXT) : 1.143; arcTHt rftojoft ^ tn#cfr ^n^irr —sn^rft. with H W 5 . It may be added that OTW5 is also an adnoun for the
Later on, however, some of the birds that bore the name of WITT came to Peacock while the Magpie Robin, the House Sparrow and the White
1
be known by the synonymous term and thence as T h u s we have Wagtail amongst the smaller birds share the adnoun sffasro
or tx^'i for the Black-birds and for the Himalayan Whistling black) but not
Thrush. T h e Blue-headed Rock Thrush is f^T^nl i n Nepal 10. ^ s r * is a bird of augury in 1
and if it is from — t o tremble
and was probably frfwrw applied later by to the Indian Robin. and a kind of grass, it should be the Black Redstart which "has the
8. We have seen that has JTRf (one of the names of goddess TFTcft) ague in its tail" like a blade of grass trembling in the breeze. Its Hindi
as one of the names for the Indian Robin, but there is reason to believe name is or simply fcnfqrr (fFR+3ifcssn: ? ) . sr^rTft distinguishes
that it was originally a name for the Shama. T h e male Shama is black between f ^ n r and is^srff and defines the latter as "g^srfr w^rfrsW:" i.e.
above and down to the lower breast, chestnut below and has a prominent is a bird with a trembling tail, and this and
white patch above the base of the tail which is black and white. T h e cons- seem to be other names for the Redstart, 3 unless they refer to the Pippits
picuous colour pattern of the bird is fully comparable with the description (Art. 26 B).
of the goddess frrfT created by the combined energy issuing from the 11. The Grey-winged Black-bird is a well-known and fan/iliar bird of its
eyes of sr^TT, f ^ T and Tt?r according to a statement in the 3WJTFT2 :— class and goes under the Hindi name of and ^FffT ( = Wim,
the dark coloured). T h e male, being black with grey patches on the
" f ^ V r ? IffTTTt ?TT f^TT gppri ^ "TtfcPPT l"
wings is about eleven inches long. It has a coral red to deep orange
fTRt as a bird-name, therefore, m a y well belong to the Shama, the best bill and is "one .of the finest and best known songsters of the H i m a l a y a s . "
Indian songster, in her own right and would appear to have been appro- For this reason it is a favourite cage-bird. Allied forms occur in the central
priated by as a compliment to the Indian Robin. It m a y be parts of the country and in the Nilgiris. on g'W explains as
that the description of the goddess f n r t herself was taken over from the • • T ^ T P N ? FTT5T:". It follows that, like the Magpie Robin ( I > I O T « 5
bird bearing the name. It must, however, be conceded that the male Robin ifr^rfais) th'S bird too was regarded as a kind of and was known as
also is almost black throughout, has a white wing-patch, visible in flight, (Black-bird or Black-sparrow) which is the same as or f ^ r ,
and a little chestnut under the tail. T h e white and chestnut are not, however, for ^THrsfT is synonymous with ^wfa^ in a special s e n s e — : T^rfa^f:
half as conspicuous as in the Shama and the Robin is almost a black bird rzmr"—spK. T h e name it may be noted, is applied in certain
by comparison and has been rightly named tvEcrq-sfr. parts of the country to the Common Black Drongo 4 or the Himalayan
9. 733W5 is 'a small song-bird' ir M . Williams, and should m e a n the Whistling Thrush because all three have a black plumage. It is not to be
Ruby-throat which is " a robin-like bird ashy-slate above with a white wondered at if in a vast country like India names based on colour are applied
forehead, chin and throat bright crimson bordered with black". (S. Ali— to different birds in different parts of the country. (8.2.50) a'so
Indian Hill Birds). " I t runs and hops about on the g r o u n d , . . . .wings mentions the Blackbird by the name of
partly drooping, tail cocked and switched over the back now and again. . . . 12. ('red-billed') as a Himalayan bird may well be the Grey-
In all its movements and behaviour it is extremely reminiscent of the winged Blackbird unless it is the coral billed Scimitar Babbler as suggested
familiar Blue-throat of the plains in winter, and in some ways also of the in Art. 5:—
Indian R o b i n . . . . I n the breading season the cock utters a lively pleasant
song" (ibid). It is quite common in the North-Indian plains during winter. 1. 8.2.51.
T^fT^S (having a red throat) for a small song-bird should therefore 2. W o r d s like and a r e traced to root frfa-^cT* in M . W . a n d Unadi.
belong to it, for no other song bird with a contrasting red throat or neck C o m p a r e also a l t e r n a t i v e f o r m s like and tiP-Hwn.
is known in India. as a homonym is also an epithet of the 3. T h e n a m e is evidently coined a f t e r for t h e W a g t a i l . The
W i r e - t a i l e d Swallow is k n o w n as " L e i s h r a " (?). in t h e P u n j a b f r o m the r e s e m b l a n c e
of t h e tail-wires w i t h the 'Leishra'-grass (Jerdon).
4. <H m e n t i o n e d b y ^ " I M I J f a n d the Black D r o n g o a r e allied forms within
l. tmPH W . the s a m e family. D i c r u r i d a e (Art. 15).
2. C h . 90.23. ">. m e n t i o n s the Black D r o n g o u n d e r the n a m e of (Art. 15).
 46 The Thrush Family 50
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
SP-TT <TSft TO STT"—
"•1 M M "Tiff rlMKHd^t: I
^fadfaKK, Ch. 12.
g^ry^rVm^: ^^pifprrfafir: u
•tiM'i t p M ^ " — ibid., Ch. 21.
^mrgrpT, 3 9 1 8
-<T-T-TfTT3 TT5T:
Blackbirds belong to the sub-family containing the true Thrushes which,
unlike the Shama, the Magpie Robin, Chats etc. which are purely insecti- —

vorous, include small fruits and berries as well in their dietary. They 5.34.
feed a good deal on the ground, turning over the leaves and digging with A very handsome tribute is first paid to the mtffaw for his beautiful
the bill in soft soil for worms, grubs, etc. T h e Magpie Robin also feeds song and yet it is said that he is far from attaining the sweetness of the
on the ground but entirely on insects, w f a ^ placed in the faTH^^l
Lord's Voice:—
by and srfffT by to: and j f r n p r (srenTP? w W cfT ^ t s m : ) as its
"fg"l J l u l spsrfa^Ts^TT:
synonym apparently refers to these two song-birds of the size of a
sparrow ( j f t n ^ ) : —
WWlwIxfhW^T:
Weft ff^-^%"1 — f k w m w T w w f ^ r sT^ST^ 1 II
13. I t has been stated above that the names and WT^nr are shared by A number of them welcome with a chorus the sun rising from the ocean:—
more than one bird and it is perhaps advisable to bring them together:
(I) sfa* " - f a + H + H f t ^ + n i M + i ^ iS'-nfff: 1 a

i) sffa^—-the Whistling Thrush (para. 15 below). ^TtTRfTS^: II

ii) sfrre—the Sibia (Art. 6 ) ; Verse 2185.

iii) T8T3> — t h e Iora, (Art.6);
and like the T h r u s h of Robert Burns the w f a ^ also 'sings drowsy day
iv) sffa^—the Magpie Robin.
to rest' :
( I I ) w t t t :—
i) ^ WTT the Indian R o b i n ;
ii) jpTRf wrai—the S h a m a ;
Act 2, 45.
iii) <tt*¥ w m or —the Blue Rock T h r u s h ;
iv) i r f c r ^ —the Blackbird. It may be noted that it is the male which sings but the poet's partiality for
14. T h e Magpie Robin, the Shama and the Grey-winged Blackbird sing the gentler sex is responsible for the use of the feminine. European poets
morning and evening from the top of a tree and they are the ^ f f a ^ 2 also make the Cock Nightingale, which alone sings, o f t h e feminine gender.
of literature in the following examples though the probability in In the description of a Himalayan scene the Magpie Robin or the Shama
favour of the Magpie Robin is the greatest as it is the most common bird is mentioned with the Black-headed Oriole which too is noted for its sweet
both o f t h e plains and the outer Himalayas. T h e pleasant conversation and fluty notes:—
handsome looks of Lord Buddha have been compared with those of the
sfHfaHj; : —
q f o d i T K ^ s r g^n-frr ^ II
WPT^TPT, 36.4.
1. I . e . F t c f r j k i - ^ i i lll*Hdisf<T. T h e n a m e w f a ^ p r o p e r l y b e l o n g s to t h e and t h e t o o places the * with other sweet-voiced birds of
I F ^ U " " b i r d a n d also b y e x t e n s i o n or c o u r t e s y to t h e H o u s e S p a r r o w . T h i s s e e m s to b e
t h e f o r c e of 3ffq- in t h e s y n o n y m y . F o r f see A r t . 2 3 A . the Himalayas:
2. A l t o g e t h e r t h e r e a r e seven d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of —(i) W^lV ^wf^Tf;, t h e
R o s e F i n c h , (ii) q f a w ^ r f w ^ t h e Y e l l o w h e a d e d W e a v e r - b i r d , (iii) ^ T S f ^ f f a ^ t h e R e d • ^fes^H ll 3.158.52-53.
M u n i a , ( i v ) fa«<»>tuii^r the crested L a r k , (v) ^ S f f a ^ the Shama,
(vi) + M + U S the M a g p i e Robin, and (vii) J l f i i l ^ ^ r f a ^ , the Blackbird This and the verse following it have been copied into the HTWT JTTT,
(see A r t . 23 A . ) O f t h e s e o n l y t h e last t h r e e a r e t h e t r u e songsters of I n d i a . The 6.13-19.
M a g p i e R o b i n is c o m m o n in t h e p l a i n s a:nd hills, t h e B l a c k b i r d is c o m m o n in t h e o u t e r
H i m a l a y a s a n d o c c u r s a t h i g h e l e v a t i o n h e r e a n d t h e r e , a n d t h e S h a m a is a b i r d of d e e p
forests. T h e Twfa^ of t h e p a s s a g e s q u o t e d is m o s t p r o b a b l y t h e b e a u t i f u l m a g p i e 1. W T f o — n o t in t h e slightest. TOlfEKM^cW, G i l g i t m a n u s c r i p t s , V o l . 2,
R o b i n . T h e p l a i n l o o k i n g c r e s t e d L a r k a n d its c o u s i n , t h e S k y l a r k (*KSM) e d i t e d by D r . N . D u t t . 1941, 14th qfw, 29. See also verses 5 3 a n d 84 i b i d .
d o n o t s i n g f r o m t r e e t o p s a n d n e i t h e r of t h e s e c a n b e i n t e n d e d ( A r t . 2 7 ) .
 96
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

A good description of the charming song of "Mfas-^P (Pali +<«fl*) is

contained in verse 39 of the ^fofwr srra^1 where the amorous voice of
the princess in the garb of a ^ f a j ^ H is compared with that of
t he bird:
" w w w srrfcFT w
H - w v i w mftrrf i 52
Tipsf q^t
^ m f j w m ^ r ir iptt n
The "^rfaqr" <?rr:) of the ^rra* again are these birds FLYCATCHERS
and to translate *>i«(U as 'a Cuckoo' is clearly incorrect. 2 For Magpie
Robin as a nominal victim for god at the see Art. 23A.
15. The Himalayan whistling Thrush is a deep blue-blackbird, brighter 1. This family of birds contains a large number of species and is well-repre-
on the wings and tail with black legs and eye-rim which latter distinguishes sented in India, but quite a few of them are only winter visitors with us.
it from the not much smaller Blackbird in which these parts are yellow. There is no mistaking a Flycatcher as all of them catch their insect food
Another race of this Thrush, the Malabar Whistling Thrush occurs in the on the wing. Some species carry on their operations from a fixed perch
Indian Peninsula south of the Satpuras. The call is a loud melodious whistle, while others return to a different perch after every sally into the air at flying
Blackbird-like in tone but more powerful and resembling the human whistle, insects. They are weak in the legs and rarely descend to the ground but
hence it is nick-named 'the whistling school-boy' by the European residents when they do so they generally do not walk or hop about. The smaller and
of the country. It is known as (making a 'see' or MT like whistle) rather plain coloured birds like the Flycatcher Warblers, would pass for a
in Telugu and is evidently the same as Sanskrit (sft—jfir sretftfa). Its ^ferr but the larger and more strikingly plumaged birds, like the Blue,
Hindi names ^mfsRT and ^R^rr correspond to Sanskrit •frit-Hd* and ¥qwi the Fan-tail and the Paradise Flycatchers, have distinctive names in Sans-
respectively for the Blackbird because both are of a black colour and krit.
have a similar whistling call. 2. 5TWT is a (pecking) bird in and gsra and it is
mentioned with Hl^Hd* in ^RTTIW. 1 The blue-coloured Niltava Flycatcher
16. The black and white Fork-tails of the Himalayan streams resem-
is known as or HMd^i in Hindi (F.B.I.). This last name is
ble the Wagtail in general outline and have also the tail-wagging habit so
probably from Sanskrit ^ft^r?^ 2 and is the same as the or
that they are likely to be "mistaken for a Wagtail". They are actually
'Blue Sparrow', ^ r r is, therefore, a Flycatcher which is not of a
known as <9^1 in Kashmir and seem to be the bird rendered
blue colour, and as v t ^ means 'a dancing boy', should be the
as 'a kind of Wagtail' by M. Williams, Wilson and s r ^ l w q f ' T . The
Fantail Flycatchers considered in paragraph 3 below and the white-
name itself implies a bird that is not a Wagtail proper but has the
spotted Fantail of the Peninsula. "For liveliness and grace", says Whistler,
shape of one.
"it is not to be surpassed. It is never still, and the whole livelong day it
17. The Golden Bush-Robin of Nepal with a beautiful plumage of olive- dances and pirouettes, filled with an inimitable joie de vivre,. .it turns
green, black and bright orange goes by the name of THfcr^T <f>> from side to side with restive jerky movements; like a ballet-dancer it tries
in Assam. '<??)•' in the Himalayan dialects means 'a Sparrow', (Cf. Sansk. new steps and attitudes Never was bird better n a m e d . " The Fantail
J * for a bird). We have the term (native red arsenic) used to rises and falls perpendicularly in the air, opening the fan-shaped tail or
describe the plumage of a bird in the following verse which makes it completely tumbles over. 3 The bird also combines a pretty little song of
highly probable that this bird was known as in Sanskrit as well some five or six loud whistling notes with its dancing movements, and it is
though the name has not been preserved in the current lexicons:— hardly necessary to add that the movement of its tail recalls the expanding
"^ifwm^fep^TT " — 1 0 . 2 8 . skirt of a dancing girl during a performance. The of
1. S t o r y N o . 5 2 6 w h i c h is p r o b a b l y b a s e d u p o n the storv of and 1. 8.2.49-50.
in M . Bh. 3.111-112.
2. n M i in a g e n e r a l sense m e a n s a s p a r r o w a n d h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d as
2. I refer to the English translation of the J a t a k a by H . T . Francis, e d i t e d by E. B. the H o u s e S p a r r o w in but the n a m e a p p l i e s to p a r t i c u l a r birds (by
Cowell. a n d the Pali D i c t i o n a r y ( P . T . S . edn. ). Since w r t i n g t h e a b o v e I h a v e h a d occa-
the rule flTETKuilsfo" f w < ? ^ f ^ , fartfi.) e.g. the s h o r t - t o e d Bush-lark (^TFfiT)
sion, t h r o u g h the c o u r t e s y of D r . Lokesh C h a n d r a , to g l a n c e t h r o u g h Asia M a j o r , N e w
(Art 2 6 . ) a n d p r o b a b l y also the R e d M u n i a . — — H l t f d ^ T , ^Tt^TS^T—•flHcWI.
Series V o l . I I , P a r t I. 1951 w h e r e a t p. 38 H . YV. Bailey has t r a c e d in a K h o t a n e s e
Buddhist d o c u m e n t to s f K T f r ^ — + +. 3. Cambridge N a t u r a l History, Vol. I X .
 54 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers

is, therefore, this Flycatcher, and, provided this identification is reasonably refer to the two central tail-feathers as if they were the 'split' or separated
correct, one can say with Whistler, "never was bird better n a m e d " in strands of a cord. T h e (string or ribbon-tailed) is therefore
Sanskrit. For (fr. a curl on the forehead) as the White- no other than the Paradise Flycatcher.
cheeked Bulbul see Art. 6 and for the Red Munia, Art. 22-B. 6. tfsnr is one of the birds assigned for the sun in his friendly
3. fa^lT Tfrere:—^feFT —<lHliMHldl+l on anrc) according aspect in the TOT.ffffST1:—
to and s i ^ f f w m f ^ is the (f^^^Mwr ^ T ^ ) bird. fafTT "WT: ^ct s p t : fcrr'' i
also means 'sport or play' and 'a grove', is a 'spot or d r o p ' , a n d TWT or
is a 'row or series', 'border or edge'. These make it clear that the bird jTTif is the Bee-eater (Art. 40) and HIHT*®^ the sun-loving Lizard
meant is of sporting or playful habits, frequents groves, and has a row or line (siw* - ), both of insectivorous habits. 2 srapr too should therefore be
of spots in its plumage. These characteristics obtain in the White-browed an insect-destroying bird—all three being friendly to the crop or fruit-
and the White-throated Fantail Flycatchers both of which have their tail farmer. NowffW m e a n s ' t o let go or f l y ' o r ' t o cast or let go (a measuring
feathers tipped white, and the tails when expanded exhibit a prominent line)'—M. Williams. has s f ^ s r i i w f r " , ^nf=r, 1.10
border of white or white spots. T h e y are, as we have already seen, of and bearing these in mind it would seem that also is the Paradise
sportive habits and frequent groves of trees in garden or woodland. fa^TT Flycatcher which during flight appears (i) to have befen tied to a
and fe^l^F may well thus be the names for the above two Fantails string and let go like a paper kite, (ii) as leading away a measuring string,
within the larger WJ3T group of Fantail Flycatchers. or (iii) as carrying a pair of strands as if to twist them into a cord
4. T h e m o s t striking member of the present family is the Paradise (T*3T fl/spr:)8 (

Flycatcher (21" inclusive of 16" of central pair of tail feathers), sometimes 7. T h e bird in the following passage would again seem to be
called the Ribbon Bird. T h e crested head of the male and female is black. this beautifully white Flycatcher:
T h e young cock-bird is chestnut above and carries a pair of thin ribbon- "^pftsqTTT'jft frpIWT I
like central tail-feathers of the same colour u p to about two years of age after
^ W ^ W M -o^ : wrtsar ^ t ^ : 11
which it acquires the adult plumage which is pure white except for the head
t r ^ T ^ i r ? f ^ i f f f f o r 5 SRT HSfT I
and the wingquills which are black. T h e female is chestnut above with
a grey breast like the young male and sometimes grows the long central — x n m m 3.75, 18-19.

tail-feathers of a chestnut colour. T h e y are most beautiful birds and their T h e word arsfa is indicative of the whiteness of several things including
presence definitely adds to the charm of every grove, garden or hermitage. 'milk' and it also means 'straw or a blade of grass' (af^TRTiT—•dvwM^Tl),4
It must be their grace and beauty which moved the law-givers like O u r bird is milk-white (cf. its Hindi name, ^HTM5) and appears also
and qisrem to include them in the list of birds prohibited as food, for to carry a couple of pieces of straw in its tail. It may be added that 3T3PT
otherwise they are so small that few would be tempted to kill them for also means a Peacock which, however, has always been mentioned in the
the pot. R a m a y a n a by the well-known names, of w and wlfpr, and has actually
5. calls it T ^ T O 1 and w ^ w , W O T . 2 T h e commentators have been so named a few lines below the verses quoted above. Moreover the
missed the identity of the bird, and while some have rendered it as a
1. 24.33. H i n d i if f r o m ^ S - j - ' p i (a white t h r e a d ) or ^ B g r + TW (growing
Woodpecker others have held it to be some water-bird, but the names
a cord at will), m a y well be this bird (ffp?t 5T«?-*TnrO.
themselves hardly leave any room for doubt. is 'a cord or string'
2. See A r t . 71 p a r a . 10.
and 3TW'a tail' (Cf. —'black-tailed'). is a "leaf' or qw and
therefore stands for a feather. ^FPW, from root s^r, to split m a y also 3. C o m p a r e "«T T T ^ T g S T c T " — W R T , 5.7 p r o h i b i t i n g a w o m a n in a state of ' i m p u r i t y '
from m a k i n g a rope, lest h e r w o m b gets twisted a n d becomes unfit to conceive a
baby.
1. 5.12. <<mPw 3T5T T33T3T5T:. I n the c o m m e n t a r i e s on TFTFrfa' iTSffftlfa 4. ^Ufffsgsnrfar, 3.59. T h e Wire-tailed Swallow is k n o w n as 'leishra' ('a kind
frankly remarks t h a t the birds in q u e s t i o n should be identified with the h e l p of fowlers o f grass' according to J e r d o n ) in the P u n j a b as the tail-wires look like pieces of straw. T h e
(<»JKMI<J^: m ^ f t ^ T : SWSET^TT:), + and TO^T are silent. T R ^ s T accepts the 3T3PT tree. T e r m i n a l i a a r j u n a , is so n a m e d f r o m its w h i t e t r u n k a n d the variety of
ftciraTT onJTRRFPT while 5EPT5PTRWT calls it a kind of w a t e r bird ( ^ i ^ ^ ' . l f O T ? : ) grass too must be one of a whitish colour. ffspTT a c c o r d i n g to T^il^fT is also a
which again is incorrect. kind of lizard, a p p a r e n t l y with a long t h r e a d like tail, p r o b a b l y , the Long-tailed Green
2. 1,174. ^'-SnJ^T; ferllWW, <ilRdl, T^TT STT TOT: Calotes (C. o p h i o m a c h u s ) h a v i n g a body of five a n d tail of t w e n t y inches. T h i s lizard does
The taTO^on TRRFPT renders it as ^ J d d * : , a woodpecker, cf W n o t o c c u r in N o r t h I n d i a a n d c a n not h a v e been i n t e n d e d in the passage f r o m the
for the same in Pali (Art. 3 4 ) . M . W . does n o t give this w o r d b u t has an e n t r y for where die c o m m e n t a t o r takes for a p a r t i c u l a r b i r d .
'-TSTJpTfpT, r e n d e r e d as a 'tree-fowl, wild cock' which seems to be not q u i t e correct. f^Xl-t fr. milk with root TT3T to shine, or |*£T-TTf3T a w h i t e streak or line.
56 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers

name arsprar for a forest-bird has occurred only once and that in the
Ramayana and nowhere else except perhaps in the Atharva Veda,
4.37.5 in association with large trees which this bird always frequents
with other insect eating birds, (see Art. 34).
8. Pali %<-R%<| is a Himalayan bird in the
1
^TRR;2 and looking
to the "streamers of white satin ribbon" worn by the Paradise
Flycatcher in its tail, the name should belong to it; Cf.
of ^iM^ld^ for the- Large Egret (Art. 82). The original sense of the
(^MII>)
12
word %5T was probably 'a strip of white cloth', as may be seen from SHRIKES
the alternative reading of "sAd+RiSfr:", per M . Williams in 'WnTS^r-
• ^ f u ^ : " — w h e r e the piece of cloth wound round the neck of a
ceremonial j a r of water was of a white colour as is the Brahmanical practice
The Shrikes "are in many respects very closely allied to the Flycatchers
even today. This would, therefore, seem to suggest that has the
both in habits and s t r u c t u r e " - F . B . I . , 2nd edn. Most of them are cast in a
sense of which makes its-identification with our bird more certain.
common mould and resemble one another not only in general appear-
We have therefore and ar^rir in Sanskrit and in Pali
ance but also in habits. A majority of them are a little heavier than the
for this strikingly beautiful bird.
common Sparrow but with decidedly longer tails. Clad in shades of grey,
9.Finally, all small Flycatchers, like the little Warblers, are simply black chestnut, white, etc., they are smart and pretty looking birds, often
(',:=rf^T : 5TsPTf3T¥T:"—stfaavKH^Ml of ^ t w a ) as may be seen from seen perched on an outer branch of a bush or low tree on a keen lookout
the fact that the Eastern Red-breasted Flycatcher and the Blue-throated for insects butter-flies and grasshoppers. They are of crepuscular habits
Flycatcher are actually known as in Bengal. Both ^fe^T and ^cRtxw and like the flycatchers, begin their activities early at dawn and continue
are diminutive forms from (a sparrow) and apply to all tiny birds to catch insects till late in the evening. In view of these characters the
of a non-descript character. ancients placed them with the Flycatchers and named them
The personal names, arr^T and 3TlWf occurring in the **** ( w w - ^ + a w - M . ? ) . means both 'morning and e v e n i n g ' -
Satapatha Brahmana and the Upanisads, like other names based upon S ^ n m r ^ : — a n d the form also, rendered as 'dawn or day-
the names of birds, e.g. ^rrtfir, ?rrft?T, WT, etc. etc., are to be traced to the break' by M. Williams and Wilson, should have both the above senses
Paradise Flycatcher which begins to breed when still in its immature of 3PTST. asjnr, therefore, is a bird that begins to hunt for insects early in the
chestnut (srenj) plumage.
morning and is active till after sunset.
Both and are ^ birds in TOT, and regards them as
allied forms" of Bulbuls-*!®* TW^arffTOPT:, ^ w r s f t w^fe:'* Here the
identification of ^ r with the Red-vented Bulbul is perhaps slightly
incorrect, for it is the yellow-vented White-cheeked Bulbul (Art. 6).
^ is a homonym and means not only the last-named Bulbul but also a
Flycatcher (Art. 11) and it is in the latter sense of the term that
should be regarded as allied to (a***: i.e. aCTW*:). The common
Hindi names ' for the Shrike are and *gm, probably from
sfttt—sprc^—<— —<iiki.

1. — a n a r r o w strip of cloth. ^"IT is rendered as ^F^Sffzm i.e. in

T^VCTTIT. a streamer, cf. — w f ^ T ^ T 3.34. is thus the
same as ^U^xJ -«fl <fy =ftf?STq~Rr a bird which carries aloft a streamer as it were. 1. T h e 5IZ3T is the R e d - v e n t e d Bulbul and is a variety of i f — S e e Art. 6
2. verse 2099. for the Bulbuls.
3. 2.50.72.

13
MINIVETS
1. The Minivets are small Sparrow-like birds (6"-9" )with comparatively
long tails and of colourful plumage with red or yellow conspicuous in most
cases. Some have glistening black and scarlet as part of their dress. They
are usually met with in parties and keep to tree-tops where they search
for their insect food in the foliage. Constantly uttering their soft cheeping
notes, a party keeps together flitting from tree to tree "in follow-my-leader-
fashion". This trait has given them the pretty names of^rspft or 'ti^ft' (little
girl friends) and flroft (the seven girl friends or sporting girls) in
Bengali.
2. Hymn 191 o f t h e first Mandala o f t h e Rgveda is a charm against
the poison of snakes, scorpions, insects etc. where wf>f=wr (verse 11),
fa-tgfo^ (verse 12), and Jwfr with (verse 14) are invoked for
protection or cure. STjfom and w f r are of course birds but some translators
have not accepted Sayana's suggestion that fa^fcl-fpF also is a particular
bird, while fWT: has been rendered as the 'seven rays of the sun' or
'seven rivers' o f t h e Punjab.
3. The numbers 'three', 'seven' and 'three .times seven' are evidently
supposed to have some magical significance and have been greatly in favour
with ancient peoples, but in the present context they appear to have, in
addition, a somewhat real, though necessarily vague, reference to actual
numbers as well.
4. Sayana has explained siijPd+l as a which may mean
either the female Grey Partridge ) or more probably a Quail
(cf. "^ffrrOT^fr^Tr:"—^q^rrer). In R V 1 as also in ftawgw2 the
has been called a or which would justify Sayana's inter-
pretation, but the diminutive form "sijf'-d+T" seems to point to a smaller
bird of the Partridge kind. However that may be, I must refer to a
treatment for snake-bite sometimes practised in the Indian villages with
the help of a fowl. The open (i.e. forced open) cloaca of a live chicken
is pressed on the site of a bite and the poison is supposed to be sucked up
1. 11.42 a n d 43.
2. N o . 4.
r.Q
Minivet s
by the gradually closing organ of the bird, and a similar treatment with
Quail or Partridge in place of the chicken would seem to be indicated in
verse 11 o f t h e hymn. This is merely by the way and has nothing to do
with the Minivets.
5. The fa^fa^ of verse 12 is, according to Sayana, a kind of
bird but has been translated too literally as "sparks of fire" by Griffith.
I consider Sayana's hint of a bird to be correct, and most probably it is the
Scarlet Minivet or its smaller cousin, the Short-billed Minivet. In both
the head and the upper parts are glossy black, and the lower parts, rump,
most of the tail and a bar on the wing bright scarlet. They are entirely
arboreal and move from tree to tree in flocks which sometimes number as
many as thirty to forty birds. "Feeding in the trees or flitting one by one
across a patch of open the scarlet and black o f t h e males and the yellow of
the females is so conspicuous and so attractive in the sun-light" that not
much of imagination is required to compare the picture with a series of
scintillating sparks of fire, and who will say that the name Pi^fa^f. is
inappropriate for them ? During the great fire in the s n ^ r forest the
flying sparks are described by :—
and need one be surprised at the Scarlet Minivet being named f ^ j f t r f ^ ?
6. These birds kill and eat various kinds of insects that haunt the trees
and were naturally supposed to enjoy immunity against insect poison.
The idea is somewhat analogous to the virtue attributed to goat's milk as a
protection against injury because the animal eats all kinds of herbs:—
w r f -m\ sfksfkfcr ^ f a m - r r —
Hdj'lWKr ^PTTSS^rfa I (WcT. STT^FT)2
Jerdon named this Minivet 'the Fiery Red Bird' which happens to be a very
good rendering of the Vedic name. The very ancient practice of burning
the site of injury by any poisonous agency with a live charcoal could also
suggest these Minivets which resemble in a way a piece of half-glowing
charcoal, partly black and partly bright red.
7. The Peahens, as snake-eaters, certainly deserve a place in the hymn
but what are the q m t ^ K : the Seven Sisters ? Are they too not some
kind of bird ? The Rosy and Small Minivets, moving as they do in
small parties of six or seven are known in Bengal as flf^-fr Twt (the
seven companion birds) and ^FWT or ^ f l in Hindi, and as their habits
are similar to those of the Scarlet Minivets the reference may well
he to them. The fact, however, that they come along with ground-birds
like the Peahens makes for their identity with birds of the Jungle or Common
Babbler type which kill and eat lizards, frogs, spiders, etc., and hunt for
centipedes and insects in the grass and under-growth in semi-open jungle
1. arcfeq^ 1369.
2. 6.5.4.16.
60 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

where they seem not to be afraid of noxious vermin. Significantly enough

they go by the traditional names of SRA or *TT$, 'Seven Sisters
or Brothers' in North India. If therefore these humble-looking birds are
the W farart: they, can certainly claim high Vedic recognition ! 14
8. The Minivets and Babblers mentioned above are all denizens of
SWALLOW-SHRIKES
the lower Himalayas from the Sutlej valley eastwards and therefore well
within the geographical limits of the later Rgvedic culture. The Ashy Swallow Shrike is the only bird of this family which occurs in
9. I may finally quote an interesting Hindi verse of J a m a l , a Muslim India. It is of a plain grey-brown colour and of the size of a Sparrow. It
poet, which is based on the same ideas of sympathetic magic as underlie has very long wings and resembles a Swallow in its method of hunting for
the above hymn. A love-lorn young woman attemps to practise a charm insects on the wing. " T h e y are most elegant birds when on the wing and
against her tormentors, the Cuckoo, the bright Moon, the gentle breeze and but for their constant harsh cry and their comparative slow sailing through
finally the God of Love: the air, might be taken for a bevy of large Grey Swallows on the wing"
( S . B a k e r ) . T h e y often nest at the base of the leaves of palms (cnw)or
fsrfer fafe ^ r r srm^r ? " palm-ferns. Now ^ in Sanskrit means a Sparrow and also a Swallow or
Swift so that the name W by which the Ashy Swallow Shrike is
Trans-. " T h e pretty lady figures (upon the ground) the Crow, the Planet
known in Bengal, should also be a Sanskrit name for it, and i t | very naturally
Rahu, the Python snake, and God Shiva, but immediately rubs them off,
shares this name with the Palm-Swift (Art. 45).
J a m a l asks, why ?
10. The answer is that the figures are meant to spite the enemies—
the Crow to silence the Cuckoo; Rahu to swallow up the M o o n ; the Python
(<TP£ff«r) to suck up and stop the breeze; and God Shiva to suppress «t>H$«t
the God of Love. But no sooner the figures are completed she realizes her
folly, for she would want them all when her husband returns home, and
lest the charm becomes perminently effective she hastens to erase the
drawings.

15
DRONGOS
T h e Drongos (Drongo Shrikes or Fork-tailed Shrikes) are a well known
family of Indian birds defined by their black plumage and long forked tails.
They are entirely insectivorous, and being weak in the legs they are incap-
able of any progression on the ground or even along the branch of a tree
so that their movements are entirely aerial and they sally forth from a fixed
perch after flying insect, picking them off from the tree trunks as well.
Some, like the Black Drongo, descend to the ground to pick up a morsel
while its larger cousins, the Racket-tailed ones, are entirely arboreal and
hunt in the air from high or low vantage points. They are the bravest of
our birds, dashing headlong at and driving away any unwanted intruder,
including Hawks, Kites, Crows etc., from the vicinity of their nests or young,
but allowing harmless birds like the Oriole to build their nests on the same
tree. The Drongos share in common the Sanskrit name, 'fT^, after
their black colour like that of the large Black Bee ), and, Hindi
(«J3T Tssftr), after their agile swoops turning and twisting
dextrously in the air like a serpent on the ground. The larger Racket-tailed
Drongos, however, go by the name of Bhrriga-raja. The main characteris-
tics of important species and their names in a few of the Provincial verna-
culars, given below, should serve as a brief introduction to them.
1. The Common Black Drongo is one of the most familiar birds of the
Indian plains: Entire plumage black glossed with blue but with-a small
white spot close to the angle of the gape. It has "cheery loud notes", des-
cribed also as "harsh scolding or challenging calls". It rides on the backs
of grazing cattle and takes toll of insects disturbed bv the animal's move-
ments through the grass—hence its Sanskrit epithet, 'ftarT*, and as
its food consists of insects it is highly beneficial to agriculture (Salim Ali;
Douglas Dewar) which fully explains its another epithet, snr^ (produ-
cer of wealth, i.e., valuable food crops—M.W.'s Diet.). Approaching nec-
tariferous flowers for insects, it also feeds on floral nectar (S. Ali). These
birds also turn up for a real feast in front of advancing clouds of smoke
emerging from a forest fire particularly in open grass lands, or fired grass
patches. Large numbers of grasshoppers and other insects are put up at
the time and the plucky birds snap them up as they rise low in the air.
This behaviour of the Drongo, known to the ancients and recorded by
modern bird observers like Salim Ali and witnessed by me too, accounts for
Drongos 63
its name spTTC in Sanskrit (sj^mt aprfir). No other bird in nature can put up
with smoke rising from such a fire and so close to it. The name sp^nr is
equated with 4>f<H*K in Visva-prakasa, and the latter is explained in
Sabda-kalpadruma: f^rfa Ti^T spftfa—descriptive of the bird's
pugnacity and challenging calls. It is in this very sense that the bird has
been given the names of T^sfa) and j f r r f (fforw srcnr' ^ having
bad or wicked characteristics), and in MBh. I. ch. 61.9, the brave
Durvodhana is said to have adopted the ways of the Kulinga bird (the
Black Drongo) to worry the Pandavas and drive them away from the
kingdom.
It is also known as WWI (black like charcoal) in Hindi, which is
just synonymous with Skt. (black like charcoal) for the male,
and (Kala, black) for the female (see M. W., s.v. kalaka). In
<nwo *if|cTT 24.35, msn (iguana, an arboreal lizard), (the female
Drongo), and SFTNtc (woodpecker bird) are quite properly associated
with and allotted ritually to ^ t f i t . The Bengali name for the bird,
FTVJFT, is a Prakrit derivative from the root fnr, fa^r, to niake a sound,
or from and the Punjabi for it would thus seem to be
from sprer-^P, the prattling black bird.
2. The Himalayan and the Indian Grey Drongos: The whole upper
plumage is indigo-blue with a high gloss and the lower plumage dark grey.
Their ways are those of the Black Drongo. They have a very large vocabulary
of notes, some harsh and some sweet, and a very musical song uttered
almost throughout the year. In addition to this they are also excellent
mimics (S. Baker). Both are known as jftafarrT in Bengal.
3. The White-bellied Drongo: Upper plumage deep glossy indigo with
greenish reflections in certain lights; breast brownish grey; belly, posterior
flanks, vent and undertail coverts white. Song sweeter than that of the
preceding two, and habits those of the family; found in the Himalayas and
the greater part of India except the Punjab, Sind and Rajasthan. It fre-
quents plantations and cultivated lands for its insect food. It is known as
WSRT (Sk. sr^RT, white) in Hindi.
4. The Northern Bronzed Drongo: Whole plumage black glossed with
bronze, shining green or lilac in certain lights; bill flatter, less carinated,
than that of other members of the family. It is a bird of the outer Himalayas
from Mussoorie to Assam. "Although like the rest of the family it has many
discordant cries, it has a sweet song and many pleasant call-notes as well.
It is as plucky in defence of territory, nests or young as are all the other
genera of this family." (S. Baker). It is known as (Sk. f w , flat)
after its flattish bill, in Nepal, and T «J5RT, from its small size, in
Bengal.
5. The Indian Hair-crested Drongo: Whole plumage black with blue
gloss on head, neck, and breast, inclining to bronze on wing and tail.
About half a dozen long hairs spring from the posterior crown lying over the
neck ancl back. The tail is nearly square. Voice louder and more diversified
 65
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Drongos
64
than any except the next two. It occurs from Mussoorie to Assam.
It is locally known as and (Sk. TO) after frf^t spilitsfa—
the hairs on the head. Its name in Telugu, Yentika passala poligadu, (ii) ^ f f f O ^ ( p l a n t )
also means the 'Haired Cattle-Tom-bird' (Jerdon). Its second Nepali
apfcp^T plant) 9 T W ( b i r d )—
name sftroar (Sk. *mrsrf seems to be complimentary in recognition of its
srppi^fT ^ ^ f r (plant) (plant) —srf^TR o.
vocal powers as next to those of -<T^< the Large Racket-tailed Drongo.
1
^ r ^ ^ spni: q^m?^ —fasawsT.
6. The Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo (26"): Black glossed with
blue-green; under.wing-coverts and axillaries with small white tips. Has no We may now refer to the great compliment paid to the Large Racket-
crest but the feathers of the forehead form a curious flat pad over the tail in the litany of the Horse-sacrifice in VS. and TS. It is dedicated to
base and covering the greater part of the beak. This gives the bird an Brhaspati the singer (RV 10.36.5), in VS. 24.34 (,brhasfiataye vdcasfiataye
unfavourable aspect as compared with the smart bright look of the next. paingarajah), and to Vak, goddess of speech, in TS. 5.5.13 (vace painga-
The lateral pair of tail-feathers run up to 21 inches of which the middle raiah) The name Paingaraja is probably derived from root f w , fts^ to
12 inches is bare shaft and the terminal 4 to 5 inches is equally webbed on sound and thence ft* and (?) in Prakrit for Bhrngaraja.^
both sides. It is distributed over Northern India from Eastern Nepal to Again in TS. 5.5.17, fey is allotted to Brhaspati (srjFTcPTfey:), and fey,
East Assam and is a bird of the forest. It has many and most varied notes, according to i m is a synonym for a bee ( w ) » a n d
very full and -melodious, and is an excellent mimic though not so good as M Williams also renders it as a 'large black bee', so tha< it is difficult
the'next. It is known as (the fearful king of the Drongos; hut more to say whether feys* o f T S . stands for the ^large buzzing bee, or one of
probably a corruption of 'fl^TT^r ). the sweet voiced Drongos, but cf. Marathi sry, a tail.
7 The Assam Large Racket-tailed Drongo (26"): Is a denizen of the The merits of the softer notes of the Black Drongo and the many musical
outer Himalayas from Nepal to Assam and the forests of Madhya Pradesh calls merging into an excellent song of the Large Racket-tailed Drongo
and South India. The whole plumage is black glossed with blue, the under as a perfect mimic have been fully recognized in the Epics and the Puranas:
wing-coverts and axillaries frequently tipped white. It wears a full, erect, (1) The Black D r o n g o , ^ , with other birds and humming bees by
and beautiful crest of long plumes, up to two inches, on the forehead, curv-
the thousand, glorifies the forest:
ing backwards, each feather resembling a bow, curved sword oi sickle. The
outer pair of tail-feathers measure up to twenty inches of which the middle
eleven or twelve inches is bare shaft and the terminal four inches 's very Wm^-fjV * y 69.64
p a d m a P j G h
narrowly webbed on the inner but broadly on the outer side and the broader
web is twisted upwards. The two tail feathers, therefore, resemble an axe (2) In addition to a very harsh metallic cry the ifffTTsr has an excellent
with a long shaft. It has been very properly named (King oi the repertoire of musical calls and whistles, and is justly reputed as-a firm
Black Drongo family) in Sanskrit and Hindi in recognition ol its hand- mimic imitating all the birds of the locality. Writing about it in the Fauna
some appearance and musical talents. of British India, 2nd edn., S. Baker remarks: "Their notes are
The terms, f i t (*<*r, black), fmrx and f»rcrc* in Prakrit 1 , and most musical, and, though they have no really connected song, one mellow
in Pali as names for Tftffww (a particular bird) may belong to members whistle follows another in such rapid succession that it is much the same in
of the Drongo family or to this bird (Sk. w ^ u , or ^Ifcr*).
A few extracts from certain Sanskrit lexicons pertaining to these birds as 1. A better r e a d i n g , m o r e easy to u n d e i s t a n d , of this half verse could well h a v e b e e n :
•hfctt.K: FJTC MlcWdfr, the second q u a r t e r relating to a plant b e a r i n g yellow
also from others that give different meanings (WW*?) of the same words flowers at its top. T h e r e a d i n g , as it is, has a p p a r e n t l y misled the compiler of the
are given below: Sabda-Kalpadruma to r e n d e r t . f a l . K as t h e r m T Z b i r d with a yellow h e a d .
(M.Williams renders a n d "ftanfffTT* correctly as certain p l a n t s . ) Similarly, t h e
(i) spfsrf: ^faawfa'dwh.
compiler of the f ^ - S T ^ - H F T C equates W^TT* with s f a T M which, however, has b e e n
SJ"5!Tc: (? OTTJ:) described q u i t e i n c o r r e c t l y — t h a t it catches a n d swallows small birds as well.
2. C o m p . F m ( f t * * ) , fW-T ( f t * ^ ) , n a m e s of a p a r t i c u l a r b i r d ( q f t l f t * ! * )
w^rrsft fg^rxfr ^rfsnr: a n d fTTfesT (<f^RT) in T I ^ • For 1 a n d ST c h a n g e d into q> in P r a k r i t ,
cf. for ^ ^ ^ f t for WT<ft for ; W for TTW in H e m c a n d r a ' s P r a k r i t
1. T h e h a r s h cry of B h r n g a r a j a is described as f W T T ^ T T T*,. and its softer V y a k a r a n a , V I I I . 4.325.
notes as in -TT^T ^ w m ^ t , *.v. ^ T and 3. S a y a n a ' s r e n d e r i n g of S i t p u t a as a ' c a t ' does n o t suit the context at all.
P . T . S . ed., vol. 5. p. 416.
66 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers

effect.. . .a fine male bird, for m a n y years the unconfined pet of the Sepoys
in one of the North Gachar stockades, sounded the reveille, every morning
with absolute correctness and punctuality." T h e reveille, sounded on an
army bugle, consists of three parts, each made u p of 20 or 21 notes. T h e
first and the third parts are identical in composition but the notes of the
second are differently arranged. T h e reveille is full toned and very melo-
dious, and the ability to repeat it to perfection combined with a time-sense
bespeaks both considerable intelligence and wonderful powers of imitation
for the bird. No wonder, it has been described as ^ f e l H (intelligent)
in the Vaijayanti Kosa, and as (a perfect mimic) in K a l p a d r u
Kosa. It was held in great esteem by the ancient Indians and is still a valued
pet with the aristocracy and bird-fanciers—fearless and most amusing with
its imitations of noises about the house and garden (Whistler).
T h e Large Racket-tail, w^Trsr, is clearly mentioned as a mimic, and
a beautiful song-bird in the following verses:
H^fldfiH jjplfor: T P t f ^ ^ H ^ f d II
R a m a y a n a , II.95a.13 1 .
T h e discordant uproar of all other birds is hushed (i.e. no one cares to listen
to t h e m ) as soon as the Bhrngardja begins to sing, as it were, the story of the
Lord. T h e bird has been named Bhrngadhipa due to exigency of the metre
but clearly as a synonym for Bhrngardja. Commentators, and following them
M . Williams, have rendered Bhrngadhipa as the large Black Bee and the
reason for this bias lies in the fact that the Indo-Aryans became lovers of
the Giant Honey-bee (Apis dorsata) some time after their arrival in I n d i a
(RV mentions it as Saragha) and the Black Bee became an obsession with
the later poets. I n point of fact the h u m m i n g o f t h e Bees has no place at all
in comparison with the loud sonorous notes of the birds named in the verse.
T h e misinterpretation is also due to bhrnga meaning primarily the Black
Bee, and, by transfer after its shining black colour, the Black Drongo.
Anyway, the real beauty of the above passage has often been lost to m a n y
readers of the P u r a n a . Finally, it is a pity that not a single member of this
family, not even the Bhrngaraja (v.l. P a i n g a r a j a ) , finds a place in the
works of the great Sanskrit poets.
»

* * * *

Ibid. I V . 1.26-27.
^ T R n f a F f t c n f t ' ... ^PTrfT'-MH'irn
Ibid. V I . 39.11.

sraM srf:

crm
^ T T i f *prsrt ^ s r f ^ ; : ... II
M.Bh. I I I . 158.52-54.
VO C Wtld:
* * * *

^feTRRWSJ ^ i f u i W m w : II
Vayu P. Ch. 36.2-4.
T h e highest compliment has been paid to the bird in the following verse,
in which recalling how a noisy congregation becomes still the moment a
devotional song is begun, the poet says:

HKiifli^TciflKtiteMi"*—
e
i f l r t ^ ¥ H > P d f d P w i T: I
qftcTT^rr
^TWTftrt' f f ^ T l f f R TRTFT II
Bh. P. I I I . 15.18.
1. T h i s is f r o m a n i n t e r p o l a t e d c h a p t e r .
 Warblers 69

CT^ft (onomatapoetic) in Bengali. Compared to its size it has a very

loud note and its occurrence in the wayside bushes and hedges has
secured recognition for it as a bird of augury. W W mentions the bird
as jfcfr at 4.21 and as at 8.2.46.
4. The pretty little Ashy Wren-Warbler of our gardens, in towns and
villages, dark ashy above and a beautiful shade of buff below, with a long
graduated tail and a voice similar to that of the Tailor-bird, would also be

16 v&s. The of TO^ttst 4.56, rendered as f q f ^ in the commentary,

should be the Ashy Wren-Warbler if the etymology of the name from
Prakrit j f e ^ (<#k) (tt.^.t) whence ' 3 ^ — r d ^ r ' is correct. Sansk.
WARBLERS
t f t o is a garden in a town to which the term j f e ^ should correspond.
If so, should be a little bird of a garden in a town. Pali T f ^ r for
a kind of bird would aiso be the same. In a general way, however, it
1. A great majority of the birds of this family are very small and plain
would certainly be looked upon as a tiny bird or ftfttf as noted in the
coloured. " I n fact most of them fall in the category of 'small brown birds
commentary on ^TTtW. Strictly speaking, however, fifttf is a particular
without distinguishing features' It is impossible to identify many of
Munia (Art. 22).
these birds even with a plate and a good field description" (Smythies).
5 Among the Reed-Warblers Blyth's Reed-Warbler is known as
They are all covered by the Hindi common name of or J^fr 1 which.
f^rfirft after its call note (F.B.I.) and as it is less aquatic than others of
may well be from Sanskrit j s w f r , or -Tfsrrd (M. W.) all of which,
its class and is found in the long grass of the plains during the winter it
at least the last two, seem to be after the little birds' single or double
has another Hindi name, ^ (probably from ? a kind of
call notes ( g p r . w ^ r urs? cf. for 'a bird' in some Himalayan
grass which it frequents). The Black-throated Weaver bird of reed beds is
dialects), j s p c T a n d also perhaps gpp therefore seem to be common
r ^ n or 'Reed Weaver-bird' in Bengal so that if back-formations from
Sanskrit names for all non-descript Warblers. In addition diminutives
vernacular names of some of the Warblers are permissible, the Reed-Warb-
in the feminine gender 3 like ^fopr, ^ f e r , Mdf^'+T, jf^PT (jf^T, e.g. jf?PFT
lers must have been known as irc^R*. Indeed, the Indian Great Reed-
qfOT) etc. formed from common names like Tcf^ for a Sparrow,
Warbler goes by the name of'Boora Jitti' (Boora—reeds, and Jitti or Jitta—
generally signify all insignificant small birds (Cf. «^fcw-ajrifiWiT"—^rwa).
the same as in Telugu.' Similarly Warblers that frequent grass
2. Flycatcher Warblers like the Eastern Red-breasted and the Blue- are known as 'Grass Sparrows' in different parts of the country. The
throated Flycatchers are known as ^ t f t in Bengal corresponding probably Streaked Fantail-Warbler is known as W f in Hindi and the
to Sanskrit ^fcfT which, besides being a term for any small bird, would Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler is (fr. W , a kind of g r a s s -
also seem to b e specific for the small-sized Warblers as a group according ^ I r o r a r ) in Sind. All such birds must therefore have been or
to the rule, "ffWMlsfr forr? — srfao and the name perhaps ^ j - T r r f r in the past just as we have 5TWTC and for the Floncans
refers to the sound produced by the bird's bill whenever it snaps up '(Art. 57), and ^TK and (kinds of grass) for the Red Munia (Art.
an insect in the air. 22). cf. names like 'Grass-finch' and 'Grass-quit' for certain American
3. The noisy and clever little Tailor-bird is probably from its birds.
'towit, towit' or 'tuk-tuk' voice, and ffcTT or Ttfo^ from its habit of
placing its nest in a leaf-packet made by stiching up one or more leaves
of low bushy plants. The names are from jfcPT, 'a leaf packet' (cf.
W and Hindi sf^rr). Its Hindi name qftraT is from a leaf and

1. T h e f l f S t - S T ^ - H P R explains as a n o n o m a t o p o e t i c n a m e a n d derives t h e
verb f r o m t h e h o p p i n g h a b i t of these little birds. But it is most probably from
Sansk. o n o m a t o p o e t i c for a w e a k s o u n d or call, e.g. of a small b i r d . these a n d others like t h e m w e n t b y the name of and or firfa^t given
2. ' j p r T s w ^ i - m ^rwfir w f o — f : ^wnr—ibid. as a b i r d n a m e in <i 1)1141^11^=1.1%: 3.39.
3. D i m i n u t i v e s in the f e m i n i n e g e n d e r a r e f o r m e d in c e r t a i n cases a c c o r d i n g to the T h e old scientific n a m e for the T a i l o r - b i r d was Sylvia sutoria. I t has a d a r k h o r n y
- 1 r<+>IIcritIRr=(<=(eTTST^ Tfe—3PTT, 3.5.7. bill a n d has been incorrectly e n t e r e d by M . W i l l i a m s u n d e r (yellow-billed).
4. ?ffT ' a r ^ R - S I ^ F T . T h e streaked F a n t a i l W a r b l e r T h i s last is an a d n o u n for t h e M a l l a r d D u c k — S e e A r t . 84. Section C.
f r e q u e n t i n g grass-fields goes b y the n a m e o f g ^ t T T in H i n d i . I t is t h u s p r o b a b l e that
 17 18
THE FAIRY BLUE-BIRD
GOLD-CRESTS

These tiny and inconspicuous birds keep to the higher branches of coni-
fers in the Himalayas and are obviously very difficult of observation, and
even if known they would simply be put down as lifow.
This is "one of the most beautiful birds known" and could certainly
not have escaped observation by the ancients. The male is shining ultra-
marine-blue above and black in other parts including the sides of the head
and the fore-neck. It occurs in Eastern Himalayas and South India, and
from its size and colour the term HloMd=t> would include it. M. Williams,
however has ( - ^ f a ?) for 'a kind of bird' and the f ^ r e m defines
it as below:

i.e., the jftw^fa ('Blue Beauty' fr. sfa beauty or splendour) has a
black throat and is as big
as the common Sparrow. These particulars and
the significant name are fully descriptive of the bird and jfta^jfa should
be specific for it. It may be added that the second half of the verse in the
lexicon:—

relates to a much larger bird (sPj*m>rc), viz., the Coucal or the Crow-
Pheasant, which is larger than the Common Crow and it would be absurd
to describe it as «i*Md+l4>Ri. Nevertheless some commentators have cited
the entire verse or its variant to explain the bird-name jpjj*r. See Art.
37-B for a further criticism of this half verse.

19
O R I O L E S
1 T h e Orioles are beautiful birds of golden-yellow and black plumage
except for the M a r o o n Oriole which is maroon and black. Three v a n e lies
o f t h e Oriole, the Golden, the Black-headed and the Maroon, occur in the
North India, the last in the Himalayas only. T h e y are stnctly arboreal and
keep to the tree tops, rarely descending to the ground They are very active
birds and, though shy and secretive, indulge in aerial games following each
other from tree to tree and darting through the foliage with their brigh
plumage flashing in the sun. Their voice is a loud mellow whistle of several
notes which is heard "alike in garden and forest greeting the dawn and
saluting the parting d a y . " T h e yellow Orioles of both the species often
build in the same tree as holds a nest of the Black Drongo. T h a t this is by
design rather than accident can scarcely be doubted considering how
frequent the occurrence is. It is certain also that by this means the birds
must enjoy a degree of protection against marauders like crows and tree-
p i e s - i n v e t e r a t e stealers of other birds' e g g s . T h e K i n g Crow will tolerate
the proximity of his harmless dependents with complacency b u t a crow
has only to show himself in the precincts o f t h e nest-tree to be furiously set
upon and beaten off by the valiant, 'kotwal' and his wife (Salim A h ) .
T h e y eat fruits, chiefly the berries of Peepul, bunyan and other figtrees
2 T h e oldest names for the Golden Oriole are to be found in the
R„veda-(i) which it shares with the Golden Eagle, and (ii) pro-
bably also T h e "sr in the following well known verses are no
other than the Golden, or some other Eagle and the Golden Oriole,
nesting together on a fig tree, the Oriole, of course, for protection:
" g T gxpjrf ^RsTRT 33T qfafFTSITcr
OTK^T: f q ^ T ^ T F r z m H v H t ^WWfcTII
^ ^qurf s ^ W ^mqfTTTEr f ^ T T f ^ m f ^ T
s r f t f a ^ w r w ^^irrtrrT: w w ^ r i i
qfCT^^T TiS^: qWT ^Tfaf^st
fmtf WIS* T ^
O n the high probability of a pair of Orioles sharing a bunyan or Peepul Itrce
with a pair of Eagles I cannot do better than reproduce Col. D. Radcliff
Orioles 73
remarks quoted by H u m e in his book, Nests and Eggs, 2nd. e d . — " I t
is always the case with the larger Falcons that their fellow tenants of a rock
or a tree are safe from molestation and in the breeding season actually look
to them for protection." T h a t birds of prey permit smaller birds to nest
in close proximity to themselves including even those on which they normally
prey is now acknowledged to be almost a universal fact (S. Baker on the
Laggar Falcon in F.B.I. 2nd E d n . ) . T h e Golden Eagle has been known
occasionally to place its nest on a tree but there is reason to believe that in
the long past he did more often than now, for one of his oldest names is
or WTWtFT (nesting on Bombax malabaricurn):—
" g 3T q ^ w r ^ f R Hte s r f w l cf i ^ R W
w r ^ r frfof ^firfdlfa II"
Suparnadhyaya,31.1
T h e Imperial, the Steppe and the Tawny Eagles breed as a rule on trees
including the Peepul in the plains of North India and everyone o£ them is a
gcpif in the wider sense o f t h e word. It is, therefore, more than probable,
nay, almost a certainty, t h a t the author of the above verses had not only
seen a pair each of Eagles and Orioles nesting together in a peepul but had
also observed how the Eagles kept away all marauders from the tree and the
Orioles were happy under the protection thus afforded to them. These
facts combined with the grandeur of the tall, leafy tree laden with fruit
brought to his vivid imagination the similar situation obtaining before weak
and dependent humans and their heavenly protector, and he, therefore,
proceeded to illustrate the great spiritual t r u t h wi th a parable drawn from
nature.
3. W i t h the growth of the civilisation and culture of the city as against
the earlier life of farm and village even the learned Brahmanas lost touch with
nature and forgot the names and identity of m a n y o f t h e birds so beloved of
their early ancestors. This divorce between the city, which now became the
principal seat of learning, and the village was completed long before the
time of (c. 700 to 1000 B.C.), for he too does not say what
exactly were the two particular birds mentioned in these verses. He and his
successors, commentators including g i w r ^ R , undoubtedly knew that
g^prf was an Eagle, but their difficulty was about the second fruit eating
q^Tf and they, therefore, intepreted the verses in the best way they
could, T h e air was already thick at the time with Upanisadic speculation
and philosophy of the atT^R and TOiwr, and the verses describing the
two birds sharing a common tree came in very handy to illustrate that
philosophy. Accordingly Sayana begins their exposition with—
2 0 _22
without pausing to explain the actual physical basis of the verses. As late
as 1935 V. K . R a j w a d e of Poona also wondered what bird it could be that
74 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers

refused to eat fruit, and as he could not think of two Suparnas with such freedom from untimely d e a t h ) in these words—"Weak as I am, the wise
divergent habits in nature, he also agreed that the two birds were simple and powerful Lord and protector of the World (of birds, viz., Tfssncpsr t s s ) has
poetic imagery only for armrr and TW^TT (Seep. 1157 of his M a r a t h i graciously admitted me into this safe tree (ataif^sr)."
translation of the faw, Poona, 1935). I n the absence of any guidance 6. At this stage the poet recalling to his mind the entire dependence
from Indian commentaries the Western interpreters of the Rgveda also of m a n for food and protection upon the heavenly gW, the Sun,
had to content themselves with guess work and tried, each in his own way, moulds the picture into a metaphor and proceeds to teach a moral in the
to extract some sort of a hazy but always unsatisfactory meaning from the third verse, viz., that men like the Orioles should be grateful to their heavenly
verses. I n these attempts in the singular, dual and plural has been protector for all the benefits received from him. Here 'JTTT (plural)
variously interpreted as the Soma, the priests, day and night, stars, metres, stands for 'the people', the fig tree for the T r e e of Life or the m u n d a n e world,
Sun and Moon, rays of light, and so on. Ludwig goes so far as to say that and thefacTTfor the Sun. T h e poet means to say that those, who live,
the verses have scarcely anything in common except the word grw which multiply and prosper on the tree of Life but do not know (i.e. do not
alone is responsible for their being placed together; and Griffith remarks gratefully acknowledge) the protector, cannot really enjoy the sweet fruit
in sheer desperation, " A generally satisfactory explanation is scarcely to high up on the tree (gifts of life). By implication they are worse t h a n the
be hoped f o r " (see his foot-note to verse 21). H y m n 164 of which these Orioles who know and appreciate the truth. T h e idea is that a gift is fully
verses form a triplet is full of riddles and it is quite likely that this also appreciated when one knows the giver and is duly grateful to him for it.
constitutes one, but looking to the fact that the second and the third verses There can be no feeling of gratefulness and no true enjoyment of an anony-
based upon the picture presented in the first, expound a moral, it would mous gift. I n a word, the gifts of life are enjoyed all the better for the con-
appear that the first'verse is, if at all, a very thinly veiled riddle while there is sciousness that they are a boon from the heavenly Father. T h e feelings of
nothing mysterious about the other two. However that ruay be, an attempt dependence and hopefulness go together and unless one is thankful for what
is made here to offer a rational interpretation of the verses based upon the one has received one has no light to expect further favours, and if there is
habits of the birds as described above. no hope for the future one cannot enjoy w h a t he has which is as good as if
he has it not (ficT^ ^iff t ) . We have indeed, good reason to be thankful
4. I n the first verse the word HWr means 'in pairs,' i.e. with their to the majestic Eagle and the beautiful little Oriole who have inspired
mates, while the phrase "?THFT f * ' T R U H ^ " clearly refers to the such wonderful poetry.
two pairs of birds having their nests on the same tree. T h e use of the verb
j p t (are b o r n ) in the third verse confirms this sense while the verb 7. "spr: gfT?" in the following verse rendered as "birds of beaute-
stfa^PWfd (looks around) is best understood by the behaviour of the ous w i n g " by Griffith should again be no other than the Golden Orioles
female Golden Eagle at the nest as described by Seton Gordon quoted who greet the dawn with their sweet notes:—
in the World Digest for J u l y 1946. "As she approaches and alights on the
JJWr faWJT WFH •TTSTTRT:
eyrie, then looks araund her fiercely and defiantly before assuring herself
that all is well, she makes a magnificent picture." Bonelli's Eagle also TOHWI C\ O ^ CI
wswftra^
O SO o
srerc ~11"
"proudly looks r o u n d " when on the nest. This verse, therefore, contains a RV 10.73, 11.
statement of what the poet actually saw, viz. a pair of Eagles and a pair of
The sacrifice-loving sages (fipjirsrT eager to perform their
Golden Orioles nesting together in friendly association on a Peepul tree
morning worship pray to Indra like the Orioles greeting the dawn with their
and that while one kind of gW ate the sweet berries of the tree the other
song; Dispel the darkness, fill our vision with light, and deliver us from
merely looked around. T h e Oriole is a fruit eater and the Eagle is not.
the snares (imposed by darkness and which prevent us from getting busy
5. I n the second verse the poet attributes h u m a n sentiment of thank- with the saci ifice).
fulness to the Orioles and a consciousness on their part of the protection 8. T h e identification o f ^ i f e ? either as the Golden Oriole or the Yellow-
received from the larger bird. 1 It means that in the fig tree every discern- headed Wagtail would seem to turn upon the correct meaning to be given
ing (Prem) Oriole ceaselessly sings his grateful acknowledgment of his to the word ^T occurring in the second passage below:—
share of good things ("sfJmFT *TT<f" refers to ^ Pp^T and also hints at
(i) *r *r<Hiui <)4UII+I<£ sssrftr
1. T h e r e a d e r will kindly note here w h a t Salim Ali says a b o u t the O r i o l e b u i l d i n g desig- *r*ft ^ r f e t ^ n ^ f w w fa^frftr n"
n e d l y u n d e r the protection of a fighting b i r d , a n d I a m sure he c a n n o t h e l p a d m i r i n g the RV 1.50, 12.
keen a n d correct observationof the V e d i c p o e t of nearly 4000 years a g o .
76 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flycatchers

(2) "fTfTfft^r WTt 10. T u r n i n g to some Pali and Prakrit sources including lexicons,
which I have consulted, we have the following series of closely related
tfW Ii"
^ R V 8.35, 7. names for the Orioles:—
T h e second verse refers to the habit of frftipr and irffT of eagerly taking to (i) iWT (Pra*), a kind of bird in stsfTPraT, which stands very
cR which they apparently love. Now ^T, according to is 'forest or close to H i n d i for the Oriole, and Sansk. Ppfor* in the
following:
w a t e r ' , but according to the Vedic Index of Macdonell a n d Keith, ' V a n a '
in the Rgveda and later denotes the forest and they do not men-
tion 'water' as SWT does. It is probably a meaning acquired by the word W T c m ^ r c t , wrPxPrt, 1676.
in later times. If, therefore, ^ stands for 'forest' ^ r f ^ would be the This means that a person stealing oil would be reborn as the
Golden Oriole, for it is a bird which delights and sports amongst IMU-H bird and one stealing fruit as the bird (fa-qW ffir
trees of the forest and grove. T h e wild buffalo also lives in deep forest and jfrpTftr ?). It m a y be repeated that the Orioles are "great fruit
if surprised in an open glade would immediately take to it. I n this view the eaters".
Oriole, clad in brilliant yellow, would be the bird par excellence to which
(ii) In the story of king who was a i.e., who under-
along with the tasff the Red-breasted Paroquet having yellow wing
stood the language of birds and beasts, related by a T ^ in
patches and yellow-wattled Hill M y n a , the yellowness of the skin
the section of the above work the male and female
caused by jaundice can best be transferred. If on the other hand ^ r
birds whose conversation the king overheard bear*' the names
must be taken in the sense of 'water' both and tf^r must be
ftte and ftrtoT.
held to be fond of that element, and in this case the former would be the
(iii) frqtftnr, a kind of bird in the J a i n SJFPSTPPTW 3.1 is evidently
Yellow-headed Wagtail, the yellowest of Yellow Wagtails, which is cons-
the same as
tantly associated with water and is rarely found at any distance from it.
(iv) afr* a bird in the S T I R R fawr, iifraw, III.64.6 ( P . T . S . ) :
T h e buffalo too is known to be a water-loving animal, for he loves to wallow
W^Tt J W * TfTOTTpT l"
in tanks and pools during the hot hours of the day.
Here "j^f* is the Cuckoo a n d sr^F T^fr (sr^t the mango
9. T h e first verse above occurs with slight modifications in the W ? ?
tree; T^ft fr. T^^r, a little d r u m ) the 'little d r u m of the m a n g o
(1.22, 4) where Sayana translates frfsre as the «fl«fl<H+ bird, and Darila
tree' which is obviously identical with Tamil (sTPT^fer,
in his commentary on the 26,18 renders it as Allowing
Mango-Cuckoo) and Tf^T (Mango-bird) for the
for corruption in the text as it has come down to us b o t h the
Black-headed Oriole of Ceylon. T h e common Indian Oriole
above synonyms for ^ifo^r are -the same as the later or
with identical habits and call-notes does not occur there.
for the Yellow Wagtails in the sr^rf^T (Art. 26), and looking to the
traditional treatment for jaundice with ceremonial washings it is just (v) (v.l. 3Hi+f4r?)+, occurs as the last item
possible that f r f e r is the Yellow-headed Wagtail. But the interesting in a series of bird-names (including ^ a bat, regarded
historical fact adduced by Griffith in a note to R V 1.50, 12 that the as a bird both in India and Persia) contained in the Fifth
Romans too had a fanciful notion that jaundice was cured if the Pillar Edict (Delhi T o p r a ) of Emeperor Asoka published
in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicum, Vol. I, pp. 125-127 & 224.
patient looked at the Icterus bird, and the bird probably belonged to
T h e n a m e has been incorrectly syllabified and misunderstood
the Starlir% family, supports the identification made in the preced-
by the various translators including Dr. Sir R . G. Bhandarkar,
ing p a r a g r a p h . T h e article on 'Icterus' in the Ency. Brit. I I t h edn., shows
Shri Michelson and Prof. B. M . Barua. 1
that the Icterus of classical authors is generally identified with the European
Golden Oriole. T h e name Oriole is from the French 'Loriot' L'oriol, from 11. T h e names in (iv) and (v) above clearly establish the identity
Lat. oriolum-aurum, gold. James M o r a y Brown also makes the statement : of the first element s r t * of s f q w f t f ^ aud ITT or K.r^r of iTTwrf^r or
"Loriot, a bird that, being looked upon by one that h a t h the yellow jaundice wrtw with of sre* JT^fr, and srSTfr, therefore, simply means the
cures the person and dies himself". (Stray Sport, vol. I, p. 158, William 'mango tree'. Similarly the second element qtftpfr of sMi+qtR-t* is the same
Blackwood and Sons, 1893). T h e belief would thus appear to be p a r t of as 3r«j*mnfT, f w r and Pnfta* of wi^j and Hindi "fto* for the Oriole. sr'stT*
the common heritage of both branches of the Indo-Germanic peoples unless "ftfro is thus a shortened form of or corruption from afgr^fTThr^, i.e., a
it travelled from one to the other after their separation. If, therefore, fsifisq
was originally the Oriole, it is probable that by the time of the name
1- Inscriptions of Asoka, Pt. II (1943).
had come to be transferred to or mistaken for the Yellow Wagtail.
 78 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
bird t h a t utters a triple fc-fr-vT n o t e from a m a n g o tree, a n d in this
sense it is fully parallel to JTffr.
12. T h e Indian Orioles are local migrants, and finding the winter of
the P u n j a b a n d the U t t a r Pradesh too severe, disappear from these areas
in October. T h e Black-headed variety continues to live in U . P.
b u t it is silent during the winter (A bird Calendar for India—Douglas
D e w a r ) . " W i t h the ripening of the mangoes in spring the I n d i a n Oriole
arrives in N o r t h e r n India. T o t h a t circumstance, combined w i t h the greens
and yellows of t h e two sexes to the fruit and leaves of their favourite tree,
is d u e the popular Anglo-Indian n a m e of M a n g o - b i r d " (Whistler). A
bird of entirely arboreal habits, the Oriole naturally takes to the dense
foliage of mango trees and sings its melodious notes from there and hence
the ancicnt names of sra^r TfTt and ^'mrwfW for it. I need hardly add
that this association of the-bird with the m a n g o tree is not a recent
Anglo-Indian discovery but was a well known fact in N o r t h I n d i a and
Ceylon more t h a n two thousand years ago, and it is highly probable that
the Anglo-Indians got the n a m e from South India or Ceylon. For the
still unsolved bird-names in the Edict of Asoka see Art. 37-B for
and Art. 84 for ar^r and J ^ f t w .
13. W e m a y now take u p the bird of the R a m a y a n a a n d the
question of the confusion caused by the similarity of the n a m e
with fwrfrpp (an a n t ) . T h e later scribes of the JrfnTPRT a n d the authors
of fferer, and having missed the identity of ftpffcpp (fern.
frfk-H!) as a bird, changed the spelling to f w f i r ^ (fem. P m f r m ) . T h e
authors of the above Puranas also recast the story of the pair of spcr birds
hinted at in the R a m a y a n a into one of a pair of ants ! T h e earliest
version of a ft^WT king occurs in a brief reference to the father of queen
Kaikeyi in the R a m a y a n a : —
"^^TcTW cTfTTrT ^^STTftPT:
^ ^ " R T H t ^ tjJTHT fafof TO II
cRft ^C^ f ^ T W t fa*>dl<i"S 'nRCH'H:
C\
ftnjpt fafoft "JTpf: asr ^ f s n s w 11" 2.35, 19-20.
APR (having a far-reaching voice; cf. " ^ S R T : T ^ ^ R F A S R T : ^ J V R T "
T^TTr 3.19) has been rendered differently by the commentators: (i) f w r f ^ T
fasrT, a kind of ant, by Govindaraja apparently misled by the later version
of the story in the Puranas a n d ff7=r?r, and (ii) yrrH+iW Tsft by R a m a
in his ferwrrw commentary (Bombay E d n . ) a n d he explains srfr^tf
as ^ u f + w , of a golden colour. T h e use of the expression fawre
makes it clear that s p r had an audible call, and this together with the
fact that it belonged to the class of birds or beasts (fonrntfr) at once
puts out of court the suggestion t h a t it was an ant, for ants have no voice at
all a n d belong to the wrz or TTRTT class. Moreover, no lexicon gives spf
for a n ant. Nevertheless the interpretation of s p r as f w f w r (masc.
fa-flfa*.) is particularly significant in view of what the terms fwlf^RT and
Flycatchers
Prakrit PmlRni are now found to m e a n , viz., the Golden Oriole. It
follows that the oldest synonym of apff was the f44l<H+ bird. Poet SfiR.
has spelt the masc. a n d fem. forms of the word correctly as already
stated above but others mistaking them for ants proceeded to embroider
the old story with m i n u t e details of a love quarrel between a pair of
sugar-loving ants. This later version is found in ^ T S ^ r f a w in ^fWw, 1.24
where the female is described as 'an angry little ant' (^pT [^Mltri-frl),
and in the ch. 20 where the pair becomes ^ t e f t ^ and the
female is:—
" ^ " N ' j i i q ^ a f r T^jT^rr ^ v ^ i R m
^ r ^ w w ^ r ^ i + ^ r t M i n"
T h e •rerjTPTalso has a similar story about king fsrWcf in wfe^ 1 ^ ch. 10.
14. I n the following verse from the M a h a b h a r a t a frfrfwrr: is clearly
a mistake for faqfep: :—
" W 5TT J p R j fc^T 3T ftifUH + l:".... 13.111, 100.
Here the unnecessary plural is worth noting. erire had the correct reading
before him and he gives (singular). T h e i^fjTPT also has the
correct spelling : "JTF^RR (see SM+C-ISPT under +*IT<IHI+). T h e n a m e ,
as suggested above is probably after the bird's call-notes but in view
of the fact that its other names like a n d ^rr^nr are based on the
golden colour of its plumage, it is quite likely t h a t . Ppftftpp for 'a kind of
gold' has something to do with the change of spelling from Pt4M+ to
fa'ftfo^ (cf. Prakrit farrfsRl) and this in turn helped the sordid a n t to
displace the glorious Oriole in the later forms of the original story,
fawr or Pra^r in sraTFrat and Tf^f in H i n d i are the direct descendants of
PHHW with one of the first two letters cut out, and the a p p a r e n t affinity
of the surviving form with Hindi <ftaT for 'Yellow' would seem to be
accidental.
15. T h e Orioles are mentioned in P u r a n a literature under the names,
<*><., a n d in reference to their golden yellow
or maroon-red plumage. O f these the first two are for the Golden
Oriole and the third for the Black-headed (also black-necked) Oriole and
the black-headed M a r o o n Oriole of the Himalayas and the, adjoining
plains. T h e epithet refers to their black throat and neck in the
same way as god ftr? (of the black throat, because of the poison stored
in it) bears the same name. Dried lac of a reddish-brown colour is described
as f^rawrf in A V 5.5, 6 and the dark brown Golden Eagle is f f w r c r
(Art. 52-A) so that the Maroon Oriole also very properly shares the
name with his brother the Black-headed (yellow) Oriole.
is one of the birds at a hermitage in :—
1. Cf. also TTSWm^-'Tf^T, the red ochre, and Bauhionia
V a r i e g a t a with pink a n d p u r p l e flowers.
96
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

"qfsnr: JTRr^rs^^ij^id" —ot: 16.23

The mentions it as the sweet voiced ^rnffan:, and also describes
its behaviour at the sight of poison:—

... 136, 15;

irrfir, ^C O W^^T" ... 220,' 20.

The Black-headed Orioles (maroon or yellow) occur in the Himalayas

20
according to the wprprr:— GRACKLES OR HILL-MYNAS
"^'il^+l^dTf: ^ r f c j ^ ^ q T " ... 36, 4.

The gives Pr=^rr for 'a kind of bird', and looking to its
derivation from f<T3=3t*r (sfenr—fa^tsr^tnrw) or ft^nw, 'gold', it can only be
the Oriole. T h e name seems to be allied to Hindi f4<Mr and freftar for
the Black-headed variety.
Our classical poets have been more than partial to birds like the ^tfer,
^TRFfr, and J-rar, and it is a pity that the common and charming Orioles
should have been completely ignored.
1. The Grackle is popularly known as the H i l l - o r the Talking Myna.
Apart from its glossy black plumage its distinctive features are fleshy yellow
wattles on the head, bare yellow skin on the sides of the face, and orange
yellow bill and legs.
2. In the Rg-Veda (1.50,12) it has been called ftWPCT from
ftTT, 'causing a cicatrix' (also perhaps a cicatrix or healed wound)
in reference to the wattles and the bare skin that characterize the bird.
These features are supposed to be healed scars as it were. Its later name
s r w is also derived from a boil or pimple on the face. There
are other bird-names as well formed on the same lines, e.g., the Black Ibis
is called WttX from a scar, because of the bare and pimpled head of the
bird and the Red-wattled Lapwing WSWT (srit ^PTSrw—a^Rrft— carrying
permanent pimples on the face):— "forfN*. "farrreFT ^r^jfT f s r m : "
a^crfr-ft^s.
3. TtTO also means an arrow i.e., sram which latter has formed the
basis for its name TS^rram or simply wr^T in the Lexicons. The name
m e a n s ' t h e dart of the god of Love' because the bird was taught by
professional trainers (cf. st+siR+i w m as one of the 64 Fine Arts) to
repeat little 'bons mots' and love-phrases to remind a busy aristocrat
or king, passing through his sRnjr or harem, of the undying love for him
of its (bird's) lady-patron, or to invite him to a particular queen. I doubt if
the Vedic name was derived from in the sense of 'an arrow', but
HMI4.I is certainly comparable with "TraWTTftrw" in AV. 3,25,2.
4.. The Grackle or Talking Myna was also known in Sanskrit by the
name 'm-miP^l'. Names like black-plumaged) a n d the
allied couples like, p t andsrer ('love messenger', and 'one-exerting for
a lover' respectively), ^ r t and (giving pleasure), ffirr and (a
good talker) for the bird are merely lexical pedantry. They seem to
have been invented for use in a double sense in puzzles (srlfsm) and
puns (s%T).
5. It shares also the name srrfcsT (v.l srTfcm) with the Common
Myna (Art 21), and which of the two birds is intended in a given passage
must be made out from the context. STTforT as a talking cage-bird is the
 83
82 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Grackles or Hill-Mynas

Grackle, but as a bird of ill omen, or a noisy one, it is the Common Myna. to be another but later name for it. Being a noisy -bird it has been very
properly named for the female relations of the gods implying a subtle satire
T o cite but one example of each from the TTTWT :—
upon their garrulous, fidgety and quarrelsome habits: —
"Hjf ff HHmrl tftcTT q ^ T O F ^ KIlR+l"—5.13, 16
' V f U l ^rrfcpfir:"—^STT.+i1, 3.14.5.
TOW: STIO+mih^ feraT:
q?rf^T flfadlSHlfM fcfaaT: —6.35.33 T h e 3FT. tf'fpT, 24.24 reads f # P T in place of jsfan and as f f a also means
a Panther or Tiger in another South-Indian language ( t h e K a n n a d a )
The second passage is a perfect picture of the ^TffiPTT *nf<+l,
too must mean the Spotted-winged Stare.
the noisy or quarrelsome Common Mynas often given to fighting with their
own kind.
6. T h e beautiful Grackle learns to speak with great facility and accu-
racy and was naturally a favourite cas*e bird of the ancients. T h e JW4I*
*nfr of is the Grackle :

srrfc s w r o " — 24.33

Classical literature is full of references to its power of speech. One, for

example, is represented as preaching to her Parrot-friend about the great-
ness of God Siva:

yift+l »TR 9 P P S T ^ m ^ T
0
I "(.I ! I ^/WH
' I ^.f^i ftp*.
f r R f r ^ - , 1.8.72
It was also taught to repeat didactic and n ligious catch phrases:

^r^fer, i^sm, 8

For another example, see Art. 38. T h e ir-jrftHl STfoiT of the <HI=m1
d r a m a of sftf??^ is made to play an exaggerated role and is represented
as possessed of an extraordinary memory and able to repeat a long
conversation overheard by her but once — all of which is simply
poetic fiction. Lexicons have perhaps borrowed the name for a
Grackle from this work.
7 . Another bird of this group is the Spotted-winged Stare, resembling
the Mynas in shape and habits. I t occurs in flocks and associates with the
Grackles and other Mynas, the birds of a flock keeping up a constant
chattering twitter. They are very restless and are always on the move. They
breed in the lower and outer Himalayas as far east as Nepal and visit the
adjacent plains in the winter. This Stare is known as jsft or in Hindi.
It is the (v. 1 j f t m ) of fcrr. 3.14.5 and 35ft appears
to be a misprint) and ssrrtfV of the +<r»«+t*i. T h e name is probably derived
from the Dravidian (cf Jwft, a Panther—%3ftar*r*rraT) because of its
spotted plumage, and it is from this sense that I hold (src*r, a tiger)

21
STARLINGS AND MYNAS
1. These birds are closely allied to the Grackles, a fact recognised by
the ancients who gave them all the common name of grfwr. Even the
Common and the Jungle Babblers have been regarded as varieties
of the Myna and this accounts for the mixed synonyms found in SM'tfft,
*FICTS[and XRff^w where names found in different earlier MSS have been
put together, but a close study of the names shows that they are not
synonyms for one or two birds only. All Starlings and Mynas are
gregarious and noisy by habit.
2. Starlings are glossy black birds, looking as if oiled and more or
less spotted finely with buff. The whole plumage is iridescent with a high
gloss of red, purple, green and blue (Whistler). The oldest names for them
are Trswi or m ^ r (spotted) and cT^mr (as if smeared with oil and,
therefore, glossy). "Trer is one of the birds required at the Horse-Sacrifice
and has been named for the God of Fire:—
'TfTcPl qTWiTT'—V.S. 24.24
Fire is fooiqc*^ ('whose way is black', as a forest-fire leaves a black
track) and Whistler's description of a flock of these black birds mov-
ing on the ground fully explains this selection: " T h e chief characteristic
of the flocks is hurry; they feed on the ground . . . ., and all the time the flock
advances with a bustle and hurry, not hopping but with a quick purposeful
step the birds in the rear frequently flying over to settle in front of the lea-
ders". No further comment is necessary.
3. According to *FT an oil-thief becomes a cT^PT? snr or Starling
in his next birth ( c r a w : OT:"12-63). This^f^mr appears as ^srcrft
in ("cra^HHwl p r o " 211) and in ^ r n K d 1 13.111,111. mfWr and
^wfiRTT in the following are the Grackle and Starling respectively:—
" i t HKMcIT SRJT: SfPFTSJ
^ TOT # afcnnf^FT:"
M.Bh.,13.104, 114.
l. fornfaw at 13.104, 114.
Starlings and Mynas 85
Hj>uf| and SvPTTfWr signify the spotted Cockroach, which feeds on oil,
as well as the Spotted Munia (Art. 22B). In Hindi the Starlings are
known as fowtrt or ^Tfajrr'T-TT (Oily Starling). Both TTWT and srsrr^ therefore
denote the Himalayan and Finsch's Starlings which are common in
North India. 2
4. The name wife (from spotted, or a colour combination—
"qldHldlWUKt...". cf. TT^T) is again the above while the
Common Myna, which is unspotted, is Slft^T. This latter has earned
additional epithets like ^^ftPTT, ^Tf^TT etc. and has
?nfr:" because of their quarrelsome and noisy nature, and it is for this
reason that they are held to be inauspicious birds in ^ w r r * 8.17. A
verse descriptive of the quarrelsome nature oftfTfaPThas already been
quoted from the TTTFTT in Art 20. Adnouns like TTcPTRT etc.
are merely descriptive and apply equally to the Common Myna and the
Grackle, and the last even to the Red and Yellow-wattled Lapwings. The
Bank Myna is similar to the Common Myna except for the red of the
bare skin round the eye. It is often found in company with the latter and
would naturally go by the same name, viz., though in Hindi it is
distinguished as TIT as it lays, its eggs in holes made in earthen banks
over running water. It may well have been Tr^ffTft^ in Sanskrit.
5. The irsfrjTTt of jfarrJP>ft<Tf^TT, 3.10.3 is the Common Myna according
to wmraw.fwqt is the fer^Tfw or the Pied M y n a in t f c f t and foPFWr,
but this bird is not known to enter human dwellings, so that TOjoRt
cannot be this M y n a . T h e Common Myna, on the other hand, is the
"commonest and most familiar bird about human habitations—whether
in the heart of a bustling city or far out on the countryside" and fitted
"admirably for life of commensalism with m a n " "(Salim Ali). "Always
perky and self-confident", it is the only bird, next to the House Crow,
most likely to enter the sacred precincts of the ifismmr and befoul the floor
or peck at offerings arranged there for a sacrifice. ^TTT being a
contemptuous name for the Pied Myna, the Common Myna has been
very appropriately called JTirrfPft. The name for the Common Myna
has already been considered in Art. 6, under Babblers.
6. The beautiful Brahminy Myna has the " t o p of the head, including
a long bushy crest, black; the sides of the head, the whole of the neck and
the entire lower plumage rich buff." It is, therefore, the 'ftfen ("*fk:
CTT^ftawtffcT:'' i.e. reddish fawn or buff) and ^ f T (^wf^TTO:) of the
list. This Myna is known as T3T§ in.Hindi for which a respectable
2. T h e e q u a t i o n QXT*"FT of 3T*K+|!(L is evidently a homonymous one
a p p l y i n g to (1) t h e starling birds a n d (2) t h e c o c k r o a c h insect, as is clear from the fact
hat WT^tST r e p e a t s it in its lists of b o t h birds a n d insects.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Starlings and Mynas 87
86
fire HlP^l (compare P^d^H for the tame Pig) in f^T^W^ are other names.
ancestry can be traced to sr^T for 'a kind of bird' in Sanskrit :—
T h e epithet is on a par with 'frorr and S^rf^m and all these are
^TTT 5TTT T f W ^ V T W ^ T TTT 5TJ ^ eT^t equally applicable to the Starling, the Common M y n a , the Pied M y n a
and the Babblers.
crfcrrfrm is T s ^ T in Prakrit and hence <7^?, for this smallest of 10. A kind of M y n a , named W3T wrfr, is a victim for Goddess
Mynas. W h e n we recall its black head and crest and the fawn colour of n^cfdY according to the fff|gT:5—
its body-plumage we are reminded of the v n m ^ of a ^FPWrr or
and cannot but admire the imagination of the first man who gave this <Hc4 WTfT:
excellent name to the bird. 4 is thus a v e r y o l d name for the
Wft means 'reddish white' and the only M y n a that can be so described is
Brahminy M y n a which is a local migrant (qPwifa+l T h e name
the Grey-headed M y n a . This is dark Grey above and rufous below, palest
also indicates that unlike the common M y n a it is an auspicious bird
towards the throat and deepest towards the tail (Whistler) . It could
and the E n g l i s h n a m e ' B r a h m i n y M y n a ' f o r it is very expressive. It has a
probably be trained to talk. T h e j w i * wrft of the 3T3T. sr%TT6 is evidently
soft voice and pleasant song.
the Grackle.
7. The Rosy Pastor is of a rose-pink colour with a black head orna-
mented with a long bushy crest. T h e upper breast, wings and tail are also
black. This Starling moves in flocks and the birds feed on insects and berries,
and " a r e invariably present on silk cotton flowers ganging themselves on
the sugary nectar they exude, and are truculent towards all other species
visiting the tree on the same quest" (Salim Ali). It is, therefore, the
JTOTTlw(Skt. TOmft^T) explained a s ^ r o r (Skt. g ^ f mft^r, the beautifully
coloured m y n a ) by the commentator in No. 511. T h e n a m e
refers to the birds' love of the nectar (TO) of flowers. Again, if
the n a m e w t does not belong to the Brahminy Myna, the Rosy Pastor
is the only other bird of the present group to claim it in its own right,
or it may be a name common to both the birds possessing a long black
crest.
8. STTO: (perhaps, connected with 5RT or is a kind of bird
according to OTlft vniHTfc and in Prakrit means 'short and erect
hairs' (5^5*Rf%srT: —^ftHlHUHl). T h e J u n g l e M y n a is sff€t ^ T in Hindi and
*nud«|p<5>, therefore, appears to be its Sanskrit name in reference to the
tuft of short erect feathers on its forehead, wfel in Hindi means "dishevelled
h a i r " so that all these words seem to be allied to STC or a bush.
9. T h e STfen* is described as 'short-crested, dirty-feeder and fre-
quenting d a m p reedy places' :—

VO C\

I t is known as W ST^PP in Bengal, the n a m e being derived from

It is clearly the Pied M y n a for which Rdltfl (pied) in f i q t and

3. 3.2.14.
4. The name is in line with HlP-H ( m i l k - m a i d ) for the Magpie Robin,
sftfoT (washer-maid) for the White Wagtail, and (oil-maid) for the black R e d
Starling—all in H i n d i . T n e dress of a •frkqiml ( i f t f l l f a + l M . W . ) is of a f a w n or bulf
colour : tje^lMimi^^"—quoted in the commentary at p. 67 5. 5.5.12.
of 6. 24.33.
 Weaver-Birds and Munias
89
3. JThe q ^ t ^ r mentions it as ^ f t o r in g ^ r g - ^ told in
the fern? section and w r a f e f F R at 10.4,200. is yet^ another name
for it and it may have something to do with the male ' bird's donning a
yellow cap on his head (*' f s r v ^ # 3 n w r % ) during the breeding season," or
again with his habit of suspending the nest from the branch of a tree where
it overhangs water ( * . The Black-throated Weaver-Bird which nests
in tall grass or reeds is S R T O (Sanskrit src^Vfo) in Bengali.
22 4. The name 'Tf^Rt1 in iPTFTfr, 12,66 and ft^fir, 44, 36, if correctly
interpreted as 'a kind of bird' by commentators, t P W and ^ s r fTTTm,
WEAVER-BIRDS AND MUNIAS appears to be the same as g^Ti? for the Weaver-Bird which uses
various materials in the construction of its nest. This fits in very well
with the punishment awarded to a person who steals miscellaneous petty
A. WEAVER-BIRDS goods. Otherwise also the context would seem to demand a bird, JT^W^
1. Weaver-Birds are very Finch-like both in size and appearance and the as an insect is the Solitary Wasp (genus Eumenes) commonly known as
the Mud or Potter Wasp which uses only mud for its nest. The fafh?r(?)
males are gaudily dressed in rich yellow particularly at breeding time.
bird (v.l. gfer, cf. srnr. g p ) o f f r P r e ^ r a r , 321 which had a rain-proof
They are rather noisy birds and have a twittering call ending with a whistle.
nest was apparently a Weaver-Bird, as the story is the same as the one from
Their beauty and the art of building fine weather-proof nests account for
Pancatantra noted above.
their being regarded as a kind of w P r f i in Sanskrit (See Art. 23A),
and the correct name for them is 'TkrfTO <h<Hfaul (yellow-headed sparrow
"^frwf^^f^ft "fanr"^: " — . M . Williams has, however, mixed u p n l a ^ s
B. M U N I A S
( - + I W 4 ) , the Mallard Duck, with "fkm^, the Weaver-Bird. "Weaving is a
passion with these birds, and a pair of them work in complete co-operation, The Munias are small birds, and like the majority of Warblers would
the male outside (the partly built nest) passing the ends of the grass through go by the general name of ^rfcCT, j f ^ r , or ( c f. Pali and Pra-
the wall of the structure to the female inside, who threads them back to krit a little child and a young or small bird) but some
him, till the beautifully woven structure is complete; it is secured by the have indeed specific names given to them. For example, the Spotted Munia
serrated edges of the strips of grass and is almost too tough to be torn apart is qxi^fr (fr. <tw, spotted, a ' little spotted bird; " ^ j t fw*:"—
by the h a n d s " (Smythies). The nest is a retort-shaped structure of woven W ^ - f ^ r m f w . cf. TWr, a speckled cow) The equation—
grass with a long tubular passage opening downwards. This description ar^RTfim"—mK, is said to refer to the spotted Cockroach only
of the habits of the bird fully justifies the following names for it:— but it may well be a homonymous equation referring to the Cockroach
•as well as the spotted little bird—both of an oily brown colour.
(1) ifcfcft from Ttfop, a weaver or jftpff, an artisan, corresponding In any case the names have been extended to this bird as well, as
to Hindi 33T from w to weave; it is known in Hindi under the name of ^ m u r f ^ r t . It may also be recalled
(2) T ^ J ^ I or (Prakrit 'fs^Tf) from the bird's beak being here that similar names obtain for the spotted Starling, viz., w * , tfsmr
used like a needle; and and a W f t (Art. 21). ^ R W gives us yet another name for this
(3) (v.l. ?) i.e. having an excellent and well protected bird, viz., (ch. 8, 46), and the commentator explains it as a
nest. ' (Prakrit gf*:) has been defined by in ^fftTTTWT as ^mal1 dark-coloured bird with white spots ( " f w m f mfoi
a kind of sparrow wliich builds a nest opening downwards f^RTT") which agrees very well with the White-spotted chocolate-
has—"^fN^,: brown of this Munia. j^t in f i w means 'a spot.' 2
2. The White-throated and the White-backed Munias are faftfa 01
The habit of these cheerful birds of keeping up all day long their conver-
frfcft (^r'f^TT, 85, 20 & 44; ^ n ^ , 4> 5 6 ) i n Sanskrit (?) corres-
sational chatter has won for them the epithet of ^ta^K (^frfcr ^ f j <t>0fa—
—noisy; q^ni — f^r., and JtfcfV. . C
bird'' °mmCntat0r on
"mrasw, '3.214 also r e n d e r s as a p a r t i c u l a r
2. As the best architect among birds, it is dedicated to the
Divine Architect, under the name of in : "c^f T^fwnr" ^ T . 2. cf. " J ^ I W s d l JT=JIT for the spotted deer, Ramayana, 2.93,13. w h e r e
is synonymous w i t h JOT a n d m e a n s a w h i t e spot.
24, 24— unquestionably the best selection for this deity.
 Weaver-Birds and Munias 91
90 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Munias, when caged as pets, keep on dancing as it were within the cage,
ponding to ftftst in Prakrit and frjft, TtefT, in Hindi. These appear they have been given the n a m e of a diminutive of SR^T. ^R^T
to be Prakrit words related to ifoffe, a hedge (from Sanskrit <rft a n d ^fa, as a musical instrument, probably a boy's whistle, is perhaps so n a m e d
a hedge) a n d have been applied to these birds because they frequent because of the whistling notes of the birds that go under the names of ^ n
hedges in villages. T h e name m a y well be from Prakrit fqft^fr, a cluster, and -ridcti+i ( " w ^ t f H i ^ d + i " — w N f a T f a . ^z^t is a misprint). also
from the bird's habit of moving in flocks. T h e y are also or means the deep orange-red safflower and the little Red M u n i a m a y well
( f r o m S k t . -4df++l) in Hindi. have been so named after the colour of the male. In the 3TRFT
3. T h e Red M u n i a appears to be g^nr (from g^rra with (No.357 ), a small bird, called <HdR>+l (Pali for ^id^i+i ), 3 figures prominently.
of c h a n g e d t o X, see " p r : w f r f "—Pm. and irf^fr) a n d ^ It placed its nest on the ground in grass-land and when the nest was in
which latter is one of the names for Sparrow-like birds listed in the danger of being destroyed by a roving herd of wild elephants the little
T ^ t f ) :— mother-bird lifting her wings in salutation makes a pathetic appeal to the
leader not to kill (inadvertently or otherwise) her still unfledged young
ones (JtT%). (This verse is quoted in Art. 45.) Again, a srrfapjrr, singing
freely or fearlessly in its cage (iHlPj+.l), is mentioned in a proverb in
Now both ^ r m and it^T are varieties of Andropogon grass growing :—
near water, a n d it is chiefly in these and similar tall grasses t h a t the Red "^ra-fcrrfq- i t f W
M u n i a roosts and breeds, p w again, in the sense of a red water-lily, P.T.S. Edn. 1.91.
m a y refer to the red colour of the male bird. These facts make it highly
T h e Red M u n i a frequently builds its nest in tall grass very low or even on
probable that and in the sense of a t ^ f a ^ or n-v,
the ground (Whistler). It is thus more t h a n probable that of
are no other than the beautiful Red M u n i a . m t has an additional signi-
the J a t a k a , i.e. "<Hd^i+i, is the Red M u n i a . T h e root word being 'srs' or
ficance attached to it, viz., the birds so named are worth keeping as pets,
5RWT a dancing girl) the name Hd^i+I perhaps
and these birds are indeed in great favour throughout the country as cage-
stands close enough to Sansk. ^ (^n^T^rrar) and Hindi WRT (the red
birds, a n u m b e r of them being kept together in a single cage. T h e pretty
colour and a little boy, cf. Sansk. ).
male is known as 5rriT ('red' a n d also 'a little b o y ' ) and the female
^fort ( w r a little girl, fem. of ) in Hindi, names which fully corres-
pond to Sanskrit "pre? and j f ^ T for small children and birds; cf.
<M ifepirt —5T^nff¥cTTtTfw; "fftPPt, the Indian Robin —Prakrit qtalf
from Hldi<fl, a little bird; a n d Pali a young bird. Although no
Sanskrit dictionary gives or j f i m for a little bird, we have
numerous instances of expressions like ^ra^? ^RTT or w ^ r imi>
in literature, jftnpr or j f i m in the following stands for a tiny b i r d :

stf^J j f t m qfw"—12,181,7
"<prRrr p - S T F ^ "jftrerr qfsFj
WFr i h t snff T ^ r c u w " — T ^ ^ W , 97-

T h e mention of TWT, a winged insect, in the last verse considerably

strengthens the meaning of yjri+i or jfarPT as a tiny bird, and the
Pali form jftnPT (fem. of appears to have been purposely used
in a contemptuous sense for jfa^r, a little bird. It is highly impro-
bable that the expert author of should have drawn upon two
equally insignificant insects, the white ant and the mosquito, for two out
of three similes. Again, as an alternative reading for j w ^ - f
3. T h e n a m e < i d q m was also used for the Rufous Short-toed L a r k — A r t . 27, and
is possible only through Prakrit ftpF, a child, and the term corresponds
as none of the short-toed Larks is a breeding bird of I n d i a p r o p e r the J a t a k a story mentioned
in formation to for a Bulbul (Art. 6 ) .
here cannot refer to any of them.
4. W e have already considered ^ T for the Fan-tail Flycatcher
in reference to its dancing habit (Art. 11) and, as the active little Red
 Finches and Buntings 93

dwellings; and or+W+«4 from the black patch on its fore-neck.

These so-called names are merely descriptive epithets, some of which
have been applied to other birds as well:

'•Vmt HKMdsfq- —

23 ^RFW^ on the other hand shares the epithet «MMHIPM (singing

beautifully) with the large black Bee, the Hawk-Cuckoo and the Grey
FINCHES AND BUNTINGS Partridge,- the last two being :—

"'tHHHrel f r a ^ % —
A. F I N C H E S
Everyone o f t h e three best songsters of India, (i) the Magpie Robin, (ii)
1. This family includes a very large number of birds recognizable from the Shama (wnrr), both of which are also W V 5 ^rf^rf as they have black
their short massive bills, more or less forked tails, and the general resem- head and neck, and (iii) the Blackbird, is a +<HWHl<i) w h ^ . In literature they
blance they bear to the common House Sparrow. M a n y species are to be are mentioned simply as Poetic courtesy, however, has extended
found in the higher Himalayas though quite a few of them are forced down the term ( ) l ^ f f a ^ to what was merely the 'T^frr^' or yi*Hd+
to lower levels in winter. simply because of its black throat and upper breast:
2. The basic terms, and which are applicable
weft —•fsraspprer,
not only to birds of the present but of other families also, have been
treated in the Glossaries as synonymous, but ^ m e n t i o n s where the use o f t h e term 'tffa' is.perhaps significant, *rfoft, however, reads
and fftrjpP separately, and distinguishes f f ^ , and epfcn^r. If f f V ^ P is the correct reading it would refer to the Grey-winged
but places the last in the ftf** group. M W , f t W . includes Blackbird or the Magpie Robin (Art. 10), but if with ftr^f'
jfiT^ a n d ^ T ^ s within the meaning of TOT but distinguishes between ^TST to), supported as it is by the f^rat^T^tw, the bird meant would
and in the arnisftPPTC section, TOT, besides being specific for be the RH-M."^ srerfe^ i.e., the Crested Lark(Art. 27). mentions the
Swallows and Swifts (Art. 25), is a wider and more general t e i m f o r , (i]) 'a House Sparrow by the name of ^F^rfcrj in a rather vulgar reference in
bird in general' e.g., in compound bird-names like i>iwt>, ^ T f f ^ T , 18.16.
etc. and (ii) any bird of the size of a common Sparrow, and it is from this 4. T h e JTWrft has listed several Sparrow-like birds as types o f ^ f : —
latter sense of the term that diminutives like ^ p t . or ^ r f w
have been formed for the still smaller birds like the Warblers, White-eye,
Munias, etc. Grammarians derive the name from the root 'to
break or kill' but it is probably of onomatopoetic origin in reference to their wf^pwfft qfaw:"
twittering notes, or the snapping sound made by the bill of a bird like the
IHfr as a common name for a sparrow is probably intended to serve as
smaller Flycatchers when catching insects (Art. 11). The term j f t r j
a base for the qualifying epithets that follow it. Thus:
(tf T f w WTPfftFjffa T^sfr) refers to the habit of Sparrows moving about on
(^ and, therefore, of 'a red colour' and
the ground in search of food, while the name (W^awjc^tffit)
'excellent') refers probably to the Scarlet and Rose Finches,
applies to seveial song-birds of the size of a Sparrow which are also
the <«d«W of ^«lNl<f;
beautiful to look at. Both these are also specific for particular types of
song birds. ( ii) a n ^ ('wandering Sparrow') are the Buntings, one variety
3. The House Sparrow is or HiUHi* as against the Tree- of which, the Crested Bunting, is h R i l ^ in ;
Sparrows, plain looking Buntings and other wild Finches which go under (iii) "Ztt is the House Sparrow, the same as 'J^ftr^';
the common names of f f i r * , ^ r ^ , etc. The House Sparrow being (iv) are the Magpie Robin, the Shama, and the Black-
under every-day observation has won for itself several poetic adnouns, e.g., bird (Art. 10);
"PPJP, f r p r a R t and f r m after the male's amorous behaviour towards the (v) ir^T is the Red Munia, the same as f i K (Art. 22 B ) ;
female; f ^ j for its variegated back; ^ from its nesting in human
 Finches and Buntings 95
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
94
is known as^Ftfspr in Assam and this name is perhaps a corruption of ^ ^
(vi) Rra^ W T is the Crested Lark (Art. 2 7 ) ; ^ff^rf—^frfapr as under the influence of Bengali ^ r is pronounced as The
(vii) q f a w ^F also called is the Weaver-Bird Bull-Finches are, therefore, the t i ^ - a ^ F or ^ r f r ^ of the lexicons.
(Art. 22-A). It must be added in conclusion that the term wfc^g as used in wftr
5 T h e <TW to be sacrificed to the personified deity of Summer andOTVT?3 literature, in connection with the ban against the killing of
must have white in its body-colour 24, 11), and the birds for food, is co-extensive in meaning with the term ^ and covers all
in TOfir^FH—'" (Ibid., 24, 20) is no other than the Sparrow-like birds just as the terms 5PF and & imply all Storks, Ibises
beautiful Magpie Robin which, with black head, neck, and upper and Herons, and all Swans, Geese and Ducks, respectively, and so on with
part, is pure white below with a good deal of white on the wings and tail. other generic bird-names.
No other Sparrow has so m u c h and such pure white in its plumage. More-
over, this bird is in full song in Summer. again, is a victim for god B. BUNTINGS
csps^T in :—
' W ^ P f t 5ftffaTf$ r^T:"— Ibid., 24.31 1. T h e Buntings form a well-defined group within the Finch family, but
and is probably the same, for.one is said to have come out of the ^prfcr those resembling the common Sparrow in outward appearance and habits
head of fourer, the son of and the bird's powerful a n d spirited would, as individuals, pass for a f f c f or Some species, how-
song is attributed to its peculiar birth from a drunken h e a d : ever, like the Black-headed and the Red-headed Buntings which are very
gregarious and move in large flocks or swarms and cause considerable da-
"m: I T O c t cTFJTra; *rtsFW3rP V* ^ r i x m w f w ff mage to winter-crops, were named very early. Thus we have a m ^
g r t Ttc^r ^ r " — w r « r WT^R, 5.5.4,5 (grain-robber or crop destroyer) for them in the s r p class o f b i r d s in
These birds breed beyond the Indian limits and visit the plains of
In the alternative, the bird may be the beautiful ^ f f r ^ , the India during the winter from the foot of the Himalayas southwards,
Weaver-Bird, some sort of a whistler, and the best bird-architect of India, and from Sind in the west to Bihar in the east. T h e Black-headed Bunting
in reference to b e i n g the expert artisan of the gods. This goes well
has the entire lower plumage deep yellow but in the Red-headed this colour
with the nest making skill of the Whiskered Tern, which alone of the Indian is confined to the lower breast, flanks, and the abdomen. O t h e r Sanskrit
Terns, constructs a nest on a lotus leaf by winding round and round water- names for them are based on this and other features:—
weeds upon it, and hence called j ^ e t r (Art. 69), and sftffcnf?, the
beautifully marked red Coral Snake of genus Callophis. (i ) W W ? :
6. ^ u i H u f on g ^ ' f i p n is uncertain as to the identity of and l^fsTOT ffafs^: ^irfsnr:" —'
offers several alternatives, one of which:—
In the r n r f c w the two halves of the above verse have been slightly
" s r ^ § Trfiftuff l ^ n f t w tfUNd+l+K ^rf^TTf:,"
displaced:—
is significant and would seem to refer to the Gold-headed Black Finch or
the Gold-fronted Black Finch. It is possible that tjie statement has mixed ( ii) "TTRte t ^ T C ^TTWF:
up the descriptive terms (i) for the Rose and other Finches srarrs^fr 3% g w : w i - ^ ^ r r STF^ST^:
having red on the head, and (ii) i w t o (i.e., w ^ S lor the
Magpie Robin and the Shama, as different kinds of or Here the first and third lines constitute a connected verse and the second
Song-Sparrows. In any case TWift* refers to the Rose-
line refers to a different bird, viz., the Finch Lark (Art. 27 ) and is clearly
Finch, and to the Gold-fronted and the Gold-
out of place. T h e authors of both these lexicons appear to have borrowed
headed and Gold-fronted Black Finches, the Red-headed Bull-Finch, etc.,
from a n old manuscript, probably of ^ W ^ d , the present printed
beautiful Himalayan birds found in Kashmir and Nepal and some of which
edition of which, however, contains only the second slightly corrupt line
migrate to the plains in winter. I n short all pretty looking Finches with a
of the original as below:—
sweet voice are ^ S and m a n y of them have been favourite cage-
birds in Nepal and elsewhere from time immemorial. (iii) t f o f e t d : ^JTfcr:"
7. ^ or black-tailed Sparrow) is a kind of Sparrow and the first line was probably similar to what we have in the other two
in M . Williams and f n w and the name probably belongs to the lexicons. T h e readings (perhaps more correctly = +
Bull-Finches which have entirely black tails. T h e Red-headed Bull-Finch
 140
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

3TSPT) and Jif^rfsOT in (i) and (iii) above are most probably incorrect
readings or inadvertent variants of JTffWSTT = 3TSW,
unable to build a nest, or one that does not build one), the original
reading of , or other lexicon correctly reproduced in (ii). The
expression means that the flTTte birds do not nest in the country. If on
the other hand it is split up into two separate words, 'T^r* or ^T^^f and
or srew, they hardly make any sense so far as these birds are concerned.
They do not breed in India and cannot be described as while
24
stt or aram (competent or incompetent) can hardly be a bird-name. The
WAXWING
misunderstanding and the consequent confusion is not difficult to explain.
JTf^rfl is an independent bird-name in 12.66, for g^f the Weaver-
Bird (Art. 22-A) and lexicographers, missing the significance of the adjec- This family is represented by a single Species, Bombaycilla. It breeds
tive T^fWSTT, read into it or ifipraf as synonyms of ipfPTXf and in the Arctic region, is a rare winter visitor to the extreme North-west,
substituted what each believed to be the correct reading. In doing so and has been observed at Bannu and Kohat on a few occasions only. Except
one retained the negative 3f before «TT and the other omitted it. It is for a single plaintive note, uttered occasionally, it is a silent bird and no
this negative, 3T, happily preserved in the current edition of a^tiR, Sanskrit name is possible for it.
that helps to dissolve the expression 'rfScTsnr correctly as indicated
above, STT for a kind of Sparrow in M.W. is, therefore, incorrect. The
Black-headed and the Red-headed Buntings are (i) "TTWiir ( w i — g f e o f ,
the yellow sparrow, cf. wrar-i|feT) and (ii) srrcte (v.l. wtfe, srrfc—
srcfa, going in flocks). The epithets, w r a ? ; and fftrfe^: correspond to
of and mark them out as enemies of cultivation, ^ffs1
means 'dreadful or awful' (Wilson) while srftrc describes all the Buntings
as winter visitors.
2. The Grey-necked and the Ortolan Buntings, both migrating to
India in flocks, have no yellow in their plumage and are not but
they are certainly srfsK 1 *^ or «nfte. They go by the name of sfwtfU
(fr. Sansk. JTPT, moving, marching, or god of death, and
grain-robber) and the Red-headed variety as 5Mfkft in Hindi.
Both the names mean 'a bird that moves in large flocks' or in the
alternative 'the crop-destroying host of death (*nr)'. Other local Hindi
names are and frf (fr. «rrcte); cf. "fRH ^ frf ^ k h <=mr"—'Buntings by
the thousand are attacking the crops.'
3. fef^P (v.l. N<ldl+) is a sra^ bird in 1.27 and is
evidently the same as pTOT in Hindi for the Crested Bunting. It is a bird
of solitary habits and wanders a good deal. P-Kli m e a n s ' a head ornament
and also a kind of sparrow'. This Bunting has an upright crest (feffe)
and would seem to be the forte of M. W. Perhaps the terms (+<l<fl,
f^ftet and are closely allied. The second, viz., R<ld) occurs as a bird
name in — J ferfrfirjsFT" which appears to be a wrong reading of
'f^ildl 5 ROfd+T or frofepr'. If, on the other hand, RPwl* is from far+sft;,
the name would correspond to the srrens of ^stwV, and would
then refer to the Buntings 3.S 3. class.

1. Also m e a n s a p a n t h e r o r tiger in
 Martins and Swallows 99

and szrrarc separetaly for Larks. Small Swallow-like birds are mentioned
by the name of ^ in the srp group of birds in independently of
jfefpFT: for the Sparrow-group, as ^ is interpreted by the commentator
^mfuKTi as T h e expression would
include the Common House Swift, the Indian wire-tailed and Striated
Swallows all of which nest in cliffs, caves, under bridges, houses and
25 temples ( ^ f ^ r ) . T h e now extant ^Kld^T^dT also mentions ^ as one of
the ^ S m T ^ r : and the reference is to (i) the Sand Martins which nest in
sandy cliffs and banks in the vicinity of running water and spend the
MARTINS A N D SWALLOWS
greater part of their waking hours hawking insects over the surface of
the water, placid or running, and out of the breeding season roost in the
1. T h e Swallows resemble each other very closely in structure, differ- reed-beds bordering water; (ii) the Wire-tailed Swallows which again are
ing only in the shape of the tail, which, however, is different in almost every essentially birds of the neighbourhood of water, skimming over the surface
species and cannot be considered a generic character. They have, therefore, for insects; and (iii) the highly gregarious Cliff Swallows which nest in
been classified according to their colour-pattern and habits. Even in Europe colonies and hawk for insects in big flocks in the near vicinity of water.
at the present day people confuse a M a r t i n for a Swallow and vice versa. It will be noted that all these belong to the Swallow group and the
2. Swifts at a distance resemble Swallows and in common parlance synonyms ^ and ^ like must refer to the Swallows proper. The
both are known as sOTsfar in Hindi but the former belong to a differ- term in the sense of a small bird, is also used for a Swift (Art. 45).
ent Order of Birds (Art. 45). The chief difference between the two is The name srpnfo;, on the other hand, excludes the Sand Martins, which
that while Swallows have the first toe directed backwards and the remain- tunnel a long hole for their nest in a Sand-bank and do not construct
ing three forwards Swifts have all the four toes directed forwards. This a nest of mud stuck to a wall or rock-face.
results in different perching habits for the two kinds of birds. Swallows 4. The next name in sn^rfr is'tTRSM srrwT borne high on
can freely perch on trees, telegraph wires, buildings and on the ground but wings), m^rsr is a l s o the Skylark which again flies strongly and very high.
Swifts cannot do so except on their nest, and once a Swift finds itself on the Now and p V are synonymous terms, and when the latter means 'a
ground it cannot get back into the air except with the greatest difficulty. Swift' (Art. 45) the former too must be another name for it. fw as a
Because of this weakness they have been named and f*rV or bird in the ^ f e ? has been explained differently by the two com-
in Sanskrit. Swallows and Martins with the exception of the Sand-Martin mentators : (i) as (ifa snwr faurfimfir ?), a black and long-tailed
build cup or retort-shaped nests of mud and have therefore been termed bird ( g w i T gfcfg^gr), referring probably to the Wire-tailed Swallow, and
stTOte (fr. in what must have been its original sense, viz., an earthen (ii) as If the identity of fW and with p V is accepted, all
pot or vessel; Cf. ^ M * m<is*r—fT snsn^mw)- 1 Nevertheless they three would mean a Swift and the reference to the Wire-tailed Swallow
came to be confused with the Swallows at a very early date as may be by one of the commentators must be held erroneous.
seen from the statement STI^HW" in t h e 8 8 . 7 . 5. The third variety in sj^T^rfr is jfc: (Tflffe: ? ) a
hut
3. In spite of the confusion in the popular mind and even on the part or a nest; cf. ffc^ST*, a destroyer of a nest, in the title of the Kuti-
of the writers like ^OffirfgT, the g ^ r f r - f a w has curiously enough dusaka J a t a k a ) , a name which has survived in Bengal as ^ f f t 4
distinguished three different kinds of these birds: for the Indian Sand Martin, and would seem to apply to the Crag Martin

"^ft SrT^rft,
- o
smsrsft, '
I
r
3. 11.1.2 at p a g e 313 o f the Notes. T h e 1.7, also mentions fHI as a bird
of the ST^S class, a n d the expression "f^TT'TST:" occurring there p r o b a b l y means the fTW

viz. (i) XRT or ^zw: (ii) STKSTW and (iii) ffe. 2 The equation birds living in h u m a n habitations.
4. T h i s appears, p r o b a b l y by metathesis, as j p r c t in the list of edible birds in the
- ^ f t - d * : " refers either to the Pipit or to the Redstart, sr^nxrfr has Xksm
g r c t a g ^ a r C h . i i — "<tid<fl x / ^ - m ^ wtt i r ^ m s r a : " . T h e little
•STP^PT is the same as ST* m e n t i o n e d earlier (ib.) as a water-bird, b o t h referring to
1. 6.3.194.
the steel-blue swallow which hawks insects over w a t e r ; Cf. S J * : the large black-bee a n d
2. <cdl+< has the incorrect reading of 3T%J3t which is e q u a t e d with STTSTsr 7$ft.
a Drongo. a n d for the Purple Sun-Bird of a d e e p blue-black colour.

100 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
as well. These birds do not nest in buildings or houses and " n e v e r associate
w i t h m a n " a n d the n a m e p r o b a b l y is after this habit o f t h e two Martins.
T h e first element =rff: in the n a m e certainly implies an e m p h a t i c nega-
tive, and ^ff: J ft: m e a n s ' a bird t h a t does not nest in a shop or house'.
It is really interesting to note t h a t , despite the confusion that obtains in the
p o p u l a r mind all over the world, the ancient Indians had distinguished three
m a i n types amongst these seemingly similar birds with a very fair degree
of accuracy.
6. T h e Swallow and the Swift are known in M a r a t h i as VFPtWt
w h i c h is capable of more t h a n one derivation : (i) trtt, "jfw^FT, and 3T^ft
—little birds living or moving in groups or part-es (ii) Prak. TFf^r
(5T+3TT|pr) very confused, referring to the erratic flight of a p a r t y
of such birds; and (iii)as bearing a close affinity to the first of t h e correlated
expressions, "^^PmwTr" and "fw>TWTr", explained as a bii'd which looks
white when high u p on the wing and black when settled on the ground
or the nest:
w ^ r r j t t T T ^ t i T T f w f r ?rr
WTRT srraT foTOTlWRT—" W ^ T f t e f s r , 122-23.
T h e birds referred to in the above statement are evidently the C o m m o n
and Wire-tailed Swallows and the House Martins which are black above
and white or pale-white below. T h e y have very short tarsi, less t h a n half
an inch, and therefore sit very low, so t h a t in this position they look black
(fwror w r t ) but when they are high in the air they a p p e a r to be
white hi+hi ) . 6 T h e H i n d i S a b d a - S a g a r a gives S^TT as one of the
names for a Swallow (under 3Hi«fM) perhaps from some Sansk. lexicon
and this n a m e seems to be an analogue of fawiWRT as m+lufl m a y be of
7. T h e td^m IVdmfiii has and M . Williams for 'a kind of
b i r d ' . If the names are connected with the root ' f s r - ^ r srcpir'—'lying down
and going u p ' they would seem to correspond in m e a n i n g to the correlated
expressions considered above. are five stars in the head of Orion
and perhaps implies the idea of shining high in the air or sky which
is true of the birds under discussion. O n the other h a n d the n a m e ^wn
m a y be imitative o f t h e bird's call and therefore identical with s f f w , and if
so, it would apply to the Swift (Art. 45) and would be a wrong
reading of the former.
5. C.f. t e r m s like gn^TTTfr a n d TT^TWT implying change of colour
p u r p l e o n r i p e n i n g a n d f r o m d a r k to w h i t e o n b u r n i n g , respectively.
Prakrit ( m f l l c H f t ^ T ) f o r a k i n d of b i r d is clearly allied
p r o b a b l y refers t o t h e Swifts w h i c h s p e n d m o s t of their l i m e in t h e a i r
to t h e g r o u n d (Art. 45).
Martins and Swallows 101
8. A certain, small Sparrow-like bird n a m e d ^pff —
5T«*^qirJT) is mentioned in the story of king sT^ffr in wnTTRr6 while it
appears u n d e r the n a m e of in i W f ,' where it is said to
frequent tanks a n d rivers and is described as below:—
" M ^ t s t t $ft"iP>Ki ftrfd^txiT f w r e f h "
C o m m e n t a t o r m ^ S explains ftrfiWJTT as " w h i t e - w i n g e d " 8 and faf^ST as
" b l a c k - b a c k e d " and lets fefrrft severely alone. Looking, however,
to the fact t h a t the little bird is in the h a b i t of visiting tanks and rivers,
and further t h a t the term size means also a Swallow, it seems more
reasonable to interpret ftrfawr as " h a v i n g black and white wings'S
i.e. black above and white below; forfir^ST as "black a b o v e " and fiidkO
a s ' h a v i n g white lower parts'. This would also fit in with a clever
and yet p u n n i n g or mystifying use of the word ftrfa by the poet in three
different senses. Subject to the correctness of this interpretation, the I n d i a n
Wire-tailed Swallow fully stands u p to the description given in the verse.
It has a chest-nut red head, black wings w i t h a white lining to them, and
frq-KJrr
white under-parts. It visits water regularly for insect food, builds a n open
cup-shaped nest f r o m which the young ones can be gently taken out and
replaced. This Swallow would thus seem to be the ^ bird and the
physical basis of the story where the other details are of course imaginary
and intended to heighten the effect and lead u p to a moral. T h e n a m e
•j^ffaT is happily conceived inasmuch as the black and white bird appears
to have been worshipped with J ^ J T on the head, for it has no red else-
where on its body. Alternatively the n a m e s also imply that t h e bird is one
that has to be respected or treated with hospitality, i.e., to be allowed to
nest and breed in one's house and therefore protected. Swifts also are to
be treated in a similar way and a person who does so is known as ^ k f e r
TOPP (Art. 4 5 ) . These birds often establish themselves a t one place
and continue to breed from generation to generation if not disturbed.
This has given rise to a belief that the family owning and occupying the
house would also continue to prosper in the same way.
from green to
to this w o r d . It 6. 12.139.
and never descend 7. 1.20
8. 1.20.81.
 Wagtails and Pipits 103

though often derived from —ifrf^F??, may well be a later name

analogous to Prakrit #3PT meaning (i) mud, (ii) lamp-black, and (iii)
black grease from the axle-hole or hub of a cart-wheel. The idea in each
c a s e is that of a thing produced in or from a void, sky, or hole (l"),
and as applied to these birds the term should refer to their coming to
the earth from the skies ( (irer arm?ffif s f r s t ^ r : ) at the end
of the rains; cf. fe^Utf and ftrrf^ below, also for the bit of a
rests in the hollow of the horse's mouth. Two other synonyms
26 b r i d l e w h i c h

WAGTAILS AND PIPITS
A. WAGTAILS
1. Wagtails are small dainty birds with a compact plumage, walking,
running or trotting about with great speed on the ground and constantly
wagging their long tails up and down. " T h e gait is a brisk walk or run,
with a back and forward motion of the h e a d " (Smythies), reminding one
jrtrongly of the name anmr (a little pony) for a kind^ of sparrow. The
common name for a Wagtail is and <a^<ai ( W ^ : fat^iTa^:,
its: s t o : , or ^ ^ S ^ r f o — ' a dancing little pony'; see w^^TTff for
of its many synonyms. In Gujarat it is known as ffalvft sfteT (winter-pony)
as different varieties of it arrive in the country after the rains are over. This
analogy with a pony occurred to Gilbert White also who remarks in his
letter No. 60 to Thomas Pennant that "the tail of the Wagtail when in
motion bobs up and down like that of a jaded horse."
2. Wagtails may be divided for the purpose of this article into three
groups— (i) White Wagtails;, (ii) Yellow Wagtails and (iii) the Large
Pied Wagtail. Birds of the first group are the proper of works on
augury like the sff^ffTT and as also of the poets who compare
the dark, sparkling and longish eyes of beautiful young ladies with the
shapely body of these smart and active birds. ^ f ^ c f T , ch.44 refers to the
White Wagtails as sr^T, or fei^^m but they are also named possibly as sffo
in 47, 6 but certainly as in 85, 38. refcm regards these names as
synonymous but does not equate them with sfrro in q^xTCM 4.52,
for a as*!* are FT^P and both referring to its active movements like
those of a dancer ( m * ^ ^ ) . For y^HiiPd see Art. 10, and for (st^-iPi*!,
Art. 71.
3. The Yellow Wagtails also are variously known, e.g. as 'fTT^,
iftt or 'ftTT'pr*, TWdrH ('MTCRTV ?), or <i>fldd*; and the Large Pied Wagtail,
having black head, neck and upper breast like the Magpie Robin, is
— a n d ^ T ^ f e - ^ n r (having black upper plumage like a
Crow's; is incorrect). The Large Pied Wagtail being resident
throughout the country is not a bird of augury. One variety of the White
Wagtail and several Yellow Wagtails breed in the Himalayas. T h e re-
maining species, listed in the Fauna of British India, breed outside India
and are only winter-visitors to the plains.
4. All migratory Wagtails are birds of augury according to ^CUM
is one and ^ ' f e m . The former divides the White Wagtails into five varieties and
places all Yellow Wagtails into a single group called n t ^ or
The latter distinguishes only three kinds of White Wagtails and calls
the Yellow ones as nlfTcr The interesting explanation of W T O
(10.1-9) for the mysterious disappearance of the birds and their sudden
reappearance, and the names given by him to different varieties are as
under:—
"c? HpPJd+fc^r, ^ W c n i r f a f 5 r a R # T
f ^ I W T ^ f a f^raiTt, c^ ^ ^ H l ' S i W f t
(1) s w n r , (2) Jnre, (3) (4) a r ^ *Tsr, and (5) ( ^ is
a misprint) or ^s^rfte; cf. mshwi below. The 'TtjjJ or Yellow Wagtail
is defined as under:—
" m s f t ^foKUtifn+isfr i f t ^ r m r x § w ^ R f e "

however, has been rendered as by the commentator which appears The classification in the *rfl<n is as below:—
to be correct, for the black-throated god Siva also is Like jft^TTO the
"p^TS'Wfid+'Ji: i ^ r w r ^ s ^ K t d vrs:
name sfte also would appear to be a homonym, applicable, with different
derivations, to two birds—(i) sfrfe wwftr 91^' sfar:, the Himalayan
Whistling Thrush (Art. 10), and (ii) ?fWPTW: fsTf 3T sffa?:, a 'beautiful fTwff fyd+<d|frf: fTvKl^fXfT;:
bird'— from the black patch on a white breast, or 'a lucky bird'—the tflrft sfa VZ:"
White Wagtail, in either case. Persian 'Sareecha' for a Wagtail is 44.2-3.
perhaps identical with Sanskrit Mta: as ^ is often changed to ^
in Persian, e.g., —3TFRT (aspacha), a small pony. If this
1.27 m e n t i o n s 'flHiy.d as one of the edible birds.
is correct star: would be a very old name for a White Wagtail.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Wagtails and Pipits 105
104

I n the above extracts the first verse refers to their migratory h a b i t and the clinches the point in favour of <a»»i<ld being the Yellow W a g t a i l s : —
traditional belief that they grow a crest towards the end of spring which ^ o r f f ^ r ^ g ^ r f t e T : " — ( ^ " J — o n trees).
renders t h e m invisible d u r i n g the hot weather and the rains, then the crest
is lost and they become visible again just as the star Canopus, called arwr, Poets and Lexicons have, however, obliterated the distinction
rises above the horizon some time in August-September. T h e n a m e between i ^ h a n d 'J^rfre and b o t h these terms have been used for the
JTftS^, therefore, poetically represents the bird as the child of sage spnfc^. White Wagtails which are a standard of comparison for beautiful eyes in
It is listed as ^ f a j * in faTOTSPTf^, 1.151.46. It is interesting to note literature.
t h a t the absence of the Large Pied Crested Cuckoo, the ^TTO orf^fhF¥ 7. Names like irtja, or iHTpr ('dear to the Cows or Cowherds')
for a period of about six months, October, November to J u n e , J u l y , denote the Grey-Wagtail, the Black-headed and the Yellow-headed
is explained by the belief underlying the n a m e , ferfrtf (living in Wagtails which " h o v e r round grazing cattle for insects" ( H u m e ) or
heaven or high u p in the sky, Art. 37). This ^TTO is also but f ^ T f J F "assemble in parties and feed a m o n g c a t t l e " (Cassall's Book of Birds).
for a W a g t a i l in M . Williams on the authority of Galanos is most T h e equation "'flt^Hd, tflHl+V' in the bird section of ^ f f + l s t is indicative
probably incorrect (see I b i d ) . of their disappearance from the country in summei. t m f ? is mentioned in
fspajOTfaT, 1.151.48.
5. All White Wagtails are extremely tame and make themselves at
h o m e in gardens and on open spaces in towns and villages and near about 8. J f s i w r O g i v e s i f t a f ^ for i.e. a female Yellow Wagtail
country-huts and houses. T h e different species visiting I n d i a consist of and one of this type is prescribed as a victim for the Spirits of the
adult and i m m a t u r e birds and their plumage in winter varies a great deal, Waters:—
so m u c h so, that it is impossible to differentiate the species in the field. "fTfpr w r r s f t TWt-HI ^sCTTT^t"—3T5T. ¥ % r r , 24.37.
T h e classifications in and 3WCT3T are more or less superficial,
based principally on the character of the plumage of the birds at the Now these three sacrificial creatuies must be closely connected with water
time of observation. All Yellow Wagtails are or iftffa. f f f e ^ as and TTfet should be the fish of that n a m e or at best the swamp-deer;
the n a m e of a particular bird occurs twice in the R g v e d a , 1.50.12 and j u s t T ^ , rendered as a kind of lizard, must be a water-lizard of the
8. 35. 7, and once in the Atharvaveda, 1.22.4 which is the same vef-se V a r a n u s group, probably the K a b a r a Goya, a large slender species of water
as R V 1.50. 12. It also occurs in the ^ f r o ^ 26, 18. W I R W in lizard of I n d i a which is "equally at home on land or in the water where it
swims by means of the flattened tail, the limbs being closely pressed against
his c o m m e n t a r y on R V 1.50. 12 has rendered frfarr as a kind of
the sides."—Enc. Brit. 14th. E d n . Vol. 14, 247. This Lizard is found in
tree (Sk. f f e , Hindi Adina Cordifolia, which occurs in sub-
Nepal and reaches a length of 7 ft.—ibid., 11th Edn., Vol. 16, 827.*
H i m a l a y a n tracts from the J u m n a east-wards. Chloroxylon Swietenia,
T u r n i n g to (m, earth or water and a lizard; moving
another tree with a yellow wood, does not occur n o r t h of the N e r b u d d a ) ,
but on R V . 8.35. 7 as a kind of bird (qfsrfMh:) as the reference to the on land or near water like one) there can hardly be any d o u b t
that it is Hodgson's Yellow-headed Wagtail, " t h e most aquatic of all W a g -
action of flying forced h i m to adopt that meaning. I t is w o r t h noting
tails " , which chiefly frequents marshes, and edges of rivers, tanks, etc.
that he does not give here any synonym for the bird. T h e commentators
If the difficulty of distinguishing the male and female of these birds is b o r n e
of the ipffii-frfld have described ^ r f e r as ^fcsnrrf: MldiHwd+i: ( ^ r : ) at p. 7 6,
in mind, it would be better to treat the n a m e in the feminine as an instance
f.n., and equated it with at p. 326, i.e. a Yellow Wagtail.
of a 4ircHM* HST! like many other bird-names in Sanskrit, and it
Sayana or his collaborator must have seen this c o m m e n t a r y before he
would then be a specific name for the above-named Wagtail. I m a y add
commented on the 3T«pf^, and he, therefore, rendered f l f e r in AV.
that the selection of a water-lizard and a water-Wagtail makes it highly
1.22.4 as the 'MldH* bird but failed to revise his notes on the Rgveda.
Both n r f r f a ^ and m t w (<fi<fld«ri+ in each case ? ) are evidently the same
tfpfta of the 5Tf3r%rr. But p f e ? is, more probably, the Golden
*This rendering of would perhaps help to explain the movement
Oriole—See Art. 19.
of a storm crashing u p o n a forest with the zigzag, t u r n i n g a n d twisting motion of a large
6. T h e half verse cited above from (10.9) would seem to water-lizard first on the land a n d then throwing itself into the w a t e r with a loud splash,
show t h a t q ^ f l d stands for any Yellow Wagtail and this finds support referred to in the Rgveda:—
from TOTjair, 118, 50 and 53 where stands for the Yellow and "Mdlfa f^'srrat —1.29. 6.
srarar for the W h i t e Wagtails. Similarly srf^jOT, 232, 14 and 16 gives Cf. J f t ^ , the ^TS^t creeper, which climbs u p o n a tree (List of New W o r d s in the
>?3=3PT, and as different birds. T h e Yellow Wagtails alone perch on
I n t r o d u c t i o n to ^Vftr^F
trees and the following cited by in his c o m m e n t a r y on a t r o r w s s i of
106 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Wagtails and Pipits 107
probable that is a fish and not a deer as taken by the commenta-
''•Mmc£d ! ^ qT^"—
tors. All three water creatures are of very active habits, befitting the nature
of Water-nymphs. (3) A pair of White Wagtails, supposed to face each other, as it were,
9. A few of the so-called lexical common names of the bird may now at the root of the nose of the beloved—the contrasting black
be explained. The adnoun iTjRte (whose nest is not visible) for breast-patches of the birds representing the black of the eyes.
can only refer to the White and Yellow Wagtails which do not breed in
the plains of India. refers to a particular phase in the plum-
age of the White and White-faced Wagtails in which the black on the ^wf^TTfRw w r wrrfw"—fec^i+M
breast is reduced to a narrow crescent in summer. This corresponds to
(4) T h e almond-shaped long eyes of Srikrsna :—
stWKTJ of W H M :—
"iTcnrr srtq; ^ r r w cSRft ^ s i ^ n x s j - f m i " — 1 0 . 7 . "^uffaFcT —^JCTT, 104.46
The ( w of sf^T^di and arpfrrenre of is the immature White-
faced Wagtail or a young Hodgson's Pied Wagtail in both of which (5) T h e river Gahga personified as a young woman with a pair of
the black patch on the breast is a small one. ( ^ ' r , a mirror; white Wagtails for her eyes:
holding a mirror to an excellent eye, i.e. resembling o n e ) ; ^ T T f ( W t ,
hard, having a neat and compact b o d y ) ; ^liiM (moving on the sands);
(cf. cT^P; tripping beautifully); M f ^ T (going about c
in pairs). jfkrcr>T (surpassing the fish in agility and beauty of form, both
B. P I P I T S
fish and bird being used as comparisons for beautiful eyes); ?TsPTPTT
(auspicious n a m e d ; cf. T? of sr^srffcTT and names ending in in W t R ) ; Pipits are small brown birds, whitish or pale—fulvous below and strea-
and T^Tftr (abounding in love or p a s s i o n a t e — " ^ w w w f w T R ^ T ^ T ' ' ked on the breast. O n one side, they are related to the Wagtails like which
as the male bird not only displays before the female but also sings they run on the ground and wag their tails up and down but more, sedately,
lustily during consummation and after the a c t ) . This last name, T^rfrfsr, and on the other to the larks which they resemble somewhat in plumage
derived differently (<d*«HW faftr: OT ifFT/ and therefore, misunderstood, and other characters. According to their habits, they are called Tree-
gave rise to the belief that there is wealth underneath where the birds Pipits, Ground- or Indian-Pipits and Water-Pipits. In the breeding season,
mate:— the males suddenly rise in the air, uttering their song and after reaching
"cffwftrfsr^fcT qfwr"—f. 44.12. the highest point (which is not very high) come down in an a b r u p t curve,
with stiff partly extended wings. T h e y are known as (from Sanskrit
However eager or ardent, the bird will not mate except where there is
^ f f f — ) i n Hindi and FFtfefT* in Sanskrit after the manner of their flight
wealth underground:—
and song. O t h e r Sanskrit names are <jf?PPT or sfiroT (f^T-d'HM; "^Rh+I
FRtft^rr f$r?riT3'!frT, from their tail wagging h a b i t ) . T h e equation,
"•y^-iHl of st^mR if not applicable to the Red-start as
suggested in Art. 10 would certainly apply to these birds which are closely
«Kl*rnfi$< also adds that there is likely to be coal underground where
allied to Wagtails.
the bird voids, and advises the curious actually to dig for wealth or coal
at such places:
—44.12.
In literature the (the White or the White-faced Wagtail) is a
standard of comparison for (i) the light, sportive gait of a young lady, and
(ii) dark, beautiful, sparkling and longish-looking eyes:
(1) y ^ H for the playful gait of a goddess:

•>
(2) Lover, willing to stake his life for the sake of a maiden possessing
eyes like a :
*Cf. 'Vfite:^cf^T9T5?:"—Com. on TTT^VhTHYf^TR, 7.16.
 109
The Larks
life. Thus he should be given the flesh of the or the Sky-Lark, if
he is to excel in eloquence:—
"STRgTJqT Tt^T ^ T O T W T P I , 1.19.7

Compare— " ^ f ^ t w ' s r t w T — s r ^ f f a r , 87.15.

The following half verse from fa* in fa with alternative readings
would seem to refer to two different birds, a Quail and a Sky-Lark. Both
27 the readings are set out below:—
( 1) l^pfftft
THE LARKS (2) TirwTT msn ^rroft s z f w n f t m
N o w W n (frequenting cultivated land) is certainly applicable both
1. The Larks of Indiapropei are small grey-brown birds closely resembling to a Quail and the Sky-Lark, but it is very doubtful how far tmat foi- a
the Pipits. They are less nimble a n d have a more crouching gait. Not all Q u a i l s i correct, and here lies the main difficulty. and f ^ W W
the members of the family are good singers, and only the true Sky-Lark, the o-ive rt for only one kind of bird, which is evidently the Sky-Lark, and
Crested Lark and the Singing Bush-Lark are appreciated for their song and no other lexicon, to my knowledge, gives uroft for a quail exc.pt probably
favoured as cage-birds in India. The others have only a few sweet notes on the basis of No. 2 above. The epithet W^ftOT (winged-lizard) is
which can hardly be dignified by the name of a song. T h e rhapsody of the clearly a wrong reading for »n*r ^ ( f i g h t i n g with wings), since the Quails,
Sky-Lark is world -famous and it is not to be wondered at if one of the ancient when they fight, strike each other with their wings. Similarly, the epithet
Vedic singers has been named after this bird—WTW v. 1., mrsr*. Next though it may refer to the Quails' habit of roosting on the
comes the Crested Sky-lark which sings high up in the air like the true ground at night with the bill pointing upwards, would seem to be a
Sky-lark and takes the notes of several other birds in its sweep. T h e singing wrong reading- of °4lH<Hifa*,| (sporting, dancing, in the sky) which is
Bush-Lark also has a full and sweet song but not at all comparable with that perfectly true of the Sky-Lark, ifcnfotf in Prakrit for 'a kind of bird' (from
of the Sky-Lark or even the Crested'Lark. It s i n g s both on the wing and on jfr, the sky, and dancing) is clearly the same as and, there-
the ground. About the song-flight of the Sky-Lark, Smythies remarks: fore, the Skv-Lark. It would be seen, therefore, that the original
" I n the song-flight the bird mounts vertically or obliquely with a vigorous synonymy of f w ^ ^ h r was the one set out as No. 1 above, and in this
fluttering action to a great height in the air, the song commencing a few the first half Twftat" — refers to a Quail, and the second
feet from the ground. The bird remains poised, head to wind, the wing half—" w t afterrRm"—to the Sky Lark. 11 is incorrect, a s the commentators
beats momentarily interrupted at intervals. It presently sinks gently down have assumed, to treat all the four terms as relating to a single bird.
with wings inclined upwards till it suddenly completes the descent by an 4. The Rufous Short-toed Lark belonging to genus Calandrella is
abrupt drop to the ground The song, .may be heard from October to known as spto and spref in Hindi which at once reminds one of Sanskrit
April at all times of the day but specially at dawn long before it is really a n W . It is also the of and f s p , which has been explained by
light." g^miNiq with a quotation from some Glossary: ilcwm:
2. s r s m (fr. vr, 'song of praise', or 'what is carried away' and ^ r , tfUKHiftn:, sfir c o m p . — ' ^ f ^ t S
strength, power of wings, i.e. a bird which sings during flight, or which is
carried high on wings), srrcft and ?T^fr (ET^rfT fWz) referring to its Now the Rufous Short-toed Lark as a resident bird occurs here arid there
beautiful song as a prayer, are names for the Himalayan and Indian in small numbers, but in the winter these are greatly augmented by very
Sky-Larks. Its song high up " a t Heaven's Gate", is well described by large flocks migrating from outside into the plains of North India and they
are then netted in large numbers for food. Thus this Lark is ^TT-XTZ in
"9TFJT ftsr^cf fcUH-dPTiT, H'MIM+K TOT W l ' f l l " — 8 . 5 5 Sanskrit and ^ T in Hindi, and the synonymy of with is not
quite correct. The equates ^T, and ^f^T, with
3. The excellence of the sustained, varied, and vigorous song of the
a n w and gives »' TTT? as the vernacular equivalent of and '•TTC? of
Sky-Lark has been well recognized in TTO^ which lays down that
a baby-boy six months old should be given solid food at a special srersmR The also has confused these names and equated and
ceremony at which the first feed should consist of the flesh of certain birds with the vernacular *rrci This mix-up is due to the fact that the
according as the parents desire him to develop certain qualities in his adult Rufous Short-toed Lark is and also (Quail-like sparrow).
 110 Birds in Sanskrit Literature The Larks 111
It was regarded as a Quail-like sparrow because it was plentiful during short spurts) in ^ f ^ r f t f t w , <MfHW and These characters
the winter with flocks of migrating Quails and was largely netted along with agree very well with the habits of the Finch Larks. Salim Ali
them, and this seems to be the reason why it has been placed with the says about the Ashy-crowned Finch Lark—"This little Lark affects
Quails in "zvz and srftprr as already stated. They are also the imr flat, open cultivated country and semi-barren waste land. It is
(fr. TRT a month and, therefore, a Quail-like bird that visits the usually met with in pairs or parties which run along the ground, body held
country for a short period or a season only) and <fl«r«ifd+l(fr. ^sr to kill, the low, in short zig-zag spurts, facing this way and that, in search of food.
birds being killed in large numbers for food). Its colouration is remarkably obliterative and matches the ground to per-
The s r ^ r f t f a w includes in one synonymy, three names of three fection. . . The nest is a tiny, neatly made saucer-like depression in the ground
different birds of the Lark family:— . . . .in open country." In regard to their obliterative colouration, Whistler
mentions another trait of the birds: " O n the ground their colouration
^TsT5T f<M|dl scrrsn?: gJJKSFT: I
renders these Larks very inconspicuous, and an observer walking along is
is in other lexicons, but instead of being a synonym for the often astonished at the numbers which rise one by one around him and
Sky-Lark, it is the same as Hindi for the Bt*sh Larks, then fly away in a dense flock from the ground which was apparently empty
other than the Singing Bush Lark, which have hardly a song and this fact of life." They are called fTf and the same as fssr ^ ^ r (crouching or
is recognised in the imitative names w o e and il. squatting sparrow) in Hindi.
The Singing Bush Lark is known as srfiff in Hindi and 3rf*FT faw! Lastly we have included by in its list of song-
in Telugu, and these names are probably traceable to ^nsi^r, the same sparrows. As the name implies, it is a bird which wears a sharply pointed
as arfi^ro, which means simply 'a bird' according to the lexicons crest on the fore-crown like a fairer or upright sectarian mark on the
but should have been rendered, as I strongly suspect, as 'a kind of bird.' forehead. It is clearly the Crested Lark. This bird is spread to the west and
A perusal of the various Unadi Sutras and lexicons shows that many specific central Asia also; compare, Khar-i-sar, having a thorn i.e. a crest of
bird-names have been briefly rendered simply as 'a bird' so that it is most pointed feathers on the head) for a Lark in Persian. The Hindi name for
likely that the term ^ s r f r r or arffcrenis, was also so dealt with, and the this bird is which may be from Sanskrit (having a crest)
bird's identity having been lost, the expression came to mean just 'a bird'. or <t>«sM, a basket, referring to the little cage in which it is confined as
An absurd etymological explanation also has been offered for ^ s r f r r : — a pet. The cage being covered with at least two folds of cloth, the bird is
"PJjipKRf^ 3rfrr:, tMH^msfrrcpr—^g^qjit, for everybody knows, and the not distracted and continues to sing even when it is carried about along a
etymologist certainly knew, that the 'digestive fire' (^rnrafrr:) is in the busy thorough-fare.
stomach of all creatures including birds and not in the throat or neck.
If on the other hand the lexicographer had to interpret it as a specific
bird-name, he would have derived it in some such way:—
qpj^Tff arfrt: ^ ^ i R - k w ; comp. tot? JTRtefar: ($cr. ot. 1.4), and
arfrrsrk ^wr to mfewf (ibid. 2.4.)
T h e singing Bush-Lark is very vocal and has a powerful voice—a caged
bird often singing for the better part-of twenty four hours of the day during
the season and hence the name, arfrrpus 0 r ^nsrfrr. This derivation finds
support from the fact that the name is on a par with tspms for the Cuckoo
and readily explains the Hindi name for the singing Bush-Lark,
otherwise it is very difficult to see why the bird should have been named
and srftpr ftraT i.e. fire, and fire-sparrow respectively in Hindi
and Telugu. Compared with the other Bush-Larks with harsh
notes (^rrre), the singing Bush-Lark would pass for a good and powerful
songater, and though, nowhere in comparison with the Sky-Lark or the
Crested Lark, it is nevertheless a popular cage-bird of India.
The srar and 3nw are names of a particular bird which
is described as jssr (crouching), srfjmT (roosting and breeding on the
ground), jsr (ground-born), and H < r M ( w a l k i n g little or in
 29
28
THE RUBY-CHEEK

T H E WHITE EYE
The tiny Ruby-cheek does not occur west of Sikkim, and we cannot
T h e White Eye is a small arboreal bird chiefly oiive-green and pale expect a Sanskrit name for it. It is a brilliant metallic green bird with
yellow in colour, and easily recognised by a conspicuous white ring round coppery-red about the face, and stands very close to the-Sun-birds in size
the eye. A tiny and pretty bird like this would simply pass for a ^f^FT* and* habits and would ordinarily pass for one. Its twittering call notes
or ^ f t ^ T in Sanskrit, and indeed its Hindi name ^ T T (a little child) resemble those of the White Eye.
shows that it was just a ^fror in Sanskrit. Its short pretty song, rather
nasal in tone, should claim for it the name (a kind of b i r d - M . W . )
for it. * * * means 'having colour'and also 'a nasal tone' and admirably
suits the White Eye in both the senses.

*For in t h e sense of a small or d e a r little bird, see A r t . 22 B.

 The Sun-Birds 115

'sprtsj
^q^ftcT =HMlPr fens? d"s WN-CT"

It is known in Hindi as which is synonymous with yra^r (flower-

sucker), the same as TspfT or t o t . Gorressio's edition of the R a m a y a n a
also mentions the bird as TtjTWT at 2.56.11 according to the St. Petersberg
30 Dictionary.

T H E SUN-BIRDS

1. The Sun-birds are of small and delicate make and the majority of the
males are clothed in resplendent metallic plumage, and they are therefore
easy of recognition as a group. They are found solitary or in pairs and
being entirely of arboreal habits they feed on minute insects and the nectar
of flowers. The males have a short but pretty song in the breeding season.
The birds of the Aethopyga genus are brilliantly dressed in metallic green
or blue, crimson, yellow and purple. They have metallic green or crimson
tails, the middle pair of feathers prolonged. Certain varieties like the Indian
Yellow-backed Sun-bird, the Fire-tailed Yellow-backed Sun-bird, and the
Nepal Yellow-backed Sun-bird are common in the Himalayan valleys of
North India and Nepal. They are evidently the ^ " f y n (Golden-flower)
of the garden o f l n d r a described in the ch. 39, 18:—

"HMNUfSJ 9Tf#: HHKcH'dH^f:

H^TA'^H^: JTfnr^of^rfd^:"

These tiny Sun-birds of multicoloured and shining plumage are comparable

with the still smaller Humming Birds of America described as "jewels on
wings", and it is interesting to note that their Indian counterparts too have
been portrayed as possessing 'a be-jewelled plumage'—
in the above verse. They have been beautifully described by under
the name of ^H^Rtii (fiFrsrfw^ to tinkle or jingle, referring to their sweet
jingling song):—

"JR: fwnf'ipk^Uz jj-i JTcnfsrfcr:

9TFBA" (V.L. 931%!") T^RFTRATF^TP^: -HL^TII^TSJFWM <TT#:

fafipTT ynr^R+if^rsfFiT "smfcr"

fffaiT^, 10.29-30.

2. The Purple Sun-bird, common throughout India, is w^XH and

(the Bee or Honey-Bird, cf. Urdu, w+«fl<! for it), so named
from its small size, glistening black plumage, and the habit of collecting
honey from the flowers. It is mentioned as TifFT in ^ w p m , 36.5:—
 31
FLOWER-PECKERS
The Flower-peckers are tiny Himalayan birds (3.2* to 4.5") resemb-
ling the Sun-birds in habits, but beyond a twitter they have nothing in the
way of a song. Brightly coloured species like the Indian Scarlet-backed
and the Fire-breasted Flower-peckers would ordinarily pass for a variety
of ^prwysr considered in the preceding article but not as a wrf^rfWr,
for they have no song. Others like the Plain-coloured and Tickell's Flower-
peckers would, from their small size, simply go by the common name of
^fd+l for any small bird.
32
PITTAS
Three varieties of Pitta are found in India. The Indian Pitta is found
all over the country, the Blue-naped Pitta occurs in the outer Himalayas
from Nepal eastwards, while the Blue Pitta of Bhutan is found in Assam
and further east. They are coarsely built birds (7 "-9") with a short tail
and long and powerful legs. Terrestrial by habit they feed chiefly on
insects, lizards and occasionally mice. Their stumpy shape and upright
carriage are distinctive. The male has a "magnificent double whistle" as
well as a song.
The Indian Pitta has a plumage variegated with blue, green, black,
white, fulvous and crimson, and is very aptly known as ^rftt (bird of
nine colours) in Hindi. The Blue-naped Pitta is tawny rufous, washed with
grass-green on the back, rump and tail, and bright blue on the nape and
hind neck. The Blue variety is blue above and has a blue wash on different
parts o f t h e body, some red on the head and nape and yellow on the breast.
The name TJiTT^r (shaped like a lotus flower prior to opening out), if
correctly equated with fcPTf (fafr Cuckoo and a bird, i.e., a bird with
a double call-note like the Cuckoo) in J n ^ r f w r n f a and ¥i«s<t>?Hsi should
properly belong to the Pitta.If P T ^ is rendered as 'having a body like the
Cuckoo's' it would refer to a bird like the Large Cuckoo-Shrike which is
a dark grey bird and can by no means be described as
Another probable name for the beautiful Indian Pitta is P ^ (f^PT,
HHHUKf^r a painted bird), corresponding to Hindi ffP?T, mentioned
with other song birds of the Himalayas.:
-o
S£ W O T •HH'-dd: I
hd^l*t%T ^TTOTPT ^ Tt^r: II 36,2-4.
gpBRPP (beautifully painted) is the Common Kingfisher, a little jewel of
a bird in its own class (Art. 41). It is, however, quite possible that PTsnr
and gpsrerc; are synonymous with each other and refer to the common
Kingfisher alone.

33
BROAD-BILLS
T h e Broad-bills, as their name indicates, are characterised by very broad
and flattish bills. They are small birds (not over 10") but possess a beauti-
ful plumage of striking colours—green, blue, black, and yellow. They are
denizens of deep ever-green forests and insectivorous by habit. The Long-
tailed Broad-bill is found throughout the Himalayas and Hodgson's Broad-
bill is confined to the Eastern Himalayas as far west as Nepal. They build
gigantic pear-shaped nests which are suspended from the end of a branch
over-hanging a stream or pool of water. They are unwary birds and show
no fear of man. They have a whistling call and are known as
(xrfbrwv) in Hindi though the name is more appropriate to the
Long-tailed Broad-bill which is principally green and blue with some
yellow and orange-yellow on the chin and throat. It has also a blue collar
(Ufa) and a pointed and graduated blue and green tail somewhat
resembling the Parrot's. Its climbing habits when engaged in searching
for insect food are very Parrot-like, and being familiar birds of the forests
of Nepal and its foot-hills it must have had a Sanskrit name. I have, how-
ever, not come across any for these birds, but the name S F P J ^ P for a
certain plant could well have signified the Long-tailed variety, as birds and
plants often share names between them. That it had a name after a Parrot
is clear enough from the Hindi name of TT5gTT (Tifrr-spP) from the collar
consisting of a single blue stripe as against the two-or three-coloured collar
of the Large Indian Parrot described as f^PTTtfa by poet in:—
The Parrot-bills were thus probably known as or *M> <t>.
34
WOODPECKERS
1. Woodpeckers are well-known Indian birds more than one species of
which occur in every part of the country. Most of the species are adorned
with a crimson crest in strong contrast with a pied and darker body-colour.
SRfarc and (v.l. w w ) in Sansk. and wa^fiHS^, or *tessmn>
(fr. Sk. ^STfjpF, or in Pali are common names Vor all Wood-
peckers. If the element a n w in srrafw has anything to do with the
Vedic amnfir for 'a musical rattle', this name should be regarded as
primarily applicable to the 'drumming Woodpeckers' like the Great Slaty,
the Scaly-bellied Green and the Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpeckers which
produce a vibrating noise, "louder than a watchman's rattle", with
quickly repeated blows of their beak on a branch or bamboo, and thence
by extension to any Woodpecker. In its original sense, therefore, the name
^Rfwrc would mean, 'one who makes music on wood or bamboo'.
Generally speaking, however, no such distinction is observed and both
the names are commonly applied to all birds of the family. One of them
figures as in the story in the fenfc section of as
Scnrrr (uraw) in the fT^rfipr (206) and as t j w ^ t a ? ^ o r ( t o j s s s in
the V4<M<MI<I4. (210). f S T f ^ r i n M. Williams is perhaps'a mistake for
^Sij<i4<t>, cf. Pali *t<si+)dd+ for a Woodpecker.
2. The Great Slaty Woodpecker of the Himalayan Terai and nearby
plains is a magnificent bird (20 inches) of an ashy grey plumage with a
pale crimson patch below the eye and saffron-yellow, tinged with red,
throat and foreneck. It is not a shy bird and moves in parties of four to
ten or twelve, and is very noisy. The call is a peculiar and quite distinctive
whinnying note, and the drumming noise it makes "starts with slow very
resonant taps which get faster and faster, finishing off with a series of rolling
reverberations which can be heard at a great distance" (S.Baker), waw
means (i) the Large Indian Parrakeet, (ii) the Peacock, and (iii) a Wood-
pecker. Evidently the term is both an epithet-and a substantive specifying
the largest bird in each group. ^ JTPT 1 mentions and (in-
correct for as the Jungle fowl is separately mentioned as f ^ )
as different and the former is clearly meant for this grand Woodpecker.
1. 118. 49 & 53.
120 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Woodpeckers 121
It has been regarded as one of the auspicious birds of augury and its call
Baker). The following verses help to bring out the difference between
or resonant drumming was a very welcome sound.: sffl^ as a bamboo-clump and +H+ as a bird:—

' ' W J M M R ^ : Wcrq-tH I

OTOT^J s T f f w r f o f cTg-?r i r ^ r II" (<mm«r)s
"WTWnfclt: STst^cfoM^ I
"^NRF?? GAWSSR ^FEF ^MFTFTI" (H>^<IUI)«

"cr- rpsrr f ^ s r ^ f r i w r i " (Ibid)7

"flT^fhlsty + W5PTT" (Ibid) 8
"Tf: Try•Otd+HHH i" (w^n^Trvr)9
isft^rnr q-fTjr ^ r ^ J M i ^ r a R i d H r
— a n d T^Wxf3 Commentators and many lexicographers have missed the meaning of
3. The beautiful Golden-backed Woodpecker (11") is one of the best as a bird simply because their mind was obsessed with the dry bamboos of
known in the whole group as it is found all over the country from the Hima- Kalidasa in which holes had been bored by the black bees and which when
layan foot-hills downwards. Its pied plumage, bright crimson crest, rich blown over by a high breeze produced whistling sounds:—
golden yellow back and the loud call never fail to attract the attention of
persons with eyes and ears to see and listen. The f^TS synonymy
includes two .additional adnouns TTSW (having a very powerful call)
5. Finally, I may be forgiven for the wild guess I offer below in respect
and W W for a Woodpecker and these are not found in M. Williams
of a couple of verses in the siw^?—
and other lexicons. WT mearls 'variegated' and 'gold' so that the name or
epithet T ^ r j f means 'having both a variegated and a golden body' "T5TTW-TT ^nfrsrr i n n w r : ftraf^:
and it is submitted that the name applies to this common bird. The ddKdl4K«- grf^gT •O C\
subject of the following descriptive verse of apnrcta is most probably this
Woodpecker:— "TfBifflTw ? qw q: ffs^T f f e r r ^
^ 141+ < fa Trfrn i
TcTTWT: srq^fcr
a c q ^ n ' w r : srfcR^T s w c f t " (AV.) 1 1

In an attempt at interpreting the above verses the following may well be

The red crest ( r ^ ^ f r ) in front, golden-yellow in the middle, and borne in mind:—
brown elsewhere in the plumage hardly fits any other bird, and the poet
appears purposely to have avoided the rather harsh sounding common ' W r f a ^ j M q I q^ q ^ r f r (AV.) 1
names for it, and he certainly knew that the name belonged to a
where insects and other creeping things so much in evidence in the wet
different variety of Woodpecker. season, are mentioned, and
4. The Speckled Piculet (4 inches) and the Rufous Piculet (3.5 inches)
are tiny Woodpeckers. The first is found throughout the Himalayas and "q WTfft q Mi-f^r: (AV.) 1 3
the adjoining plains and the second from Nepal Eastwards. They haunt
where certain malignities are described as and ST^R^T:. In
bamboos and bore holes in them for nests, the entrance hole being bored
English translations of these Suktas, the terms i W and arcr^ are
just below a node (Smythies). means 'bamboo and also a kind
of bird' in M. Williams, and the birds of R a m a y a n a and some of
the Puranas are the beautiful little Piculets whose voices are a quaint little 5. 3.75.12. '
piping imitation (or querulous miniature) of their larger brethren (S. 6. ^SIKsmi^kur 18.19.
7. 18.22.
2. 5.83-25. 8. 18.27.
9. w s m flTT 22.50.
3. 6.18-19;3.158, 52-54. See also JTfTffK^ 3.108.8; 3. 159, 86;
10. 56.
cpspjTm, 42.64. 11. IV.37. 4-5.
4. 10.30. 12. XII.1.46.
13. XII.1.50.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
122
taken too literally whereas the Hindi rendering 14 regards AV. I V 37 as a
harm r as preserving means against the swarms of vanous tropical insects
wT vTded the homes of the Indo-Aryans in the evening during the
y' ra n it is submitted, is probably the more correct
Z rpretation having particular regard to the general tenor of this and
other sindlar k t a s of this Veda. It must however be stated that my
agreement with the ^ ends here, as my own rendering follows a line 35
different from theirs.
The nuisance of insect-pests must have been very great indeed in Vedic BARBETS
times when the country a r o u n d was full of jungles and marshes which are
the great breeding grounds of all sorts of insect life. Stinking bugs and flies
(Pcntatomidae and genus Chrysopa respectively) are evil-smelling and seem 1. The Barbetsare essentially birds of the tree-tops, from whence they
to have been euphemistically addressed as and the buzzing utter their loud monotonous call-notes for hours on end; but owing to
(singing) mosquitos, beetles and other insects and moths, swarming and their green or greenish plumage blending with the foliage they are difficult
d a n c i n g around light and fire, as These were driven off or to see, and for this reason few people know them by sight. All nod their
were kept away with the strong-smelling herbs and incense named earlier heads in a peculiar manner in the act of calling. Sanskrit fiT^r for 'a
in the same Sukta. The term. <taT, and ™ would seem to be insect kind of bird', if derived from its habit of eating ft^ra- (figs and other
destroying birds (Hindi the beautiful Chlorops.s; ^ (the fruits), may well apply to the Barbets as a group of fruit-eating birds, but
white', Hindi i.e., milk-white and the Whi e bird in the if the name is after the bird's call it would be specific for a particular Barbet.
verse from Ramayana quoted above), the white P a r a d i s e Flycatcher and 2. The Great Himalayan Barbet (13") is olive-brown streaked with
a n w ( ^ ) the d r u m m i n g and rattling Woodpecker. All three frequent greenish-yellow above, and roughly the same colour below, striped yellow
l a r g e trees in search of insect food and have musical or semi-musical and brown on the sides, blue down the centre with a scarlet patch under the
J L a musical instrument); Cf. RV. 11.43.3. where the tail. Seen from a distance it appears to be a dark dully-coloured bird.
root ^ in tfrafer is used in association with as a bird s voice as in the Purely arboreal, it is best known by its call, 'a loud melancholy mee-ou
above verses from the AV. Again the dipping and undulating flight of the or pyillo' (Whistler), and according to Hume "a fine plaintive call, till-
Woodpeckers and the brilliantly white Paradise Flycatchers with their long low, till-low, till-low...uttered ' in a chorus, striking and pleasant". 1
trailing ribbons gives an impression as if the birds are moving on swings Stuart Baker on the other hand, renders the call as a triple 'pio-pio-pio'.
M . In short the charm draws an inviting picture of the large fig It is well-known how difficult it is to render bird-voices into human syllables
trees, and asks the various ,nsects with the flattering epithets of * * r and and no two persons agree in their syllabification. Bearing this fact in mind
to be well advised ( f f f ^ T to visit the trees where swings and the nature of the bird's call as syllabified above it is not at all difficult
and music await them (to be, of course, gobbled up there by the birds). to see that Hindi fwpjft, and ^TWT, and Sansk.fa<*mfor this Barbet are
The principles underlying the charm are deceit and flattery :— of an onomatopoetic origin as indeed the following Hindi verse would
show:
6 This digression is just intended to secure, if possible/a most ancient '#pfr <ftw' mf"—^rfa-fa
literary pedigree to a Woodpecker (arrai*). At any rate the basic idea
Hindi t f t , from fer and stTf^I a call, clearly refers to the triple 'pio- pio-
o f the charm p u t f o r t h by the ^ is worth investigation at the pio' rendering of S. Baker, while Sans, f ™ is a happy blend of the bird's
hands of Vedic Scholars. call as well as its fruit-eating habit.
14. P u b l i s h e d b y t h e S v a d h y a y a M a n d a l a of S a t a r a .
3. In ^ K d t f ^ f l , mif^m' (Verse 1676) ^%^ says that an oil-thief is
15. I n t h e s a m e w a y t h e y h a r e b e e n i r o n i c a l l y g i v e n t h e n a m e s of s w e e t - s m e l l i n g herbs reborn as a Pr^rw bird ("fauHWH^lM") which would seem to be in keeping
and herbal products, stePlfHr, <=tc. In the alternative these drugs also were with the bird's olive or yellow-brown plumage...the colour of oil. It is
used w i t h t h e s t r o n g - s m e l l i n g to d r i v e off t h e i n s e c t s - e v i l b e i n g s - a s a s s u m e d b y one of the birds that were eaten in the long past:
^ r r a W who renders as W T O or m a l i g n a n t b e i n g s , a n d a c c o r d i n g to
h i m t h e w o r d s ^ f c l T : a n d ST3RT: q u a l i f y ^ 5T:. ^ ^
1. " S t r a y F e a t h e r s " , Vol. V I I I .
16. C o m p a r e a l s o - S T R T ^ f ^ ^ f q f l ytfir-qftfiUS 3.6. ^
a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n is a n i n a u s p i c i o u s b i r d — S e e A r t .
 „ l 125
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Barbets
124
TRPUM^IMHLFH F"TT TFT^: I
"SRSPR - J f i p a ^ m ^ f q ^ q ^ H f i r ' — W f r f ^ f T , p. 46
fafamft w f c ^ t ^ ' l " 12.61
The SRE^T of.^rw a fig-berry and ^ to destroy; Prakrit ^ T T —
Similarly the fcro (cf. a gold-smith) of the following is this
^4-^rsr? ) appears to be the sameas f r o . of =t.cHs<*)*i { " n ^ m
Barbet:
TT^TKt") and W t ^ T O , 1.7, and w ^ r t o of v m r u v , 118, 55, refer like
f i r m in a dual sense to the bird's habit of keeping to dense foliaged ^ ^Tfet: I 36.4
tree-tops (T^T—a bower to disappear or conceal) and its sweet
Both these names are very close to Hindi wnra (Copper-smith) for
call-notes ( i r ^ — p l e a s i n g ) . Hindi fofKft for this Barbet is very close
the bird though the former gives it a higher status.
to these names —T^rat - Tf-ft - f w m .
4. T h e Northern Green Barbet (10.5") and the Lineated Barbet (11")
are generally of a green colour and both have a similar call—kutur-kutur-
kutur—and they go by the name in the North as well as in the South and
in Ceylon. These are undoubtedly the birds of the ^ r . where one
of them forms a trio of very noisy birds dedicated to the deities presiding
over horse-races:—
"sRfzf: l"—24.39.

^ is the Screech Owl or the Noisy Common Owlet and ? T ? ^ t h e

White-breasted Water-hen, and the noisy character of all three is typical
of the tumultuous applause and commotion attending a horse-race. T h e
Blue-throated Barbet (9") with its 'took-a-rook', 'took-a-rook'is known as
in the vernacular and would be included in the f ^ group. This
noisy Barbet has, as it were, the fire in its throat and has therefore been
consecrated to arfrr2 :—

"O -N
V.S. 24,} 23.

5. T h e Crimson-throated Barbet (6") is a thick-billed, gaudy and

d u m p y looking green bird of the size of the Common Sparrow. It has a
loud, monotonous ringing call tuk, tuk, tuk, as of a distant copper-
smith hammering on his metal (Salim Ali), heard during the hotter parts
of the day. T h e regular beat of its notes combined with its head-movements,
now in one direction and now in another is very suggestive of a little drum-
mer-boy playing alternately on a pair of small drums and that is how
it is called OsNmiuh* in g^T and tef^Hm (v.l. in WW from
fefir^q a d r u m or in Prakrit 'bell-metal- ware' and 'Worker in Brass' 3 and
m w a small boy. Prakrit nRTrro and Pali ftfcr (ftfor ?—Rrfrnr) refer to
it. Hindift'smRTor cPm (coppersmith) corresponds to the meaning of the
word in Prakrit, whence its p o p u l a r English n a m e , ' t h e Coppersmith'.
6. T h e showy appearance of this little green bird, with patches of red,
yellow and black about the head and breast accounts for its selection for the
next birth of a jewel-thief in TT^fa under the name of|TOcl*, a gold-smith:

2. See para 6, A r t . 27.

3. TT?^
 36 37
HONEY-GUIDE CUCKOOS

A single species of this bird, the yellow-backed Honey-Guide, occurs

in the Himalayas at two places only, viz., in Sikkim and near Murree and The birds of this family are divided into two groups, the one arboreal
Abbotabad where, again, it is very rare. No Sanskrit name is available for
and parasitic, and the other terrestrial and non-parasitic.
it.
A. PARASITIC CUCKOOS

1. The parasitic nature of Cuckoos has long been known in India

as we find one named as ^qfTT in the *rnsr. tffpr, 24.34. Other common
names are TT*Rf or These are usually applied to the Himalayan
Cuckoo and the Koel but the expression TTfsr ^TTfir evidently includes the
group as well:—
ftrnfcf
5 R T so' T t f r T ^ t : H i^i ^ i f t r : "

faiHIdH+M, 27.4, +MHMI, Pt. 12.

In this verse a love-sick person complains principally against the Cuckoo
but generalises against the whole tribe including the Hawk-Cuckoos, the
Pied Crested-Cuckoo, etc. whose calls are not welcome to a separated lover.
Cuckoos other than the Black Koel cuckold small birds of different kinds,
e.g., Babblers, Chats, Pipits, Wagtails, etc., and knowledge of this fact on
the part of the ancients is fully reflected in the names given above and in
the half verse from KIIJ-^M given below:—

"snwfel'UMId HHHciMIrT

i M f j H : q r ^cr r : -o
Tmfar"—5.22.
The Koel of the plains on the other hand victimises the common House-
Crow and occasionally the Jungle-Crow, and is therefore called
The male bird's loud call of 'jff has given us names like
etc., for it and the name f ^ 1 for the night of the New-
moon which is supposed to be as black as the bird itself. Sanskrit --M+'j'rf
appears to have been formed on a false analogy with the Prakrit w r

1. A V . 7 . 4 7 . 1 . F o r o t h e r d e r i v a t i o n s of see z n w , 6.11.23.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Cuckoos 129
128
f i r ^ r though, independently o f t h e latter, it can stand b y itself as "Crow- refer to one of the M a l k o h a s which h a v e a variegated p l u m a g e . I n the
t a i l e d " which, however, is quite colourless and uninteresting. fo^JT K u n a l a J a t a k a , the Koel is called ^tfew a n d the Asiatic Cuckoo
3
(^Tfr^m—the Crow's father's sister) for the female Koel, j w frtfcxH. is Pali for Sansk. a n d has taken the place of (i.e.
on t h e ' o t h e r h a n d , seems to be an excellent n a m e based u p o n the bird's 3®i) d u e to a n erroneous substitution of 3^T for 3*7, e.g. in 3RRT. f w
parasitism. I n I n d i a a sister often leaves her little children with a brother is a synonym for it in the Pali-English Dictionary (PTS. E d i t i o n ) . H i n d i
for rearing them and this is exactly how the female Cuckoo deals with her 5 5 ' 55 o r 513 fr- 5 P — 5 ^ a A° w e r > f ° r the same bird is a m o r e correct
supposed brother, the Crow, and hence her n i c k - n a m e , ' t h e Crow's a u n t ' . form of 3 ^ (t°T).
T h e Koel shares t h e ' n a m e s and firc? with the E u r o p e a n and 4. T h e H i m a l a y a n Cuckoo, breeding in the H i m a l a y a s f r o m K a s h m i r
the Asiatic Cuckoos which breed in the Himalayas a n d , very sparingly, Eastwards, resembles the Asiatic Cuckoo in coloration a n d size b u t has a
on the hills in certain parts of the country. It is therefore difficult to say different voice. T h e male has a spring-song consisting of four dull b o o m i n g
w h e t h e r a given reference is to the Cuckoo proper or to the Koel. notes, ' h u d - h u d - h u d - h u d ' similar in tone to the call of the H o o p o e (Smy-
2. 3M«!I4 in V.S., 24.34. would be the Cuckoo if thies). T h i s Cuckoo would therefore seem to b e the f f f a , a srf? bird of
the S a m h i t a was compiled in the North-West, for the Koel is non-existent TOT. "fFffa: f^fws^rfa:" is the definition given for it in the ^Tig ^ r , and
in the extreme North-West a n d r a r e in the P u n j a b , but if the compila- <pgp*r is also a small child's d r u m in Prakrit. T h e n a m e is thus fully
tion took place in the mufcr, it is more p r o b a b l y the Koel. T h e reason for descriptive of the bird. This is a p p a r e n t l y the Cuckoo whose voice has
the dedication of t h e bird to the deity presiding over the Half-months been described by P s R ^ as ' W - M m p R ' H : " (like the sound of a d r u m )
is a p p a r e n t l y the fact that the bird performs only half its part in reproduc- in (<3T7) anf? grrw 33.89. I n the preceding verse he uses the c o m m o n
tion a n d the particular n a m e chosen emphasises this. classical expression •fitpMMlH for the Koel. T h e n a m e m a y also a p p l y
3. T h e poets of K a s h m i r a n d others describing H i m a l a y a n scenery to the I n d i a n Cuckoo which too has a similar call of four melodious
(e.g. in the Puranas and other literature) have mentioned the Cuckoo by notes, " b o - k o - t a - k o " , capable of being syllabified as " p u - p u , p u - p u "
names like f w ; <R*RT, T ^ T , and and these names in the as well. tK^Hfr (from a d r u m ) is a kind of H i m a l a y a n bird in
p a r t i c u l a r context refer to the E u r o p e a n or the Asiatic Cuckoo b o t h of verse 2099 a n d from the similarity of the n a m e to it m a y
which have a similar a n d very sonorous call of two notes 'ku-koo'. I n also be for the H i m a l a y a n Cuckoo. T w o other bird-names h a v e been
V.S., 24.29 fe is one of these and the n a m e , used purposely derived f r o m the names of different kinds of d r u m P^sm (PSP'SH-
(sTfasTR), must refer to the sweet amorous voice o f t h e bird in the Spring. JTFPTfr), the Little Barbet, and ( t t O , the Stone Plover—-See Arts.
Poetic names like TO^ and would again seem to refer to these two 35 a n d 64.
birds as their voice is m o r e melodious t h a n the K o e l ' s ; Cf. =THT J W 5. N o description of sra^r in Sanskrit literature, b u t refers to the
^ f t f ^ . . . 3 T f c r f ^ f K p r d " - - K u n a l a J a t a k a , where the extremely pleasant and Sweet Song o f t h e " t h r i c e welcome d a r l i n g o f t h e s p r i n g " — t h e Cuckoo or
full-throated voice of the (Cuckoo with spotted or variegated the Koel, the p of I n d i a . : —
plumage; a spot, cf. J f T O for TW^T, v.l. 3 ^ ) is mentioned. Both
"sj^s^JT cTrft d'd 4 cMd I N f + < H ^ I
the birds are grey above and b a r r e d or spotted white below and have been
distinguished from the Koel (WN*R, or WI*R1P+<H) as :— ^ T qm^fPTTfa d dl H 4 dl 4 11
X ^ r , 9.26.
''^m^^raT^ftW TcTT fam I
I give below just a few examples to illustrate the knowledge of the ancients
pnsuft fa^r: 5?) fan *d Id ^ffir"—-CIHI^I, 2.52.2 regarding some of their peculiarities, e.g.—
"+) P=M IW <i I " — f f a n f T , 2.88.69 (i) Cuckoos d o not pair for the b r e e d i n g season like other birds a n d
promiscuity is very c o m m o n w i t h t h e m ( J e r d o n ) a n d this fact not
I n the a r r ^ w f a , a J a i n work by W l f W N p f , two Cuckoo birds only underlies the Prakrit a d n o u n T'^JT (Sk. TPfT a libertine) for the
('<*t ^ s r r ' ) are one of the ten different items seen in a d r e a m , and male Cuckoo b u t also the p u n i s h m e n t prescribed for a m a n w h o has insul-
the scholiast explains the birds to b e a ^tft^T a n d a
ted his b r o t h e r ' s wife. H e is to be r e b o r n as a qW)P<M so t h a t he m a y
n^ftwr being the same as J W or f ^ in Pali the latter fafsrer ^ t f e r
is either a mistake for or is to be rendered as fir not faw,
variegated i.e. of a u n i f o r m colour viz. black, or again it may 3. Is it possible that JHT ^ i p M is t h e Pali rendering of Sansk. TFfftPpST ?
If so, the latter would b e specific for the H i m a l a y a n Cuckoo though the later poets extended
the t e r m to t h e m a l e of the Koel as well.
2. i.e. bred in the Himalayas,
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature The Larks 111
130

suffer the torture and humiliation of seeing his own sweetheart being pur- 7. are certain birds in the STTTO. TRT in Prakrit
sued by others:— means fw^T or thirst; and q^rr is the name of a lake and a river. T h e word
"STT^TPTf § TFT1W jft g m f a mfe=T: I <T7fr would thus appear to have some connection with water or the desire
for it, and q w is probably the Pali equivalent of which are
•O ^frsfq- M ^ R 5TT
t II
supposed to be ever thirsty. No other name for the ^TTO appears in
TfT^rTCcT, 13.111.76 the long lists of birds occurring in the J a t a k a and it is far too important
(ii) Those who have listened to the first broken and incomplete notes of a bird to be omitted.
the Cuckoo in early spring will appreciate the following :— •bfTgslsr gives a mixed list of synonyms for the ^TTO :—
" j p O T•O B i f r r a f s r M 4O > + i r + < ? t M i i" " m ^TTcFP:
"k

WTfpxH, 6.4
q^ra^r ^rfTf: g r w f t iN^H'd: I
"TRRTt W ^ F m ^ f T ^ S J c l W

yartafV?: M w c h r f t a M w g ^ r f r r TOrtf^rr: i"

ctfu^Hisfr frcta: a^rwt, "
gWSTOT^PT, 2.9
' W T ^ wc r f ^ f f f e i T :
and looking to some of them, like srw, etc. which clearly
indicate the colour of the plumage, it is impossible to say that they all
s r f w n ^ f TTfSR-g^sTl-: l" TWtf, 9.34
belong to only one kind of bird. T h e list certainly includes the names
As the season advances the voice becomes fuller and sweeter
of several kinds of ^TTO. Thus stttw, ^rflf (Hindi, Tftft), qrfq^r 5 , and spsj
(Cf. for it in Bengal) are clearly for the very noisy Hawk Cuckoos
' f H ' i f + m q ^ T f t =ff3T" fTTHST^, 3.32 which are of a grey-brown colour (srsj, ft^rc); ^fiPT. wfwrm (M.W.)
adding character to mountain scenery:— and f a s r ^ (having a triple note) are for the Plaintive Cuckoo which
is known as qterr or qF3W in M a r a t h i (from Prakrit qT3T and Sanskrit
cRT Tn^r l" ^TJ^TW, 36.116. sn^r, srmfap) and has a triple call of 'whe-whe-ew' or 'pi-pi-yu'; 3TWT
(Pied or variegated) is the larger form of the Pied Crested Cuckoo
No poetic embellishment however can match the following simple state- (Clamator jacobinus) and finally fTCta and f f t r o (of a green colour)
ment about the peculiar charm that the Cuckoo lends to sylvan surroundings clearly point to the Emerald Cuckoo, for ftrfa is also a name for the
"+!l>HKi W : ^ T f ^ T l" TSTjmT, v f i l W , 24.38 Emerald Dove and the Green Pigeon. Its call, according to S. Baker 6
is " a shrill but not unmusical succession of three notes". T h e Violet Cuckoo
6. Cuckoos whose calls are different from those of the birds men- occurs in Assam but not to the west of it. It is generally a silent bird and has
tioned above are : (i) the Hawk Cuckoo, the Common and the Large; no Sanskrit name for itself.
(ii) the Plaintive Cuckoo; (iii) the Banded Bay Cuckoo; (iv) the Violet 8. grenffcMiHftT has "wrfeprT ^ld+y'7" and the name w t f e p f l
Cuckoo; (v) the Emerald Cuckoo; (vi) the Drongo Cuckoo; (vii) the (adorned with bars or stripes) clearly refers to the Banded Bay Cuckoo
Pied Crested Cuckoo and (viii) the Red-Winged Crested Cuckoo. The which is barred brown and rufous all over including the head and the
first three and No. (vii) go under the common name of in Sans- face. T h e call notes of this bird are not unlike those of the Plaintive
krit, as their notes are plaintive in character. T h e breeding time for these Cuckoo but it also has another call resembling the Cuckoo's 'Bo-ko-
often runs into the rainy season and the males are then very vocal. This ta-ko', though much higher.
coupled with the fact that they derive all the moisture they need from
9. The following verse from the TfTflTCT mentions the bird firw
their soft food consisting of caterpillars and various kinds of figs etc. and
with :—
are therefore not seen to visit the water, has given rise to the popular fiction "EmWId*^ aqHifofag l" 3.158.53
that they drink only rain-drops and that ground water is harmful to them
" y<uflM(dd rftT'^Id+Hi ." 4 Hence also the conceit that their Now firro also means 'a black bee' or and is also the
Drongo. T h e Drongo Cuckoo "is remarkable for its extra-ordinary resem-
persistent calls are an appeal to the rain-cloud for a few drops to cool
their patched throats. This interesting belief has given us some very
beautiful fed type of poetry. 5. ^ r f r ^ s R r - ^ f r o ; f q ^ s n : ep>r: ?
6. S e c o n d E d i t i o n of F . B . I .
4. Q u o t e d b y M . R . K a l e in his n o t e s o n T ^ T T , 5 . 1 7 .
 The Larks 111
132 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

blance, both in structure and coloration, to the common Black Drongo. "s^TKM^'ta- WenfV—HcW^TT, 68.1

It differs from all other Cuckoos in the shape of the tail, which is very long
and forked " 7 . " I t s call is a most h u m a n whistle of six notes in ascend- srir^T JT^srrfaEi ^rsr-Twn" 4.1.24
ing scale and it also utters a very plaintive double note, sounding like
"wee-whip" and very like a breeding call of the common Black Drongo. I t was also a favourite cage-bird as tftal is represented in the WM
Its flight also is generally dipping and buoyant, m u c h like the flight of that TTRTVT, wishing an affectionate goodbye to her pet-birds including a
b i r d . . . . " ( I b i d ) , fsrw (fipr TOT +wRl w&VFl), therefore being a synonym of STc^fT (Act.6.27); Cf. also the idiomatic phrase, "TOT
vr^, would seem to have been very appropriately chosen for the Drongo (Act.8.72) for a person completely under one's control.
Cuckoo. It also means a musical instrument, perhaps some sort of a whistle, 11. w ^ i s a bird in "wfg i p w " ^ r . *T. 24.38 and the name
so named after the bird's voice: cf. ^ r r and N
both as birds and means 'rain-invoker'. It is evidently one of the Catakas. An alternative
musical instruments. form '^refa' occurs in the bird-list quoted from mkisk by WsfRW in his
10. T h e H a w k Cuckoo is one of the commonest birds of India and commentary on 85.28. This name is on a p a r with names like
some of its names, given in the ^TJfikr have already been men- spffrq- and a^tra considered' above, and all three remind one of a*im-
tioned above. T h e older names for it are st^g and ST^Tf as seen probably a bird answered back by another bird, in the 3TWRT
in the list of srg? birds in and gsrcT respectively. T h e name hymn of R V . : —
is of frequent occurrence in Puranic and other literature and at
times it becomes difficult to say what bird is exactly m e a n t , for the term also
STTWlfafcr W T RV. 10.146
means at least a couple of water-birds. T h e Lexicons also give quite a
n u m b e r of so-called names for the Hawk Cuckoo which are really in the
qqrer also would therefore appear to be a kind of W f , and having
n a t u r e of descriptive epithets, and srwf qualified with one of them
regard to the loud and persistent call of the Hawk Cuckoo, it is probably
at a time should be specific for a particular bird. I n poetry, however, where
entitled to claim all these names (except ^ f i n r ) in its own right.
'brevity is the soul of wit' or, perhaps, of mystification, the epithets are
12. F r o m amongst the different birds going under the n a m e of ^icif
dropped and the bare h o m o n y m is given. ("TRsfr —TRrfo
only two appear to be the favourites of Sanskrit Poets, the H a w k Cuckoo,
—ws^TSrr) is one of such epithets and as it means 'exhilarating,
always mentioned as wra^ and rarely as and the larger Pied
gladdening', it should refer to the Hawk Cuckoo whose voice is appre-
ciated in India and therefore figures very largely in erotic poetry. 8 Crested Cuckoo, called more correctly as fCTC^f than as though it is
Referring to these birds calling all around in the Himalayas Herbert the ^ m : of m a n y a verse in arafrfe and other poetry. T o the poets
Stevens characterises the chorus as a " p a n d e m o n i u m which reigns any is simply a ^TOT and they do not seem to worry what particular
all day long and throughout the long hours of the night" 9 which k i n d of bird they are actually referring to. I n this way even the name
m a y be contrasted with a healthy appreciation of the same by the hardy STTIf has lost its identity. however, would seem, for once at least,
ancients of I n d i a : to have observed the distinction. T w o examples from the ^TfcT should
suffice:—
' ' ^ T c f ^ ^ f M ^ c f f f f f T <M<W|| =MI*di: l "
(i) "t*? ^ r T^rar^fr c^t
J
T2rf?r w s r : i" ( v.l.
l" f^CTI^Hftd, 11.15
(ii) sfcd+flUT
T h e voice of the H a w k Cuckoo never caused'brain-fever' to the nature- snf^cra^pjf^rn ^^flisT^^5®^ i
loving except, of course, the love-lorn:

"wM: qf$T*riT: s n M f e ^ snft i HR^TH sr^raw^: TPT'TIl"

w ^rfat:" T. ^ r e r , 15.27.9
In the first example is most probably the Hawk Cuckoo with its
powerful and persistent call justifying the use of the epithet WW: or
7. F.B.I. 2nd Edition.
8. O t h e r epithets a r e considered in A r t . 58: Cf. for t h e K o e l .
9. J o u r n a l of B . N . H . S . ; X X H . 6 8 0 . 10. F o r fofe^fT see A r t . 45.
 135 111
Birds in Sanskrit Literature The Larks

*TT=f: which would be out of place for the plaintive calls of other guides to the Cloud in his n o r t h - b o u n d j o u r n e y is based on this observed
Catakas. I n the second, m x * is clearly the Pied Crested Cuckoo, at fact of n a t u r e . T h e bees, deer and wild elephants are introduced to com-
least for purposes of the last verse where the cloud is called ^H^H^? to plete the picture.
suit the 'drop-craving' bird—'wl*<*>'. WIT* has three other specific senses— 13. These birds leave the c o u n t r y with their young after they have
WS'T f T * ^ —" and it would a p p e a r t h a t the been reared b y their foster parents b y the end of O c t o b e r a n d a r e not seen
t e r m is to be taken in all its four senses—one for everyone of the four again in the country for nearly six months, i.e. till about J u n e . T h e y were
lines. T h e or tree is also called or w ^ w r s r , 'beloved of the therefore supposed to spend this time out of sight and hence t h e n a m e
large Black Bee', two varieties of which are known as (variegated) r«wk« (one living in heaven, H i m a l a y a s or the sky). Belief in the
viz. (i) Xylocopa aestuans a n d (ii) X . basalis, as b o t h of them have invisibility of the white Wagtail for a period of five months, April to August,
white or yellow pubescence on their backs. T h e first is found throughout d u e to its growing a crest offers a good parallel to the above (Art. 26).
I n d i a and the second in N o r t h India. T h e Bee-lines m a k i n g for the ^ r ^ t R r h has incorporated this belief regarding the wrc* in the follow-
trees are supposed to lead t h e way for the Cloud. is a kind of ing verse where king j ^ ' s sky-going chariot encounters the birds
deer, probably the Spotted Deer ( F ^ T ?RSS STFTC) which is in Sanskrit, above the clouds:—
a n d a herd of these, advancing to feed upon the newly risen ^ r f (kind
of lily plants which sprout u p w i t h the first showers), are the under-
stood in the second line. T h e third refers to elephants, with reddish-white f f r f i i <1^ w m ^rrf^: i
marks (qsr or on their bodies and hence called s r q f , sniffing their
way in search of new grass; Cf. the following references to this same h a b i t r^M-iffa ll" ' ^ t H , 1 1 7.7
of elephants:—
I t is w o r t h noting in this connection t h a t the whole of the action of the Sixth
Act, the Immediately following j o u r n e y of king to heaven, his
^M^CTS^RPTHt Sforfw: h M K : I" brief stay there'and r e t u r n (Act 7) take place in the spring season, a n d the
existence of the sn^P birds
, 44.
in the region beyond the clouds coincides
" c T 3 F R J J c f T f a fSTtfterct with the absence of the Pied Crested Cuckoos from the c o u n t r y below.
T^TCTSTR ^ q f a n r m t i Additional support for this view is found in another mythological n a m e
ftr^' <jqt: w m t for the viz., fosrj and based on the Puranic
story of a king of t h a t n a m e who being u n a b l e to go straight to heaven
Wh^HN «H<lf«IHe=WH ll" 3.3.
was changed into a constellation and remained suspended midway
^iRcf^ffirTO-' adopts this interpretation of the verse in his com- between heaven and e a r t h t h r o u g h the power of sage fa^iEld. fosr^ is
m e n t a r y on Jtafp and I submit, correctly. T h e plaintive wail of Rama also the migratory Wagtail according to M . Williams. T h e M t . Everest
for Slta is likened to the persistent call-notes of the :—- Expedition of 1922 saw this Cuckoo in the Himalayas a t a n elevation of
14000 feet. 1 2 It is a fWi=tit^ indeed and ^nfwTRt had good reason to place it
there.
' V c W i P ^ ^ T fawPT JTTR^Rr: I
c 14. T h e Red-winged Crested Cuckoo is resident in t h e Himalayas
faff ^ g r r f : ^rfrra- ftrewucr n" and in South India. Its voice is a very loud, harsh scream, u t t e r r e d cons-
TRTFm, 4.30.13 tantly d u r i n g the breeding season ( M a y and J u n e in the Western H i m a -
layas) a n d fairly often at other times. Since its call is neither sonorous
T h e smaller form of the Pied Crested Cuckoo is p e r m a n e n t l y resident in
nor plaintive in character it cannot be termed a feffT means
Ceylon and p a r t of the M a d r a s Presidency. T h e larger form, which is mig-
ratory, occurs in the rest of I n d i a , and " t h e r e is reason to believe t h a t it
winters in A f r i c a " (Whistler). Salim Ali also remarks t h a t " t h e larger
'Pica' is a rains (breeding) visitor to the rest of our a r e a (i.e. excluding 11. K a l i d a s a seems to h a v e b o r r o w e d t h e i d e a of t h e b i r d s ' p a s s i n g b e t w e e n t h e spokes
of a f a s t - m o v i n g w h e e l f r o m t h e JlfT^TOT (1.33.4) where T5S is said to have re-
Ceylon and South I n d i a ) , p r e s u m a b l y from A f r i c a " . H e adds further t h a t
d u c e d h i m s e l f in size a n d g o t t h r o u g h a f a s t - m o v i n g w h e e l t o b r i n g a w a y t h e s t r o n g l y g u a r -
" T h e arrival in our midst of t h e larger migrant race coincides with the
d e d srtpr.
onset of the S - W M o n s o o n " . T h e S K * T R P F thus moves n o r t h w a r d in
I n d i a with the Monsoon and the poetical suggestion of the birds acting as 12. J.B.N.H.S. X X X , 682.
 137
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Cuckoos
136
JTJURPF: fa^rfo ^TfeliklV^n
' a Cuckoo' and also the 'red c o l o u r ' " a n d it is suggested t h a t because of the
presence of red in the wings a n d the shape of the b o d y a n d parasitic habits
being those of a Cuckoo, the n a m e M ^ r suits this bird m o r e t h a n any g^lfNdMnrl, 679

other Cuckoo. . .
Not only P a n d i t b u t a lesser p o e t " also has misunderstood the above verse
15 ^ I R O in the well k n o w n verse of m ^ K beginning T T ^TTTO

S T ^ W - c a n only be the H a w k Cuckoo which calls aloud w h e n b o r r o w i n g f r o m it.

Like the ^ r f e r there is a m p l e poetic coinage for the ^TTO as well,
a n d incessantly. Similarly the ^TTO of the following verse is again the
same, as the ^TTO visits N o r t h I n d i a only d u r i n g the rains :— e.g. J^foTO, W t w , T j p w , etttts:, a ^ r , Pic.

"tfTrir tfrcfra-r: ^msfa irsrra^: i

s r f t w r ffcr^H n" B. N O N - P A R A S I T I C C U C K O O S
nifoftfMrrcr, 1.33.
1 . T h i s g r o u p includes the C o u c a l ( C r o w - P h e a s a n t ) , the M a l k o h a s
I m a y here point out a slight e r r o r of interpretation of the following half a n d the Sirkeers, c o m m o n l y k n o w n as Ground-Cuckoos as all of t h e m are
of terrestrial habits. T h e C o u c a l has a shining black b o d y a n d chestnut-
verse:— red w i n g s ; t h e large G r e e n - b i l l e d M a l k o h a has a green gloss on the u p p e r
"arfcp sftfacTW ^ T 5T f T f c r r s f . I p l u m a g e a n d a hooked green bill; a n d the Sirkeers also h a v e green in the
STT^Z s T ^ f t f a W t % STTT s m a f s m II p l u m a g e b u t have red a n d yellow parrot-like bills. All h a v e long heavy
i p s ^ f e ^ , 5.18 tails.
2. T h e Coucal is one of the best known birds of the c o u n t r y w i t h a
H e r e the guilty bird calling is of course a ^TTO for which characteristic call, a deep a n d r a t h e r sonorous hoop-hoop-hoop, h e a r d at
the poet has used " t o " as a t e r m of c o n t e m p t a n d abuse, b u t Prof. all times of the day b u t m o r e often early in the m o r n i n g . As the calling
R B. K a r m a r k a r holds too literally t h a t the " w r e t c h e d heron ( Stork progresses, the n u m b e r of hoops f r e q u e n t l y increases a n d sometimes as m a n y
p e r R B. R a d d y a n d V . G . P a r a n j a p e ) is calling "sn^E" "aTfl . TO— as twenty-five hoops are uttered at a stretch. T h e oldest n a m e for it is
Stork, H e r o n or the white I b i s - i s in the first place too m e a n a bird to be ™ placed in the ftfa* g r o u p of birds in TO as it h u n t s mostly on
seriously mentioned in describing the noble sentiment of love. Secondly the g r o u n d for insects, caterpillars, grasshoppeis, lizards, small snakes
the Storks are voiceless; no H e r o n calls loudly e n o u g h or persistently,^and etc. Whistler notes t h a t d u e to its heavy build, slow gait a n d the h a b i t
the W h i t e Ibis iust booms. I t is only the birds belonging to the ' u * or of feeding on the ground it is often mistaken for a game bird (fafteR). O t h e r
qftro: like the Swan, Goose, Flamingo, Peacock, Cuckoo a n d names for it a r e — f w r a f ^ , f ^ r m F f T . ^ r ^ T W - IS*' a n d ^
^TTO t h a t have been referred to in love-poetry. Again, S. P. P a n d i t , Lexical synonymies are as u n d e r : —
q u o t e d w i t h a p p r o v a l b y M . R . K a l e in his notes on 5.17 is cate-
gorical t h a t the Crested Cuckoo has a long bow-shaped crest, pulled back (i) " g r e H i K ^ d ^ IpFfW: f f + H d : " —
a n d held fast by a n arrow-like a t t a c h m e n t w h i c h prevents any d o w n w a r d 3PBPFR: Vt I ^ f ^ J f I ^ ^ ^ ^
m o v e m e n t of the b i r d ' s h e a d a n d bill, and it is therefore impossible for it to
3T I f l p F l" ^fa^^nrTrfrk.
d r i n k any b u t rain-water. I need hardly add t h a t the idea is fantastic in
(ii) "fpn^fr Tfsrfrr g p p p " " —
the extreme, a n d the ^TTO birds have as free a neck a n d h e a d as a n y other
b i r d a n d there is n o t h i n g in their bodily s t r u c t u r e to prevent t h e m f r o m (iii) "f5TT5f T W w- ff5**^"—irnprsft.
d r i n k i n g ground-water if they w a n t to. P a n d i t was possibly misled by a (iv) "f^TM: v n z spf^ (ff*r?)
verse like the following:— (v) —^mfe

'' rfl ^ M ^ ^ I fol d IPH H T h e word " f ^ f s " in the above c o m p o u n d names simply m e a n s a 'bird'
in general as in s r x m ^ for a Pigeon, f fn?f or ^ T O K m e a n s 'potter'
a n d the sound of t a p p i n g or blowing into an e m p t y e a r t h e r r j a r seems to

13. See d e r i v a t i o n of W ^ r a a n d o t h e r t e r m s w i t h t h e s a m e b a s e in
T h e w o r d also m e a n s t h e A s o k a t r e e w h i c h b e a r s r e d flowers, a n d t h e r e d or yellow a m a r a n - 14. A u t h o r of verses 1746 a n d 1786, in g - f l l f a d N f a .

thus.
138 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Cuckoos 139
have offered a n excellent parallel for the voice of two birds— (i) a
T w o other variants of the verse are as below:—
p a r t i c u l a r kind of hooting owl, known as jsnsr a n d (Art, 4 9 ) a n d
"dWtePc wwra-: ^qTCSIH^d+ltPd: I
(ii) the Coucal, n a m e d j n r in 118, 51; cf. ftwjwr, 'voice of an
e m p t y vessel'—M.W. |pffST: KM: PT^I^ft Trt>«kH4i: ll"
Q u o t e d in the gloss on ar^Flf?^, P a r a d k a r ' s edition,
3. T h e identity of a n d ^ T M f ^ T together with the
splitting u p of the f o r m e r into " ^ w r ' f ^ f S "in the fKinfl has led to an N . S. 1939.
incorrect synonymy of with though these two names standing " f u d ^ t e l ifltfJM: w r ? l
b y themselves are altogether different, jpFfnr being the C o m m o n or the < | 4 $ d : 3 p F f d K M : t*H'»ff T t W T ^ : ll"
Wild Cock and fpFj'T the C o u c a l ; Cf. ^FFppjw for the W a t e r - C o c k which Q u o t e d by T r i p u r a r i on 9.7, N i r a n a y a
too has a booming call. N o n e of the i m p o r t a n t lexicons like spnsrtsr, Sagar edition, 1926, a n d M . R . K a l e in
arftraFT f w n r f w , fen^T, ^far e r ^ i f c f ^ i s and T M f t w mentions f<fjw as a his Notes on the same, Poona.
synonym for gpf j z , a cock. O n the other h a n d there is literary evidence
A descriptive synonymy for the bird known as occurs separately
to show that jpfjw is quite a different bird f r o m the J u n g l e Fowl
in the : ' ^jsft". K. M . Vaidya in his
(pf*):—
renders as a variety of the R e d J u n g l e Fowl; a large type of cock
"+lRHbfe>dHdinar jwf^TR i
per ^pfi^W or according to some even the T u r k e y - C o c k (?).
pMK^ijy'Mllgilld ll" 5. W i t h as a certainty for the Coucal a n d for Pheasants
Tsfnrrc?r, 13.54.10-11 h a v i n g red orbital skin it is difficult to resist the conclusion t h a t the
correct original reading of the second half of the above verse was as
The ^w'fR ^iii'-t. also clearly distinguished between f ^ f ^ and jpj?
under:
(5*5*0:—

'TTTT — V e r s e , 2098 a n d the descriptive words belong to a different synonymy

^ ?Frn ^ s p n r r ^ f w f ^ r " — V e r s e , 2100
T h u s fpFj'ff in the following is the Coucal and not a cock:—
"sfl vl1 ^ < t ' c f ) d + f ^ T P T ^ ^ T ? ! : P f m : "
'rratffaraq, 9.7.
T h e full verse describes a m i d - d a y scene in the hot w e a t h e r a n d the idea in
the above line is that while the Doves are continuously cooing high u p in
their resting places the Coucals are 'hooping' lower d o w n in the trees. T h e
word qs^T implies 'continuous calling' and suits the Coucals better
t h a n the wild cocks t h a t go to rest and sleep a n d ordinarily d o not crow
d u r i n g the hot hours of the day. T h e onomatopoetic explanation of the
n a m e J ^ T given in srfwtmiwFrftT and the M a r a t h i n a m e for the
Coucal, ^nrrc ( f r o m jrwr^nr f p f f s ) leave no d o u b t whatever a b o u t its
identity, and the rendering of " P h a s i a n u s g a l l u s " i.e. the wild cock, in
M . Williams is incorrect.
4. E a c h of the two lines of the following verse f r o m the is
descriptive of a single bird, the first deals with ^ r ^ f e the Fairy Blue-
Bird (Art. 18) and the second w i t h the C o u c a l : —
for the bird n a m e d ^ p r w h i c h besides being a heavy p l u m p bird
resembling in outline the gourd fitted to a guitar or sfan as a sound box
(;pjpfr c f a r r f i s r a f c ^ r a i w r v i — s r ? r % — | w s r , had also
a variegated p l u m a g e ( f w w ^ - ! Pfpfft), a n d I h a v e identified this truly
bird w i t h the H i m a l a y a n Snow Cock (Art. 5 5 ) . T h e epithets
W W P a n d ^fcTTtf?^ are evidently w r o n g readings inserted by ignorant
scribes. T h e Coucal being a black bird w i t h chestnut-red wings has a
b e t t e r claim to the a t t r i b u t e of TTerwv t h a n to the others. Similarly the
incorrect r e a d i n g of gregdKM: is d u e to the confusion between fpfJT a n d
3PJ2. T h e epithet FRpsr ( l a n d - b o r n ) really distinguishes it as w t m j ^ s t
f r o m the W a t e r - C o c k w h i c h is s^Pjpfgpr (Art. 5 8 ) , the call of b o t h being of
a b o o m i n g variety (3pHpnTT=r). T h e red glow of sun has b e e n compared
with the chestnut-coloured wings of the coucal:—
fWfjqrsrf^sPT T ^ a ^ m f e qwrmi: i"
5, after verse 76
T h e H i n d i n a m e for the Coucal is TTfftff which it is difficult to derive
t h o u g h it m a y be from JT|JT|: or TfT with affair, or again from
Tff^, a sweet-calling bird, w i t h a secondary reference to W f , 'a b a r d ' , or
TFrsr w h o wakes u p royalty w i t h soft music in the m o r n i n g . T h e Coucal
too begins its hooping call at d a w n ; cf. the following:—

T^nTTCT, 3 . 2 3 6 . 1 0
 140
6. Malkohas and Sirkeers frequent undergrowth and forest or scrub-
jungle and are seldom seen in the open. Their food chiefly consists of insects,
grasshoppers etc. and also berries for which they hunt in bushes and trees.
They are great skulkers and prefer to seek safety by foot rather than by wing
and are expert in threading their way through tangled scrub and dense
bushes. They are/ generally silent birds and their voice is a soft chuckle or
a croak. TO? mentions three names for birds of the Cuckoo family
together. . . . ^TTct, and (Hawk Cuckoo) in the s t ^ class. TO
means a 'forester and a dwarf (JTPTT) and is a most appropriate name
for Malkohas and Sirkeers. T h e Small Green-billed Malkoha of South
India is '3T>T=T WTRTT' in Telugu, so that the allied bird of the North, viz.
the Large Green-billed Malkoha should be the of The following
description of the natural secretive instincts of f+<id and jpsr is fully
applicable to the birds in question :—
tfSTT "TPR:
Jo'ort
according to the lexicons means a Cuckoo or a Koel, and W ^ i l d
'a Parrot as well as a Cuckoo'. Now the Sirkeer Cuckoos are known as
sfwf 3TFTT in Hindi and 'Adavi chilluka' in Telugu, both names meaning
'Jungle-Parrot' from their green upper parts and red curved bills. Again,
the Large Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha goes by the name of ^
fjtfipw (Jungle Cuckoo) in Bengal. A comparison of these local names with
frffjTRT (of the nature of a P+<id ) in its two senses makes it abundantly
clear that the name PfrffW like of TOT really belongs to these
birds of the Cuckoo family and not to the Cuckoo proper or the Koel.
It is also a synonym for the red-breasted Paroquest or TPT^? in
7. Finally, the term '<T?ITC', name of a particular bird in the Fifth
Pillar (Delhi-Topra) Edict of Asoka would seem to be the same as ^TRT1,
and evidently refers to the Malkohas and Sirkeers. It is also highly pro-
bable that the a forest bird of the Himalayas, named in the
Verse 2099 , is the Larger Himalayan Green-billed Malkoha or
one of the two Sirkeer Cuckoos, the Punjab Sirkeer and the Bengal Sirkeer
Cuckoo, the latter of wh'ch also occurs in Nepal and Bihar, or all three
taken as a group of skulking birds. Etymologically the name should mean
one who is anxious about his personal safety and therefore conceals himself
—in short a skulker, from plus or %r; Cf. concealed in
secret ( RV.4.5.8). The Pali name would thus seem to correspond to
3nw.Tqmf|p: descriptive of the people in the quotation from <cHI<H~l
given above.
1. ^TRT—iraTfT—jf^rrc:- cf. M a r a t h i 3TTT£T f o r S k . 3 i l H l d , a n d
^RTT, — 3 i n P r a k r i t is o f t e n r e p l a c e d w i t h Z.
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
38
PAROQUETS OR PARROTS
1. T h e Parrots of North India have been divided into two genera, one of
which is represented by five and the other by a single species. They are all
of a predominantly green colour and differ little in their habits. Though
normally arboreal they are attracted in large flocks to ripening crops like
f^T paddy and sorghum (juar) to the great despair of the cultivator and have
been regarded with birds like the Buntings ( a r s r ^ ) as one of the
natural calamities (fa*:) befalling a country. All the same, their brilliant
2.3
plumage, quaint habits, "sedate and knowing demeanour" and, above
all, their teachability to talk and perform tricks have endeared them to
the people and made them one of the most favourite cage-birds of India
from very ancient times.
2. " T h e Parrots rank as among the most intelligent of birds. The mere
talking to which they can be trained is nothing. T h e wisdom of the bird
judged by this standard, is inferred from the degree of appositenees with
which it utters its phrases." (Harmsworth Popular Science, p. 2978). The
European students of Indian bird-life do not, however, credit any of the
Indian species with ability to talk beyond a few words; nevertheless, Sans-
krit literature attributes considerable ability to them in this respect and
whole verses have been placed in their and the Hill-Maina's mouths.
A couple of such examples are reproduced below:—
A Parrot to his beloved M a i n a : —
"snfrr^ yfd=iN^f T
K srsrrafis ! ^ ^ f t ^PT: I
^ jrfq- srcffc ^ ! #cf <pr: n " WR-srfp 54
The following half verse may well have been taught to a royal Parrot in
the ordinary way though the next two lines (not reproduced here) give it a
topical setting. O n the defeat of his royal patron, the bird, released from
his cage, is supposed to address a painting of his master in the royal
Picture-gallery:
! m i A i T d *rr t a r t s f q - g ^ f f f ^ n : i
'flT^ia ll
Prakrit %ET for
+I°HM + I!fl 10.94
 142 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Paroquets or Parrots 143

If such examples had not been true a compliment like ^-imrT-ew^RW 5 Common names for all Parrots, except the Loriquet are s p and
contained in the following beautiful passage would not have been paid to b u t there is reason to believe that the larger members of the group
a pet bird. T h e poet describes goddess TRrft as playing with her pet were designated as s p and the smaller varieties like the Blossom-headed
bird— and the Slaty-headed Paroquets, which have a much softer voice than the
former, as ^ftfc (^fir sr^TO'' frTfir). Names like M r , fafiT, and M w for a
Parrot are also indicative of softer notes and must belong to them. This
distinction still obtains in their vernacular names, e.g., g r r or cftciT for the
l ^ f t m f ^ t w w f M ^ , rf s p F s n ? r w r n"
large and s^rf for the small Parrots in Hindi, and TTTJ or tra and in
+WNI 1, 5
M a r a t h i . T h e mention of both 5PP and in the following extracts from
nor would poet have written : (i) the Skanda Purana, Vaisnavakhanda and (ii) P a d m a - P u r a n a ,
•o • s o
U t t a r a k h a n d a are clearly based upon the above distinction and fully
+MHMI, 14, 3
To 86 support it :
- c

Compare also: (i ) TRT-^tT-T^-^-tl I ^ d Id

'fdciU'+UMAII T? HTRTfT? Venkatacala M a h a t m y a 5.52
^TFTFFS' 1.10 (ii) fff: TTfi^t fJiW: ^ T f j t
Ch. 180.21
3. w ^ m f e r s R m was one of the arts practised in India by
In literature and lexicons, however, the difference between s p and
professional men like the trainers of Song-finches, Canaries, Thrushes, etc.
has been entirely done away with. Adnouns like TW-or Jpfi-^trg,
in Europe today, and no one need be surprised at the performances of
exceptionally talented Parrots and Mainas recorded in Indian literature, 1 fsr*r<5iR, e t a , apply to all Parrots but the epithet S 1 ^ belongs to a pet
barring, of course, poetic exaggeration in attributing to them h u m a n intel- bird as 'always holding on to his perch-rod', and also, humorously, to
ligence and capacity to make impromptu replies or even to carry on a con- his leading 'an ascetic and celibate life by compulsion'; cf. f^rr
versation. I have myself heard a Rose-ringed Paroquet repeat the follow- ffter: said of one in p. 228, verse 222. is true of
ing Hindi verse without a hitch though the articulation was certainly not only such birds as are able to talk.
equal to that of the M a i n a — With these preliminary remarks I proceed to a consideration of indivi-
dual names for the six species of Parrot found in North India.
faenpj % q ST? tfk i 6. T h e Large I r d i a n Paroquet (21") is marked on the wing with a
35rcftercr ^ ^ r fat' fcr^F ^ r T^TR II large maroon-red patch. T h e bill is wholly red as compared with others
i.e., " I n the midst of a gathering of saints at the waters near Chitrakoot whose lower mandible is differently coloured, and the legs and feet are of a
Tulsidas prepared the sandal-paste and god R a m a c h a n d r a applied it to dirty-flesh colour. Being the largest Parrot of India it is the or
his forehead." WTSW of the lexicons—
4. Literary tradition has regarded a talking Parrot (spr) as the i w 9icPT5r> fawr" sr-^crfr
m a t e of a talking Hill-Maina (wrfwr), and it is on this supposition that
^ is a Parrot and w^T a M a i n a , and if he is JftrreT she is ifarfafc which, No Indian Parrot has red legs and the epithet for one may be
by the way, is also the name of a most intelligent M a i n a in 2.5.6. rendered as 'red-marked' (TO: srf:—tw^t and f m ) and in this
Even Kesava, the commentator of the would seem to have sense it should belong to this bird after the conspicuous red wingpatches
succumbed to this tradition, for he renders <IHUII+I of AV. 1.22.4 as rather than the colour of the feet. T h e Blossom-headed Paroquet
t-i'-oyt:2 and, following him, Sayanacarya also has translated f t w r w (loc. also has a small and inconspicuous red spot on the wing but is better named
cit.) as TT^swTTwreft and again as w^t or female Parrot in his notes on fp? after its dieep purplish-red head. Other poetic names for this bird
crftrcfrr-fff|ciT 3.7.6 although in his commentary on R V . 1.50.12 he correctly are SRNR, « H P * H , JTRFIPR, e t c .
explains the term to mean a rnf^T.
7. T h e Rose-ringed Paroquet (16") is the commonest and by far the
most numerous of all and, as it moves in large flocks, it is the one that is
1. Parrots taught to repeat Lord B u d d h a ' s maxims have been described as STFTT responsible for a major part of the total damage caused to the crops by all
s m w p ? r in i r ^ f e r , 8.
the Parrots put together. It is the srTfsr wpr (<=H|?iH aildfiipT WTcr:, very prolific?)
2. M . Bloomfield's edition, 1890, p. 326. T h e insertion of in ^ I ' - A ^ W a n d the of the lexicons but its proper n a m e is W o f f (wild or inferior) both
masculine g e n d e r would seem to be clerical errors.
144 Birds in Sanskrit Literature TheLarks 111

according to f^lfey+^l 15, and and OTWT as already Parrots descending upon a paddy-field—
pointed out in para 4 above. Its Hindi name, W is an exact m giifVMdlm^ ^icMd-dl' 3T+I«H1H I
rendering of^FSWfr.
8. The Blossom-headed Paroquet (15") is fwrrrPTTf or fi^rir W in Adi-Purana of Gunabhadra, 4.61
and Monier Williams respectively, from the colour of the And pretty peasant-girls, dressed in green, driving them away—
head in the male. It also shares the name of with the next. •O t s P - u i f»fIt NO i
9. The Slaty-headed Paroquet (16") is the HRH^HL* o f ^ ^ after
the colour of the bill. The upper mandible is orange-yellow and the Ibid. 35.36
lower yellowish. In the Blossom-headed variety the lower mandible is A Yaksa describes to Arjuna a flight of Parrots, many carrying golden ears
black.
of paddy in their bills-
10. The Indian Red-breasted Paroquet (15") is T F A ^ R SFP
o
(Monier Williams) or qfcnra' (well-marked with yellow) referring to
ftrai: f w ^ t : ^ ^ fsHsRTt I
the yellow patches on its. wings, and also (+f^,<id (Pt>Pg<I
514, i c|fa°4 fh ftrftq^twr
aicffcT— s r ^ ^ t ^ T ; TRHTS': —wsTnTf^cmrPn-) from its red breast.
sprfspr tffaftreteT^tofd II
A common synonymy obtains for bird and plant in this as in the case of
the Large Racket-tailed Drongo (Art. 15):— Kiratarjuniya, 4.36
Poet THT also presents a similar picture—
Pt>Pf,<ldl qfawST:—^TNM+1'iil, J^WT.

The similarity of the Hindi >ftT for it with in the above equation
is also worth noting. The WcT of the cffrT. tffpr. 5.5.12
o o o
fefa ggT faddM II
is evidently this Parrot as the adjective signifies the reddish colour in Sisupala-vadha, 6.53
the bird's plumage, and the name corresponds to WjgTTcT.
11. Lastly, the Indian Loriquet (5.5."), which is no bigger than a
Sparrow, is the qraw; of TOM, iwtfarsr^OT, 16, qrpfTT of w r ? and ^fersft of
g«r?r, rendered as g^FP by ^ i N l i f . The first two names imply the colour
assimilation of the bird with the green foliage of a tree; cf. qwra for the
Chloropsis in Art. 5 B. Salim Ali makes the following observations about
these tiny birds: " O n account of their small size and the wonderful oblite-
rative effect of their colouration when clambering about among the foliage
of tall trees, the birds are seldom seen except when flying accross from one
tree to another." T h e name J^pr, on the other hand, indicates its tiny
size; cf. 'WV- and jf^nPT for very small birds in Art. 22 B, and their habit of
breaking open the hardest of nuts is reflected in the name *rsreft. It has a
short tail and no collar, and is therefore not a
12. The flight of Parrots is very swift and a flock flying to or from
rich crops in the open, or hurtling through the forest, swerving gracefully
to avoid trees and branches, is always a fine sight. A selection of verses
in appreciation of their beauty at close quarters and high up on the wing
should prove interesting—

flrw^rfafw: Sfms^ M-v^PlC

•MoifKll 2.9
 39
ROLLERS
The Rollers were formerly classed with the Jays by ornithologists who
named them as Blue Jays; but they have now been separated and placed in a
separate family of birds. In India also both Rollers and Jays appear to
have been regarded as an allied group, going under the common name of
^TFT. Sanskrit nomenclature for both has, therefore, been considered in
Art 1-E.
40
THE BEE-EATERS
1. T h e Bee-eaters with their bright green, blue, bronze, and chestnut
plumage are among " t h e most resplendent birds of the w o r l d " and their
place in the Fauna of British India (Birds) is between the Rollers ( ^ r : )
and the Kingfishers (TcFR^r:). All of them have about the same habits.
They feed on insects including bees and even wasps which they capture
in the air and after each sally return to their perch, uttering pleasant
whistling notes on the wing. A party of them hawking insects over water
is a pretty sight indeed. They often live in colonies and excavate almost
horizontal tunnels about two inches in diameter and several feet long in
the banks of rivers, streams, bridle paths, etc. and even on level ground,
and it is at the far end of such a hole that a rounded chamber is made
for eggs and young. Sometimes they utilize deserted rat holes as well. 1
2. They are represented by no fewer than seven species in different parts
of India and four of them, which are the subject of this article, occur
within the territories called ^fjifatw and JTKRTT as defined in
Manu-smrti, 2.19 & 21, i.e. from ^ast-Punjab to about Allahabad, includ-
ing the outer Himalayan valleys to the north and the Vindhyas to the south.
T h e best known of the series is the Common Indian Bee-eater (9"
long) known as q f a i T 2 (from tfsFT 'arrow') in Hindi and (the
'Vedic or holy parrot'—'parrot' after its predominantly green colour)
in Marathi. It is a "most elegant little b i r d " and with its predominantly
green, bronze or gold, and chestnut plumage, a long, slender slightly cur-
ved and pointed bill and the habit of catching its insect food on the wing
from a perch on a tree or low bush, and its sweet 'tit tit' or 'tiree tir.ee tiree'
call uttered on the wing it is easily identified.
3. T h e Blue-tailed Bee-eater is 12" in length and has a fully 2" long poin-
ted bill. Though, like the Common Bee-eater, it is a plains species, it is
partial to the neighbourhood of rivers, jheels and tanks. Its voice is a mellow
rolling whistle or a chirp l i k e ' t e e r p ' or 'te tew, te tew' (cf. ft^wr below).
T h e Bearded Bee-eater, a magnificent bird, full 14" long, with a rather
1. G . F . L . M a r s h a l l in 'Birds' N e s t i n g in I n d i a ' .
2. qferrr should be a semi t e r m fully c o m p a r a b l e w i t h 9TFT m e n t i o n e d later.
156 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Kingfishers 149

heavy bill of over 2", is the largest m e m b e r of the family. I t is entirely a is therefore also known as T T T ^ T (beloved of the Bee-eater) just as the
forest bird, feeds little on the wing a n d lives m a i n l y on insects a n d honey pii<|T (Acacia sirissa) is a n d the PfRt (Melia a z a d i r a c h t a ) ,
w h i c h it seeks a m o n g the leaves a n d flowers on tree-tops. I t utters its h a r s h Pali as a b i r d - n a m e in Vessantar J a t a k a , verse 2100, is the same as w f .
d o u b l e notes first w i t h the h e a d held low a n d the long blue t h r o a t feathers 6. According to the f w a t r ^ r the terms srn^, qfarf a n d fafa+l are
puffed o u t ; w i t h e a c h succeeding note the head is g r a d u a l l y raised a n d the synonymous, which however is o p e n to d o u b t as we shall presently see.
last of the series is sounded w i t h the h e a d p o i n t i n g straight up, p e r h a p s T h e n a m e ^farf (v.l. ^ W ) is p e r h a p s derived f r o m root f t f to ' d r a w or
reminiscent of the h e a d m o v e m e n t s of the s^mrr I1 T h e Chestnut-headed bend a bow' a n d corresponds in m e a n i n g to wr^f or snf^Sl, the feminine
Bee-eater (9.5") c a p t u r e s its food on the wing a n d its evolutions in the air of snif; cf. i^Tfr-T OTfa sj^t), the archer w h o guards the Soma in
are extremely b e a u t i f u l accompanied by a most musical trill, uttered every h e a v e n or a t m o s p h e r e according to the Rgveda. (v.l. fr^Tterr, P f t ^ t ) ,
few minutes. I t nests in banks of rivers or, like the C o m m o n Bee-eater, in feminine of Prf^R; (fqwffl? or is a p p a r e n t l y a n imitative n a m e after
almost level sandy g r o u n d . T h e s e C h e s t n u t - h e a d e d are amongst the ear- the call n o t e of a p a r t i c u l a r Bee-eater.
liest bird risers a n d their pleasant notes m a y be h e a r d almost w i t h the first 7. T h e s e beautiful birds h a v e secured a place of h o n o u r w i t h others at
glimmer of light in the m o r n i n g , especially if their roosting place is one
the A s v a m e d h a r i t u a l :
a m o n g the tall reeds of a river bank. T h e C o m m o n Bee-eaters on the other
h a n d are late risers a n d stir out only w h e n the sun is well up. 2 (1) wnf: — JTM.Sf.,24.33.
4. T h e C o m m o n I n d i a n , the E u r o p e a n , a n d the Blue-tailed Bee-eaters
3
t$rr,tf.,3.14.14.
have the two m i d d l e tail feathers longer t h a n the others, w i t h their t e r m i n a l (2) FPWrcr: facqefir UTffcT? 3T3T.?r.,24.40.
portions n a r r o w and a little separated f r o m e a c h other. I n their very grace-
14.21.
ful sailing flight the outline of these birds resembles or recalls to one's m i n d
^ffr.^r.,5.5.19.
the shape of a d r a w n b o w w i t h an a r r o w m o u n t e d on it ready to shoot.
T h e long, t h i n a n d sharply pointed bill represents the pointed h e a d of the
a r r o w a n d the s q u a r e p a r t of the tail, showing equally on b o t h sides of the (3) sffFT —
central tail feathers, corresponds to the feathered p a r t of the arrow, while WS.H.,5.7.9.
the projecting central feathers separated towards the end resemble the split aftr.ff., 5.5.20.
(4) ^rf in^T5.?f.) —
end of the shaft (wfl") w h i c h rests on the bow-string where the bow-
^.#.,5.7.10.
m a n grips a n d pulls it h a r d towards himself before letting the arrow go for
t h e target. A good look a t a Bee-eater d u r i n g its sailing flight would b e a r I t will be seen that f w f T the female of the P F R T Bee-eater has been
out the picture suggested above. T h e C h e s t n u t - h e a d e d and the Blue- d e d i c a t e d to WTT,1 the female deity presiding over ' m a r k s m a n s h i p ' or
b e a r d e d varieties h a v e even tails, i.e. they lack the projected central tail t h e ' a r t of archery' in all the four S a m h i t a s ; the m a l e WPT is assigned to
feathers. SqTT, the 'lord of p r a y e r ' or p r a y e r personified, in the T S a n d to fe,
the sun in a friendly aspect, in the V S ; a n d the female W5TT is n a m e d for
5. A m a j o r i t y of these birds include in their dietary a large proportion of goddess ^ j r q t in the T S a n d K S . T h e names w f a n d derived f r o m
honey-bees a n d h e n c e the c o m m o n English n a m e of Bee-eater for t h e m all. 4
9TC a n d m respectively, have a p p a r e n t l y a similar significance a n d the
T h e oldest and the most-picturesque Sanskrit n a m e for them, based u p o n
m a l e a n d female birds w i t h these names, being dedicated to m a l e a n d
their shape in flight a n d u p o n their surety of a i m in catching flying insects
female deities, it would a p p e a r t h a t they belong to the m a l e a n d female
(like a good m a r k s m a n h i t t i n g the target w i t h his a r r o w ) is w f (src
of the same species of Bee-eater. I n short, both these n a m e s correspond to
a r r o w ) or srr^f (Visnu's b o w ; " T p r froir: siTf:, fTScT s t r t t ' 3T siw).
STFjf (and 5iTff or s n f ^ r of the M a h a b h a r a t a ; see b e l o w ) . T h e T S a n d
T h e ^ s ^ r tree ( P o n g a m i a g l a b r a ) w h e n in blossom, is visited by large
K S m e n t i o n all the three n a m e s in connection w i t h different deities
n u m b e r s of bees a n d the latter in turn a t t r a c t t h e Bee-eaters. T h e tree
a n d it follows that f4H+l a n d w f (including WTiri as shown above) are
two different species of Bee-eater a n d the synonymy in ^ s r ^ s t is n o t wholly
1. Cf. TTT i w f t — s a i d of t h e ^ f a ^ W b i r d in R V 2.43.2. T h e Bee-
correct.
e a t e r s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d as s l ^ H l f c d : , ' p r a y e r - s i n g e r s ' i n M B h . ; see b e l o w .
2. F . B . I . ( B i r d s ) , s e c o n d e d i t i o n a n d ' T h e B o o k of I n d i a n B i r d s ' b y S a l i m Ali where
t h r e e of t h e m a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in colour. 1. T h i s d e d i c a t i o n t o ST^TT s u p p o r t s t h e d e r i v a t i o n of STTt f r o m SIT g i v e n above.
3. T h i s allied f o r m ( 1 0 . 5 " ) is c o n f i n e d t o t h e e x t r e m e N o r t h - W e s t of I n d i a i n c l u d i n g M . W i l l i a m s r e g a r d s 9TTT as a w . r . of W P ^ — b u t b o t h a p p e a r to b e correct Sanskrit
Kashmir. forms.

4. T h e y a r e a r e g u l a r p e s t a t all a p i a r i e s .
156 Kingfishers 150
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

8. T h e commonest of the 'bow and arrow' shaped Bee-eaters is the ^SJlfa JTcft srTq-fa WT^F:—
Common Indian Bee-eater found all over the country, and this should be MBh 13.111.68.
thesnrf and #?lf of the Samhitas. In his commentary on the T S Sayanacarya Now a slanderer must have a foul tongue so that when eating bees and wasps
renders Pptpt and 3TTT simply as TfaT firir* and 3HM respectively which in his next life he should be in constant danger of being stung by them on
does not help at all, but he gives j?rrat s i f f ^ T as a synonym for and his tongue, a fitting retribution indeed ! But perhaps it was not known
if furrat can be explained as wwt ^H^Rf «IN+N 'a bird that brings that the Bee-eater catches a bee head-foremost, squeezes out and jerks off
u p its young on or under the ground,' 1 the name f*n*rt would be the sting before swallowing it, and yet how much indeed did the ancients
f u l l y descriptive of the breeding habit of a Bee-eater particularly as not know about these and other birds ? The later author o f t h e Markandeya
the term srjfa^T implies a 'small bird' which the Common Bee-eater P u r a n a 1 appears to have missed the significance of the above punishment
certainly is. and has changed the offence so punishable into one of stealing wearing
9. This Bee-eater also figures as a bird of augury in V a r a h a m i h i r a ' s apparel, probably of a green or golden colour (Ch.15, verse 28). T h e
Brhatsamhita under the names of for or and E^T (feaft G a r u d a Purana 1 , on the other h a n d , bearing in mind the following state-
^ —Ch. 87.9: " t h e shining bird is the ' b o w - b i r d ' " ) , and the render- ment of mrftf+i complaining of desertion by her h u s b a n d —
ing of a ^ r as a 'kind of animal' by M . Williams requires correction. I M W I s m t fqwr grr—
T h e Parasara Samhita quoted by Bhattotpala in his commentary on
MBh 1.232.10,
Brhatsamhita, Ch. 85.28, also mentions sr^PT as the bird which breeds
condemns a deserter of his wife to be reborn as a ^r^at-srmt i.e. a srrf
during the rainy season. T h e Common Bee-eater "generally prefers a
(sTsstat an arrow,, 3Ffr c r e a t u r e ) :
lower perch than the larger species" 2 and this habit of perching on low
bushes has been particularly mentioned in the Brhatsamhita which says wtcHY RSR w^tsft smrt2 %?fr i —
that the sight of one, on one's left, perched at a height of only one cubit G a r u d a P. II.2.70.
is auspicious and fulfils one's desire:
12. Finally, we have the rather detailed and circumstantial story of
W 55FT fesT^FFT the bachelor-sage M a n d a p a l a who, to secure his proper place in heaven, had
fafeW ^mratf^S^T I 87.18 to assume the form of a male Bee-eater (snr^>) and beget progeny by a
female bird Later on when the young had been born he,
10. T h e M a h a b h a r a t a 3 furnishes quite a few interesting facts about
privately prayed to god Agni for their safety, and, after telling his bird-
these birds, e.g., the standard or war-flag of the brave prince Abhimanyu wife what his sons would do when grown up, left her. T h e four bird-sons
was quite appropriately emblazoned with the figure of a 'Golden Bee- of his bore the names of srf^TTft, mfcqw, friHfttf and s>r:—
eater' (ffcmTOT^—the golden ' b o w - b i r d ' ) : —
^rfonrt ^ r jy c i ^ r i } ^ ^ ^ srfafecn? i
srfWsft: fTKFT STF^TSTt f f ^ W R : I
S T f a m : spsTRcT f w i T J < ? p m : II
Mbh 7.23.89. ^ H f a d W M ' : f q f e SWT SrfrfsRT WT: I
— M B h 1.232.9, 10.
11. It is also interesting to note that, like some other birds, the Bee-eater
Soon after however a forest fire breaks out nearby and the lives of the young
too has contributed to the mythical code of punishments for certain
unfledged birds are in danger and the mother advises them to get into a
offences laid down in the great Epic and the Puranas. A person, guilty of
rat-hole. Ultimately the young birds pray to god Agni who spares them.
calumny is doomed to be reborn as a Bee-eater:
T h e mention o f t h e rat-hole clearly shows that the author o f t h e story knew
the breeding habits of the birds though he had to place the young out in
1. Cf. 'a potter'—J irffPJTT 3T ^TStfir ? the open to deck out the story with a pathetic conversation between them
See S a b d a - k a l p a d r u m a also. is a C r o w - P h e a s a n t , JSTTC f ^ f t in and the mother. Now the names of the four birds and the fact of a forest
M a r a t h i , w h i c h places its large nest very close to t h e g r o u n d in a large bush a n d brings u p conflagration have certainly been taken from the hymn to the fire-god in
its y o u n g in t h a t situation. Similarly t h e t e r m j w r a for a n owl in of
a n d the faiHMWI (Benares editions) should refer to t h e Grass O w l of N . I n d i a w h i c h
nests on the g r o u n d in h i g h grass.
1. V e n k a t e s h w a r Press edition.
2. F.B.I. (Birds), 1st edition. 2. A deliberately mystifying p a r a p h r a s e of t h e name—WTjf
3. Oundh and Poona editions.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
156
R V 10.142 as we shall presently see. For the present let us see if it is
possible to distribute the four names a m o n g the four N o r t h - I n d i a n
species of Bee-eaters, the same as singer) of the
V e d a is said to be eldest of the four and the physical basis for him should
be the Blue-bearded species which is the largest of all. Next comes
(tflft arrow, w i t h to be p o i n t e d , or *pr to let go;
a n d *«r) who should be the next larger, the Blue-tailed
species T h e n a m e w t a for the third sr^f clearly implies a type
t h a t prefers a low b u s h for a perch, for ^ m e a n s a bush or c l u m p
I t is said to be a p h o n e t i c variation of ^ r w i t h p r o b a b l y a slight
change in m e a n i n g . M . W i l l i a m gives also ^ f e as v.l. for
T h e R V h y m n is a late one and it is suggested t h a t has the^ same
m e a n i n g there as in expressions like ^ n , ' b y clumps or tufts a n d
^ r f ^ , 'bushy' occurring in T B a n d M S respectively (see M . W . ) •
W e have already n o t e d the C o m m o n Bee-eater's h a b i t of perching low
a n d it remains to a d d t h a t such perches are mostly in the open a n d fully
exposed to the sun. T h e statement, ' W w t : * the verses
quoted above f r o m the M B h 1.232, therefore, clearly points to it as
Lastly, sfW the fourth, is said to b e the best of 'praise-singers -
n r f t t ** » a n d the basis for h i m can only be the Chestnut-headed
species which roosts in flocks a n d begins its trilling chorus w i t h the first
glimmer of m o r n i n g light. T h e only objection to this allocation of the n a m e s
is that they are all said t o b e f r o m a single nest b u t it will be readily seen t h a t
this is entirely d u e to the exigencies of the story as told in the M B h for there
is n o such s t a t e m e n t in the h y m n or in the A n u k r a m a n I a n d so far as the
h y m n goes J a r i t a alone a p p e a r s to speak for all. T h e A n u k r a m a n I , however,
attributes two verses e a c h to the four j o i n t b i r d - a u t h o r s of the h y m n . T h e y
thus sing there as adults a n d most p r o b a b l y represent the four different
species of the bird k n o w n to the Vedic sage.
13 T h e story in M a h a b h a r a t a m e n t i o n e d above is n o t h i n g more t h a n a
P u r a n i c elaboration of the situation envisaged a n d briefly described in R V
X 142 T h e a u t h o r of the h y m n would seem to have loved the birds for their
beauty, graceful flight, pleasant call notes a n d their winsome ways. W h a t
is more, he also knew their breeding habits a n d the occasional d a n g e r to
their young from a forest fire, and having witnessed their a p p a r e n t l y w o n d e r -
ful escape f r o m a conflagration he, in a spirit of thankfulness, a t t r i b u t e d their
safety to the mercy of god Agni a n d celebrated the event in the form of a
beautiful p r a y e r h y m n . T h i s he placed in the m o u t h s of the birds themselves,
for according to the A n u k r a m a n I each of the four birds contributed two
verses to complete the h y m n . the eldest according to M B h ,
opens the p r a y e r a n d is followed by the others. T h e general p u r p o r t of the
h y m n is summarised b e l o w : —
1. Cf. t h e e p i t h e t s r ^ f o r : for all f o u r in M B h 1.131.16.
Kingfishers 153
14. O n behalf of all Bee-eaters a n d particularly the y o u n g in their under-
ground nests J a r i t a says in the first verse that he has always been in a special
relationship w i t h god Agni a n d t h a t he has no other kinship, i.e. he does
not expect help f r o m any other q u a r t e r . H e then pays t h e compliment
of heavenly b i r t h to Agni a n d reminds h i m that he is a helping friend to
all living creatures, a n d assures himself t h a t his p r a y e r , moving fast like
fleet horses to the god, would of themselves protect h i m as does a h e r d s m a n
his h e r d . (The comparison w i t h a fleet horse is very a p t as the bird sees
the a d v a n c i n g fire and hence the need for quick action, a n d a cow-boy
leading his little herd into a dense j u n g l e is better t h a n one who follows
it.)
15. I n the third verse, describing the awful results of a conflagration,
J a r i t a h u m b l y assures the god t h a t h e would never think of incurring his
displeasure. T h e next two verses, the 4 t h & 5th, vividly describe the
action a n d course of the forest fire, while verse 6 allows for a full play of
the flames, b o t h h i g h u p a n d low down, a n d expresses a fervent hope t h a t
other gods in their benevolent mood (^TCPT:) m a y be w i t h god Agni
a t the m o m e n t so that their silent influence m a y persuade h i m to spare the
little young in the nests.
16. T h e 7th verse refers to the waters of a river a n d a large tank or
'jheel' in the neighbourhood of which the nests are located, a n d requests
god Agni to stop there a n d choose a different course (as in the very n a t u r e
of things h e m u s t ) , and, finally, in the last verse of the h y m n , after the fire
has destroyed the grass a b o u t the nests and the place has cooled off, J a i ita
looks a r o u n d and, out of gratefulness to the god for h a v i n g passed lightly
over the nests and spared the young, prays for a fresh g r o w t h of green grass
all a b o u t a n d continued existence of the waters a n d the lilies 1 as provid-
ing safe homes for the progeny of the future. T h e p h r a s e STPFT ^ T O T W
refers to possible f u t u r e visits of the god a n d J a r i t a ' s faith in his kindness
at all times.
17. T h e above rendering gives a perfectly n a t u r a l setting to the entire
h y m n a n d when so read one c a n n o t miss its great poetic b e a u t y and artistic
composition. Griffith is certainly n o t right w h e n he says t h a t stanzas 7 a n d
8 belong to some other h y m n a n d have been simply t r a n s p l a n t e d there.
Similarly the opinon of Bloomfield (S.B.E., X L I I , p. 5 1 5 ) t h a t these two
verses are i n d e p e n d e n t of the h y m n a n d have been " r e p e a t e d w i t h v a r i a n t s "
b o t h here a n d in A V 6.106 is not correct. 2 Both the verses, in fact, are not
1. T h e lilies typify all a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n w h e r e insect-life of all sorts thrives a n d f u r n i -
shes food to t h e Bee-eaters.
2. No b l a m e w h a t e v e r a t t a c h e s to these a n d o t h e r scholars w h o h a v e d e a l t w i t h t h e
h y m n for t h e simple reason t h a t t h e y d i d n o t k n o w w h a t exactly was t h e Sarhga bird.
I t h a s b e e n identified for the first t i m e b y t h e w r i t e r of this article a n d it is only w i t h t h e h e l p
of t h e life history of these birds a n d t h e M B h version t h a t a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the
hymn has become possible.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
154
only an integral but a most essential part of the hymn. They complete and
round off the prayer beautifully upon a very optimistic note indeed. The
AV and other Samhitas have utilized them, not at all improperly, for
purposes of a charm against fire.

41
THE KINGFISHERS

1. Kingfishers are usually brilliantly coloured in blue, green, chestnut

and white, and can be recognised at sight. They excavate tunnels in the
bank of a river or stream from one to five feet deep and egg-chambers are
hollowed out at the farther end.
2. T h e common names for a Kingfisher are T?BT-or fftr-Tf (greedy of
fish), srwrei (a diver) and urrrefr (plunging for food) but these have been
mixed u p in the glossaries with specific names for particular birds. Thus
for example Hem fl (dancing for fish) and have been incorrectly
regarded as synonymous through the influence of Prakrit where
is changed into T (cf. sn-rTf ^ t ) . The former is specific for the Pied
Kingfisher (12") as the very name shows —TcPT-fish, and dance ("T?T
—irfofr, cf. for the Kestrel and °ifUHlR)+i,sky-dancer, for the
Skylark). In all these names the hovering or playful flight of the birds
is regarded as a kind of dancing movement. The Pied Kingfisher hovers
over water at a height of ten to twenty feet and on sighting a fish dives
straight for it. Its other names are ^TTOT (brown-eyed; "fWTTta^ sprr"—
srsiT^ft) and w i r e (Hindi spotted like a sea-shell), and its
way of fishing is well described by the ^PFTJ ^tor :—
"^RTST: sprfeF:

No other Kingfisher dives for fish in this style. It is also named STTO
(suspended high up like a parasol) fiom its hovering habit. is
also an epithet for a 5TT, i.e., Osprey or Fishing Eagles which are
known as WITT and t w t , in Hindi (Arts. 50 & 52-C). All blue
Kingfishers, some of which are considered in the following paragraphs
are *kHK+.
3. T h e Common Indian Kingfisher (7"), "one of the loveliest bird-
sights," and not much bigger than a sparrow, is a little beauty, a gem
amongst Kingfishers, flashing like blue jewels across the gloomy water.
It is described in the Natural History of the Birds of Great Britain and
Ireland, Ornithology, Vol. X as follows:—The Common Kingfisher is
"one of the most gaily tinted birds and when darting down some wooded
 156 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Kingfishers 157

stream, and shone upon at times by the sun-beams it m a y give some faint is Sanskrit T3TJ for the Hoopoe (Art. 43), and since the
idea of the brilliant plumage that sports in the forests of the tropics and that first two and the last names are in the plural it would be incorrect to
flits from place to place like so many lights in their deeply shaded recesses." separate wtes in the singular, and the proper way to treat the compound
It may well be called a gem or multi-coloured flower as indeed it has been is to analyse it as ^tesuid+i and 4Wy •Wiid+i. Both these,
in Sanskrit, viz., W N T , a Kingfisher (shining like a jewel or a flower— as names of Water-birds, would then be the Cotton Teal, which nests
srg^r'" and 'Vrt — cf g ^ p r f o r t h e brilliantly in holes in trees in the neighbourhood of water, and the Whiskered Tern,
coloured Sun-birds, Art. 30; g^reripT, the beautifully ocellated, black a n d which nests on a lotus-leaf, respectively (Arts. 84-C and 69). If on the
scarlet Tragopans, Art. 55-B; and the rainbow). wfhRT in the other hand stfe S is to be taken by itself for a particular bird as in the Pali
sente of 'moon-stone,' which is entirely white, does not suit any King- Dictionary (P.T.S.), it m a y be the same of the fsriRft ^hr for a
fisher. gfecPP (beautifully p a i n t e d ) , again, for a Kingfisher, should be hooting or Large Owl, probably the Brown Fish Ow! which nests and
another name for this bird corresponding to (+<HI=MI (the beautiful also often spends the day in a tree-hole.
Kingfishei) for it in Hindi. 6. T h e Stork-billed bird appears to be the Vedic fcftsVfa:—
4. T h e White-breasted Kingfisher (11") is mainly a land bird and feeds
largely on insects, lizards, frogs and such small fry, which it captures after
RV 10.97.13.
the manner of a Roller, flying down to them on the ground from an eleva-
ted perch. T h e flight is strong and direct, and on the wing a loud scream- Here the cough of a person suffering from asthma is asked to quit the
ing cry is uttered which is one of the familiar sounds of India (Whistler). patient and go away with or to the ^TPT, the Roller bird, and the fofoftfw,
It is found both near and away from h u m a n habitations and is by no means the Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher, both of which have harsh
closely dependent on the presence of water for its sustenance. Its voice croaking or screaming ''ke-ke-ke-ke-" notes resembling a fit of coughing.
has been described by Salim Ali as a loud cackling call. This bird is eviden- T h e proximity of the two names in the verse has led almost all the
tly the ^ - S + I ' D ( W W ^ F T , from its white b r e a s t ) : cf. its name in lexicographers to treat them as synonymous, but flTwrwr commenting
Marathi from Sanskrit a half-moon or crescent. This m a y on it has held them to be two different birds:—
be the foft^fe of the Rgveda—but see below.
Nmiteito ^ i cr«TT ftfostfon" qfsT<TT ^
5. T h e Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher (15") is a big bird as
Kingfishers go, being a little smaller than a Pigeon, and can be readily At other places ((<rf%. *r%fT, 5.6.22 and tf%. sn^TT, 2.5.8), however, he
distinguished from all other brightly coloured birds of the group not only has rendered as a RtfrKor Partridge which is clearly incorrect. T h e
from its size but also from its enormous pointed, red bill. A bird of well- important point is that he did not regard the two names as synonymous
watered and well-wooded country, it is found all over the sub-continent despite the lexical equations before him. T h e charm against jaundice
except the dry regiors like the extreme NorthrWest, Sind and R a j a s t h a n . in R V 1.50.12 mentions three different birds which makes it more than
Its chief diet consists offish, crabs, reptiles, etc., and its "hoarse explosive probable that ^FT and in the above verse are two different
chattering call or 'laugh', ke-ke-ke-ke-ke-ke, repeated every little while, bears birds. Griffith in his translation of the Rgveda has correctly rendered
a general resemblance to the White-breasted Kingfisher's, but is louder them as the Blue J a y and the Kingfisher.
and more raucus" (Salim Ali). It is evidently them's: or +<£d+ (crab, 7. fo^ft in his T^FrV mentions that some authorities have split
crabby) of the lexicons wrongly identified with sf^te in sissTsffa'dwfar perhaps u p r+f+cDfa into two words, and stfa, the first of which means a kind
because it stands nearest to the latter in sound. O n the other hand, the of bird and the second an animal of prey (stfar?), and ^^rwrrfr^r
n a m e would seem to be after the crab-eating h a b i t of the b i r d . A crab, has accepted this and given f%f% for a kind of bird. But fiwfir
before it can be eaten or swallowed, must be battered on a stone or a fcfefrfo:" of OTifc sfrsftaTfa seems to be the only correct analysis of the
tree-branch and this habit of the bird has given it the name of (the name. Nevertheless or seems to have been in common use as an
thrasher) also in Sanskrit. Pali $<HU+ for a bird (Sanskrit a abbreviation, for we find ftfpT or fWt as a bird with a harsh and
crab) in the following, rendered as +=t+d+ in the commentary, unpleasant voice in the g ^ r r a a n d has the equation " f f f r f e ^
is clearly the same and strongly supports the above identification:— which agrees with ftrfcfe (the call-j- fo —a bird) in
the supplement of M . Williams. We thus have three more names for
this noisy K i n g - f i s h e r — ( t h e shining one), or and f w r f e r
(one calling out ki-ki, ki-ki) and they correspond to H i n d i <*5wr fwf%wr
TOT5PC ^TcT^, Verse 2104.
— v e r y noisy) for it.
158 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

8. The beautiful blue feathers of the Peacock, the Roller and

the Kind-fishers (*kHK'<|) were often used for ornamenting royal
flagstaffs:—
w i fefosn-^f ^twjmr
e^iwr fr^ifd TSTrfT f y r ^ f i r s w m "
p. 70.
42
HORNBILLS

1. " T h e Horbills are a well marked family of birds. They are especially
remarkable for their nidification A hole in a tree is selected, and then
the female, usually with the aid of the male, encloses herself and shuts up
the orifice with the exception of a narrow vertical slit, by means of earth
mixed with the bird's own droppings. She is thus enclosed before she begins
to lay, and apparently remains in the hole till the young, which are naked
when they leave the egg, are fledged, being fed all the time by the male
through the s l i t . . . .which just allows room for the bird's bill to be pushed
through". 1 Four species of the Hornbill occur in the sub-Himalayan areas
west of Assam including the Common Grey Hornbill which is found almost
all over India.
2. Common names for all Hornbills are HidPM* (f^^T^di) from the
more than maternal care taken by the male bird not only of the young
but of the mother also; for the father puts the mother to shame, as it were,
in the matter of parental care;' firncTsr (TO;^., v.l. fiprRTi?, per ^ u i m w
in his gloss on ); and (TTEffa Hifa+i i m or icTT =rrarsw)
from the casque upon the base of the bill regarded as an overgrowth of the
nose. 2 T h e Rufous-necked Horbill of Nepal has, however, no casque but
the basal portion of the upper mandible is thickened, and from the similarity
of habits with others of the group it has been included within the general
name of sTTsarfww. In fact this bird and perhaps also the Great Horn-
bill are ^rrsjfw par excellence, and dear to God f^w as his favourite food,
and they are also offered to the manes of the ancestors.

" t * » i m <TbRn <1: ' f f T O f ftffr:

* t s r r s f f w : sftrfi: fq^^lt jfe^rsiNr:"3
^Tsrfarcr is also the rhinoceros. The corresponding name in Hindi is
OTsr (fr. «4HtfiHU as a bird in sffipf is corrupt Pali for it.

1. Blanford and Oates.

2. I t is t p r n ^ T O ? in TFrcftwmr, 2 . 2 7 6 f r o m — h e a d and TOT—covering, i.e.
a b i r d h a v i n g a sort of covering o n t h e h e a d .
3. Q u o t e d b y di-KM^Tf a t 2 . 27 of vjuilfcfldffir.
160 Birds in Sanskrit Literature The Larks 111

3. T h e TOTJ^RT in addition to explaining fw?T3r as the nourisher 5. T h e C o m m o n G r e y Hornbill (24 inches) o f t h e plains south of
a n d regaler of his m a t e ( ' W f has two verses the H i m a l a y a s is a slim grey bird whose tail constitutes nearly half its total
for two different varieties of the b i r d : — length. T h e small casque w i t h a p o i n t in front has given it names like
SiPirol ('a tip c a t ' on the h e a d ) or fexfwt (a nail on the h e a d ) in H i n d i
'Mfcrcfoft TfBftRT: WWTSTt I and T f a w erw (vw ^ r s f f r o ; cf. q^T^ for the smallest Paroquet, the
JWIf: Q ^ q T f r f f i w m ^ II L o r i q u e t ) in Bengal. I t must therefore have been ^ ^ r f r o in Sanskrit.
TT W T c f r t ^ T f t r c r q^ra": f r W F f T : I 6. T h e flesh of the G r e a t a n d Rufous-necked Hornbills is said to be
<rftr feral1 WKH'ifWn very good eating ( " f a r superior to any fowl or p h e a s a n t " — H u m e ) , a n d
o h e n c e their selection as offerings to God fcwr a n d the m a n e s of ancestors:
T h e first corresponds to the following verse f r o m the <t>ifci+l JUT q u o t e d "qTrffiRrer TTT^T ^ f ^ f e w f r o t l"
in the :— IPT1
"jft^raWr Trwrw: f ^ l M K : ftra^s^: I
o
.^wrdl'wt m fasarkfcrfsnr: n"
T h e c o m m e n t a t o r has explained ^TEjrfora as a very old a n d weak g o a t
T h e verse below is also q u o t e d b y the same a u t h o r i t y f r o m some c o m m e n - also called "fofw" i.e. w i t h such long ears t h a t w h e n the a n i m a l bends
t a r y on the TTFP'i'i j^TW:— down to drink, his ears a n d muzzle touch the w a t e r at the same time. A
Trfiftni: I fofq-sr variety of goat m a y be called W k r t b u t w h y should the flesh
of a wretched old goat be held in such high esteem w h e n on all accounts
frcurWT ^ 5f«TT *Tcr: II"
it is very u n p a l a t a b l e a n d almost u n e a t a b l e . 2 I t is therefore suggested that
I t will be seen t h a t the colour-patterns of (i) the G r e a t H o r n b i l l w h i c h is grcff'W in the above context is n o other t h a n the H o r n b i l l . If its flesh
principally a black a n d w h i t e bird w i t h black head a n d neck a n d some is dear alike to God f w r a n d m a n , why not to the m a n e s of the d e p a r -
yellow a n d o r a n g e on the bill a n d (ii) the Rufous-necked H o r n b i l l w i t h a ted as well ? T h e fa^rfirffr indeed contains a s t a t e m e n t b y the manes
rufous or C h e s t n u t (red) h e a d , neck a n d lower parts, yellow bill w i t h themselves as to w h a t exactly they would like to h a v e at a <srr5. a n d
chestnut grooves on it a n d n a k e d skin, blue r o u n d the eyes a n d scarlet a t the m e n u includes the flesh of ^TSTTrfr rendered incorrectly as a
the t h r o a t , h a v e b e e n mixed u p in these verses b u t there is n o d o u b t t h a t C r a n e of that n a m e in the S.B.E. Vol. 52.
they refer to these birds. T h e legs of n o H o r n b i l l are red. T h e q u o t a t i o n s "Wflff •H^|itll+ qTHlWHFT ^ I
however m a k e it sufficiently clear t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a r varieties of ^rra'rw f=)tj|U|c|^iff (JJ? ?IWTt ll" 3
sacred to God f w r are the Rufous-necked Hornbill, a n d the G r e a t T h e idea in M a n u (3.271) therefore is that once fed w i t h such a delicacy
Hornbill. T h e n a m e q^rr^r for the latter given by w r e a p p e a r s to b e as the flesh of a H o r n b i l l , the manes not only feel h a p p y b u t would also not
a wrong r e a d i n g for some other word, p r o b a b l y g^^rfpK. w r f c s r r for the like to spoil their taste for a long time to come w i t h a n y t h i n g inferior.
female is w i t h reference to the casque on her h e a d being r e g a r d e d as a 7. Finally it m a y be noted that alleged bird-names like "w^r-
sort of t u m o u r or growth. and "iwiiWuKfl," given by M . Williams on the a u t h o r i t y of
4. s^TTf would seem to be specific for the G r e a t H o r n b i l l as the Galanos' Dictionary are not substantive n a m e s at all b u t merely descrip-
bird makes t h e nearest a p p r o a c h to the description of the mythological tive adjectives taken f r o m the definition of ^tsjTTO in the HxrMiJ+lifl or some
as a w e a p o n of God Siva. I t is described as a staff the u p p e r other glossary.
p a r t of w h i c h resembles the h u m a n skeleton cross pieces in the u p p e r
half for ribs a n d a skull at the top. T h e b i r d in flight, over four feet long,
w i t h its long tail, black a n d w h i t e wings a n d the head-assembly i n c l u d i n g
the casque a n d the large massive bill, offers quite a c o m p a r a b l e p i c t u r e
to Siva's w e a p o n . V e r n a c u l a r n a m e s like JSW, jfTT, a n d (few)
c o m m o n in Assam are p r o b a b l e corruptions of l ^ T T f . ^ T ^ is one of the
H i m a l a y a n birds listed in f r r n . 1 gz^Pf ^ the n a m e of a region in the
H i m a l a y a s m e n t i o n e d in the P u r a n a s , e.g. is evidently n a m e d a f t e r
the G r e a t H o r n b i l l w h i c h was a p p a r e n t l y very c o m m o n there. 1. 3.271.
1. 118.50. 2. sta^f t R f ? " — m ^ r r r a .
2. 2.22.48. 3. 80*14
 Hoopoes 163

bird had to be pulled out of the hole and in doing so some of her tail feathers
came out, but even this rather severe handling did not make her quit the
place". 1 The male feeds the female during incubation to ensure proper
hatching out of the young. No wonder the ancients loved and remembered
these devoted birds in their epics:

^art ^ w ^nrft HTM"

43
ifSTT f^MfM^l: ftc^ fop* ftrtfcT 1 l"
HOOPOES
" ^ ^ t t x f w r c r m ^ r ^ T g a M r f a i"
The Hoopoes are closely allied to the Hornbills both in structure and
nesting habits. They feed on the ground which they probe with their long,
pointed bills for insects, grubs, and caterpillars. They nest in holes and the
female sits very closely and seems never to leave the hole until the young
are well grown and the male feeds her during all this period. The voice of
the male is a double or treble " h o o p " or " p o o h " after which the bird has
been named in many languages, e.g. f ? f ? in Persian and Hindi.
The Sanskrit names for this beautiful bird are derived from (i) its voice
and love of progeny — Jjrfipr ('pooh-pooh', <pr ! 53 ! ; v.l. fiprja)
and (ii) its habit of "quartering the ground methodically" and probing it
for food—spsif ('%3if: ^rftrfkrt:"—t^pRfr). Alternative forms of this
last name are fSTf (M. Williams) and ararc ( " s f a : TOt — ^Tfojfa, I I ,
WtWUftH), names which correspond to ^PC in Marathi and wr srsf
(a carpenter 'pegging' the ground, from wit a peg, for a lay-out, as it were;
cf. f r , a mallet or h a m m e r ) in Hindi. These names are the same as fwfr,
an artisan who, like the village carpenter, frequently combines the func-
t i o n s of a smith and a house-builder. The bird's habit of regularly quar-
tering the ground and stopping every now and then to probe it for food
very naturally invited the comparison with a village carpenter. Yet another
name for it in Hindi is q-^rafrr or stone-breaker, an adaptation from f r
for a hammer related to f 5PC, an axe. It is known as ^prfrt in Sind which is
the same as . T h e Pali form of f s r f or (f fetr* tPt ?) is f f S S *
or ^ f r r o in snro 1 and the first of these, f f r r * points to the correct
Sanskrit spelling of f - f r r * ( f frr% 'one who pierces or breaks the
ground with his bill' which agrees with the habit of the Hoopoe who
pokes his bill deep into the ground for worms and insects. Moreover, 1. B i r d s of a n I n d i a n G a r d e n .
2. (Interpolated Canto) 2.96.12.
with the folded crest and the long bill, the bird's head looks also like a toy
3. frlmfVM ^ 3.62.
pick-axe (E. H. Aitken).
4. 3.108.8.
Tjfipr again, is another happy name for the bird (cf. fircTcTsr for the
Also S ^ r y j T 4 1 . 4 6 .
Hornbill). Fletcher and Inglis testify to the extraordinary love
TPPo.jnr 6.19.
of the female for her eggs: " O n one occasion, to inspect the nest, the hen
T c W j ^ l T 118.52.

1. 547 V e r s e s 2 0 9 7 a n d 2104.
 44
THE TROGONS
These beautiful birds inhabit forests and from their perch on a tree
they fly out from time to time in pursuit of insects, chiefly beetles, moths
and cicadas. They are generally silent birds but have a low 'mew' or a
soft 'too-too-too' call. As a North-Indian bird we are concerned with only
one species, the Red-headed Trogon which occurs in the Himalayas upto
about 5000 ft. elevation from Nepal to Assam and eastwards. " I t is exclu-
sively a forest bird and prefers the interior of the damp, dark, evergreen
cover, where it sits very silent and quiet throughout the heat of the d a y , "
and is most common in the lower hills between 1,500 and 2,500 feet. It is
deep crimson on the head, neck, and upper brea.st with the remaining lower
parts bright crimson. Its back, scapulars and wing-coverts are ferruginous-
brown, brighter and more rufous on the rump and upper tail-coverts;
wings are black.
tfl^S is the name of a bird in (also a descriptive term for the
Brahminy Kite, Art. 52-D) and sflf is a bird of some peculiar habits recom-
mended as an object-lesson to a prince in the IRFIO JTFT. 1
ftrefo ^ f c r ^tt: I"
A king is advised to acquire the power of distinguishing good from evil
from the qualities of valour, early-rising etc. from the jp?|pr; and other
qualities from the ^ bird. Now if the Red-headed Trogon (wtf
means 'red' and wtfPTGS means "red or reddish-backed" bird) is the
bird meant here, as I believe it is, it certainly possesses qualities which an
enterprising prince should do well to cultivate. O u t on an expedition,
he must keep to cover in a forest, practise secrecy, talk only in whispers,
and know how and when to sally forth suddenly against an unsuspecting
enemy and return to cover again with the booty. The Trogon has all these
and should be the 5ftfr$fr of the Purana and wt^ps of ^nr:. is also
mentioned as one of the Himalayan birds in JTFT 2 .
1. 2 5 . 1 8 (cf. verse 397,
2. 118.52.
45
SWIFTS
1. We have seen in Art. 25 that the common name applies to both
Swallows and Swifts, and while is a general name for the former,
the latter are generally known as <pn=r, fsrfa^ and M w t or ^UtWi. In this
article an attempt is made to explain the latter terms along with other
names for the Swift.
2. The Swifts, though similar in appearance and outline to the
Swallows, are very different in structure and belong to a different order of
birds. " T h e y are the most aerial of all birds, spending the whole of their
waking existence on the wing. The flight is very rapid and highly charac-
teristic, a Swift wheels and dashes through the air with frequent
changes of direction, tilting now to one side, now to the other, with a succes-
sion of rapid wing-beats alternating with long glides' on extended wings..
It does not voluntarily settle on the ground., the short legs with all the toes directed
forwards being only adapted to clinging to rocks, masonry, etc." (Smythies).
Should it be grounded, due to some accident, "it rises with great difficulty,
the bird raising itself by repeated attempts and strokes upon the ground by
the shoulders." 1 The Common House Swift is "highly gregarious, being
usually found in flocks of fifty or more, which breed together in colonies,
The nest colonies are found about buildings, whether these be
the ordinary dwelling houses of an Indian village or town or ruined temples,
shrines and forts.The birds occupy these nest colonies continuously, breed-
ing rather irregularly, so that eggs or young may be found in some of the
nests at any time, and at all times using the nests to rest or sleep i n . . . .
(Their voice is a ) curious squealing call which so aptly seems to express
the fierce joy of an aerial creature in its element. The flocks usually feed
in loose open order, but at times, specially in the evenings, they collect
together into a " b a l l " , mounting high into the air as a squealing, careering
mass" (Whistler). .
3. Names like gsfsr, p f i ^ , and f^r ( are clearly in reference
to the Swift's inability to rise from the ground; cf. the phrase iftfo
p^TT" for a cow that has got stuck up in deep mire and is too weak to
extricate herself.
1. Birds of G r e a t B r i t a i n a n d Ireland.
98 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
anf^rta refers to <pr?r as a bird that loves to be constantly on the wing
and makes use of its nest merely as a resting place:
"SJTTTFT sffaR ff fwfarT I
W^FV: l"
The ^cH'fedi' mentions the Swift, p f a r , as a bird of augury. The
Hindi names fT^jsT and for the House Swift are from Sanskrit
cqf-ffT (having a defective body) and 4 id I fill* (living on the air, as the
birds seem to eat nothing). The first corresponds to jsrw and the second
to ^FTTW a certain type of ascetic.
4. The defines srftrar as a kind of bird that is
constantly flying in the sky (fl^RT Wf^TfrR mwsrftrj TfsrfaiPT) and cites
the following verse from some Vartika on a treatise on Vedanta:
qrfsrw: 35ft w k irrf^r ^ i
^"TSN^T^R: «FTT W I W T JT: II"
The habit of the bird affair is used here to illustrate the nature of the
'atman' who can enjoy a state of ecstatic happiness only in a high spiritual
plane. Now the only bird whose habits fulfil the above description is the
Common House Swift which not only takes its food, drink and nesting
materials on the wing but even mates and feeds its grown-up young in the
air. 3 It resorts to its nest either for a momentary rest during the day or to
sleep in at night. It does not voluntarily descend to the ground and if by
accident this does happen, it manages to fly back into the air. The name
like ^rfowt is most probably after the bird's call and Prak. arfe?r
is merely a variant according to the rule W # W t | .
5. Prakrit said to be derived from affer (3r^r not moving?)
is defined in arfao Tt^s as i.e. a kind of bat, probably
the small house-bat, which also finds it rather difficult to take to the
air once it has landed itself on the ground; Cf. 1 W R 4 (not coming to
the ground) for the larger fruit-bats. Little bats, however, do not
fly even half as high as Swifts and can certainly not be described as
WT-or ajT^-^rfr. Moreover, it is highly improbable that such an
unclean looking thing as a bat, occupying stinking nest-holes and blind
by day, should be chosen by the Vedantic philosopher to illustrate
one of their principal doctrines. Sansk. arfer may therefore, stand apart
1. 14.13.
2. 87.7 & 28.
3. ni"i=ti STRpf and yifuiflcT are obscure bird-names in rrifT^JcTftT, Section 213. If
Hlul—muti means 'wind or air' the first may mean 'a bird that is begotten in the air',
and STftn^T may be an allied form 'begotten in the ordinary way'. This is, of course,
pure guess-work.
4. jftpT Ch. 17; 3TTSPT ST^tFrfsr No. 61, Poona.
The Larks 111
from Prak. arfer in spite of their close affinity. Nevertheless, it is possi-
ble to reconcile and connect the two through two different meanings of
the Marathi term m+1<rfl as given in the Mt\<\<*i ^ ^ m ' / v i z . , (i) a small
bat and (ii) a kind of small bird, evidently the Swallow or Swift both of
which are popularly known in Marathi by that name and are not distin-
guished one from the other. The Chief reason why the bat and the Swift
share a common name seems to be the fact that in their daily routine of life
they are complimentary, as it were, to each other. If the Swift is on the wing
all day and returns to the nest for the night, the bat keeps flying all night
and spends the day in its nest-hole. Both are however, seen flying at dusk
and often returning to their nests to feed the young. This makes it easy
to reconcile old survivals like ((^H-^il?) in Bengal for the Palm
Swift and (bird with wings of skin, cf. Hindi a bird) in Sind for
the Pale Brown Swift as alternative names for them. It follows, therefore,
that arf^r and arfe?r are merely different forms of the same word, but while
the former means the House Swift in Sanskrit the latter has been confined
to the small bat in Prakrit.
6. The name TOP in the sr§=r list of ^ < + < f s t a n d s probably
for both Swallows and Swifts, for ^'TTp'KtT renders it as t=f|pTTOP:
W W : i.e., little birds living in temples, and we know that both these
build their nests there, :TO? is also a common name for Sparrow-
like birds but TOP has mentioned separately the House and other
Sparrows as jfcrs^FP2 and song-Sparrows as w^rfeig. T h e interpretation of
the commentator must, therefore, be accepted as correct. 3 ^ f f , top,
and fafowt or ^foeft thus seem to be general names for both Common
House Swallows and Swifts, but it must be remembered that strictly
speaking TO? and ^ are the Swallows and 'flTTgur the Swifts according
to s r ^ t f r £ m r ( A r t . 25).
7.
The arWrrfep t ^ f t ^ of 'TStffT, 4.163 gives the equation "sfifa:
and the name (affc speedy or quick, and fe a bird) is an
exact equivalent of " S w i f t " as a specific bird-name, and the aptness
of the name for the Swift would be appreciated when it is recalled
that the nohnal speed of a Swift on the wing is 75 miles as against 35 miles
per hour of the Swallow. These speeds are very much higher when the
birds are pressed by danger, and though hundred miles per hour for a
Swift is definite, that accurate observer of bird-life, E.C. Stuart Baker, has
actually timed a Swift with a stop-watch flying at the tremendous speed
1. Ed. by Y. R . D a t e (1933).
2. ^ J f f has distinguished them as j R T ^ and ^W-JHK jj-.
3. J u s t as t h e common terms fTJ^T, a n d T^ft m e a n b o t h 'a bird' in
g e n e r a l a n d p a r t i c u l a r b i r d s of p r e y , t h e w o r d TOP also m e a n s ' a s p a r r o w ' a n d ' a s w a l l o w
or s w i f t ' a c c o r d i n g to t h e rule—flTtTT^ftsfq' f W T ^ c R t — S f f ^ F r f T O T ' T p n ' .
99 Birds in Sanskrit Literature The Larks 111

of two hundred miles per hour. 1 aftfa, therefore, is a most expressive and M . Williams explains TTTTT as a kind of animal and faf^m as a kind of
accurate n a m e for it as the fastest little bird known, f n f ^ of the list bird. TTTT in his gloss on this Vedic verse takes the first for fsr^fr or the
from qrrerT quoted by TOtW under 85.38 of the srjprferr is again the Swift Cicada Fly and the second for another insect with a 'chi, chi' call,
which collects into a " b a l l " (ft**) and mounts "high into the air as a probably a cricket or green grasshopper which has such a call. Comment-
squealing careering mass" at evening. ing on sn^m II.5.5.6 where this verse occurs, he however renders
8. in srsf TFTgft means a kind of bird and is the same as fafWl both as birds:
or Tifcsft and the expression qftro means a person who gives protection °
^scifc^m q f y f a w u r sftsr c

to Swifts nesting in his house. It is an old belief commonly held both in

India and China that the continuous nesting of these birds in a residential
house is very auspicious, for it augurs well for prosperity and continuity
of the family occupying it. If the nests are inconveniently situated, e.g.,
o v e r a passage or stair-way, planks are fitted under them to catch the
droppings. A similar belief obtains in England too. 2
9. T h e Western Palm Swift of N o r t h India is known as in
Hindi corresponding to Sanskrit di?Hi<t>, and when it is rememoered that
TO implies, also a swift, it is but n a t u r a l to call a Palm Swift a m^TTO.
This name does not occur in any currect lexicon but one can hardly doubt
that the bird h a d it in Sanskrit as well.
10. T h e sgctfffaT mentions tfSjTO (having one egg or young)
as a bird of augury and attributes to it the habit of swooping down on
the surface of a stream or tank ( " g t e n r w f t T h e s e charac-
teristics agree very well with the habits and ways of the Crested Swift,
an ashy grey bird with a deeply forked tail and resembling
Swallow in flight. It is a forest bird, freely perching on the top-most bran-
ches which are leafless or dead. T h e call is a loud and Parrot-like 'kia,
kia, kia' (which m a y also be rendered as 'chia, chia, c h i a ' ) frequently
uttered either from a perch or on the wing. T h e bird is particularly noisy
in the evening when preparing to roost. "Should there be a tank or pool of
water or river near its haunts this Swift is fond of descending rapidly from
the air to the surface of the water, touching it and mounting again in one
graceful c u r v e " (Whistler). It makes a tiny nest on the side of a horizontal
branch, barely half an inch deep and so small as to be covered completely
by two anna-pieces placed side by side. T h e single egg it lays completely
fills the nest. It is clearly the tnfrjro of the Samhita.
11. O n e of the most poetic hymns of the Rgveda is the srOTFft, and
its second verse mentions two birds, ^rrra" and as playing music to
the goddess of the forest:—
"cpnr^rw ^4MPd
STTSTTfefr^ y M ' A M W l M ^ ll"
"reft ^ Rt>ti cijTd)^ U r - 1 i pur--
fpff^: T f a f a w t : 'TTFT fqTTWrPT: |"
Apparently the commentator had good reason to revise his opinion by the
time he came to annotate the Brahmana, and for one thing, he must have
come to know that the descriptive title of ST^FT^RT (Bird-hymn) had
been applied long long ago to either the "gr ^vm" verse of R V 1.164.20
or in the alternative to the verse quoted above. It is therefore submitted
that the later interpretation of T<TR*r and as particular birds by
ffwr is correct. Further we have RF^+i in Prakrit a n d TJ3T and tott in
Sanskrit as names for musical instruments, probably 'whistles', each
named after the bird whose call it imitated.
12. T h e name yfKT ( f t to rain, and s t k t to call, i.e. some sort
of a rain-bird) is probably the same as spTrcr of the •ftgMfoiW— " e r t w ^ t
^fNtf:", the Hawk-Cuckoo which is very vocal at the beginning of and
a during the rains. is obviously an onomatopoetic name for a small
bird T5ft) comparable with ^ I W l for the House-Swift and Swallow.
The Crested Swift, as we have seen, is a forest bird and has a loud
'chia, chia, chia' call. It hawks for insects in parties in a wheeling,
graceful flight and is particularly noisy in the evening (Whistler). This,
I submit, is probably the fafro of the hymn which has been happily
conceived to answer back, as it were, to the loud and persistent call
notes of the Hawk-Cuckoo. 1 T h e H y m n is apparently addressed to the
goddess of the forest in the evening by a person who is late in coming
home or has lost his way through the forest. T h e fifth verse is perhaps
a pointer in this direction.
i
Rgveda, 10.146.2

1. " B i r d s , T r e e s a n d F l o w e r s " , p p . 15 & 129.

2. " A d v e n t u r e s i n W o o d c r a f t " , 52. S e e A r t . 2 5 f o r a s i m i l a r i d e a a b o u t t h e J3RT or 1. Z . A. Ragozin renders and fafcTO as Owl and Parrot respectively in
Swallow. Vedic India, p. 273.
3. 87.6.
 Nightjars 171

3. It is also the bird selected as an offering to the deity of the Night

at the under the name :—"ttw s f a r j : " — H f ^ T T , 1 24.25. The
name tfhrrj is most probably from tftert, W and srar? ^rfa, one
that rests in a lying down posture. Hindi 3°TT and Marwari siTt for a
Nightjar, also Sansk. fefa^T seem to be from the root ^T.
4. M. Williams gives as a kind of bird in 1.27 but I have
not been able to trace it in my copy. The name, however, seems to have
46 some connection with a frog. The Nightjar is known as 'the
frog-bird' both in Telugu and Tamil, apparently because when perching
NIGHTJARS low on the ground, as is its habit, it looks like a frog. Its extraordinarily
wide gape, when the bill is open, also has a striking resemblance to the wide
1. The various s p e c i e s o f N i g h t j a r r e s e m b l e e a c h o t h e r v e r y c l o s e l y mouth of a frog. as a bird, therefore appears to be a Nightjar.
and are difficult to identify in the field except by their distinctive calls in I n d i a n linen of old must have been of a coarse texture and of a rather grey-
brown colour which explains the punishment proposed in the faw^fa
the breeding season. T h e plumage is a mixture of mottled grey and brown
44.27 for a thief of clothes made from it.—"wto' ? i ' t " etc. and here
with white, resulting in a remarkable protective colouration. " T h e bird
sf* is more probably a Nightjar than a frog as the name occurs as one
s e e m s to be conscious o f t h e fact, only springing into life when the intru-
of a series of bird-names for the next birth of different types of thieves.
der comes within a yard or two." It spends the day resting quietly, flat
Again s^c in the following may well be a homonym signifying both
on the ground, but as the evening approaches and dusk turns into darkness
frogs and these birds:—
it becomes active hawking insects on the wing in open spaces near trees,
While on the ground, it is incapable of any progression because of its long "fdH+i: Tmf^wr: W I
central toe. This toe has a pectinated nail (serrated like a comb) with TTtTT: qR'jdP-d ll"
which it probably removes insect-wings etc. sticking to the long bristles H ^ K d , 3.183.8.
surrounding the extraordinarily wide gape. This wide mouth gave rise
In England also a Nightjar is popularly known as the Flying-toad, ^nrff as a
to a false belief in the western countries that the bird was capable of and
bird in the bird-list quoted from mkihk by under 85.28 of spprfffTT
actually given to sucking the milk of goats, and hence the name 'Goat-
would seem to be this bird.
sucker' for it. It has a habit of sitting in the middle of the road at night
and travellers by motor car often see it so doing.

2. It is known in Hindi as or OTT and sfsft MfTT, the names

being in reference to the obliterative colouration of the bird on the
ground. It is ^ ^ r , a frfa* bird in and a night bird with a keen
sight in if^tfcsi,1 the corresponding Hindi names being TTST and TO3JT.
The Nightjar does not usually fly for many minutes together and
between each circuit it rests on the ground (Dewar). It is incapable
of walking or hopping and must therefore drop down to its resting place on
the ground, to rise again after a minute or two. This trait o f t h e bird would
seem to justify the apt name of ^ T for i t — o n e that falls but not
permanently like a stone, * TOfir ^ <Tcrftr(?). The and
< K M < M 3 mention the bird under the STTF^T name of from ST. FOF^T
'fallen down' and Sansk. fOT to throw. The name thus corresponds to
Sansk. H'-d+i

1. II.14.2.
1. " T h i s b i r d is m o s t p u n c t u a l in b e g i n n i n g its song e x a c t l y a t t h e close of d a y " —
2. 88.2. a n d 35. G i l b e r t W h i t e , L e t t e r X X I I to T . P e n n a n t . C o m p a r e also t h e English n a m e 'Twilight
3. 4.62; 8.32. N i g h t j a r ' in Cassells' Book of B i r d .
 48
47 THE BARN OWL

FROGMOUTHS
1. The Barn Owl is pale grey-brown and rufous ochre above, has
a white face and, white under-parts, spotted with brown. 1 It is also known
These birds resemble small Nightjars and occur only near Sikkim and in English as the White or Screech Owl, looking "strangely white among
east of it and in the extreme south of India—Wynad and Travancore. the black trees". It is found all over India but not in forests. It haunts
T h e name probably from ^ a frog, for a bird, has already been roofs of buildings, outhouses, wells and ruins. Its cry is a peculiar weird
noticed in the preceding article. shriek or screech, and when perched during the day it makes a snoring
sound (T. R e g a n ) , and at night as well. Sansk. (one who makes a
guttural or snoring sound) for an owl clearly refers to it and the name
perhaps corresponds to ^f^r in Hindi. Its other names in Hindi, Telugu
and Tamil mean 'bad bird' corresponding to Sans. jf%, f^T or s^rfa2 in
srfpr (24.39) where it is placed with two other noisy birds, j r s and
Sfcftfj. The Larger Owls have been looked upon all over the world as
birds of bad omen and the Barn Owl is no exception. The wrfftpp
of srfawpror (irwrrm 20.17) is clearly this Owl which is considered there
to be an evil bird.
The (white like the moon) Owl in the WfTORcr story of a R a t ,
Cat and Mangoose would also seem to be the Barn Owl as he is des-
cribed there as the enemy of rats :

HTfT S I T O T l"
XII 138.33.
^stTl^ti would be yet another name synonymous with Wcil-H*. This
Owl has a fleshy-white or fleshy-horny bill and the adnoun <<tdHifa+
may belong to it if not to the Himalayan Wood-Owl with a fleshy -yellow bill.
2. The Grass Owl (14") also belongs to the present family and resem-
bles the Barn Owl in the colour pattern of the body plumage, and if seen
perched upon a tree it would pass for one. But its ways are very different
and unlike the Barn Owl, which breeds in holes in buildings, wells, or'trees,
it always lays its eggs on the ground in fairly long grass and inhabits the long
grassy areas of the Himalayan Terais, the adjoining plains, and in similar

1. Sometimes it is p u r e w h i t e below.
2. If {q is not t h e B a r n - O w l it w o u l d be the c o m m o n O w l e t which too is very
noisy. The name occurs in a n d jrfff in ^W^FTRT is a wrong reading of
ffa-
102
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

situations in Bihar, M a d h y a Pradesh and further south. Even where these

Owls are common they are but seldom seen unless p u t up by beating through
the grass. They come out in the evening when they often perch on trees.
The following synonymy probably furnishes us with a name or epithet
for this bird :
"37J5T:
c\ e\ ^IH^fwP-l t — Tc\ S T n f c 2.211.
is clearly a homonymous adnoun or epithet designating several
objects, and as an epithet for an Owl it may ' be analysed as below:— 49
ips—cPTT
e - s V
( ) • st nr^T ; csir sret <s» hence 5RT5t
/ ' >a 7
c\ c\
is an Owl that moves
or lives in grass; cf. ^z ffir ^ s j H<Tld<<i: in ^w^repnTfe^frT 10.2. OTHER OWLS
also means a demon or Trertf (M.W.) and should, in this sense, refer to
one that hides and moves in tall grass or in the deeply dented banks of 1. This family constitutes a well defined group of predacious birds easy
rivers. It is thus just possible. that the name belongs to the of recognition. Most of them hunt for prey during the dark hours of the
Grass Owl. night but a few have diurnal or semi-diurnal habits. One particular species
eats carrion in addition to the common fare of all Owls consisting of insects,
small or large mammals and birds according to the size and strength of the
different species (of Owl). The Fish Owls subsist mainly on fish though
they kill other prey as well. All have broad rounded heads, flattened faces,
and large eyes directed forwards which give the bird a fearful expression
and a fixed gaze as it were (cf. f^TOT beloW). The feet are powerful
and furnished with sharp, curved and cutting claws of great grasping power
and it is with these that an Owl secures its food (usis!)). The
plumage is soft and downy enabling the bird to fly almost noiselessly.
2. The Indo-Aryans regarded the hooting Owls as birds of ill omen
but this apparently did not prevent them from observing the birds and their
ways. Early Buddhist monks who travelled widely to propagate the Gospel
of Lord Buddha in countries like Kashmir, Tibet and further north used
articles of dress like gloves, and perhaps also leggings and shoes, lined with
or made from soft feathered-skins of Owls for protection against the bitter
cold (see Art. 54). This involved the killing of a large variety of Owls
and the people naturally came to know something about them and that
perhaps accounts for the naming of individual species and groups of allied
forms of a bird that is rarely seen during the day and has never been kept
as a pet. T h a t the ancients made a close enough observational study of
these birds may be gathered not only from the works on augury now extant
—and these difinitely mention earlier authorities—but also from a know-
ledge of the reactions of a bird when intruded upon or annoyed at the nest.
All Owls hiss and snap their bills fiercely at an intruder and the larger ones
quite loudly: —

sH+i+Kdi
c\ Hc3T
c 4ic=hH<rd«IW
1.20.48.
Some of the larger Owls like the Tawny Fish-Owl occupy the deserted
nest of an Eagle for Laying their eggs and bringing up the young. This
1. h e r e simply m e a n s a n owl t h a t is not a S J s l ^
fact was known to the ancients, to wit, the story of a dispute between
 177 211
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and • Allied Birds

and STEI for the possession of a nest related in the third c a n t o i n t e r p o l a t e d

between cantos 59 a n d 60 of of the R a m a y a n a . IS? has been
C -S >0 C
used h e r e in the g e n e r a l sense of a bird of p r e y including the Eagle. It is
I n the following passages and a r e evidently the inaus-
a poor story, b a d l y told and the final j u d g m e n t of R a m a is also incorrect,
picious large h o o t i n g Owls as distinguished f r o m the Owlets w h i c h often
but t h a t is i m m a t e r i a l for our present purpose.
nest near or actually in h u m a n h a b i t a t i o n s : —
3. T h e c o m m o n names for a n O w l are and T h e first
n a m e p r o b a b l y refers to their noisy c h a r a c t e r (cf. s^rfcr, outcry), "qWFT ifmcf?—"
the second to their living and b r e e d i n g in holes (*Ptw), and the third to " RV. 10.165.4.
the d a r k brown p l u m a g e of some of t h e m . 1 T h e smallest Owls, viz. the "^TtcT ^ T ^ : ft^ct—"
Owlets, being k n o w n as e p i w , sM<M<Tl, P t ^ t t or f ^ r the t e r m has
V S . 24.38.
as a rule been confined to the larger h o o t i n g Owls b o t h in the R g v e d a
and later l i t e r a t u r e while the names 1^1+10)!+ a n d Tfroft belong to the "'TST: ^TtcTH tr^r
boldest a n d most powerful of t h e m all, the Forest Eagle O w l (see b e l o w ) . fawnu snrNwa- w r : qror ^ ^ n"
O n the other h a n d the so-called c o m m o n names like tort, crnTTT®, NO u n d e r qT^T-
fornfhr, R w a , irwft, sk^TH'I, w , sfrwsfa etc. are merely in the n a t u r e
of descriptive a d n o u n s stressing a p a r t i c u l a r h a b i t or c h a r a c t e r of a n ^ T t U l i N R t f , 2.29.
Owl. C o m p l e m e n t a r y n a m e s like +i+lP< and ^ f e m f r m e a n a n O w l a n d
a Crow respectively as m u t u a l enemies, a p a r t i c u l a r large O w l over- O n e w h o kills his friend is reborn as a large O w l destined to kill innocent
powering a n d killing a Crow at night a n d the latter h a v i n g the b e t t e r (i.e. friendly) birds all his life :—
of the former d u r i n g the day.
frra^xTT—" TS^PT, 2.2.80.
4. A p a r t f r o m the general classification based on the size of the birds
there is a n o t h e r w h i c h subdivides the family according to (1) the colour T h e s e hooting Owls h a v e b e e n mentioned as ^ f t w or ^ b o t h in
of the p l u m a g e , e.g. cTFjfa^ for the Bay Owl, s^ftspp for the W h i t e 42.62; 85.49 a n d TOcHM (pp. 245, 2 4 6 ) . W i t h these prelimi-
or Barn O w l (Art. 48) a n d fa-jfHi for the Owlets; (2) the shape of n a r y observations we m a y now proceed to a brief consideration of the
the h e a d , e.g. f N ^ u for the larger hooting Owls with a large r o u n d various types of O w l , their Sanskrit n a m e s a n d some references to
head a n d a m a r k e d depression on t h e f o r e h e a d which divides the h e a d t h e m in literature.
into two globes, as it were, resembling the prominences on the forehead
of a n e l e p h a n t (ifftspr) ; a n d (3) the w a y ear-tufts a r e carried, OWLETS:
e.g. K|i<fi<rj+ for one t h a t has long aigrettes or par-tufts resembling the long 6. T h e c o m m o n Spotted O w l e t of the towns, villages a n d gardens is
ears of a h a r e ; sssf^rf for one t h a t wears its ear-tufts always e r e c t ; a n d the best known O w l in I n d i a . T h i s is the srFSpTT or b i r d of a u g u r y m e n -
finally, h m k W or m+K+uf for those t h a t have their tufts spread out sideways. tioned as ft**) in«j£cuTs£di, 87.4 a n d as f r ^ , PT^TT,2 fa^srw, a n d pprfWr
Besides we have the n a m e for a p a r t i c u l a r species t h a t kills a n d in the 13th V a r g a of ^T'aTK. I n this work the b i r d ' s call-notes consisting
eats m a i n l y Crows a n d Wfffcp far one h a v i n g the ways of an eagle. of one to five syllables, its attitudes a n d m o v e m e n t s h a v e been described
a n d interpreted in g r e a t detail for purposes of a u g u r y . T h e TOI (HT+'M,
5. T h e following verse from the in is an interesting
noisy) of 7.104.17 a n d s m - H 8.4.17 would seem to .be this
c o m m e n t a r y on the epithet vfiwR:—
Owlet, Similarly the i+iRd+l of the <t>i+)*i+k of T^cisr w h o c o n d u c t e d
the day-blind O w l to his nest-hole should be this b i r d w h i c h does not shun

1. <4ddlRl+ (fr. <4dHlfl) for an O w l in the lexicons seems to be a wrong r e a d i n g

1. ET^Rrfr, T R f T W and <tie4S+|!)l h a v e listed the n a m e s of the larger Owls
of ^PTRT, for n o I n d i a n O w l has a red or reddish bill. The Himalayan Wood Owl,
a n d the Owlets separately. also has rfjft for the d a r k coloured Bulbul
however, with its fleshy-yellow bill makes the nearest approach to the adnoun. This
(Art. 6 ) so t h a t it is possible t h a t and iH + are allied forms m e a n i n g 'black or
verse occurs in cTgrpSTrfwr in a slightly different form.
d a r k colour'. 3rfkyH l -H<ilf4+l, 1023 actually gives iN^F in the sense of Sansk. T^WT
2. ft'MI m a y well m e a n yellow-eyed, a n d if so the name would correspond *o
for ^ f t a ^ a W h i ' - c l .
for the larger Owls.
2. ctTTTT. m a l i g n a n t or loving the darkness 5PTW.
 211
179 Eagles, Falcons and • Allied Birds
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

day-light. T h e name sM<tAd) (Owl's h a n d - m a i d ) is perhaps based on a
similar but more ancient story.
7. Smythies refers to certain calls of Owls as "having the character
of 'songs', i.e. either one note or a simple combination of notes repeated at
varying intervals" (p. 310). Thus the call of the Brown Wood Owl is said
to consist of four deep musical syllables, who-hoo-hoo-hoo (ibid.). This
reminds one of the story how the sage N a r a d a was advised to learn music
from an Owl residing near the Manasarovara lake on the Himalayas:
sitting dazed in the sunlight. During the breeding season it excels all other
Owls in the appalling n a t u r e of its cries as if half-a-dozen cats are fighting
(S. Baker). T h e adnouns ( w e t (blind by d a y ) and *K<u"l (having
atrocious calls) found in the synonymies for the Owl are therefore more
true of this than any other Owl. fairer for a kind of bird (the .Cat-bird)
in the following could well be for this bird except for the fact that "Tfcl
farm in Prakrit means the flying-fox or the large fruit b a t : —

q^JT iTcqfT c=f Tr^TcTT T h e most fitting n a m e for this Owl, however, is (the reddish
gr O w l ) which was emblazoned on the flag of the Jt5T tribe and called
O T T ^ s rof r f a STO:
c II"
E^srr in Ch. 16 o f ^ k r f w i ' s of . See also 148.90.
x x x
10. T h e I n d i a n Brown Hawk-Owl (12.5") is brown above and white
"wf: fero 3TSTT^r«rr w w r r wn"
marked with large drops of light brown below. I t has no aigrettes and has
X X X
a soft call of whoo-hoot repeated twice or thrice. I t is known as t i ^ i t
"THflrat *T*TTWT: ftrf^dl^-f qf«rwr" II1 in Bengal and the n a m e corresponds to Sansk. f^l^H* (M.W. under
frr^CFT, II.2.7-10 ^HP but not sub voce).
T h e point is that the ancient Indians also appreciated the musical calls 11. T h e Long-eared Owl (14.5")is distinguished by long tufts, usually
of the hated bird ! Now the Western H i m a l a y a n Barred Owlet, occurring borne erected (Ency. Brit. 11th edn.) and is most probably the OTt^r
from M u r e e to Simla and from Garhwal to Eastern Nepal, is which has served as a model for the face o f a particular a t t e n d a n t o f ? ^ : —
not only the most diurnal of all Owls but has also " a really very beautiful
rippling call: a whistle consisting of notes running into one another a n d
dying gradually a w a y " (S. Baker in F.B.I., 2nd e d n . ) . Similarly the Eastern * —M.Bh. 9.45.79.
Collared Pigmy Owlet of Nepal has a " r a t h e r metallic tonk-ta-tonk-tonk, Again, one of the 'matris' of the same deity is said to have had a face like
high pitched (call), usually repeated m a n y times. Often heard in the day- that of the SPffr^ :—
t i m e " (Smythies, p. 311). T h e former goes by the name of in
" W T W H W T FPSTT +U|MM<>J|L CPTT" I
Hindi which is the same as Sansk. for a small Owl. firer ( s ^ ^ f a s r W ch. 30
HTRT) is probably an onomatopoetic word and would seem to be related
to Prakrit ^fsft for ufl«fwr, an old or perhaps a small a n d slightly STcffrre in the Venkateshwara edition is a misprint. This Owl breeds
damaged bell. T h e n a m e therefore clearly refers to the bell-like notes in the Himalayas and is found in the outer ranges from Kashmir to Sikkim.
of the above two Owlets, and both are s^fsr ersWjfi. 12. T h e Short-eared Owl (15") is a winter visitor and prefers thick
8. T h e Scops Owl is practically the same size as the common Spot- grassy plains of the Terai areas of North India. Its ear-tufts are so small
that they are " h a r d l y discernible even at close r a n g e " (Smythies). Its
ted Owlet but unlike the latter it is entirely nocturnal and possesses well
call is a shrill clear keaw, keaw (ib.) and the name W W ( W W W wfiRq
developed aigrettes which are carried in a n erect position. T h e call is a
s ^ f t i f e r — f o r an Owl would seem to belong to it. T h e only
soft and musical too-whoo or too-whit. I t should be the
other Owl having a call like the Crow's is the Snowy Owl '(Para. 20
mentioned in s r f w r o s p s under c\ ' after the erect ear-tufts of the below). T h e correct form of the word is probably <t>i<t><s>t> as in and
bird. iffoft, and like spppfa simply means an Owl in general. If so the short-
9. T h e body-plumage of the Northern Bay Owl (11.5") is o f a chestnut eared Owl has n o particular name in Sanskrit. It is however also
colour on the upper parts including the tail, a n d vinous pink below. I t possible that both the forms and existed and had different
occurs in Nepal a n d further east in the H i m a l a y a n valleys. I t is entirely meanings but came later to be mixed up.
nocturnal in its habits and in the day-time the most stupid and incapable
of all Owls, allowing itself to be captured by the hand and, when released, HOOTING OWLS:
13. If S B and +\Pfi+ are common names for all large Owls
1. T h e b i r d of these verses w o u l d seem to be t h e H i m a l a y a n B r o w n W o o d - O w l w i t h a
irrespective of their calls, the name (<} m f i r ) is specific for
" d e e p musical call—who—hoo—hoo—hoo" (Smythies).

Birds in Sanskrit Literature
hooting Owls. or ^ w 1 again, is a hooting Owl (^TO: — Ir^P?) and
if from root 'to burn or bake' the n a m e m a y well refer to the darker
coloured birds like the Brown Fish-Owl, " a large heavy b r o w n " bird and
the Indian Great Horned-Owl described as " a large dark brown o w l "
(Salim Ali). T h e n a m e j^rm vnrf smprRr stttoft ?, cf. jsnsft wjfa^T, Art.
40), on the other hand refers to the habit of laying the eggs and bringing
u p the young on the bare ground which is characteristic of Scully's
Wood-Owl, the Himalayan Brown Wood-Owl and a couple of others.
There is yet another classification of these Owls with respect to the
presence or absence of ear-tufts. T h e Wood-Owls have no tufts on their
large round heads and they are the of the M a h a b h a r a t a , cf.
M.Bh. 9.45.75:—
IqodHif yT f^ftSPF: S R F l t "
M.Bh.
O n e may well ask, what exactly is the connection between yr and the
Owl ? yr is a pan-cake made from batter prepared with some flour
and the cake on being fried in oil or ghee assumes a brown colour and is
pitted all over in a lighter shade, thus resembling the mottled plumage of
the bird, and hence the propriety of the sentence on the person guilty of
stealing the cake.
14. O t h e r members of the group possess long pointed ear-tufts which
emerge outwards in a curve from the head. These are the Fish-Owls and
the Horned-Owls one of which, said to be a resident of the Himalayas and
given the fully descriptive name of HMK+if, is mentioned in the
M a h a b h a r a t a as a long-lived b i r d : srfef g^r ffnrefo MHK<t>"Ml«ti<ffi:—
3.199.4. T h e section of re?, on the other hand, mentions the
Crow-killing species of Owls, their king sTR^r and the latter's minister
»II>K.I»M. Now as there is only one particular species of Owl in India, the
Dusky Horned-Owl, that kills and eats Crows, the very apt name of
5TFPTW? belongs to it. There is also a clear reference to the Crow-
killing habit of this Owl in the R a m a y a n a . When after a break with
KlTT, R'ffTW goes over to R a m a the latter's ally warns him against the
Owl-like tactics of the enemy:—
" f r ^ T K ^ R <?T®S^T WTtmi"
Again, it was after seeing this Owl work havoc among the Crows at
night that srw^mi determined to kill the TF^r's while asleep during
the night (M.Bh. 1.2.296), and the Epic gives us an interesting description
of the b i r d : —
1. I believe it is possible to d e d u c e the m e a n i n g o f ' t h e brown colour', t h e colour of
c h a r r e d or b u r n t m a t e r i a l , in a secondary sense f r o m t h e root T^T to
(M.W.).
183182
Other Owls
c\
m ^ s F f t r>
^ c ^ s r w H ' g^fpT =T!AMH WnRTRR?: Ii"
M.Bh. 10.1.36
The also relates the above incident and calls the Owl TW after
tiro, the powerful Bearded Vulture:—
c\ o. ° ' ^
31.44-45
13.111.101. W e have, therefore, STRR^of or srr+K+'Jl-^ for the Fish-Owls and
Horned Owls as a group, and or qrafcp for the Dusky
Horned Owl. ^ for a kind of Owl in M . W . m a y be one of these
(cf. TfFfOT above)" or the name, more probably, refers to the next bird,
the
15. T h e magnificent Forest Eagle Owl (24°) is one of the largest and
the most powerful members of the entire family. It is dark brown above
and fulvous barred dark brown below and wears long dark brown aigrettes
like its cousin, the Great Horned Owl. T h e feathers on the face are bristly
and the tarsus is fully feathered. It breeds in the outer Himalayas in the
N o r t h and in the forests of the Nilgiris and M a l a b a r in the South. I t is
bold and daring like an Eagle and preys much upon the same kinds of birds
and animals as an Eagle does. "As soon as it is twilight it sallies off after
its prey and when hungry does not hesitate to h u n t by daylight. For this
purpose it quits the heavy forest and takes to the open country, light scrub
and bamboo jungle, or thin deciduous forest. This Owl is certainly the
boldest of all Owls. I t preys constantly on the largest pheasants, jungle-fowl
d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e to attack pea-fowl... saw one feasting on a big civet
a n d
cat which showed by the marks that it had been killed by the bird. T h e
power of its grip is extraordinary and it will drive its claws half an inch
deep into the leg or a r m of a m a n . T h e usual note is a very deep mumble,
6.17.19. and when, as was often the case, a pair perched on my house-roof at night,
the noise sounded just like two old men conversing in very deep tones.
I t also has a loud caterwaul—a single note very seldom used but very
piercing. 2 It.eats fish, snakes and monitor lizards as well as game etc. and
1. T h e sources of a d n o u n s like s f t e s f a , f f o r T ^ T , a n d ^ r f ^ T of the lexicons
for a n O w l a r e p e r h a p s to b e f o u n d in these passages. T h e D u s k y H o r n e d O w l has been
c o m p a r e d to TRT because of its very pale grey p l u m a g e resembling t h a t of t h e Bearded
Vulture.
2. Also a call of " t w o soft b u t resounding booms at a b o u t 3 seconds interval a n d
bake or burn
a u d i b l e f r o m a great d i s t a n c e " — S m y t h i e s . H e n c e the H i n d i n a m e of f f for it.
 182
will also devour carrion, for I once disturbed it eating the remains of a
tiger and once that of a g o a t " (S. Baker in F.B.I., second edition). I t is
also "said to kill., .young d e e r " (Blanford and Oates, F.B.I., first edition).
16. This Owl is the Tfnrsff ('the great bird', in Prakrit)
of the lexicons, the ^i+lfei* (the Great-Owl) of G a r u d a P u r a n a , and
WTftPii the carrion-eating Owl of the M a h a b h a r a t a . defines it
as u n d e r : —
"TlfPTSft ^ fWiftsrft
i.e. the great bird is of a dark colour and an Eagle of the night. fcTRTsr
is a homonym and means (i) the tree Cassia fistula, known also as
and (beautiful leaved or gold-coloured), from its long drooping
racemes of yellow flowers regarded as garlands (ftTT THT *PT); (ii) the spotted
deer which occurs in flocks or in long lines when on the move; and (iii)
one wearing a sort of garland or tuft of some thing. T h e last meaning
is not given in the lexicons but in the present connection the a d n o u n
ramraw, descriptive of a bird, is comparable with the Sansk. names
and Trfer for the Tufted Pochard (Art. 84, C . ) . In this sense the
epithet would seem to refer to the long ear-tufts on the Owl's head. But it
is also possible that the author of the ^^rwt wishing to describe the bird
as 'a night Eagle' has used I K T R T ^ as a synonym or substitute for
due to the exigency of the metre which called for a longer word. 1
T h e phrase ypifftcr used in the M a h a b h a r a t a for the Dusky Horned
Owl, quoted above, would seem to support this last interpretation. Be that
as it may, the name for a kind of Owl in ^sfFxit is fully appropriate to
this great bird. I n the same way ir^rertfipp occurring as the title of a
charm or quoted in the G a r u d a P u r a n a , 1.134 refers to this bird. T h e r e
the guttaral conversational notes of the Owl have been given a set form
just as the various calls o f t h e Spotted Owlet have been conveniently
rendered for purposes of augury in 13. 25-33 and ^sr'f^iT,
87. 38-39.
17. T h e mythological story of the destruction of the sacrifice being
performed by w r t is related in the M a h a b h a r a t a , 12.283 where
a dwarfish demon born out of a drop of Siva's perspiration pursues and
destroys the IRT who having assumed the form of a deer was fleeing
u p a hill. T h e physical characteristics of the dwarf are said to resemble
those of the (Eagle-Owl):—
" ^ W b R t W TrRTCft FiR^jfTiffatfl": I
i W K - m d q q q II
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Other Owls
183
H e r e the reference is clearly to an Owl having the habits and courage of
an Eagle. ^Pcwj corresponds to the whity-brown bristly feathers on the
face o f t h e bird; to the long aigrettes; fnsoreof and ^Rrercr to the
dark brown and fulvous colour of the bird; and srfrRwr^ stands for its soft
and downy plumage. I t is also interesting to note that the demon, like
the Eagle Owl, is made to kill a deer. T h e m t ^ i would thus seem to
be our Eagle Owl.
l" 18. Again, the carrion-eating Owl of the same Epic cannot but be
this bird:—
''qCT^Wraq^fm^wiT T) l" 7.167.83
and the Owl eating away the bodies of sinners in hell with other carrion-
birds is the same:—
c c\ c
2.3.14.
(Venkateshwar E d i t i o n ) ;
w t q ^ O T r r , 12.9. ( I b i d . )
19. T h e Eagle Owl goes under the name of f f or gfar in H i n d i
and fimtfl (jprertifr - f t m t ^ - f t m ! ^ ?) in Bhutan. This is probably the same
as the TORT of R V . 7.104.22 (TO—§f). T h e Bhutanese name, if it means
'enemy of deer', would also be significant. According to Sayanacarya
WS? 7 means afifrcn-p.(?) an Owlet, i.e., a minor enemy, would
then be a more powerful enemy working at night a n d an enemy
couple moving about a n d working together like a pair of ^ r o r birds, cf.
" ^ ^ c p a r s t " (AV. 14.2.64).
20. T h e Snowy Owl is again a large bird with a length of twenty three
inches and a wing-span of about five feet. I t is a pure white bird with a few
brown ba;s on the upper parts and is feathered to the toes for protection
against the cold of the circumpolar region which is its breeding home.
Its voice is " a cry harsh like the crow's". I t is very bold a n d does not hesi-
tate to attack the m a n who molests him—even dogs. I t preys upon wild
pigeons, ducks, ptarmigans, fish etc. in day-light but during winter it also
hunts at night (Cassess's Book ofBirds). I n winter it moves down to Central
Europe and Central Asia and has once been obtained in North-West P u n j a b .
I t is possible that in the long past this Owl bred more plentifully in its
native haunts and was therefore seen more often in the Himalayas and the
North-West of I n d i a . T h e vrs^wr^T renders tot as a large Owl

1 Prakrit Wp^Rfor J-WW of a j f r o # I exactly corres-

p o n d s to the n a m e w f f i j j F . means calling ; g, clearly points to the
1. $TTr>rat, t h e t r e e B o m b a x m a l a b a r i c a , is also a s y n o n y m f o r gquf, t h e G o l d e n H i n d i n a m e | | for this O w l . ^ in is a b i r d of p r e y , t h e K i t e . T h e c r e s t e d
E a g l e w h i c h is also g ^ l f ^ ; cf. J f P W for ; cf. also w o r d s like frff^TW, S e r p e n t - E a g l e is c a l l e d ^ (fr. P r . a hill; Hill-Kite) in H i n d i . Although the
<T35sr5r, i.e. w h i c h m e a n b o t h a p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t a n d a particular bird q^jf: O w l h a s b r o w n eyes t h e d e m o n ' s r e d eyes e m p h a s i z e his fiery n a t u r e .
2 . ^ P S c l e a r l y i m p l i e s t h a t <TPP is n o t a «|St5T=J>.
Ig4 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

and the name of a particular Tnsra by killing whom I n d r a received the

title of TOW (ibid.). <TT^ also means' 'a child' and the 'grey or
white colour'. T h e term m X * may thus refer either to an Owlet (fww^r
of STPTT) or a large white Owl just as <rrc>&r means the all-white Swan
(Art. 84-A).
21. Now it is quite possible that this powerful Owl capable of killing
large birds and bold enough to attack m a n was the physical basis for the
<TT* Demon killed by I n d r a just as the gigantic Adjutant Stork (sra?) is at
the bottom of the mythological ^T^T 1 (Stork-Demon) killed by young
K r s n a . W e also have the various types of Demons (n§) named after
large birds like etc. in the Rgveda, 7.104.17. Finally the
adnoun ^ ^ m e a n s both an Owl and a demon (para 2, Art. 4 8 ) . If
the above conjecture has a certain amount of probability in it the name
m^U-H, may well belong to the Snowy Owl. T h e epithet o f ^ f > for I n d r a
also m a y have something to do with his killing the 'Owl-demon', the
7FP TISW.

1. wracf, 10. 11.48 ff. Cf. also cp^T in b i r d f o r m i n f f c j s r , 2 . 6 . 2 2 a n d t h e t w o sons

3JTfe a n d spji ( B l a c k a n d W h i t e I b i s ) of W a ^ i ^ J in W T j m T , 156, 11 ff.
 50
OSPREY

1. T h e Osprey stands in a family by itself, being in some respects a link

between the Owls and the diurnal raptores. It is a magnificent fisher, a n d
dives f r o m a great height for fish which is its principal food. I t frequents
large rivers and lakes a n d also the sea along the coast. Its voice is a short
shrill musical whistle repeated a n u m b e r of times at a stretch. Unlike the
Fishing and the Sea Eagles it does not stoop to eating carrion. It is brown
above a n d white below, with a whitish h e a d . It is known as and
T3T1T in H i n d i corresponding to f x x and JTcFTTf (-wh) in Sanskrit.
Recognition of as a bird of prey is to be found in the fact t h a t
it is supposed to be the progeny of wrcfr the sister of w f t :—

Tenprar, g f c a n r r , 6,64.

AM a n d later lexicographers h a v e treated JTT a n d as synonymous

a n d have therefore done a w a y w i t h the old distinction between the Osprey
on the one h a n d a n d the Fishing and Sea Eagles on the other simply
because they too like the former kill fish for f o o d : —

" s ^ W t HcWH'i^K: — f V d m f o r
" f r f r T r ^ F m H : l" %KHrfl

^ ^ a n d W > however, have kept t h e m a p a r t , the former as fTT a n d

the l a t t e r as and the same distinction obtains in Buddhist a n d
Sanskrit literature as well. on explains JTT as " f r r f ^ ^ r d
TOWtotot:, ^m^wfr, sfe a n d ^ f w as i.e. a bird
resembling, or a kind of This is as it should be, for the fishing

1. T h i s e q u a t i o n is really a h o m o n y m o u s one covering t h e O s p r e y , Fishing Eagles,

G u l l s , T e r u s a n d t h e C u r l e w . F o r t h e last two it m u s t b e t a k e n in t h e f e m i n i n e g e n d e r —
S f ^ f a f t JXCt See A r t 68. F o r gpCT as t h e Demoiselle c r a n e See A r t . 62.
 186 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Osprey 187
Eagles and the white-bellied Sea-Eagle have very loud and raucous calls
and are therefore ^ W r , whereas the call of the Osprey is a shrill sfrpT: are the Swans—See Art. 84A. In the however, j t ? ,
musical whistle and it is for this reason i s a common name described as holding a snake in its talons, is not the Osprey which does
for Kingfishers and has been extended to these large fishers both in not kill or eat snakes but the White-bellied Sea-Eagle, which lifts u p
popular nomenclature and in poetry. T h e fishing Eagles do not dive for
sea-snakes for food. T h e line dividing ^xk and is so thin that
fish but take it from the surface of the water or from the shallows.
they are often confused both in the lexicons and literature.
in the following verse is therefore the Osprey diving in the sea for fish:
"'HI+UIW ^rsrfs^ff f X t 'TT I
'TftaTff ^TSTTFf ftnfot: l"
ftf ff ^rrsft ^J^MT o w j t f l f ^ ^ ^ II"
54.59.
in the following are either Gulls or Ospreys: —ftrtfipJ: i.e. as in the verse from the ' ( n w . For Fishing and Sea
Eagles see Art.52C.
"5TFTR; p r r ^HRmvU: TiT: d w M ^ r :
fUT: TOIH? fd^dPcT qcrf^T:" |H
t t r w j t , iv.52.12.
' f i x ' with the descriptive epithet of is the Demoiselle crane
which rarely, if ever, swims and never dives, so also the tfrar, the Indian
crane. Both these birds cannot therefore be intended and %TOIT':
must be understood to mean swimming and diving birds in general i.e.
other than the Geese, Ducks and Gulls.
2. T h e fonrc smpp, verse 2106, mentions ^ r ( g ^ r ) and f i x as
different birds in the Himalayas and the commentaty explains ^ p -
as ^TfTT 'dark-plumaged' and f t * as ^fXK 'white-plumaged' which
agrees very well with the dark-grey or brown body-colour of the Fishing
Eagles, and the white head and lower parts of the Osprey respectively.
There is an interesting play upon the word f i x in its two different meanings
of Osprey and Demoiselle Crane in a story of the Hjimud wheie
the fish-eating bird f i x , having, once upon a time, been punished with
death for taking life by the vegetarian birds (Swans), is changed into a
mainly vegetarian f i x , the C r a n e :

"mftw f T t ^sqiTFT fiuiP^': I

m f m w M f W i i d fTT: n"
12.179.9
This example of the virtue of giving u p meat-eating is r e p e a t e d in H-.^J'OT,
^ T F K W (185.10), a n d the has the following:

"sTTfa? f r ? ^TST: ^ p f t q- PKIPW: i

d^ifw ^^Pd^ci n"
11.9.2

'• T h e A l l a h a b a d edition reads : f o r CTRTWMW: If t h e d e s c r i p t i o n —

SHFTfasm:. . . is c o n f i n e d o n l y t o p T J it is possible t o r e n d e r a n d JTTOT of
t h e s e c o n d l i n e as r e f e r r i n g t o t h e D e m o i s e l l e a n d flTOf c r a n e s .
 Vultures and Lammergeyer 189

4.3 TO and TO> mean the Common Kite. SF^Ffrfr, indeed defines the Kite
as a STsTTOt. Similarly the term srjft also in the sense of 'a large bird' is
occasionally used for a Vulture, e.g. in :

''^tmfWTRr: WfM^RH iffR

i f t K M W SffeT: ^FTTftRfa 'TSnTJ"
TTT1TT, 5 . 3 5 , 6 2 .

51 3 All birds of prey are mythologically descended from a common

ancestor by different Bird-mothers like *mfr, Tart, etc. which shows
VULTURES AND LAMMERGEYER their close affinity and yet separates them into subfamilies :

"w^ft stthV JTSTT??

1. The Vultures of India have been distributed into five genera, four
f ^ m i ' i i , 1.21.16.
of which are represented by a single species and one by three. Two of
these last, the Fulvus and the Himalayensis, look very much alike in the The ancients were expert bow-men and had ample opportunities of
field and appear to be members of a single species as the colour of the studying and gaining knowledge about these and other large birds which
plumage in both is variable in shades of fulvous, fulvous-brown and fawn. they often killed for their quills with which to feather their arrows. T h e
We have, therefore, six readily distinguishable species of Vulture, and story of prince TtTSrT is an instance in point :
including the Lammergeyer, seven. The following statement shows the
genera, the species, their size, and common English and Sanskrit names: "cTFT fevrr ^ci: Tsft 'T^T
^WTSTlf^cIRT =ar ^fTCRrfr
GENUS SPECIES SIZE ENG. N A M E SKT. N A M E , 137, 74-77.
Monachus 42" Cinereous w or wra^Kr The describes seven sages or singers as seven Eagles and mentions
Aegypius
Vulture an equal number of Vultures;
Calvus 32" Black V. or
Sarcogyps
G^AR- o r ^TO-TST 'Vdq^iT •• •wtot sfa w w ^nr"
AV. 8.9, 17-18,
i. Fulvus &) 41 "-47"
Gyps
Himalayensis) Griffon 7F3T and curiously enough six species of true Eagles and roughly, six of
ii. Indicus 38" Long-billed V. WfpT TO Vultures occur in North India, and with the Bearded Vulture included in
Pseudogyps Bengalensis 35" White-backed fwfTOST 1ST each group we have seven of each kind as stated above.
V. 4. Vultures appear to have been divided into three groups, viz.,
Neophron Perenopterus 24"-26" White Scaven- (i) TO, (ii) and (iii) WW, as the following verse from f^WOTfrTT
ger V. or Tt^S quoted in w^wr^T under fa^r and 7F5T would show :
Gypaetus Barbatus 48" Bearded V. TRT, 3T5T3T, 3TT3T-TO
' V f : JTST: ^TtTJ? #T ^
2. The Bearded Vulture, with a fully feathered head and neck, >T| TFT Md^cl ^ cRT l"
occupies an intermediate position between the Vultures proper and the The name (i) TO would seem to be confined to birds of a dark or brown
true Eagles but has been placed with the latter in the F. B. I. There is colour (cf. the synonyms a w T and TO^-—"TO ^r TO^nf
reason to believe that the ancient Indians also regarded him both as a and Kalidasa's description of this darker group of carrion birds—"smroV
Vulture and an Eagle. Later on, however, his affinity with the Neophron igotn^iui" in Raghuvamsa, 15, 16); (ii) t t o t to those of a lighter colour;
(WRR7) was recognized under the names wmand T^ftET, and he is there- and (iii) *mr to still lighter or almost white ones. Next we have names
fore included in this Article. The term TO, now a common name for all for the seven individual species falling within these three groups and they
Vultures, originally a p p l i e l to all birds of prey including the Eagles as is are considered below.
clear from its use in TOWT"—RV.
C >
9.96,6,
' 5
and has been so used in (1) The Cinereous Vulture (48") is a bird of immense size and of a
classical literature as well. Thus the snake-lifting TOT: of ch. 5 uniform dark-brown colour with the neck naked. H e is known as ^^rPTS
can only be the Serpent Eagles while in Tfc^rstTT^rTl', 15.212 and snfta^PTteT,

191 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
in Hindi which is the same as tttwto of 214, 93-94 named as one
of the myrmidons of god Yama in hell, detailed to torture persons found
guilty of certain offences. T h e WRTO ( d a r k - b r o w n ; cf. WRT, the night)
of the following would also appear to be this bird :
"^^RT wRfr faffT irrfiR fcrg;:"
AV. 7.95.1.
(2) T h e Black Vulture (32") is distinguished by his red head and
neck and red wattless behind the ears. H e is a bird of solitary habits and
confined to the outer Himalayas and the plains of India. At a carrion-
feast other members of the fraternity often " h o l d this bird in wholesome
respect and give way before its superior spirit and d e m e a n o u r " (Whistler),
and the red of his upper parts and the ear-lappets ( b e i n g distinctive
account for his names like f s t r ^ (flame-red; cf. Prakrit 5ta3rt = ),
and g r o in the list of names of the progeny of T53 in T^TTRcT,, 5,101,9-12;
xwtrPtT^ red-headed; w j in M . Williams; cf. TRFT a n d vrM^rr^RrfpT in
Bengali; and wfw^-or * f P J f f - T O : -
" w f t r a r f : WRTt'TS: T W f f m : " — M . Bh. 7. 175. 18-
"q^jaTH — P t . 2,7. 448.
"sppF ( ^ f ? ) 1STTSJ — C h . 69.327.
For the mythological explanation why this TO deserted the higher
Himalayas the reader is referred to Art. 1-B.
T h e carrion-eating ferfr: o f R V . 10.87.7, AV. 8.3.7, and T . Samhita,
5.5.16, rendered as a particular bird of a reddish colour by «rriTT on AV.
and as spotted kites (?) by Griffith would appear to be this Vulture. If,
on the other hand, it is an animal, the n a m e m a y possibly be the same
as the later fefa or fefesrc for the fox or jackal. T h e interpretation of
TOT or T.S. as 'the red-faced monkey' is impossible as no monkey is
known to be a carrion-eater.
(3) T h e White-backed Vulture (35") is of a dark leaden colour with
a conspicuous large white patch across the r u m p , white lining to the
wings and white flanks. H e is clearly theftrftpfrfsfRof tffiprr, 5.5.20 from
TOT 'arm-pit or waist, also flank'; cf. P^w+w, 'wearing a golden girdle'.
TOT in the name refers either to the r u m p as the bird's waist or to his
flanks. T h e name for a son of in TTtmm, 4.59,8 also refers to
him. This complets the list ofTOT:as dark or brown coloured Vultures.
( 4 ) T h e Griffon (Gyps fulvus, 41"-47") occurs in India in three forms
or geographical races, viz., the European, the Indian, and the H i m a l a y a n ,
but they resemble one another so closely that they are not ordinarily
separable in the field (Whistler). T h e head, body and the front p a r t of
wings are a dirty white and the remainder of the plumage is brownish
grey and black. In the Himalayan form (44"-49") the contrast between
211
Eagles, Falcons and • Allied Birds
the whitish undeibody and the black wings is conspicuous during flight.
T h e bill is deep and laterally compressed. T h e Griffons are in the habit
of congregating in large numbers at fixed resting places on rocky cliffs,
but if a good meal is obtained in the plains they assemble on trees. T h e y
a l s o breed in colonies on cliffs; cf. TO*? for a fig-tree and TOTO:, for a
m o u n t a i n on which Vultures cangregate or breed in numbers. T h e y are
evidently the or TFfT (-TO) of the verse quoted in para. 4 above,
and the irccF^ (having a high or deep beak) of TOTfPftr which also refers
to their great size and gregarious habits :
"3rfq- H-g-ld^Kt FTRT i H ^ i t T^T^tt:
T h e Griffon is always well represented at a carrion-feast and this fact
accounts for the punishment in store for a flesh-eating glutton in his next
birth—-"iFf*: T w n r w " — t s s j t p t , 2.2,71. This vulture is the and
qidPwi of M a h a b h a r a t a , 5.101 and is also the basis for the mythological
tfrqTfa (flying or settling down together), brother of s r m :—
f t c p j p V # Trrafr^TTft ^
sq^ftsfad^d 3F"TT% ! ^OTTHSHdd"—'TPTFIW, 4.60, 19-20
( 5 ) T h e Northern Long-billed V u l t u r e (Gyps indicus, 38") is again
a pale coloured but m u c h smaller bird than the Griffon. In general
colouration he varies from dark to buffish brown, has no feathers at all
on the head and scarcely any down on the neck, and differs in this respect
from all the preceding birds. He is known as * T R F T in Hindi corresponding
to Skt. sripr, 'rendered as a vulture or kite' in M . Williams. I n the follow-
ing equation from JrP?fft srgpr is specific for a particular kind of bird, and
the ^m^Pst^T commentary on the Pd+iwm also renders as a V u l t u r e
and the name should therefore belong to this bird :
" s T f ^ tTOH q f a H M M f a f a w f t : "
I n Bengal the name Hfpr has been extended to the White-backed Vulture
as well.
(6) T h e White Scavenger Vulture or the Neophron occurs in two
sizes (24" & 26") in India. T h e larger Egyptian variety ranges from
about Delhi to the extreme North-West and the smaller is common
throughout the country but is rare in the territory of the former. Both
h a u n t towns and villages and live largely on h u m a n excreta and d u n g
and occasionally on carrion. T h e name STTH really belongs to the Bearded
Vulture but has been applied to this bird as well because of his white
plumage. Strictly speaking, however, his .size and habits fully justify the
more correct name (stptr, jf^raTif-^) for him, as indeed he is called
in the following verse :
TH ^ w srrcr srffr:"
Bhagavata. 3.10,23 (Bengal
edition, cited in under ^ 5 ) .
192 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and • Allied Birds 211
O t h e r names are t>5-, iftewx, 'ilwfH< and sff^T. T h e first four ichneumon which helps to protect herds of goats and farm animals
emphasize his mean status and correspond to his European name, 'the against snakes and other vermin and must therefore have been a welcome
Pharaoh's chicken' and the following synonymies connect them with the tenant of the early settlements probably even before the cat was domesti-
last n a m e as also withsmr:— cated, 1 and the third, the innocuous Vulture being in attendance about the
"?mft sfte-f^JHTTOTl:"—fawFTST. settlements, is indicative of their prosperity and well-being. Soaring low
over them he typifies the supervising and protective function of g^T. It is
not without reason t h a t ^ T has no teeth and is compulsorily a vegetarian,
for the idea seems to be to place this guardian of the herds beyond the
T h e names based on or ^ft^ ( a village or settlement of cowherds) temptation of even killing any of his wards for what would otherwise be to
refer to the bird's habit of frequenting the neighbourhood of villages but him a dainty meat-dish, and the bird chosen for him is also one that
the etymology of the name srjs^ for this particular bird is not clear and rarely eats carrion and depends principally upon a very low type of soft
even j^Hij contents himself by merely saying—"umMlsfaftrere — srf^ 0 food.
f^TTo. It is however important to note that the bird goes by the name of T h e name Ki+dK (v.l. si+dM ), again, for ' a bird of prey' would a p p e a r
<fl«U<ng (Dung-Vulture) in Hindi and this may perhaps help to etymolo- to be this Vulture, and the name may well have something to do with W
gise sripcr as jfl^r w f i r ; or w^Tf Tssftr (?) 1 , for he is (dung) and ew-CTsr 'to disturb' and have the same sense as Neither of
also seen descending to farm refuse or cow-dung. these two names can be from sr^-srecft as this bird has nothing to deserve a
T h e power of flight of this junior *mr in regard to speed and alti- name indicative of strength, and I repeat that his Hindi name of 'Dung-
tude has been rated above that of the Sparrows and the Crows and as Vulture' lends strong support to the derivations suggested above. If, on
equal to that of birds like the Storks, Ibises, Herons, etc. (^s^T:) and the other hand, the n a m e srf^T is also applicable to the powerful Bearded
the Fishing Eagles including the Osprey. Then come in order the Vulture, it must be treated as a homonym and derived from the root
commoner Eagles and Hawks, the large or true Vultures, the Swans and
Geese, and finally, the Golden Eagle : This "base and degrading o b j e c t " is clearly the fosir^K (feTTER, a mean
"3ffST: T?STT: j f c P f F I T ? ^RT a M^fl'Rd': or low bird) and *l<sUH®r (v.l. ^ ^ R ^ ) from W|pT,3 impotent o r weak
Vulture) of Prakrit Lexicons. T h e snpr birds, again, who, according to
feftm % ^ fSPT^ITW:
1.72.12-13 protected the infant wjipcraT were apparently a p a r t y of
these harmless Vultures. H e is also the f W of a story related in the
^rm'iwdW jrt:
sn^PT, I I . 438. T h e Asura-Panis who were the keepers of the cows
of I n d r a and other gods stole and hid them in a deep valley. T h e gods
qss^ q^rr f^rrTt f q w r f o : TO" therefore flatteringly addressed the bird as a g w (having excellent or
R a m a y a n a , 4.58,24-27. powerful wings) and commissioned him to discover the whereabouts of
It is an admitted fact that the Golden Eagle ( t ^ T , g w ) soars to a the cows. H e actually discovered them but, accepting a bribe of ^fsr a n d
greater height than any other bird (British E n c y . — " E a g l e " ) . snfasTT from the Panis, told a lie and betrayed the trust reposed in him by
T h e White Scavenger V u l t u r e is apparently the most tame and
harmless member of the group and soars high enough but not very high. 1. Cf. — f o r the pet i c h n e u m o n s o m e t i m e s acts t r e a c h e r o u s l y

T h e name ?r=frT in the following, rendered as wffor by the commentator, a n d kills d o m e s t i c p o u l t r y .

would seem to "stand 2. T h e s y n o n y m y " w f t f r a ' y Hlfeilldl — f a ' H M + lill, h a s b e e n i n a d v e r t e n t l y

a n w f sfor
s f tthis bird :
?ppr: ^ qVrr:"
mis-interpreted both in and M . Williams, for overlooking the d u a l termina-
—Vaj. Samhita, 24, 32. tion of t h e compound feflMJ'+JdWyifl:. They have i n c o r r e c t l y split up nlodjtji

stffcr means iwrsff in and J|>i$<t$d in rHH"d<Hl+< which therefore ( a single s y n o n y m for STRT) i n t o t f t e a n d J<t$d a n d r e n d e r e d *TT as ( i ) a c o w - p e n , and

settles its identity. God yr* is regarded as the keeper of flocks and herds (ii) a Cock ! T h e n a m e s i m p l y m e a n s ' a b i r d of a c a t t l e - s e t t l e m e n t o r of a v i l l a g e ' . H e is

of goats, cattle, etc., and bringer of prosperity. Being toothless he lives on o n e of t h e village b i r d s a n d a n i m a l s ( I R n : ) in 3)pH<£<|U|, 231.11. TTCT as a TO

a kind of gruel and is therefore known as ^r^TK also. Of the three living in t h e s y n o n y m y is t h e P c a r d e d - V u l t u r e or t h e L a m m e r g e y e r .

things dedicated to this deity the first is his own mount, the second, an 3 . Cf. ifsfor S&fipfiT i n JTfmrra-, 3.33.13. P r a k r i t i p r e t for STO TSfr i n M HI1*1MI
w o u l d refer to this V u l t u r e if >T?!r¥T is f r o m >TT a n d open ground, or STJ^JT a
1. c f . SKft ^ t ^ S T R ^ ^ai^HWH+I^Wia^+^^Rrra; 5T: I x i ^ c q i f q q q -
b i r d ; cf. *T<H?I<M as a n a d n o u n f o r t h e P i e d M y n a .
wra: i—srs^^Ft^T.

195
the gods. I n d r a , suspecting what had happened, took the bird in his
hand a n d proved his deceipt by squeezing out the arrfirerc eaten by him. He
then let him go with the curse, " M a y thy sustenance be of bad origin",
a n d that is why the bird now feeds on what is found in the dirty outskirts
of a village :—
"g"T<if FTT *TT IT I ^fa
4MHIdlif srfa": sfkrr srrflTSTT ^flW^T? OTfa^ST: I
g q ^ tnr ft tt ireK
5rms¥5ft?rsFcr ^ sffajr ?rt jft IT 3rf«r?r err ^ a r c m ffrr i
arw l a ? ^TTFT ^T^TST qfq'Tfq'Ej a ^ t a ^ n r i"
Needless to say that the story is based upon the habits of the bird and
fully supports his later names like ifte-Jpffs and nVsr. T h e statement
attributing the power of separating milk from water to this S u p a r n a in
the Vedic I n d e x of Names and Subjects is incorrect.
7. T h e majestic Lammergeyer (Lamb-Vulture) or Bearded V u l t u r e
(48") is a huge Eagle-like bird distinguished from other Vultures by a
fully feathered head and neck, and a beard consisting of a tuft of long
black bristles descending perpendicularly from the chin and similar brist-
les overhanging the base of the upper mandible (correspoding to
moustaches in m a n ) . T h e head and throat are white speckled with black;
neck all round, and lower parts white, tinged with ferruginous; upper
back and small wing-coverts black; and the remaining parts including
the wings deep silver grey. In flight he has a wing-expanse of about ten
feet and is altogether the finest of all Vultures. H e is a denizen of the
Himalayas, keeps to rocky hills and mountains, and is usually seen beating
regularly high over precipices and slopes with a steady sailing flight. H e
also occasionally soars at great elevation and was observed at the immense
height of 24,000 feet during one of the M t . Everest Expeditions (Journal
of the B.N.H.S,, X X X . 874-875). 2 " T h e Lammergeier eats carrion b u t
prefers above all things, to feed on bones, swallowing the smaller whole
and carrying the larger in his claws high u p into the air and dropping
them to shatter to pieces on the rocks below, where at its leisure it collects
and devours the fragments", and birds on the sea-coast or rivers deal
with tortoises in the same way. H e is one of the birds " t h a t have fired
the imagination of mankind from the earliest d a y s " and his n a m e ' L a m b -
eagle' is a relic of ancient days when confusion with the more courageous
Golden Eagle credited him with depredations amongst sheep, goats and
even children (Whistler).
1. T r a n s l a t e d in J . A . O . S . 19, 97 ff.
2. This c l e a r l y shows t h a t t h e ftTW of the Ramayana quoted
this b i r d . T n e m b i r d t h a t was occasionally cooked on a
t m t — TOP, 2 6 , 8 6 ) w a s evidently this vulture a n d n o t t h e filthy N e o p h r o n .
211
Eagles, Falcons and • Allied Birds
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
T h e oldest Sanskrit names for this bird are in the Samhitas and
an^T noted in the additional list of Vulture-names in arfa. fromrfw, and b o t h
probably derive from arsra goat, ara^r, from 3j?r-wir and arsr, should mean
'ornamented like a wild goat, i.e., possessing a b e a r d ' while arrw should be
'one resembling a goat in some particular detail, e.g., the b e a r d ' . 1 O n c e
these names were given to the bird it would indeed not take long for the
I popular mind to forget the etymology, re-interpret the names and attri-
bute to him the habit of carrying off kids, lambs, etc. It is also possible
i # f that the Indians took over the Central Asian tradition mentioned b y
Whistler. This m a y also explain the name for one of the progeny of
G a r u d a in M a h a b h a r a t a , 5.101, although the Golden Eagle is better enti-
tled to the name as he actually lifts young lambs from villages and young
^fir^ftq- ^r^nrr 1 n . 338 of the T a h r , Barhel, etc. in the Himalyas.
His size and soaring habit has won recognition for him in Vedic ritual,
for he is dedicated to the deity of the sky or the intermediate space
between heaven and e a r t h : "ara^arRrfer:"—Vaj. Samhita, 24.34.
T w o of the fire altars in tftr.tff|[5rr5,4,11 are to be constructed in
the shape of t h e a ^ r a n d birds. S a y a n a regards them as varieties
of Eagle, ^ifd'flVt'', and distinguishes the two from the
shape of the head and claws, and it m a y be added that this V u l t u r e
has, like other members of the family, blunt claws whereas Palla's
Fishing Eagle, is a r m e d with very sharp ones. I n his notes on the same
Samhita, 5,5,20, he renders at^sr as *rrcr, viz., this bird, which again is
quite correct. T h e n a m e TRT is after his grey-white head, neck and
underparts. I t is this who is mentioned as one of the nobler birds
possessed of great powers of flight :
Bhagavata, 5, 24,6.
He is listed under the names of srrcr and ^ in wr^T, TfTTRfT, etc.
with other carrion-birds, ws, as we know, is the ^nfrsr ( ^ T ^ to h a n g down
and ^f.to grow), the Indian Fig-tree (Ficus benghalensis), which throws
out tufts of aerial roots from its branches and is for this reason also named
3T3M and —fwm^mr, 'having hair growing downwards')
and the similarity of the pendant beard of the big bird to the aerial roots
of the fig-tree m a y well be responsible for the name Moreover when
the tree .is srTvT the bird is TO^T. In the alternative, the name may be from
TOfTJTM^ with reference to the bird's habit of breaking bones by dropping
them on the rocks, : and in this sense the name would correspond to his
Hindi name fSTJtfT (bone-breaker). In the following examples *rra and
refer to this V u l t u r e :
1. " A s it sails p a s t o n a level w i t h t h e observer on a m o u n t a i n t o p . . . .its a b s u r d little
black g o a t e e stands o u t in clear p r o f i l e " — S a l i m Ali, Indian Hill Birds ( 1 9 4 9 ) p . 161.
above cannot be 2. If is P r a k r i t f r o m the n a m e m a y b e i n d i c a t i v e of t h e w i d e expanse of
spit a n d eaten (argTOTPT- his wrings; cf. T^flqe..
 196 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 211
Eagles, Falcons and • Allied Birds

"^WI^NKM^d-:
O C
VHJmfWltMnr:" (SRT
\ C *\/ T h e colour p a t t e r n of the bird has already been given above, a n d as for
H a r i v a m s a , 2. 5. 20. the eyes, his irides are of a pale orange colour a n d the sclerotic m e m b r a n e
is blood-red. N o other Vulture has red eyes, m u c h less such strikingly red
d I fefa^d Wtff ^ R ^ f < I ^ H MI Wrfe"
WPTW, 5.26.32. ones, and I need hardly add how very faithfully the great Valmlki has
described tot. H e has also truly called him TETTPT, TflTO, and qfajfT* in
the chapters quoted from and elsewhere in the work. I conclude with a
M . Bh. 11. 16. 29 highly poetic description of his powerful flight:

Sk. P. Avanti K h . 6. 33
Yet another n a m e for him is +MMl(iH a dew-lap; a little incorrectly dl'^l <1 £>dim Hi U d ad
rendered as 'a K i t e ' by Wilson b u t doubted as a bird n a m e by M . Williams)
after his beard hanging downwards like a dew-lap. 3WTPT ^cMd^Md^: W'
T h e V u l t u r e that dropped a bone into a tank from the air was probably Mahaviracarita, 5 . 1.
this : T h e verse is p u t into the m o u t h of S a m p a t i who, listening to the distant
"JTT 'THW %^TPT ^nftimm T^S^T sound of his younger brother's wing-beats, anticipates his visit to himself :

' W i t h rythmic beats alternately covering a n d uncovering parts of the

P a d m a - p u r a n a 8. 181. 64.
sky; scattering the clouds and thereby exposing flashes of lightening to
T h e possibility of this bird being the mythological w w is considered in view; and breaking down the rocky cliffs of the m o u n t a i n ranges into
A r t . 81. pebbles a n d powder, the mighty vibrations of the vast wings of
s j m according to f f p r a a n d fV^rwRT is 'a kind of b i r d ' (y^ii-ru) evi- J a t a y u proclaim his arrival from a great distance.'
dently in reference to his being the T f i w of the R a m a y a n a . T h e name
clearly implies 'one possessing tufts of hair' which, as we have seen, is Lastly, the monkey-eating habit attributed to a vulture in the following
perfectly true of the Bearded V u l t u r e with long narial bristles on the face passage of the R a m a y a n a is clearly based u p o n information furnished by
a n d a beard on the chin; cf. ^rfer for a person with plenty of hair on the sea-faring Indians visiting the eastern Pacific Islands where the H a r p y
face. Mythologically srrnr is the son of sret and brother of TiTrfe. These Eagle of the Philippines, is said to live chiefly on monkeys :—
names are certainly founded upon the characteristics of three different
Vultures. T h u s the physical basis of (i) arewis the Black V u l t u r e with red
upper-parts :
Ram. 4.51, 2.
"arswt T^STRTT 3RT5®T^r!nT:''
Harivamsa 3. 37. 20;
(ii) P1T&, the Griffon of gregarious habits; and (iii) snw, the Bearded
Vulture. Both TO and 3rw, described as birds, were given authority by
their father W T to rule over other birds:
"erg5! +
M . Bh. 1. 31.29,
whence the H i n d i name of <Mftr5 for the Black Vulture or srw.
T h e description of the dying ^RZRO in the T T T W T leaves no doubt what-
ever as to his identity with the grand Lammergeyer. First we have a
reference to his dark-grey back and white breast :
"cf c\ <o o
— 3.51.45,'
a n d then to his red eyes and large body :
"cr crraT^f Tm^mwtqvR;"—3.68.19.

52
EAGLES, FALCONS AND ALLIED BIRDS
T h e Fishing and Sea-Eagles, and the Lammergeyer belonging to the
present group have already been dealt with, the former with the Osprey
and the latter with the Vultures for reasons stated in the respective
articles. T h e remaining birds of the group are considered here. In the
second Edition of the Fauna of British India (Birds), the Falcons are
placed before the Eagles but as the latter are the largest members o f t h e
family, I give them precedence in this article.
A. T R U E EAGLES
1. In English, the name Eagle is ordinarily confined to the larger
diurnal birds of prey which are not Vultures. Seven or eight species of
them are known to exist in Europe, and six in India. As a rule the female
Eagle is visibly larger than the male. They are "remarkable for the power
and stateliness of their flight which is largely soaring-in type, i.e. the
wings are not flapped, but kept stretched out, and the bird appears to
float through the air". The voice of an Eagle is a "not unmusical trilling
scream" of several notes. They kill their prey like mammals, birds, rep-
tiles, frogs, etc., on the ground, and all, with just one solitary exception,
feed on carrion as well. T h a t exception is the Golden Eagle of the
Himalayas (Aquila chrysaetos daphnea) while the western sub-species
(A. C. chrysaetos) is known to be a carrion-eater. The older belief of
scientists that the Himalayan bird also feeds on carrion was recorded in the
first edition of the Fauna of British India (Birds) but it has since been
definitely contradicted by that keen observer of the Raptores of the Punjab
and Himalayas, C. H. Donald, F. Z. S., who after a prolonged and accu-
rate study of these birds, has established the fact that the Himalayan sub-
species never stoops to carrion, and the earlier statement has now been
omitted from the second edition (1922) of the Fauna in justice to the
great bird who inspired the sages of the Rgveda in a most wonderful
way and played no mean a part in the evolution of Vedic thought and
imagery, including even the later Vedanta Philosophy. I must, therefore,
record here our grateful thanks to M r . Donald for his vindication of the
honour of the truly noble Suparna, the Himalayan Golden Eagle.
Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 199
2. All the birds of prey are descended from the primeval Garuda
according to the mythological statement in the Mahabharata, 5. 101
where the opening verses give a fairly long list of the names of the
Raptores of North India. T h a t a majority of the names are actually after
the physical or my thological characteristics of the different birds is hardly
open to doubt, though it is not always easy to identify the individual birds
with their respective names in the list. The reason is that several names
refer to the same bird either according to his different mythological
aspects or to actual habits and colour of its plumage. An attempt, will,
however, be made to identify some of them, at least tentatively. T h e
Raptores in their totality, are TTC3T:, or i ^ F ^ r (the Garuda
family) :—
II qPTjrpiT, 40.3
A further division, indicative of an ancient classification into different
groups, e.g. 9JPTT: (a comprehensive term for the Falconidae, inclusive of
the Eagles, Falcons, and Hawks), smrT: ( t h e Bearded and Neophron
Vultures) and "TSTT: (other Vultures) is to be found in another genealogy 1
reproduced in the Puranas with slight modifications. 2 The ^^tiTjidl, 1.27.
34-35 appears .to confine the term W^r to the Eagles as it separately men-
tions other birds like fTT (Osprey and Fishing Eagles) (Hawk-
Eagles), Tsri[r( H o n e y - B u z z a r d ) , w m 3 (theShaheen Falcon), jfk^RT(Sparro
Hawks), vnt (Bearded and Neophron Vultures) and ^sj (other Vultures).
1.46.74 adds f q w for the Kites, but omits and
3. Apart from being the names of the primeval bird the terms
s r w a n d tnW are also synonymous with f m as a specific name for the
Himalayan Golden Eagle. But it must be remembered that gqw and s i r
have often been used synonymously in the Rgveda both for the Golden
and other Eagles, and W^r for the Falcons. Nevertheless the difference
between the majestic Golden Eagle, the Eagle par excellence, and the
others was well understood as may be seen from the following examples
where the former is either distinguished as the foremost, the strongest and
the fastest Eagle or is called the Suparna proper ( S R ^ : S P P P T the best
of all Eagles) as against the smaller members of the group called WT :—
"spm: srm^T griff",
(Rgveda 4 )
1. I n M a h a b h a r a t a 1.66.59.
2. See the typical verse on the subject cited in Art. 51.
3. A l s o ar*TRTT a b i r d of p r e y — M . W . I t is red as the King-crow (f"TT|JT or ETRTT3)
in STS^^TJT a n d in 3P>ar-jf ^(Wst^T a p p a r e n t l y by confusion with sr^JTRT, b u t see in
Section D . , p a r a g r a p h s 9 a n d 10.
4. 4.26.4. For g ^ r the Golden Eagle a n d the Golden Oriole, see Art. 19.
201 211
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and•Allied Birds

"JTT ^sfciTT g ^ f f " (Ibid1)

"qjrat w t P r o q f ^ s i t s w t : . . . . "(w. WT.) There cannot, therefore, be any objection to the inclusion of aps^r as the
'Tsror^ftr ^ T t r o ^ r " seventh member common to both the groups, Eagles and Vultures.
(Tait. Samhita2) 5. T h e original physical basis for as the HHliaD (snake-eater) was
"a^nrr^R-H^i^ii?! w f t =rr gr^ff 3T " most probably the Sea-Eagle who picks up sea-snakes from the sea or sand-
(Brah. U p . 3 ) beach and devours them on a nearby tree, and the ancients must have
obtained this knowledge either from their own maritime residence prior to
i^PTm^i^HuikM q^Tf (Bhagavata 4 ) their entry into India as a second wave along the Persian Gulf or from their
maritime experiences along the Makran-Sind-Kathiawar-coast-line. T h e
I n the following examples "w^T:" are the carrion-eating Eagles :— Sea-Eagle is certainly the bird who is the T53 of Acts 4 and 5 of the
"JTCTT: Q^T: ^FRATSJ G P T W : L" (H^IXKAB)
N a g a n a n d a D r a m a of Sriharsa. H e r e the old tradition of n i s as a
snake-eater is fully preserved and we find the Eagles taking snakes from
the sea and eating them at fixed perches so that large heaps of bleached
Similarly the name has often been used for the Sea-Eagle (Art. 50). bones of snakes have formed under particular trees. 1 This habit of the
powerful Sea-Eagle was later transferred to the gTW (Golden Eagle) of
T h e flesh and bones of are ingredients in the preparation of a certain
the Himalayas, who does not, however, kill or eat snakes. Support for the
medicated oil in a recipe for the treatment of rheumatism, in but
above view is to be found in the following verse where clearly refers
it is difficult to say what particular bird is meant. If the author belonged
to the Sea-Eagle:—
to North I n d i a it may well be the Golden Eagle but if he was from the
South the bird would be the White-bellied Sea-Eagle of the Indian Coast, WTFT tr»flW«r fJFTT: I
or again the term may refer to the common T a w n y Eagle. ozfiftq ^ ^fqim'fjr groTfaq i r f t x 11 (TFTR^2)
4. As alreay observed in Art. 51 the 3T«T#%5 speaks of "Seven
Eagles":— And yet a knowledge o f t h e true habit of the Golden Eagle not killing
snakes is clearly reflected in the story of granting a boon to the great
gqVr qrcpr: wfir wsnrr w " (sr. t . 8.9.17-18)
Cobra of the J u m n a whom he subdued that the ^TW would no more eat
and it has just been stated that at least six species of true Eagle are at snakes marked with his foot-print, viz., the spectacled Cobras and
present known to occur in India, where however as in the West the incidentally any snake:—
lammergeyer also has sometimes been regarded as a kind of large Eagle. I t
is the 'gier eagle' o f t h e Bible, Leviticus, ch. '11,18 and Denteronomy, ch. frq w w ^wwnfsrer: i
14,17. We have already seen in Art. 51 that the Lammergeyer stands midway ir^nw gquH-dr m w w r ^ r r f ^ w r n WTWT (10.16.63)
between the Vultures and the Eagles so that by including it in the fPT
or Eagle group we have seven Eagles representing the seven sages men- 6. means both a snake and an elephant, so that the name
tioned in the verse from the Atharva-Veda. T h e ZfztM places the ;TTITT#(elephent-eater) for came to be interpreted as ' t h e eater of
ara^r,, viz., the Lammergeyer, on a footing of equality with and ^ for snakes and elephants', though we must not overlook the possibility of an
diffierent fire-altars and tfmr^W in his commentary actually regards m * Imperial Eagle actually feeding, on rare occasions, upon the carcass of a
as a kind of or Eagle:— dead elephant, as a probable event in support of the name. M o r e probably
however, the idea of TT? eating a n elephant was taken over from a belief
common in Persia a n d the neighbouring countries of western Asia regard-
1. 2.42.2 a n d g a t a . B r a h . 3.3.4.15. ing the fabulous R o c or R u k h of immense size carrying off elephants t o
2 . 4.4.7. feed his young 3 . Similarly the habit of the Lammergeyer, regarded as a
3. 4.3.19.
4 . 5.24.6.
5. 7 . 7 . 3 6 ; 7.97.13. 1. fcST ^mfd-ll TFT W k l f i ^ d H WrrfSTTM I
6. 2 . 5 . 2 0 . trnprfor ^ WPPT M f W ^ n Act. 4.6.

7. V e r s e 304 i n t h e C h a p t e r styled ^ I d ^ l w f s T ^ - 2 . 5.1.73. F o r f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o n t h e p o i n t see section C of this A r t .

8. 5.4.11. 3. A r t i c l e o n R o c . , E n c y . Brit., 11th E d i t i o n .
 211
203 Eagles, Falcons and•Allied Birds
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

kind of Eagle, of eating turtles was also attributed to T55. All these qfarrsft favrnMFsfo1— ?rr. 12.327.7.
attributes, touched u p with a little anthropomorphism, helped to raise ^uihuh^I gqrif 0-d-H-H I JTPJT, 1.174.47.
T^? to the status of a semi-divine being (TOff) destined to play a
great role in H i n d u mythology: The m o u n t a i n in the Himalayas is mentioned as the breeding place
qfsrsr^fr TOfear^ fn^TTsfT TOf^: i of 57W—

fgarrf: totoh ^tNff fecRmjcr: 11 spTT^eT 57WFT Hfacr: I — ^ I ^ I T , 40.2.

^raMo-xKId 2.8.811, col.l. and another where a certain medicinal herb was known to grow—
W e have again the picture of T5S or arw holding both an elephant and Prcf f ^ d ^ R — 5.4.2.
a tortoise as food:
T h e easy, effortless and graceful soaring flight, as also the courage and
JTCT ffkPTJTTCFT I T ^ R ^ m I
power to carry off heavier prey of the Golden and incidentally of other
WSTF? T^S: ^MAMMIMR W R A ^ R : 11 —TTTT^TT1
Eagles have been fully recognized:—
and sage WTT advising his son T53 to live on both these in M a h a b h a r a t a . 2 5T g q- fcnraft TTWt 3TRT Tc^T
T h e srfH'jxn also describes the semi-human form ofaTW in these words:
TcFlW SH7T T R t ^ ^ d H II 4.26.4)
3TIT gvnM qfsTWT TWf^PTt I
grmW^ldlST fCTST I
f^pt i f w r : 11 ^mud, 5.10.1.
fesrsf
-o w ^ r ^ fN- ^ c\ snrT
o *\ n
II 33.22-23. T h e epithet refers to the soaring flight of the Eagle with wings held
stiff on a level with the body, and the real significance of the term be-
This composite bird is the T^s of mythology and the vehicle of God comes clear when we recall the adnoun WIST for the Swan or Goose which
It is quite possible that the difference between the Golden Eagle and must fly with a rotary motion of the wings and cannot soar.
the Lammergeyer was well understood, and certain traits or habits of 7. Finally, types of demons and robbers, active during the day and
some of the important birds of the group were deliberately attributed to night, have been named after certain birds of prey in R V ( V I I . 104. 22)
the primeval TSS, their progenitor, so as to account for them in the where g w n f is one who robs forcibly even the strong during day-time;
progeny on grounds of heredity. This is perhaps going too far, but this JTGPTPI, one who robs the weak in the day, and so on. ^ra.wf^TT (11.79) also

much is fairly certain that the actual physical basis for the conception names different kinds of thief.
of as Tfsarrsr and even of his composite form, is n o other than the 8. T h e following six true Eagles of genus Aquila are, everyone of
Golden Eagle. This is clear from the description, of the the plumage o f l W them, a TT^T or in a general sense, and no individual names for them,
or 5JTJT and his Himalayan home given in and elsewhere:— with the solitary exception of the T a w n y Eagle, are available though I
have ventured to offer a couple of guesses based on vernacular names
fEJTfr fT^^TTpT ^UcHd: which however need not be taken seriously at all.
q^TTMW g w f a r w f b f c r n 1.33,23. (i) T h e female Golden Eagle measures u p to 40 inches and has a
wing-expanse of over 7 feet. T h e male is 4-5 inches shorter. T h e colour of
the plumage is brown becoming darker with age, and the feathers of the
1. 3.35.28. Cf. M a h a b h a r a t a 1.29.43. head and neck are pointed and of a golden-red hue. W i t h powerful feet
2. 1.29.13. ff. I t is also possible to explain these mythological facts differently: and long claws the birds are mighty hunters and live on Snow-cock,
T h e etymological m e a n i n g of I v f l is " w h a t m o v e s low o n t h e g o u n d ' ; *>•<*» is ' l a n d b y Monal, other Pheasants, Pigeons etc., and on mammals like young ante-
t h e side of w a t e r o r a hill' so t h a t is ' w h a t lives in such p l a c e s ' ; a n d
lopes, sheep, and Musk-deer. These Eagles often hunt in pairs, 2 and tak-
farre ' w h a t squats o n t h e g r o u n d ' . T h e t e r m s m a y well t h e r e f o r e simply refer to t h e
normal p r e y taken by in different situations. N o w if we remember ing advantage of this trait Falconers used to train them in pairs to h u n t
h o w m y t h o l o g y h a s grown u p f r o m forgotten m e t a p h o r s , p o l y n y m y , use of equivocal words
1. T h e c a r r i o n e a t i n g I m p e r i a l is a tree-breeding Eagle of the plains a n d lower hills
a n d false etymology it is n o t impossible to see h o w t h e m y t h i c a l c a m e to h a v e
a t t r i b u t e s like TfrHWlsH, H H I I ^ M . etc. a n d is said to h a v e e a t e n serpents, tortoises, in t h e o u t e r H i m a l a y a s , S i n d a n d Baluchistan a n d h a s n o r i g h t to t h e title of i f t l <.1*1 or
e l e p h a n t a n d even the h u m a n fttfre. O r , a r e these statements illustrative of the principle WTH.
cptorfrRT f ^ a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h facts m u s t b e dressed u p in mystifying l a n g u a g e 2. Cf. A V . V I I . 70.3 cited in Section D of this A r t .
as in a r i d d l e ?
 211
205 Eagles, Falcons and•Allied Birds
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

gazelles etc. in their n a t u r a l way. T h e y also carry off lambs and kids from in the Rgveda are actually based on the practice of the art. Panini
the sub-Himalayan villages. T h e y are to be met with along the Sutlej mentions the art of Falconry as "wTPTTcTT" in 4.2.58 and M a n u (3.164)
water-shad, f r o m K o t g a r h to the Kailas range in suitable localities, also in debars Brahmans living by falconry or dealing in Falcons from ceremonial
parts of Kashmir, Ghamba, Simla district and in Tehri-Garhwal as far up feasts. 1 H. Kirke Swann, E. Z. S., has also traced in A Monograph of
as Hursil ( f t f w ) within two marches of Gangotri 1 . C.H. Donald remarks the Birds of Prey, Part I the art of falconry back to 1700 B.C. in Persia
that the Golden Eagle in flight "shows a large expanse of chest" and this and earlier still in China 2 . T h u s the commonest picture of bringing
fact has been beautifully recorded b y the great poet Describing the away s m (rendered at places by f i w as food or ar^r) from the m o u n -
magnificent flight o f a number of Golden Eagles soaring higher and higher, tain heights unaided ( R V . IV. 26. 4-7) would seem to be based on a
he says t h a t the sky, being pushed back as it were by their broad chests, trained Golden Eagle capturing a m o u n t a i n goat or fawn and holding it
appears to be retreating before them : down until his keeper took it from him. T h e pictures depicted in R V . I V .
26.4-7 and IV- 27 would seem to be based on the performance of a trained
Eagle. T a k e again similes like the following :—
frWTSTPT f d + ^ l W T I tfte®^ ?T iftf^TT—RV. 9.61.21.
SJTS^df^SJ f=H3HM q- g T f c m W T — R V . 9.62.4.
JT: <SHIMIH II (PuMi^-ftr2) W f t * # 5 - f f c f a — R V . 9.57.3.
I n the preceding verses the poet has named the birds m w , and gipft "SR3T 4<IMcf ^ t l H W T f H T5® cTvft HTfcPT—
" " 4.34.
which is perfectly correct.
T h e Golden Eagle, the noblest of all Eagles, is also called Tfrcft and several others which compare HfT, flowing into its proper vessel, with
( " J T f R k ^ W —irfMr) probably for two reasons: (i) for his mythological a # f getting back to the wooden perches or stands meant for hunting
exploit in successfully bringing a w a y ' t h e flfa from heaven and (ii) as a Eagles and Falcons in their master's house. T h e Lugger Falcon, for
compliment to his courage a n d boldness in a state of n a t u r e and also as instance, released for the chase, returns to his master's fist.3 T h e q ^ f w
a trained bird in capturing fawns, gazelles, wild goats, etc., for his keeper. SlfTW4 relates a story that once m left the gods and kept flying high up as
T h e Chinese practised the art of falconry so far back as 2000 B.C., 3 and a g w or Golden Eagle and returned to them only when he was invited
even at the present day the nomads of Central Asia train a certain species back with the tftaw m . This is clearly based upon the art of falconry
of Eagle to take large game, such as antelopes and wolves, and tribes in where a bird flown from the wrist often returns to his master when called
the neighbourhood of Yarkand use the Golden Eagle for hawking purposes back. A tame Golden Eagle will at once perch on the a r m extended for
and so too the Kirghiz Tartars. 4 A Golden Eagle returning to the fist of him, and he frequently alights on the trees and follows his master from
his master is illustrated in the Encyclopaedia Britannica,5 T h a t the ancient tree to tree keeping him in sight. 5 T h e female of an Eagle or Falcon is
larger and more powerful than the male and it is she who is always the
Indo-Aryans also were equally familiar with this sport and actually trained
more efficient hunter. For this reason it is invariably the female t h a t is
the Golden Eagle for the chase is clearly stated in the letter-press to the
preferred and trained for the chase. This fact has been recognized in
illustration of the bird opp. p. 822, Vol. 7, Ibid. I t runs, " I t is the largest
*nwr as the female and TFTW as the male Eagle :—
bird of prey trained for falconry, and has been used in Asia, especially in
India, for taking bustards, antelopes, hares, foxes, and, it is said, even q^liqdl' W^fT fe^T: W t W ^ x f ^T ST —TO. sTTfT.
larger animals, such as wild goats and wolves." It is, therefore submitted 3.4.1.12.
that m a n y of the metaphors and similes in which grw or m figures inwf fftoff ^KfTfcmSTT Ibid. 11.4.1.8.
T n r a f ^ r qfsrw f ^ f c r ^PT^TT:—+'f4v>?r ^ O T f ^ T 21, 19-
1. C . H . D o n a l d . F.Z.S., in t h e J o u r n a l of B . N . H . S . Vol. X X V I , 247 ff.
1. Sale of Eagles (gw) and Hawks a n d theft of these, presumably
2. 16.45.
t r a i n e d , birds is m e n t i o n e d in M ftof Vol. 4, pp. 176 & 244,
3. " F a l c o n r y " , E n c . Brit. 14th E d n . T h e G o l d e n E a g l e is still t r a i n e d in Eastern
respectively.
T u r k i s t a n " f o r h a w k i n g a n d flown at deer, hares, wolves, a n d even wild b o a r ; a n d as one
2. See C. H . D o n a l d on t h e M o n o g r a p h in t h e Journal of the Bombay Natural History
c a n imagine, t h e eagle's d a s h a n d c o u r a g e is m a g n i f i c e n t " — F . M a r t i n D u n c a n in Birds, Society, V o l . X X X , p . 895.
Trees and Flowers ( O d h a n s , L o n d o n , 1947). 3. J e r d o n ; See also section B of this A r t .
4. " E a g l e " a n d " F a l c o n r y " . E n c . Brit. 14th E d n . 4. 14.3.10.
5. O p p . p . 44 of Vol. 9, 14th E d n . 5. British Birds, P a r t I . Vol. I X , Birds of P r e y .
 207
For the reason why the female TFTsft becomes the m (masculine) see
section D, para, 3, of this article. It will be seen that the term s^PT really
stands for the female bird.
T h e highest compliment to the courage of this Eagle is paid when it is
said that, during a drinking bout, the courage of god VZ flowed out of his
heart in the form of a —"^ifaRH^Hd w r t s m f ^ i wr? SRTHt
hi^ci. 1 . T h e significance of the epithet 3miP>6^H (killing with the claws)
would be clear when it is remembered that the powerful hind claw of
the Golden Eagle with which, backed by the impetus of the swoop, the
prey is struck down, is as large as three inches and more round the curve
as against two inches of the Imperial and still less of the other Eagles. No
wonder, therefore; at the well-deserved epithet or name of
This reminds one of the n a m e for a kind of bird included in the
list of birds quoted from the old trcrar ( p r o b a b l y no longer extant)
in the "rerterwftoT on t^TO means a missile like a javelin (cf.
and the term has probably been extended also to Falcons and
Hawks discharged from the h a n d to strike or bring down other birds.
Expressions like guitar and wfowftr (from root ) used in the stfTO 9TTW3,
lend strong support to this supposition. Applied to other birds the
qualifying adjective ' i f r ' clearly signifies their large size in their own
class, e.g. ^ s ^ and p - and Tfl^r. T^ppro., therefore, would seem
to be a Golden Eagle trained to h u n t for his master. T h e simile of 'a
great bird sent forth or cast away'—'srjTt TIT f p t ' in R V . 4 is probably
based upon the use of a large bird of prey for hawking. In
this Eagle has been called a *TfTg7"T to distinguish it from the Smaller
Imperial or T a w n y Eagle called simply grw ( K a n d i k a 37 of the same
chapter) 5 , and the almost reverential respect p a i d to this great bird m a y
be seen in references like :
fr^TSJ Terror—^M^ffaT
gwfs^ HdfduilH—11.16.15-
where Lord identifies himself with him.
A few of the other names attributed to this Eagle m a y now be consi-
dered. FT^mr, golden-winged, is after the light rufous-brown on shoulders
of the dark-brown wings. T h e equation "f%TRT T5t"—'eating for a long
1. 12.7.1.6.
2. p a g e 1018.
3. 4.2-3.
4. 9 . 8 6 . 1 3 .
5. I n this kanqlika t h e i m p o s i n g B l u e - b u l l o r N i l g a o , t h e
l o r d l y l o o k i n g T a w n y E a g l e (gT"T) a r e o f f e r e d to t h e
l a t t e r a r e also v e r y noisy ( h e n c e n a m e d fTfT, g|>) singers a n d
for t h e m a r e also noisy. T h e t . iff. 5.5.16 substitutes
l i t r a t u r e also t h e T a w n y E a g l e is r e f e r r e d t o as 55W, see p a r a ,
211
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and•Allied Birds
time or taking long over one's meal'—would seem to refer to the snake-
eating birds like the Serpent-Eagles or the White-bellied Sea-Eagle; or
again it may be a purely mythical n a m e referring to taking a long
time to finish off an elephant ! f w n f t e is the Golden Eagle who builds as a
rule on cliffs and only occasionally on a tree; cf. the description of the
sun at dawn as a reddish Golden Eagle who has no nest i.e. who knows
no rest and is ever soaring in the heaven :—
3TW: g ^ T 3TT ift 9jT: ^ T R t ^ : " RV- 1
I km and its synonyms, e.g. TPmft, are truer of the Serpent and Sea-
Eagles than this and must be treated as epithets based on a mythical
for him.
assumption only. T h e n a m e ^nwfr refers to the Eagle perching for prefer-
ence on a large tree of that name or occasionally nesting on it. Names like
I | W T , CMP^+MT (mythical, with reference to I n d r a ' s bolt made ineffective
bygrw), fonwiw, fcwsTTf (mythical, being the vehicle of God f ^ w ) etc.
in the Tfrarcr -list belong to him. T h e n a m e ipTjpT is perfectly true of him
but may also be shared by the L a m b or Bearded Vulture according to
popular belief though the latter is wholly incapable of lifting a Iamb or
kid.
(ii) T h e Imperial Eagle is a sluggish heavy bird, some 5-6 inches
smaller than the Golden Eagle. H e is of a glossy blackish-brown colour
with the lanceolate feathers of the head, back of the neck and sides tawnv
buff, the head being very much lighter than the Golden Eagle's. T h e
24.25
plumage of an adult Imperial is very like that of a n adult Golden but a
young Imperial has the whole upper plumage tawny buff, wing-quills
blackish to brown and the lower parts pale fulvous-buff. T h e young of
both take several years to acquire the adult plumage. In strength, courage,
method of flight and of obtaining food they are poles apart. If the Golden
10.30. Eagle is the most powerful and the boldest of the larger birds of prey,
living on Snow cocks, Pheasants, Pigeons, T a h r , Barhel (species of
Himalayan goats and sheep) and Musk-deer, the Imperial is inferior in
every respect, can hardly kill anything for himself and is content for the
most p a r t with carrion and is a constant a t t e n d a n t at slaughter houses.
H e is also more of a plains bird and places his nest always on trees. H e is
found throughout the P u n j a b . Because of his outward similarity with the
Golden Eagle the latter has frequently been credited by less expert
observers with the ignoble habits of the Imperial Eagle ( D o n a l d ) . This
and other Eagles are the carrion-eating ( ^ S Q R C ) G ^ R and S I R of the
etc. :—r-
ft^icf gfkcf ^rfet s r h h —
beautiful Peacock and the tnT-f^ d a n i s m . w r : q^fsnr:—ibid3
h a n d s o m e 'FSRf:. T h e s e
t h e t h r e e v i c t i m s selected l. X . 5 5 . 6 .
for I n classical 2. X I . 2 6 .
(iv) below. 3. X I . 10.24.
 209 211
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and•Allied Birds

3Tcffa feet: wm^rtrar, He is much the most common and most widely distributed Eagle of India
^T: gqTrrfsr I —H^WKd 1 but is confined to the drier areas. H e is a methodical hunter and preys
upon small mammals and birds but attacks even larger birds when
cTR fiFrfsj 'tsm? Wq^T^TfiraT: I Ibid 2
pressed by hunger. H e also freely devours dead animals even when
T h e Imperial and the next two Eagles breed on trees and any of them, putrid (F.B.I. 2nd E d n ) . The carrion-eating brown-plumaged and noisy
more probably the first, is one of the grorf' of the Rgveda. 3 T h e wq- in the following examples is apparently this Eagle :—
Golden Eagle also breeds occasionally on trees.
(iii) T h e Steppe Eagle is a uniform brown to umber brown bird, a srraHuiuf isRiTdmcl ftirtfe stttct: i
few inches smaller than the Imperial Eagle. H e is a winter visitor to
fcTRTfq- f ^ r II T ^ T , 7.46
North India but has been known to breed in India. His habits are very
similar to those of the Imperial Eagle and is, therefore, a grtf or Tq^^TfTfTT'Wr: grsr^rsnrf^ram: I Ibid 11.60
like him.
(iv) T h e Indian T a w n y Eagle is again a uniform brown varying ftft-Tvi UpHdt ^TqoJTSTRTfiR faf^R I
from pale brown to dark- umber, sometimes whitish on the head and body. TW szfR m E r f ^ ^ ^ m r 11 16.12-
H e is " a fine lordly looking bird and has plenty of courage,...chasing
and robbing falcons and hawks of their booty." H e goes under the name rsTT: ^^r: sr^rr: CITTOT s n ^ ^ T ^ n i
of TFTC in Hindi which is evidently the same as w f t (jealous of other fTfemrr^ ^iTspjRT TTfrr II r f T T K a , 7.97.13.
birds of prey who have secured food) of the faw which equates
it with wrsfT, and the latter is defined by the ET^cfft ^tsr and T M f r w in a In the last example the first four of the carrion-eaters are Vultures,
half verse common to both : Pallas's Fishing Eagles, A d j u t a n t Storks, and T a w n y Eagles res-
pectively.
WT^ft f r s ^ p j j : p-prft^t I
T h eTOTsftrtwalso gives the same description with w r a : for wrsft. (v) T h e Greater Spotted Eagle (27") is a dark almost blackish brown
means a bird whose quills are used to feather arrows with. T h e epithet bird though in the younger phase the upper back and the smaller wing-
f w f e refers to the large nest of sticks and thorny twigs that he makes coverts are spotted. H e is known as ^ftr^T in North India and as fw^rrsn: in
and to his shrill screams and habit of robbing other birds of their Bengal. T h e exact meaning of+P-M'i is not clear but it may refer
prey. I t is this last trait which has given him the names ^WltT ( - m ) , to the bird's wild clanging cry, jeb-jeb-jeb, compared to a high pitched
w r s f t and Tmafr. "jfrw 1 (one easily excited) as a bird of prey in M a h a - barking of a small dog by Smythies. P>RTSX means one who catches living
b h a r a t a , should be this Eagle as the name corresponds to Tmsft. Its entry creatures. " T h i s is a rather sluggish Eagle, often sitting for hours on a
perch on some lofty t r e e " (S. Baker). His food consists in great p a r t of
into a residence was considered unlucky :
frogs though he a.lso catches fish and kills small birds and mammals for
s f t c m s j r s ^ r a ^pftciT vmiw«TT i food.
frfawbr 3rrf%rR u (vi) T h e Smaller Spotted Eagle (25") is also a dark chocolate-brown
M.Bh. 13.104.115 bird differing from the preceding bird in minor details of the body
H e exhibits several traits of the jackal and therefore shares the names plumage b u t particularly in the tail which shows some traces of a paler
and *ft*nJi with that animal. See para. 13, section D of this Article. barring while the tail of the Greater Spotted Eagle is merely tipped
paler. This Eagle goes by the name of form in the north corresponding to
1. 7.50.9.
Sanskrit ^ i f d * . or ^ffafT (? ), a catcher or killer of living things. H e is not so
2. 11.16.827.
3. R V . I. 164.10
lethargic as his larger cousin but otherwise the habits of both are similar.
4 . T h e t e r m f t e r e n d e r e d as ' a kind of b i r d of p r e y ' b y M . W . is incorrect. This
He is however more of a thief and plunderer of other birds and their
is based u p o n a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e following lexical d e f i n i t i o n : — nests. His call is a "very high-pitched cackling l a u g h " (S. Baker). T h e
TfsrTT ^ qfsroftwr tf | — s r f a o pT^TTo a n d ^ H s u l * ! , Indian Black Eagle (Section B, para 3) also is in the habit of plundering
is a p e t decoy-bird used to a t t r a c t wild ones w i t h t h e object of t r a p p i n g o r killing birds' nests for their young or eggs which reminds one of the powers of
t h e m . W e thus h a v e fafcTT, f T , etc. in the WT^P a n d i f t W T in observation exhibited by the great sn^m^ who mentions Eagles that pull
HH*l1<?<-tiq. T h e underlying idea is t h a t of a light a t t r a c t i n g m o t h s & insects
out nests of small birds :—
to itself.
 210 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and • Allied Birds 211

faf <rl I i|'41 TcFT: I Goshawk trained to c a p t u r e hares (Section F of this Article), I t will be
f t f ^ f a r , p. 82. seen t h a t while all WSTK'S are W^T, all a r e not 9T3TTC and to this extent
the lexical synonymy of ^ and ST5IT? is subject to modification, a n d top
(vii) T h e L a m m e r g e y e r or Bearded Vulture, as the seventh Eagle of is right in mentioning (true Eagles) and W R (Hawk-Eagles) as
ancient tradition, has been considered in Art. 51. This completes the list different categories in his list of the birds of prey. Some of these w ?
of W grwt:, the seven Eagles of I n d i a . Eagles have specific names as well and they are considered below.
2. M . Williams renders (fr. fcT^t^ft to shine) as a " b r o w n
H a w k " a n d the n a m e clearly implies some peculiar quality of brilliance
B. H A W K - E A G L E S , S E R P E N T - E A G L E S in the eye of the bird meant. Now the eye of Bonelli's Eagle, whose body-
& BUZZARD-EAGLES plumage is brown as already described "is peculiarly brilliant a n d fiery in
its glance indicating fierce boldness" (Cassel's Book of Birds). If, on the
1. " T h e Hawk-Eagles are birds of more slender build with smaller bills, other h a n d , the term is rendered as 'round-eyed' it will have no significance
longer a n d more slender tarsi, and longer tails than the true Eagles" (F. as all Eagles a n d Hawks have round eyes, ^wra" 9JFT should therefore be this
B. I. 1st. Edn.) b u t o f s i m i l a i habits and are members of the larger sifa Eagle. O n e of t h e H i n d i names for this Eagle is <<fi as it often kills
group. Almost all of them kill hares for food in addition to other prey Peacocks in n a t u r e and the n a m e is f r o m Sank. (Cf. SISIHI ) which
consisting of reptiles and birds. T h e y a i e the 9PFT^ff( — wwTcr, WWWTrft) of m a y well h a v e been its n a m e in Sanskrit though not preserved in the
A young Bonelli's Eagle is brown above and rufous u n d e r n e a t h while the lexicons now extant.
a d u l t has umber-brown upper parts and a white body mottled w i t h brown. 3. »)<r<?i+ and fTFT^ m e a n a bird of prey as well as the black b e a r :
T h e Crested, the Changeable, and Hodgson's Hawk-Eagle also have the
u p p e r parts umber-brown or brown with a coppery tinge. All these h u n t
hares, birds, etc. and being of a fairly large size (2 7-29 inches) they are The name .for a bird of prey therefoie clearly points to the Black
the srsrre-sjpT defined by in his ^nfcPF on the as a large Eagle (female, 31", male 27") which is brownish black or black throughout.
r u d d y - b r o w n bird living on hares :— I t is found in the H i m a l a y a s in the N o r t h and Nilgiris in t h e South. It
is mentioed in the W I W J U T
W R T faSPTt f ^ F T M Ttf^T:"—4.3.1160. 1
'' ^ I T w- w i n +srf^r' 1.10.24.
T h e w^T^f^trrtrfw also in its definition of ^ as wwrc describes the bird
as of large size but slow of speed : It is in t h e h a b i t of carrying off the nests of small birds a n d examining
them for young or eggs, a trait noticed by 3FTTO:in his
^IWIdlC 4. T h e I n d i a n Crested Hawk-Eagle and Hodgson's Hawk-Eagle
T h e t r u t h of this statement is confirmed b y H . C. Donald who says that possess long crests ( f a w which also m e a n s t h e t a i l ) . M . William has
t h o u g h it is easy to train Hawk-Eagles like the Crested Hawk-Eagle, they -iltffa^ for a 'black-tailed hawk' and t h e n a m e may refer to these birds
do not all come u p to what m a y be expected of such large a n d powerful after their black crests and as a h o m o n y m to the Black-crested Baza w i t h
birds. O n the other h a n d S W R TTSR=FKI4 c o m m e n t i n g on both a black tail and a black crest. T h e I n d i a n Crested Hawk-Eagle is the
distinguishes the Pigeon-hunting smaller Falcons like the Peregrine and <tM<M of 4.39 corresponding to su^tM in Persian. T h e practice
S h a h e e n (**nr) from t h e w r c : of training t h e Hawk-Eagles for the chase has been considered in Section
F on Hawks. T h e Changeable Hawk-Eagle is known as M (fr. ««nw ?)
TOR: +4ldi<f|;r q f s f f t ftffer ^ 5 wrfe in Bengal.
m: ^ m r r f l ' fw^mfrifT 5. T h e Short-toed Eagle and the Crested Serpent-Eagles in two
sizes kill snakes including the poisonous varieties. T h e y are known in H i n d i
T h u s we h a v e sipt, for the true Eagles and the Falcons, and W5TT5 for the and Bengali as m w r r and s t t ? : w h i c h are the same as Sanskrit TTPtT
Hawk-Eagles. I t m a y b e stated here that the H a w k included u n d e r the or HHIIKO. O n e carrying off a black cobra is mentioned by :-
n a m e of srcrre in the list of Falcons in the W^WTFS, 4"20 is the Female
"cTRT? "Tft^T fTGonff ^ s ^ T TOR ^ I
1. V ^ i slow in h u n t i n g ; cf: WFT, the P e r e q u i n e F a l c o n . JcrffcKHki) cTTt ^ W T T f a W I I — ^ r R T f c W K . 87.43.
2. C h . 6.5. B o m . Skt. Series. N o . 5 9 ; V o l . I I . P t . 1; 1898.
T h e M . Bh. list includes mrmt and gtfar for types of Eagles and these
213 211
125 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219

n a m e s can a p p l y only to these or to the White-bellied Sea Eagle. Another H e is known as ^ftfrarT ( ^ f R t ) and s i w n in H i n d i . T h e first
n a m e , TRTPT, in the list is p r o b a b l y in reference to the spotted and broad n a m e is after t h e bird's call which is, " a very loud clanging cry of m a n y
nuchal crest ( T O ) covering the whole n a p e of the crested Serpent-Eagles n o t e s " (cf. of the M . Bh. list) a n d the second explains itself. T h e
(cf. TO^for t h e T u f t e d P o c h a r d — A r t . 84c). White-tailed Sea-Eagle has merely ' ' a querulous chatter, insignificant for
6. T h e I n d i a n White-eyed Buzzard Eagle is the sole representative so large a b i r d " and is therefore not m^mr, but being a powerful b i r d h e
of its genus in India. T h e iris of a d u l t birds is almost white or pale yellow has been designated as ^ in the M a h a b h a r a t a — s e e below, a n d cf.
and the n a m e (white-eyed) for a kind of H a w k in f^ff is included in t h a t progeny of in t h e M b h list.
for this bird as no other H a w k or Eagle has eyes of t h a t colour. T h e 3. T h e R i n g - t a i l e d Sea Eagle of J e r d o n , belonging t o the same genus,
Buzzard-Eagle (12"-18") is " n o bigger t h a n a C r o w " and the n a m e sti^r Haliaetus, as the two Sea-Eagles considered above, n o w goes u n d e r the
(sftr the R a v e n ) of the m a y refer to it or to t h e Black Eagle n a m e of Pallas's Fishing Eagle. I n N o r t h I n d i a he is u n d o u b t e d l y a resi-
w h i c h is a little larger than R a v e n . dent inland bird but out of I n d i a his r a n g e extends to the C a s p i a n and
Black Seas a n d the Persian Gulf. H e is the largest Fishing Eagle of N o r t h
I n d i a a n d is sub-equal in size to the white-tailed Sea-Eagle. H e is fulvous
C. S E A - E A G L E S & F I S H I N G - E A G L E S white on t h e h e a d , neck and upper back including the scapulars, also on
the u p p e r neck a n d breast a n d d a r k brown on lower back, r u m p a n d t h e
1. T h e white-tailed Sea-Eagle is a winter visitor to t h e north-west of r e m a i n i n g parts. Generally speaking, therefore, the colour-pattern of this
I n d i a while t h e White-bellied Sea-Eagle is a bird of the I n d i a n sea-coast. Eagle resembles t h a t of the m u c h smaller B r a h m i n y K i t e (sfr^TO
Both live on fish and the l a t t e r also largely on sea-snakes. T h e white- with white a n d chestnut where the other is fulvous a n d dark b r o w n . F r o m
bellied Sea-eagle is very voracious a n d seen incessantly r e t u r n i n g to one his b r o w n - b a c k this Eagle is the jp®^ a n d from h a b i t of fiercely
of the big trees on the coast carrying sea-snakes, five to six feet in length, defending his young a t the nest he is also the firem* of t h e lexicons
in his claws a n d devouring t h e m at ease. 1 Both again, d o not refuse carrion (see section E of the article). H e is actually known a s f w i n N e p a l ( S e e
if available. Section E ) . I t is this which is described as a kind of by ^TPTW in
2. " T h e Sea Eagles are a m o n g the noblest looking of all b i r d s " his gloss on rfo tfo 5.4.11. H e is T ^ n or HeWN (Sansk. i ^ R ^ f ) in H i n d i ,
and t h e White-bellied sea-Eagle of t h e I n d i a n coasts is u n d o u b t e d l y t h e and ( i c W f c * ) a n d ^ r in Bengal. Now srsr (powerful, strong,) as a
bird referred to as the ( i ^ ) diving to the sea to seize serpents in the carrion eating bird, mentioned with Pallas's Fishing Eagle, a t several
story of t h e Prince spftijf in t h e of amhR :— places in the i^rorer most p r o b a b l y refers to the white tailed Sea-Eagle,
and both occur in N o r t h I n d i a . M . Williams renders ^ f merely as a ' C r o w '
b u t in the St. Petersburg Dictionary it is (i) a Crow a n d ( i i ) a b i r d of
prey. T h e passages given below m e n t i o n SPT with or ^TTO a n d leave
ttH faddil^uil: g^TWf hardly a n y d o u b t as to its identity :
fc^r JT: 5PTfacf ^ cPsfk^'-cl II Verse 32.
Simiarly the bird belonging to the family of T55 (qssft Tt^rVsr:) led by tfRcRTSJ (6.100.27)
his love of carrion to pick u p a b u n d l e of elephant-hide c o n t a i n i n g a ^TPTT 3TWRT =5T (7.88.4)
living person floating 1U+1+«l <?fi < ? t + > T (7.167.43)
on the sea, is this E a g l e — 1T3T: ^ r SFfTT: <m: (5.143.19)
era" i ^r ftqwTfw?rpT i
Here ^ r is the white-tailed Sea-Eagle, Pallas's Fishing Eagle, the
j p T R j : HKH'H'^d TSTt T ^ W II ^wRrtfHK 12.113 T a w n y Eagle, a n d srer the A d j u t a n t Stork—all c a r r i o n eaters. T h e follow-
T h e White-bellied Sea-Eagle, again, is mentioned as the king of birds ing again from the H^WIW clinches the point :
(srftPT: T ? r f w r = iP5^) catching snakes in the sea : ^ y ^ ^ a w V d P r e r ^ n m ^ m (7.129.19)
WljfyrfiJ^^TT^Tfrw: I Here a n d sr?r are said to be soaring high in the sky in c o m p a n y with
the Vultures a n d they are the above two Eagles as a Crow is not common-
facTcq- TSTRfsPT: wfsrwr
ly known to fly, m u c h less to soar, so high whereas the White-tailed Sea-
stk+^T, 5.20 Eagle a n d Pallas's Fishing Eagle are u n d o u b t e d l y high-soaring birds. T h e
northern version of the R a m a y a n a also mentions «T5T as a c a r r i o n - b i r d :
1. " S t r a y F e a t h e r s " . I V . 4 2 3 . ; Cf. f^TRT (f%T srftT) f o r —
215 211
126 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219

^Ti^rr^T ^ 'flHwji'JKST^rnT i
f^Df ^^TST? J j t ^ ^ W ^ T II
a n d t h e c o m m e n t a t o r G o v i n d a r a j a translates aw as a kind of >m or Vulture,
which, t h o u g h strictly speaking incorrect, is significant a n d strengthens
t h e a b o v e identification, ^ r a n d again, are compared to l^FTS
(the long-snouted Gavial or G h a r i a l a n d (the crocodile) in a
m e t a p h o r where a battle-field r u n n i n g w i t h blood a n d strewn over w i t h
dead bodies, weapons etc., is pictured as a river. T h e comparison evident-
ly implies the great size of the birds feeding on d e a d bodies :—
sHcfr^^H^i I M . B h . 7.146.35.
^TOT^HT^t qWt^TJ^TR; I I b i d . 7.131.120.
4. As carrion-eaters, again, the last viz. the white-tailed Sea-Eagle
a n d Pallas's Fishing Eagles would seem to b e the stf^W^ a n d
respectively of the passage below :-—
^rr^TRT 13T: S^TT: " i d l ^ l : I
S3TSTT: W J d ^ W ^ ' c ^ f W T ^nftSTir^ Tfe^
aifa'H^ 1 is a p p a r e n t l y a difficult word to solve b u t if the element srfw in
the sense of a bee per S a y a n a on arfmr in AV. 8 . 6 . 1 is the same as srft, it
m a y well m e a n 'one that is terrible to or is feared by the enemy, a n d the
t e r m would qualify the carrion-birds named as an adjective.ffFPTFTPTalso
takes it that way though he explains it as " T h e second n a m e
2
snwiR, is perhaps derived f r o m sr? or 5R, a fish, a n d refers to a carrion-
bird t h a t owes its great strength to eating fish or has an a r d e n t desire
for fish-food. I n this sense t h e n a m e corresponds to TcFTT^ a n d the only
carrion-bird t h a t fulfills this c h a r a c t e r is Pallas's Fishing Eagle.
5. T h e Grey-headed Fishing Eagle occurs in two sizes in N o r t h I n d i a .
T h e large form is not found west of Delhi a n d the smaller variety is con-
fined to the outer H i m a l a y a s and descends as far south as Lucknow only,
d u r i n g winter. N o n e of t h e m would seem to be comprised within the t e r m
sr^r t h o u g h like the others they too eat carrion. Finally, all the Eagles con-
sidered above with the exception of the White-tailed Sea-Eagle, are very
noisy a n d have strident calls a n d the n a m e s^ffar belongs to t h e m in com-
m o n . T h e n a m e ^ H c ^ i occurs in the title of J a t a k a No. 486, the Wfr
sncPP, a n d must belong to Pallas's Fishing Eagle as the largest of the three
1. a t f a W T is m e n t i o n e d a g a i n w i t h 5JR in A . V .
Fishing Eagles of N o r t h I n d i a . T h e epithet T^T clearly implies lesser birds
going u n d e r the n a m e of ^f^tw.
(6.171.11.)
6. A l t h o u g h the Osprey a n d the Fishing Eagles have been n a m e d
differently (Art. 5 0 ) , their proper status as sqr has been clearly recognised.
T h u s the p u n i s h m e n t of God Visnu by the b i r d - f o r m (TTCT) of God Siva
is described a f t e r the m a n n e r of the White-tailed Sea-Eagle or Serpent
Eagles stooping again u p o n a sea or other snake that has slipped out of
his talons in mid-air, missing it in the first a t t e m p t , a n d shooting down a
second time to c a t c h it :
^ T W t f e r ^ fPTW ftwr ^ ^r1
T h e O s p r e y or the Fishing Eagle is called a SPPT in the J O T 2 a n d they
would therefore be i c W ^ W as indeed their H i n d i names like W7TT a n d
TSJfrr show.
T u r n i n g to names in the M . Bh. list it would a p p e a r t h a t if by a n y
means TTOT, s r f e i n a n d T^jfor refer to the Osprey which dives for fish,
the Fishing Eagles which take fish f r o m the surface, shallows or m u d -
shelves of rivers, a n d the H a r r i e r s w h i c h pick u p frogs etc. f r o m t h e
gT II A.V. 11.9.9. marshes respectively, the n a m e fcWTT should point to a foreign bird like
the W h i t e - t a i l e d Sea Eagle w h i c h visits the country d u r i n g the w i n t e r
only. T h e H i m a l a y a n Grey-headed Fishing Eagle is p a r t i c u l a r l y noisy on
moonlight nights d u r i n g the breeding season a n d m a y be the basis for the
n a m e fWnfiX in the list, ferren; would t h e n be either a n Eagle w h i c h is noisy
d u r i n g t h e d a y or the Golden Eagle as a n e m b l e m of the sun (fe^NR)
which has often been pictured as a ^T^T in R V .
D. F A L C O N S AND HAWKS
I. INTRODUCTORY
1. Falcons a n d Hawks are two readily distinguishable groups of m e d i u m
a n d small sized birds of prey within the family Falconidae differentiated
not only by certain physical characters b u t also by their different m e t h o d s
of attack. T h e Falcons have as a rule a r a t h e r p l u m p looking body, a ring
of b a r e skin r o u n d the eyes making for better vision, a n d long a n d pointed
wings. T h e y h a v e stout beaks a r m e d with a tooth on either side of . the
u p p e r m a n d i b l e , a n d a sharp a n d powerful hind claw. T h e y attack their
q u a r r y in the air a n d pursue it if missed in the first attack. T h e Hawks,
on the other h a n d , have a compact body, a long neck, a small h e a d , short
rounded wings, a very long tail, a n d high tarsi. T h e beak is less vaulted
11.2.2.

2. T h e form 3FT o c c u r s in T a i t t . S a m . 5 . 5 . 1 3 c o r r e s p o n d i n g to 5TT i n K a t h a k a

1. fsRJCTW 3 r d ^ s f p 12.15. fa^JTTT 1.25.95.
S a m . 5.7.3. SPT also occurs with water-animals like HjIKHK, J^tWT, a n d TfW in 2. 122.21 ff.
A.V. 11.2.25.
216 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds
217
and more compressed at the sides. It has no tooth like the Falcon's but has catching and training them, their respective merits, the different styles of
instead a well pronounced festoon. T h e bare circle around the eye is releasing them after the quarry, and the different kinds of birds a parti
entirely wanting. They are more arboreal, hunt low in the woods and cular Falcon or Hawk is capable of killing. Some of the names for the
hedgerows and pounce upon the quarry on the ground and do not pursue Falcons and Hawks, current in South India, appear to be of Prakritic
it if missed. A Falcon kills by tearing open the back of a bird with its origin :
powerful hind claw but a Hawk overpowers with a formidable grip of its
rn f^Ktsif fraipr y t ^ l c f ^ : I
claws and does not immediately kill the quarry. Both have fine large
and expressive eyes but their colours are different. A Falcon has brown eyes wrf^T, snfiRfT oT^WxjT II
while the Hawk's are yellow, i Both these groups are distinguished in Sans- flr^TRT, JTsrmm q^FfeFT: \
krit nomenclature as well despite the fact that the term as a general
^ ^rr: ^ r W ^ m S m r : n
name for all birds of prey other than Kites and Vultures, is, like the
English term Hawk, very comprehensive. Falcons areOTTin a restricted forfor S P T ' ^ FRTT^ srrfcmcm: i
sense and Hawks Mif>i* (v. 1. STfir, sr-J-arrfa contest snfrr-qsTt, f^WTcr: 11
a n d 3T5T. T h e fw+)!il and give Tr^rg as well for a Hawk ( sif^r, «nfsr, Verses 1329-1331.
qfefw) but if the word is from qw T5TW as in it should signify a T h e author of would seem to have incorporated the above names
pet Hawk trained for catching birds. in his list of the birds of prey at page 327 :
Derived from roots and W^r signifying 'motion' all the names refer to
srrf^FFT 3rfot; I
the fast and powerful flight of these rapacious birds.
T^piwtw ?PmTT 'TS3T 3Tfrr f*TO: II
2. As already pointed out in section A, the art of Falconry, WT<WT,
^ f ^ p m STJFFWRfT^T: i
had been practised by the ancient Indo-Aryans from time immemorial and
TTrfe T f a w i T ipg-qr^pgrq^T: ||
there are references to it in the Dharma-sastra and classical literature as
well. T h e magical sacrifice called v d w r in STTEJPT, 4. 2 performed with Here too the text is partly corrupt, wrf^r has been misread as
the object of killing or injuring a particular enemy is clearly based upon as othf, ^ t o of u r o - t f e f f has been separated as and the
the practice of Hawking where a trained Falcon brings down the intended corrupt TOI m w has been read and broken up into s^rfa^r and s r ^
q u a r r y ; compare also 'w^rftnr^T tot'—hrrq. sft. 22. 4. 13 ff. 3. 164 All these make no sense for me at least, ^ r would seem to have been
mentions a Brahmana practising Falconry or dealing in Hawks as J^NtfcpT. rightly corrected to ^ i t e , v.l. has been correctly rendered as ^
describes a princely young m a n bearing on his left hand the scratch Non-Sanskrit names have been underlined above. Ifwrfer is a corruption of
marks made by the claws of a Falcon : lt m a y mean 'the noble bird' or 'the noble falcon'. All brown-
WTTSfWil^i r<d~ld <+ <: eyed falcons are known a s ' t h e noble falcons'and the yellow-eyed Hawks as
'ignoble falcons' in English.
i i l R ^ f d ^ K d ^ f , 3rr. Pt. 1, p. 152,
3. A later but more comprehensive treatise on the subject is the
The ^qy^Rd gives a highly artificial and forced concept of WHHldl in srrer by R a j a Rudradeva of Kumaon who seems to have lived in the 16th
4 . 2 0 . 2 1 but the much later ^HH-^Spri^ mentions the flying of Falcons century A.G. In this book the term like the English 'Hawk' has
and Hawks (wiife) at large birds as quarries : been used both in the title and elsewhere in the body of the book in the
inclusive sense for both Falcons and Hawks, and tfft* for the Falconer
frcqw^ imifcdi qfemifa fr:1
Sanskrit names of quite a few of these birds, which must have been current
^T. *TT. Pt. 14, p. 66. in ancient times, had apparently been forgotten due chiefly to the influ
TH^ft^TO, an encyclopaedic work of the first half of the twelfth century ence of the J a i n a and Buddhist doctrine of and the effective check
from South India contains a chapter on Falconry Vol.2, 267) exercised by it on the sport of Hawking* a n d ' t h e authors of both the above
and although the text is corrupt at places it gives a fair idea about the works were forced to use local vernacular names in a Sanskritised garb for
various species of Hawks caught and trained for the chase, the methods of some of them. Following the practice of Muslim Falconers Rudradeva
classifies the sporting Hawks into two classes : (i) the 'brown-eyed'
1. H a s the English w o r d " H a w k " a n y connection with Sansk. forms like f F H , fTpRT Falcons as a^rer w corresponding to w r f w of the Persians and (ii)
f r o m root jp in the sense of a bird t h a t is discharged from the h a n d to c a t c h a n o t h e r
bird ?
1. q r r f e as a synonym for J J W should be traced to the s a m e influence.
218 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219

the 'yellow-eyed' Hawks as Trs?rT«T the ^reresiranr, and enumerates them list of Falcons in size do not exceed 18 or 19 inches in length whereas
as under :- the Goshawk measures up to fully 24 inches. T h e "great n o r t h e r n " Falcons
which come nearer in size and strength to the Goshawk were
(i) Female Falcons—
naturally looked upon by the author of w f o s as foreign varieties of
g^ftST?*?
•o C "s > II
the Hawk and he accordingly placed them with the adult and young
frcnrraT H l i H ISTT ? ^TRft t sr^iKct^ I
Goshawks in a separate group, the ^TfsrT: i.e. the Hawks par excellence.
11
^ r r d'mifd ^rsir^ ^MMT ^rrfgwwft: i ?rftr?r: q^rsrr cfat qC w NO
I
f^V, TO?, TOP, II t^ii^Ri^-imsr: n 34

^rrsrr qsr+fa'+'i cwr ^rwr to I W ? ^ c r s M s i g^STS?: 5T#fercT: I

"jsqwnsr drtlteMl: F ^ ^ n w f ^ f T TW: II Page 18. T m ^ m f ^ q p T M W ^ : ?r ? : 11 35
1
T h e male birds are just referred to in the last line but their names are f^TOSTR: ^"^PT: ^FT^: TOT: I
not given in the book. ^xftsfir 11 36
(ii) Female Hawks : f^qwft ^WM: 1
?RT, ?TCT, t^TT?? R H H I » II Page 19. tw ^kidR-dw 1 "jf ^ 11 37

(iii) Male Hawks : cf TSTTT ? p f 2 T f t ?S3 TfaTcT-V I

O

cr?? m ? ^Kisyrgfa'+Kc n 38
c\ C\ > o o

H^TFt, W i l d l f t t f f e ? II
4MI3IJST 5raMc«(ld TtW^ SErqtfWdT: II Page 20. Ibid. p. 20.

T h e last three lines stress the well known fact that the female of these
birds is definitely superior in size, strength, speed, and sporting qualities
and are therefore always preferred to the males for purposes of hawking.
This superiority is the foundation of a convention among Falconers accord-
ing to which the name of the female bird is always in the masculine
gender. This, incidentally, explains why TflTsft,. the famle Golden Eagle
(the is supposed to be a WT (masculine) when she goes u p to
bring down theTW:—
q^TRcft !???Wc?T ft?: ST WT: I 9TcI° ?To 3.4.1.12
and if this explanation is correct the above tradition is very ancient
indeed.
4. Foreign birds were often imported by Indian Falconers during the
M u h a m m a d a n period and these were what are known as " t h e great n o r -
t h e r n " Falcons (Hierofalco, the sacred falcons), viz., (i) the Gyrfalcon of
Scandinavia, resembling in colouration the Blue Hawk ( t h e Peregrine)
but of a much larger size; (ii) the Icelander from Iceland with a paler
colouring and a decidedly longer body; and (iii) the Greenland Falcon
with a predominantly pure white plumage. Among Indian Hawks the
female Goshawk stands out as the most powerful and the largest of all the
Falcons and Hawks taken together though the Peregrine and the Shaheen
excel in dash and speed. T h e Peregrine and the Shaheen which head the
T h e second line of verse 34 and verse 35 in the above passage refer to the
slim looking (because of its very long tail), yellow-eyed or the powerful
Goshawk 2 with a black and white spotted plumage (^rfefr f r . ^ r t a spotted
sea-shell; cf. for the pied ' Kingfisher, Art. 41). It is the
T h e w^prra- of the fourth line is a young Goshawk with rufous lower
parts (^iTPrrer having a body resembling that of the Brahminy D u c k ) .
T h e third line refers to the ease with which the Goshawk can be trained.
T h e ^ra^? TT3T of verse 36 and the qrrw of verses 39 and 40 appear to
be the Gyrfalcon and the Icelander respectively. T h e former has an elonga-
ted body ( w ) and more of the bluish colour than in the Blue Hawk
(the Peregrine) so that the descriptive phrase also suits it better 3 .
T h e ftfqrrw of verses 37-38 is almost certainly the practically all-white
Greenland Falcon. This was considered to be a great possession and as
the risk of its loss could not be taken it was never to be used for hawking.
No wonder, a superstition grew around it, viz., the mere touch of it cured
1. in t h e c o n t e x t is t h e G r e y H e r o n .
2 . Cf. t h e t e c h n i c a l t e r m " R e d H a w k " f o r a H a w k of t h e first y e a r in y o u n g p l u m a g e
— E n c y . Brit., 1 1 t h e d i t i o n , vol. 10, p . 143a.
3. T h e t h r e e ' g r e a t n o r t h e r n ' F a l c o n s " a r e v e r y d i f f i c u l t to b a c k t o t h e h o o d a n d to
m a n a g e in t h e field".—Ency. B r i t . , i b i d . , p . 145ff. T h i s goes to s u p p o r t w h a t is s t a t e d a b o u t
t h e JPTvPfT i n verse 36, viz. t h a t it t a k e s l o n g e r t o t r a i n a n d e v e n t h o u g h well
d i s p o s e d t o w a r d s its o w n e r it o f t e n b e c o m e s w i l d .
 Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219
220 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
(xi) ^ T O f i r a n d its v. 11 is a c o r r u p t c o m p o u n d the original of which
a p a t i e n t of fevers. This would seem to be the white Falcon, ' T a i g h o o n ' , is very difficult to determine. T h e TOTC separates it into a r s r f w a n d
mentioned in the Memoirs of J e h a n g i r ( Tuzuk-i-Jehangiri, trans, b y A. angM*. I t therefore seems p r o b a b l e t h a t the first element is
Rogers, Vol. '2, p p 10-11). I t has not been possible for me to find out the which m a y refer e i t h e r to the M e r l i n or the C h e r r u g Falcon. T h e
Persian names of the other two 'great n o r t h e r n ' Falcons. T h e smaller second element m i g h t b e for the Basha Sparrow H a w k .or the
Sparrow Hawks have b e e n described in the book under the names ^mrr, m t H o b b y Falcon. All the four birds were used for H a w k i n g and it
and ftr^T. These and their males will be discussed in the section on Hawks. is highly p r o b a b l e t h a t at least two of t h e m were included in the
5. T h e following lists of vernacular names o f t h e different Hawks and c o m p o u n d which has been corrupted.
Falcons current in N o r t h I n d i a and Bihar should prove very useful in the 2) Falcons a n d H a w k s in stfa^ 5TIT5T :—
elucidation o f t h e Sanskrit and other names given in p a r a g r a p h s 2 and 3 (i) f ^ — t h e same as sr^ra in (1) above :
above :
(ii) w ; — " T O in (1) (viii) above :
^fr, srrsr, ^rrf, ariw, s n f H , fcrtfV,
Viii) TOT—TOT off|. 5T.WT.; TOT of i b i d ; and is t h e Saker or Cherrug
t f f T , ttfTT — f f ^ t UWtii'iO
Falcon of F.B.I.
qrffr, m f r z , strc, w f r , s r ^ r , s r t r ^ r , spcrct, ^ f o r n : , (iv) t h e same as sntaa- in (1) ( i ) a b o v e :
>o o -o ^ (v) 5PR—5PT in ( I ) (iii) above :
— p . 36.
(vi) TSnpta^T—is p r o b a b l y the H o b b y as discussed later :
A c o m p a r a t i v e study of the Sanskrit a n d vernacular names supplemented (vii) p i r a t — i n H.; in F.B.I, (wrrot of f t sr. m. and i t a r c in
by similar information from the F.B.I. (Birds), Vol. V. leads to the follow-
F.B.I, are the s a m e ) ; it is the M e r l i n F a l c o n :
ing identifications and they are given here as a preliminary to a more
detailed consideration of these birds in the sections that follow. (viii) 3T3T—the same as srrftpf? in ( 1 ) ( i v ) above :
1. Hawks and Falcons in JTFmWrcr :— (ix) =TT?TT—srm in H . and wrr in F.B.I, is the Asiatic or the I n d i a n
snfa^r—the Peregrine Falcon; ^ of W. WT.; sr^t, faffft in H i n d i ; Bhyri in Sparrow H a w k :
F . B . I . ; STftr in <11K<1111<. : (x) t h e same as t^n; in (1) (vii) above :
srra?r— the Shaheen F . ; WIWT, in T e l u g u , J ^ , and wr^T in H . per f§. «r. *TT. (xi) ftr^FT—in ( 1 ) (vi) above :
a n d F . B . I . ; J^t in W. WT.; strata in <m<TT. (xii)-(xv) TO is t h e m a l e of Goshawk; the male of the S p a r r o w -
— the L u g g a r F . ; snrc, ww? in H. a n d F.B.I, H a w k ; aftr, the male of t h e Besra S p a r r o w - H a w k ; a n d |TT t h e
snfa^—the Goshawk; mta, srrat, in Sansk,; srta in H . and F . B . I . ; tnf?T in male of the Shikra as in (1) (x) above :
All the names noted in this p a r a g r a p h a n d others will be considered
— t h e Kestrel; T ^ r in TOTfffta; but if the root word is 'association' it later with the individual Falcons and Hawks in sub-sections I I a n d I I I of
m a y be the male of OT i.e. L u g g a r F. this section.
ff^TTT— the Shikra H a w k ; ftraFT in H . ; H^TR of lexicons including
M . W . ; S T ^ in ^ k c l l + i II. FALCONS
w t - T h e Besra H a w k and its allies; tott in H . and F . B . I . ; t s r , ffff* in 1. This sub-section deals with the Sanskrit nomenclature of Falcons
which, for their size, constitute a most r e m a r k a b l e group of birds. Bold
(viii) itet—srerre of wr. is a Hawk-Eagle : and predacious by n a t u r e they possess a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y keenness of vision,
great strength, speed, a n d above all persistence. As trained birds they
(ix) sr.M'tifa't.—"HH<ii6) of F.B.I, is the Crested Goshawk :
are loyal a n d greatly a t t a c h e d to their m a s t e r whose voice and person
(x) a t a s (v.l. sta^ff; is' a w . r . ) — s t a ^ inTOTsfo; ffrr in H . & F.B.I.; they can recognize from a great distance a n d often u t t e r a call of recogni-
sPrar in ^ k d T o ; is the male of tfs^TH, the Shikra : tion long before r e t u r n i n g to the master's fist. T h e best representatives of
the group are t h e Peregrine and the Shaheen Falcons and they must be
given precedence over others in the discussion t h a t follows.
1. " ^ f , ^rrsr, f f t , 5PK, ctf ffFPTT* f"—from "PfftalfTH" 2. T h e Peregrine or t h e Blue H a w k (19") is the Falcon par excellence
a book of H i n d i Poetry b y R a g h u r a j a , q u o t e d in f^. W. IT. u n d e r ' s P R ' . and and for this reason is simply known as ' F a l c o n ' amongst British falconers.
JTTrar a r e n a m e s for the M e r l i n F. " F o r its size it is p e r h a p s the most powerful b i r d of p r e y t h a t flies, a n d
" srraT 9TST sft ftHTR I f f t 5 f ^ f m . l snTF q u o t e d in ibid, under
222 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219

its courage is as great as its power". It is bluish grey above and white
below with brown or black spots (bars in old birds) on the lower breast
and abdomen. It is the s t r as defined in the : 5TT in the sense of 'wood' (timber) i.e. for things m a d e of wood, e.g. a
• i l + < « r i <-IH4uiT <«[f^-M:
Where (having a blue cover) is descriptive of the colour of the
upper plumage, ^XW of its perfect aptitude for training and its expert
performance, and the other adjectives refer-to its long wings a n d love of
the chase. mentions it as the (v.l. or 3HFFT? M . W . ) in
reference to its bluish or foggy colour. In Hindi it is known as ^ f f t (v.l.
faffpft)1 which appears as in t h e s ^ f r o 9n?$r, 4.20. Hindi ^ f t or
be from fe-^, fa-flft or ft-f^ (one t h a t carries away or kills birds), or
again from fk-zfr ( # r t g r f f r f v f , a lion among birds; cf. Tfsrfaf for if?;^,
the Golden Eagle), f f r (a lion) is the n a m e of one of the descendants of
in the M a h a b h a r a t a list where the name is comparable with 9TOT (a
tiger) and jjT^tfai (a p a n t h e r ) for the Pelican (Art. 71) and is very appro-
priate for the bold and fearless Peregrine, fafft is again on a p a r with f R
( a lion-sparrow, hence a comparatively small but very courageous
bird of prey) :
^ r a w t wrf^mft S I ^ K + T — s T x i w t
f f t or task would thus seem to account for Hindi ^ f f t or fkfk?t for this
Falcon.
3. I n the wild state it takes both land and water-birds from a Lark
to a Duck to which last it is very partial. If by any chance it has not
succeeded in securing its staple diet in the course of the day it will attack
a Crow-colony late in the evening. This very important trait of the Falcon
had happily been noted by the ancient Indians and now helps us to
identify it with the few win of Vedic literature :
( s m f f t ^ r o t r f t ) in RV. 9.57.3 1 as interpreted by me in Section A
viz., wooden poles or posts in a house used as perches for t a m e Falcons.
cart (f^FT* sr^fa has been used in the Rgveda (2.14.9; 3.1,13;
10.132.7; etc.) and there is no very great improbability against how I pro-
pose to interpret R V . 10.91.2 2 . T h e second TK of the verse ( ' ^
^efiRst") compares srfrr, the welcome guest, with the Falcon as a valued
pet and guest of every tribe. It may be noted that when plants a n d trees
have been directly mentioned as the food and source of arfr^ in verses 5-7
of the hymn, and particularly when any bird may be said to have its home
in a tree there would seem to be no point in particularising the w i l O n
may the other hand the parallel between the glorious and the equally
glorious a w f r as honoured guests makes an excellent simile. When the first,
third and the fourth Padas refer to the domestic fire as a guest the second
Pada also should naturally refer to the bird as another guest in the house.
4. At present the Peregrine is a winter visitor in India a n d is said
to breed throughout Northern Asia but it is quite probable that in times
long past it bred in the Himalayas as well and was more plentiful in the
country than now. Even now it is found throughout the country in the
cold season but in former times when the country had a far greater
number of marshes and jheels bird-life of all kinds, serving as food for
birds of prey, was also very much more plentiful than now, and conse-
quently the raptores also must have been far more numerous then. T h e
i. si TPT 3TPT sTurMrtfr TOT gro: i w^t ^ srg "Ttefa n
T r a n s : " H e , t h e object of pious observances, cleansed b y t h e priests, fearless as a king, sits
on the waters like a h a w k . " — p e r Wilson, following S a y a n a ' s r e n d e r i n g .
" H e , w h e n t h e people deck h i m like a docile king of elephants, sits as a falcon in t h e
wood."—Griffith.
2. ¥ Msm d-mlft* I
5 R 3 F T s p s f r ^Tfw l ^ l t few 3TT feWt Rtifl'faIIII

fasm^rrfawRt ^nraHrfw T r a n s : " O f manifest glory, h e resoits as a guest to every house (of his w o r s h i p p e r s ) to every
forest; f r i e n d l y t o m a n , like one r e p a i r i n g to all m e n , h e disregards t h e m n o t ; k i n d to all,
snrc Tiu^wr *n?r fe^rf II h e d w e l l s a m o n g s t all m e n , " ( h e presides over every o n e ) . — W i l s o n .
M . Bh. 7.26,64.
""<^cH "—"he lurks in every forest like a robber,"—per
T h e terrific speed of this bird during a 'stoop' has been estimated as high Langlois, vide W i l s o n ' s notes.
as 150 miles per hour which, despite some exaggeration, means that no " H e , excellent in glory, guest in every house, finds like a swift-winged b i r d a h o m e in
bird can cscape its devastating attack and it is in recognition of this fact every tree. B e n e v o l e n t to m e n , h e scorns n o living m a n : F r i e n d to the tribes of m e n h e
that the ancients gave it the distinctive name of fsnm^T. Now if the 'fast dwells w i t h e v e r y t r i b e . " ' S w i f t - w i n g e d b i r d ' : or, b i r d of prey. ' H u n t e r ' a c c o r d i n g to
Ludwig.—F.N.—Griffith.
bird', 5m=fta, o f R V . 10.91.2 is the same as the fewm I would suggest
Cf. fa^cT ^ — (?ftT) p u r i f i e d in a wooden vessel, lift it up in
that the expression ^ in the verse has the same meaning as the word
a wooden TO—RV. 2.14.9.
S a y a P a does n o t r e n d e r cTW^f as a b i r d a n d the idea of a H a w k or F a l c o n sitting o n
t h e w a t e r is impossible. T h e r e n d e r i n g as a fast b i r d or better still, as ' a b i r d of p r e y 'suits
1- "ftffTt fHs^tf w : HTT f|<T quoted under in f | . 9T. 3T.
best. T h a t arf^T^Fr for the amitST is in s h a p e of a b i r d of p r e y supports t h e r e n d e r i n g
2. c W ^ can also be the S h a h e e n F a l c o n , a species closely allied t o t h e Peregrine of b y Griffith, a n d as ' a fast flying b i r d ' in the V e d i c I n d e x . Both ' r o b b e r ' a n d
a n d almost as good for purposes of h a w k i n g . Being a resident b i r d it is p r e f e r r e d b y I n d i a n ' h u n t e r ' a r e totally i n a p p r o p r i a t e for a deity like
falconers.
 2
224 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 19

passage from CTcTo considered in para, 7 below also supports the 6 R e t u r n i n g to the name fawwr it is to be noted that the Peregrine
breeding of the Peregrine in the outer Himalayas about two thousand years has also been described as the 'little Golden Eagle', with
ago. for like the Eagle it has both courage a n d speed and like him again it
5. An experienced old Peregrine knows well how to deliver its attack breeds on inaccessible cliffs. As against the briefsynonymy, "fsrsnrefa:
on a particular quarry. If it is a Heron, the Falcon, after tearing open in fcnrcfr ^ r the definition given by ^ H X W R in his Tlfr* on the is
the back of the bird with its hind claw, would contract its claws and lay more specific in describing this small and yet powerful bird (a mere 19"
hold of the bird's neck so as to avoid being struck by its sharp and power- in length compared with 36" to 40" of the massive Golden Eagle) though
ful bill, but if the- q u a r r y happens to be the Demoiselle Crane, it keeps he calls it a ^ by way of compliment :
well on its back and escapes a blow from the sharp, curved inner claw of
f$TST#T: ^T^T^l ^ T T ^ f a S T f : — o n 4.3.160.
the Crane which often inflicts a severe wound. This cleverness on the part
OT* in the context must evidently be taken as synonymous with the more
of the Falcon would justify the n a m e 3ST (clever, wise) for it as a descend-
ant of G a r u d a in the M a h a b h a r a t a list. 1 T h e following verses in praise of correct STTO in the ft, and it follows that the interpretation of f W or
a trained Falcon should prove interesting : as the ftrartT in the on 4.3.19 and by Sayana else-
where is not to be taken too literally but in the sense of a sma.ll n?)
cisf: fftrfST^T: w r : I bird possessing the excellent flight and speed of the true f t f . T h e high
e s t e e m i n w h i c h t h i s F a l c o n w a s held m a y be judged from the fact that
p r f r ^ srrar, 5.40
no other bird, not even the ^ T proper, has been deified and considered
^rfe^rr .3 mrrr nwftw 1 worthy of an individual offering at the a n r ^ at which a Quail is assigned
fTPPrf f^WraTSZT II Ibid 6.8. i t _"fasrni4w Tfircn", ?r%rr, 24.30. ,
t0

T h e following verses descriptive of sport with a Peregrine ( ^ f t ) will be 7 T h e female Peregrine, again, would seem to be the snp^frr bird
appreciated. Here and as the birds flown at are flights of Grey of the W W «HPT, where she is said to give birth to a femw* (fast F a l c o n ) .
Herons and Black Ibises respectively : According to a statement in the ST^rr a m a n desirous of a brave son
should not join his wife at meal-time but allow her to eat by herself, and
i t is i n s u p p o r t of this proposition that the example of the a n r ^ t bird
^Rt^ldMi' % HV^I^qfSTOTR; I
doing so and begetting the fast and courageous f«T5T#T is cited :
'JTC'T T>Ft =TfTT ff ^ ' • W c ^ r r T W II
irsr t u G w f q r r T : *srT?rcrfcr ^ i vTO-nrr «n% ftwrssirair tffcrc^ HT wife
fwrSTTTRTRT: ^^TRTffTTcT f ^ ^ F T II ar^r HTMiTa i ^r ^M^spsfr
9JT. 9IT. 6 . 3 7 - 3 8 . •Twforawi^J * s^rewr ^ ^ 10.5.2.9-10-

T h e second verse refers to the first earthward flight of the birds

frightened by the loud swish of the wings of the Falcon during a stoop from
above. If the quarry is already at a good height its chance of escape from
the marauder is " t o keep above the enemy, and it often happens, there-
fore, that both birds may fly so high as to disappear entirely. Eventually,
however, the—relentless pursuer will rise above his victim, and then in a
few moments will come the savage and certain downward plunge, and
the clutch of the merciless talons which means death in mid a i r . " This
method of escape is often attempted though not with m u c h chance of
success by large birds like the Black Ibis and Cranes, which incidentally
explains the term for the ^ w j s ( M . W . and w. i.e., the
Black Ibis (Art 80), for when not in danger it does not ordinarily
fly very high. ™ (sky-going) for the Ibis, therefore, owes its origin to
the practice of falconry.
1. M B h . 5.101.9-15.
Sayaria comments on the above as follows :
qfsFri a r ^ m qfsff^rrfcr:
am: ST fes^ A w f w r m *TPT q f i P l ^ I
Now most of the Eagles and only two among the Falcons, the Luggar and
the Merlin, are known to go about and h u n t in pairs and share the spoils
in common, b u t the Peregrines, male and female, hunt independently as
a rule and each kills and eats its own prey. Taken young, the Peregrine is
easily the best of all the hawking birds. A trained bird is very m u c h
devoted to and shows great affection for its keeper, and during a h u n t
when the bird is returning to its master from high up in the air it utters a
1 T h i s passage shows a close observation of t h e habits of falcons in n a t u r e w h i c h in
t u r n lends strong s u p p o r t to the proposition t h a t t h e a n c i e n t V e d i c A r y a n s p r a c t i s e d falconry.
 219
226 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds

clear d r a w n out plaintive cry as a call of recognition (Smythies) . This the M B h . list m a y well refer to it after its small size, bluish colour, a n d
call is the 3t<jd=ii=h (sweet voice) of the bird so cheering and welcome to its the h a b i t of killing Pigeons. Like its elder cousin, the Peregrine, it was
keeper. S t u a r t Baker also records his p e r s o n a l experience r e g a r d i n g a pair trained to kill a variety of birds including even such large ones as the
of Serpent Eagles kept by him. T h e y would recognize their master f r o m Sarus a n d other Cranes :
high u p when they were still invisible to the h u m a n eye, and come d o w n fr^TT grctssr fls^ttiq^:
with their screaming calls and actually alight on his shoulder (see also
gwfr: qwftfar I^THS™; II
the article on F a l c o n r y in Ency. Brit. 1.1th a n d 14th editions). T h e m e a n -
ing of as explained above is greatly strengthened by the accept-
ed sense of t h e t e r m ar^Mi* for the welcome sound of the wheels of a M<Hc<-t>,N^fl' ^ STfRT fUy-fj-C 11 w . 3TT. 6.35-36
wagon r e t u r n i n g h o m e laden with the barley crop in 3RT. 37., 5.4.5.22 T h e reference to the C r a n e ' s counter-attack w i t h its bill is interesting.
(see also Eggling's trans, in t h e S.B.E. series). T h a t the voice 10. T h e Laggar (19") is one of the commonest Falcons of India
of such a bird is appreciated elsewhere m a y be seen in names like
frequenting dry open country and areas a d j o i n i n g cultivation. D a r k to
the " S i n g i n g H a w k " or " C h a n t i n g F a l c o n " for an African bird. Finally,
grey brown above a n d predominantly white below it is not difficult of
like the n a m e (wise or clever), the n a m e of the MBh. list corres-
identification in t h e field specially as pairs are seen together. An i m p o r t a n t
ponds to a p j ^ m a n d m a y well refer to this F a l c o n .
feature about the b i r d is t h a t n e a r l y a l w a y s it hunts in pairs. English
8. T h e Shaheen Falcon (18"), a very close relative of the preceding, ' L a g g a r ' is derived f r o m the Hindi a n d OTf for the female Falcon.
is the best indigenous and breeding bird of I n d i a . Its breeding places on T h e male goes b y the n a m e of m < in H i n d i f r o m s r ^ - S P T f T a dispute,
the cliffs in different parts of the country h a v e been known to the people because a pair when a t t a c k i n g a q u a r r y in co-ordination a p p e a r to b e
from time immemorial ( J e r d o n ) . It is a darker bird t h a n the Peregrine, carrying on a dispute as it were. T h e OT and ^ r of w r a t e m r should b e
the head being almost black, and the u n d e r parts-more rufous. T h e defini- t h e female and male respectively of this bird as H i n d i m * a n d Sansk. ^
tion of the f f c j p ^ quoted from in support of the Peregrine are from root m to adhere, and ^ p r , if not the same as T f T , m a y b e a
would seem to be equally applicable to it. I n a state of n a t u r e it preys S o u t h - I n d i a n v a r i a n t of ^ T used for the male Falcon. T h e second H i n d i
upon a variety of game birds including Pigeons and Quails, b u t it is n a m e w s z and even W m a y also have something t o d o with V e d i c TO
partial to Paroquets. T h e Peregrine, as we h a v e seen, prefers water-birds ( ^ t ^ t , ^ ? speedy, hence a Falcon 2 — Vedic Index, where r w t , swift
but t h e most i m p o r t a n t difference between the habits of the two is t h a t is suggested as a n alternative ) - T O - T O - ^ T - Telugu ^ for
when the h u n g r y Peregrine wends its w a y to a Crow-colony in the evening this Falcon also points in the direction of TO-TO Sansk. WK, for a h a n d y
the Shaheen turns to the bats in similar circumstances. Despite the a d m i t - missile, seems to be a n allied word, TO is one o f t h e bird-names in the
ted superiority of the former the I n d i a n falconers have always shown a following verse :
preference for the latter ( S h a h e e n ) a n d they train it for w h a t is known
HT anP^Y^i IT TERTT % i
as the " s t a n d i n g g a i t " and is not slipped f r o m the h a n d like the Peregrine
i.e. when released it keeps circling high in the air over its master and cprrfa W af " AV. 8.7.24.
party, and as the game is started it makes its stoop with a m a z i n g speed, Derived as suggested above the n a m e TO is c o m p a r a b l e with H ^ T as
faster t h a n a n arrow, which is a very sure a n d deadly way of h u n t i n g . descriptive of the quick action of a warrior and a Falcon :
9. I t is known as f f t in H i n d i and s r r a ^ ( J o w a l u m ? in F.B.I, due
fifr: 9OTT WW I - M B h . 7.120.36.
to a phonetic error perhaps, and there are m a n y such errors in recording
the I n d i a n names of birds) in T e l u g u . J f t m a y be from (i) j ^ - f a ^ r m , W e thus h a v e ^ a n d probably TO as Sanskrit names for this Falcon
because when domestic Pigeons are flown high for their daily exercise it The L u g g a r a n d his m a t e usually h u n t together w i t h complete coopera-
frequently appears suddenly over t h e m to the great consternation of the tion between t h e m as already stated, a n d the following simile pictured
Pigeon-fancier, or (ii) by direct substitution of Sansk. J f t (fog) as a after a pair of Falcons or Eagles a c t i n g together against a c o m m o n
synonym for grftor (v.l. afcm) : objective is fully reminiscent o f t h e behaviour of a pair of these Falcons

a f r m w w ^ m f q r s f r gifrfir ^ — or some Eagle :

If, as is m o r e probable, the second explanation of the n a m e f f f is correct,
it would b e purely a Sansk. name, indicative of the colour or the u p p e r 1. TOi com. on p. 357.
plumage o f t h e S h a h e e n like the terms nta^M and ffifm. T h e n a m e of 2. Per Bloomfield in Hymns of the Atharvaveda, p. 43.
 228 Birds in Sanskrit Literature 219
Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds
^RTftTTRt ^HlfrlH'rf^ Epic he, says Vaidya, inserted a large number of ^ W t o or enigmatic
*Tmr ?cRT>T|cTf ®ft T I) AV. 7.70.3. verses throughout the body of the work, each chapter having its share of a
few such verses ( ^ T T , ch. 1, pp. 37-40). T h e following verse from the
11. T h e Saker (Arabic, al-saqr) or the Cherrug Falcon (22") has a appears to be of the ^ type. I have picked it out just to see if the
whitish head and brown upper parts. T h e lower parts are white often
words m , W and TOT have been used in their usual meanings or in a
marked with brown drops. T h e bill is pearl or ivory white. It is a desert
sense for particular birds, TOT being the fast-flying Laggar Falcon. Here
form frequenting open lands, deserts and wide uncultivated tracts. Next to
is the verse :
the Peregrine it is a very fast and courageous bird and was formerly
trained to capture gazelles, fawns, hares, Cranes, Bustards, etc. I n nature, w : Trra-n faf^Fsra iTHT af* I
however, it lives on small m a m m a l s and principally on lizards. It is known qeWdTST T^Tptf 7H1? f s ^ T st^mtW II
as TOT or TO in Hindi, and or in Persian while w. m. mentions it MBh. 5.48.104-5.
by its Hindi name of and refers to its frightful attack and perseverance
when let go after a fawn : T h e commentators have taken the terms ^ w m : , and TOW to mean
'deer' 'jackals' and 'hyenas' respectively, and firfinrer:, Peacocks. These
frfrif f w n t r a " ffi^w-ffrftr interpretations, barring the 'deer' do not suit the context at all.* Arjuna,
affcwrcf srfacsr ^ t u —6.39. the great warrior, makes in this verse a proud statement regarding the
extra-ordinary speed of his war-chariot drawn by a pair of white horses,
T h e H y e n a is also TOT or TO in Hindi and TO in Prakrit, and these and bearing this in m i n d one must admit that the poor hyena with his
names are from Sansk. TOT or TOT. T h e ^ R ? ^ mentions TOT* as a bird of limping gait or run is indeed no m a t c h for any much less a really fast
prey and defines it as where TTW means 'a pearl' and horse T h e v e r y i d e a of a horse outstripping a hyena in a race is most
'a beak' so that the white-billed TOW (TOT with ^ or to fill the incongruous and the comparison is simply ridiculous. T h e jackal, though
metre) is no other than the Cherrug Falcon which alone has a white bill. a fast runner, is too mean a creature for Arjuna's boast. I n the Rgveda
^ (&. TOr a wanderer) is a kind of bird in s r a w t and probably the speed of horses has been compared with that of the wind and in litera-
corresponds to Hindi TOT for this Falcon, TOT (fr. TO) again in the same ture with that of the Golden Eagle 2 , the fastest of the tribe. T h e Peacock,
dialect, is defined as a class of mendicants who obtain their food by violent again i s m o s t l y a ground bird with a heavy and laboured flight. I t is
means. ^ I n Persian, too, ' c h a r k h ' not only means this Falcon but also a therefore submitted that all the names in the above verse represent large
'faqeer' or mendicant who goes out on his rounds at night. Evidently,
and fast-flying birds as suggested below :
therefore, Ardhamagadhi TOT, Hindi TOT or TO a n d Persian ' c h a r k h ' are
fr W OTT, one looking around for food; 'a large bird' in R V .
identical and have their root in Sansk. TOT which means (i) the hyena
which prowls for prey at night and (ii) this Falcon which secures its food 1 182 7- 10.136.6 ( M . W . ) . I t is probably either theBearded Vulture
by violent means, ^ is also a kind of bird in Prakrit where is (vm) or Pallas's Fishing E a g l e m o r e probably the latter. Both,
synonymous with ^ f e r which means rock-crystal, alum, and camphor like the other birds of prey have to search for food from the air
which are all of a white colour. It is thus a bird with a white bill and and b o t h are carrion eaters and fast fliers, m as a carrion bird
should refer to the Falcon under discussion. occurs in the fft^T :
12. T h e late Shri C.V. Vaidya, author of Mahabharata, A Criticism
in English, contributed a voluminous epilogue in M a r a t h i to a nine- guf- TJI^T f k f ^ l M 'sreFTfor dd<rcw: II
volume translation of M a h a b h a r a t a in M a r a t h i published by G.V. Chip- 3.122.20
lunkar and Co., Poona, the epilogue, named W f ^ R being the tenth volume
m is thus different from Eagles, the Adjutants or Pallas's
of the translation. This ^Rf^K is based upon a very close, detailed and
Eagles and TOT:, t h e c o m m o n Vultures (excluding the Bearded Vulture
systematic study of the great Epic. According to Vaidya it was Souti who
w h i c h despite its name is often regarded as a different b i r d ) . If ^ a
converted the original 'Bharata' into the present ' M a h a b h a r a t a ' about the
taken for the A d j u t a n t Stork, a great carrion eater, the two that would
second century B.C. by incorporating into it a very great amount of
floating tradition, stories, moral teaching, and Brahmanical religious dis-
courses and doctrines with a view to strengthen and consolidate the
l. Cf. w t t v f t m v * * * * ^ w m f J ' . . ^ S l ^ i
snr or Brahmanical religion against the persistent onslaughts of the hereti- 2 T h e Vedic horse sftj^TT is c o m p a r e d t o a n i m p e t u o u s E a g l e m R V 38.2.4U, W . i ,
cal Jainism and Buddhism on it. In the process of augmentation of the etc C o m p a r e also expressions like, " & T . OTT^TT:" in of HIS, 13.
 219
Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds
230 231 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
therefore>ftTR and SJTPJT should be the T a w n y Eagle.* T h e r e are several
be left for identification with Jft would be either the Bearded Vulture or
other animal-names as well that are shared by birds, e.g., Jisrfar and 9TTW
Pallas's Fishing Eagle. *
(Pelican), W (Tree-Pie), w ^ r (Black Eagle), <TOT ( C h e r r u g F a l c o n ) , etc.
"PTra—the same as t w f t . Both these names, like fcfl<4KH, etc. for
ftrfinro—fr. ftrfir 'black' and white', and the word interpreted in both the
the jackal, refer to his extreme noisiness. and TOT should be senses should mean birds with black as well as with white necks,
from root g 'to blow violently' ( M . W . ) and hence to make a noise. and, looking round for large sized birds with great wing-power,
^ ^ is probably a Fox who is of a solitary habit and utters a the Black-necked and the White-necked Storks at once present
single cry at a time (q^r: cp- per c o m on p^w^D themselves, and both these must be included for purposes of the
24.7.23) but in should m e a n 'cry or call' and wz verse. T h e Black-necked Stork is mentioned elsewhere in the
the compound ^ ^ should be rendered as an animal that utters a Epic as the 'fearful black-necked and red-legged bird'—"fwgRTR"-
single cry at a time. This will help to distinguish srsnfP, the jackal, grf^TT W ^ t : " MBh. 5.143.25. T h e fwf$rcr°5T: ( n o t e the
from t^Rr^r, the fox in the sffa text. TRW as a homonym m a y be
plural) are therefore these big Storks and not the Peacocks.
explained as (i) i f r wtf W ? one that makes a noise on the
5PF—the A d j u t a n t Stork; cf. the frequent use of the term for this
ground, and hence the j a c k a l ; and (ii) TFA STTCOT JTFT:, one that is
bird, a fast flier that soars high with Vultures.
noisy in the sky or air, and therefore a noisy bird. sjirrar as a bird is
thus the same as * in the second sense. Now iftm^ is listed as a TOT—the C h e r r u g Falcon.
particular bird in H H + R at page 397 with other birds frequenting qciulMd—the same as FPTOT, the Golden Eagle, the fastest of all others in
a dry region (srrfsr tsr), while ^ f t ( ^ in the printed text is an the verse.
e r r o r ) , the jackal, is also mentioned in the same passage as one of
the animals found in the same zone. T h a t the term J T R R is appli- It will be noticed that g w r a is placed the last with a n emphatic V and
cable to a noisy bird like the Peacock, which has a loud call, is the sense is t h a t 'even the Golden Eagles fall behind m y chariot'. T h e
also clear from the following : significance of the principal sentence, ( ^ <Tf«TW:) T-T i s that
t h e s e birds with great power of wing a t the very sight of A r j u n a ' s fast-

ffTFTtsfa JRT ^ — " m : wfT
ffdHUKH'HMM-eH'ld I
fsp<adVt.!
on ^ c ^ ^ P d , MmRfeMUmw,
Verse 266 ( T r i v a n d r a m e d . ) .
T h e next question is what particular bird is this T^rra; of T M ^ Q r
the M a h a b h a r a t a ? T h a t it is a noisy bird is clear enough, and when we
consider other characteristic names for the j a c k a l indicative of his other
habits, e.g. ^ n p (a cheat) and (carrion eater) we would be justi-
fied in expecting similar qualities in the w = r bird as well. Now all these
traits are present in the T a w n y Eagle in the fullest measure, for he is not
only very noisy on the wing but also eats carrion and is always eager to
cheat other birds of prey of their booty. H e is a fast bird too (see para. 8
iv Sec. A of this Article). H a r d l y any other fast-flying bird fulfills all
the conditions that the n a m e 1TTW demands. Considering everything
Jrfarrc: TOwfo wfef:" moving chariot fall back of their own accord since they know that they
cannot compete with it, m u c h less outstrip it, even if they tried their
best. It is an excellent poetic thought based upon the indifference of the
birds of the sky to what does not concern them below.
13. T h e Indian H o b b y is a small Falcon (11.5"), black above and
of light ferrugineous below. T h e European species, known as the H o b b y , is
slightly larger a n d has the lower parts white. I t is very fast a n d active on
the wing and of rather crepuscular habits. "TSPFfcnST is one of the " b r o w n -
e y e d " Falcons in the W. WT. 4.21. H a r p r a s a d Shastri translates the n a m e
as " h a v i n g short wings" but does not identify the bird. T h e wings of the
Hobby, like those of other Falcons, are of course long and it cannot be
described as a short-winged bird. Formerly it was trained for hawking
small birds like the Hoopoes, King-crows, Larks, etc., and writing about
its performance on the wing, H . C . Donald says that its wonderful evolu-
tions in the air cannot help attracting attention and if watched for a few
seconds it will be seen to constantly change direction and turn a n d twist

• T h i s E a g l e p r e f e r s to b u i l d its l a r g e nest, l i n e d w i t h twigs a n d g r e e n leaves, on * T h e t h r e e E a g l e s , t w o of w h o m a r e c a l l i n g l o u d l y ( i w ) , in the higher regions,

solitary c o t t o n trees (Bombax malabaricum) which s t a n d as l a n d m a r k s in a n Indian m e n t i o n e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g verse s h o u l d b e t h e T a w n y E a g l e s u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n : —
river-bed. During floods t h e t r e e is n a t u r a l l y s u r r o u n d e d b y w a t e r o n all sides. The grrf tr -ii+w "TO 3rftr fa^fa fsrar: 1
p i c t u r e of A ^ v i n s securing ^ holding o n to s u c h a t r e e in t h e m i d s t of a flood like a s^rf sftoT i r o q^mrmw II
large bird (ipr) carrying twigs & leaves in RV. 1.182. 7 would seem to be based on the A V . 18.4.4.
habits of this Eagle.
232 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
in the air in a most amazing w a y in pursuit of insects, on which it mostly
preys. It does not usually make its appearance till late in the afternoon
and may be seen circling, stooping, rising vertically a n d playing extra-
ordinary tricks in the air, some time after all diurnal birds have gone to
rest ( J . B . N . H . S . X X V I I ) . It therefore seems to me that the beautiful
n a m e TSraf^r (TO-MHd)) should be rendered as a small Falcon which
exhibits isre^rr, the art of flying, in a variety of ways. T h a t the term
is also related to M ( a r t ) is clear from the technical meaning of
as a n artistic style of composition :
^TvTT 'TW WrTMpTWr W f l f f : I
^ n f w : wrfrm s f t w d ^ r : ^ II ST. ^q". under ^rfrpfT
Moreover, the Hobby would be the only " b r o w n - e y e d " Falcon trained
for Hawking that would seem to have been left out by the author of W. m.
if q-sr^RTT is some other unkown Falcon. The probability of its being the
H o b b y is therefore of the highest degree.
14. It is very active early in the morning and again late in the even-
ing, and thus seems to be the (staying till late in the evening, or
absenting oneself during the day) of the MBh. list; cf. as an adnoun
for a particular Heron in WT?. See also Art. 82.
15. T h e Merlin occurs in two forms in North India : the Red-headed
Merlin (14") of the Himalayas and the North Asian Merlin (12") with a
w h i t i s h head. Both are bluish grey above and white, barred or streaked
with black, below with a rufous tinge in the smaller variety. T h e old
opinion giving the palm to the Merlin for courage and speed is no longer
held and it is now definitely known to be slower than the Peregrine and
even the Hobby. Nevertheless its "flight is very swift and graceful...and
the bird stoops at its quarry with wonderful skill and speed, a most
finished performer" (Whistler) . It was trained to capture Mainas, Quails,
Rollers, etc. and sometimes also to work in pairs. Its Hindi name
(fr. to be speedy) should be the same as the ^ f t of
ERPP^T of the MBh. list is a n a m e comparable with T h e FT. STT., however,
contents itself with the Hindi n a m e p w f .
16. The European as well as the Himalayan Kestrel (14") are winter
visitors to North India. T h e head is ashy-grey and the upper parts brick-
red with black arrow-shaped black spots while the lower parts are o f a
vinous colour. T h e H i m a l a y a n species is darker. Its Hindi name, TOtfon
( ^ - j - i j f t m , reddish-brown) in the North and ^rwt, (Persian 'nar'—fiery)
in the South of India are after its body-colour. I t is a plains-bird, and
while beating over grass lands it is often seen "hovering with a quick
motion of the wings above a spot where it has seen or suspects it has seen
its prey, on which it drops quietly." This habitual hovering is the most
characteristic feature of the Kestrel to which it owes its popular
Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 233
English n a m e o f ' W i n d h o v e r ' . " W h e n watching for food from a perch the
head is incessantly turning and b o b b i n g " (Smythies). From its hovering
habit it should be the ^ f t * (T^: of from its reddish
colour, the (fire), from its habit of turning its head in different direc-
tions thefesTT^rer,and from the quick fanning movements of wings the
(winking of the eyelids) of the MBh. list. It may be stated here that out
o f a total o f 4 7 names in the list as m a n y as ten refer to the Golden Eagle
and four or five each to some of the commoner birds of prey found in
North India. They are mostly in the nature of descriptive epithets
apparently invented by fllfo who gave the Epic its final comprehen-
sive and bulky form. No kite or Falcon lays such deep red eggs as the
Kestrel and the adnoun sft^rot or full name wtfFisV STfPi of 1. *TfP?fsi should
also belong to it :
Commentary on verse 44.
17. T h e call of the Kestrel is a shrill scream, kee, kee, kee, and there-
fore good enough for purposes of augury. T h e Prakrit work, gTRPTT^
mentions a bird of augury by the n a m e of arnrrcr ^fr^ft (Sk. STT^OT olPiil) :
"smrrarsft^fttr fagsrt ?rfr mn MWRV—
p. 185, verse 202
T h e particular bird it is must be determined with reference to the mean-
ing of the name itself, for the Dictionaries explain it merely as a kind of
bird (Tfsrfasfa:). T h e name literally means 'a fairy or female magician of
the sky', and jftMt taken by itself may well be from defined as " f w f f a -
farfsr:", sun, and 33SWT (3RT, iffoft, etc.). In its habit of hovering at a
point high up in the air longer than any other bird and of close concentra-
tion upon a possible quarry below, the Kestrel m a y indeed be said to be a
magician of the sky or to exhibit iftfap power, and the charming name of
siTOW zftftRt may well belong to it (cf. ^^rrfinft for the Brahminy Kite in the
next Section).
18. T w o other probable names for the Kestrel appear to be ^arrfcr:
and ^TOTte^r of the following synonymy which also includes two names for
the Common Kite :
Annotators take all the four names for the Kite and they m a y be right but
it must be remembered that the fa+iwlq purports to give us a supplement
to the sm^im, i.e. additional synonyms for (i) objects already named there
and (ii) objects not mentioned at all, and naturally new names falling
within the first category could not be numerous. It is therefore highly
*If is t h e s a m e as TT^W of JTIWlwrra' t h e name would indicate the
L a g g a r F a l c o n a n d n o t t h e K e s t r e l — s e e p a r a . 10 i n f r a .
233
235 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 235
p r o b a b l e t h a t the first q u a r t e r of the above half verse gives only
(calling for long) as an a d d i t i o n a l n a m e for fawT (the Kite) a n d the second first edition, also records a similar r e p o r t . It is k n o w n as JrcsV in H i n d i
refers to a Kite-like bird not mentioned by amr, viz. the Kestrel. T h a t (fr. Sansk. ^ f e closed fist) according to J e r d o n . T h i s n a m e not only
a n n o t a t o r s have differed a m o n g themselves along the a b o v e lines (i.e. in emphasizes its small size b u t p r o b a b l y also the fact t h a t w h e n trained for
the way I do) is proved by the remarks of at several places in his h a w k i n g it was held in the fist a n d tossed like a stone towards the intended
a n u f a ^ c o m m e n t a r y on the sm+lm 1 (Bombay, 1907). q u a r r y . T h i s style of throwing a Falcon is adopted with the Shikra as well
19. T h e Pied Kingfisher "flies over the water a t a height of some ten a n d is described as irfesfto in W. 91T., 6.29. It is therefore highly p r o b a b l e
t h a t this Falconet was known as ^rfe or Jjfef? in Sanskrit as well. ^TPR as a
or twenty feet above the surface, a n d suddenly, catching sight of a shoal
descendant of G a r u d a in the M B h . list should refer to members of the
of fish below, checks itself d e a d in mid-air a n d hovers w i t h the wings
Falconet ( M i c r o h i e r a x ) group.
v i b r a t i n g rapidly a n d t h e bill p o i n t i n g perpendicularly downwards, as if
taking a i m " (Whistler). T h i s action of the bird has b e e n described 21. I t is recorded in F . B . I . , second edition, a b o u t t h e Eastern R e d -
in +<rM£+lii as below : legged Falcon (12") t h a t it is a m i g r a t o r y bird a n d moves south in vast
"Wfe: I flocks f r o m its breeding grounds in Siberia a n d M a n g o l i a in winter. O n e
3mm?r ' ^rp^rr ^ "^ftr <HV<W" II of their routes passes t h r o u g h C a c h a r in Assam a n d as they roost in large
numbers on the bamboos for the night the Hill Tribes m a n a g e to catch
T h e point to be noted is the use of a derivative of root TW to describe the t h e m for food a n d also for sale. T h e snwspfro also prescribes t h e flesh of a
act of hovering in the air. I therefore suggest that (hovering in the certain type of small Falcon, WfFP ( ^ r : s t r : wrer:) for a p a t i e n t suffering
sky; a n d f^m.; q u i v e r i n g — M . W . ; cf. W i n d h o v e r ) is from piles in sr^ffsfa^TT, 2.5.121. I t would thus a p p e a r that the term
the Kestrel. Salim AH also speaking of the hovering flight of certain stands for the Red-legged Falconet of N o r t h I n d i a as the c o u n t e r p a r t of the
I n d i a n birds remarks t h a t the Kestrel and the Pied King-fisher are the small Siberian Falcon eaten by the Hill Tribes of Assam.
foremost exponents of i t — T h e Book of Indian Birds, 4th edn., page 268.
T h e B r a h m i n y K i t e which flies in circles like t h e C o m m o n K i t e is n a m e d III. HAWKS
tsKlPMHl (loving the sky) which is certainly different f r o m g^STTfor as explained
above. T u r n i n g to qroftsw I fail to see how this t e r m c a n a p p l y to a Kite Hawks—^rf^r-qfsT'n':
unless it is translated as ' a bird that cries or calls a t the nest' which how-
ever is a trait c o m m o n to all the birds of the family. O n the other h a n d
Genus Astur Genus Accipiter
t h e t e r m m a y very a p p r o p r i a t e l y mean— ^Xi ^rflfa ifrs^ft"2 i.e. a (i) Asiatic & I n d i a n | 3TCT Tlf^r
bird t h a t builds its nest in rocky cliffs, and the Kestrel regularly does so. S p a r r o w - H a w k s | srk-jp,,
" T h e e y r i e " of a Kestrel "is in our area ( I n d i a ) almost invariably in holes Goshawk Crested Shi'kras (ii) S o u t h e r n Besra
and rocky ledges of cliffs" ( W h i s t l e r ) . It is submitted therefoie t h a t the Goshawks S p - H a w k . . . 5J5 twr
very striking peculiarity of our bird has won for it several interesting a n d
srcpiPP, srrf^r (iii) N o r t h Besra
a p t l y suggestive names. Sp. H a w k — sn^r
20. T h e H i m a l a y a n Red-legged Falconet (7"), the 'White-naped
Pigmy Falcon' of J e r d o n is a m e r e midget amongst Falcons, and yet it is T h e Crested N o r t h e r n Crested (iv) J a p a n e s e ,
a bold little bird, has the carriage a n d t h e w o n d e r f u l eye of the fiercest Goshawk Goshawk Pale Eastern,
Eagle, a n d preys in the wild state u p o n small birds a n d at times those htPw o r arerr Indo-Chinese srfiresH
bigger t h a n itself. I t can also be trained for hawking as we have it from t^r Sp. H a w k s 3rfsr
J e r d o n t h a t it was so used by t h e R a j a of R a n g p u r (Assam) a n d F.B.I., N o t e — T h e Shikras and H a w k s of genus Accipiter are t h e jf<?Tf*T: of ^TW-

1. R e f e r r i n g to 16 synonyms for n f , a n d 4 for h e says H n i d i Ml In 1. All I n d i a n Hawks have b e e n designed by n a t u r e on a m o r e or less the
— p a g e 73; r e g a r d i n g the two synonymies, " ' n r f t l T ^ R P T ^ r f t ^ ^ f ^ T ' T f T ' — w e h a v e s a m e p a t t e r n and their b o d y - p l u m a g e is ashy or slaty-grey to grey-brown
XMI<)S Pt TTfaT — p . 74; on "srsrRTCT gWETT S ^ r f we h a v e zrepft
above a n d white or rufescent below m a r k e d with b r o w n or rufescent bars
i 5 i p p f t ^cTpT W T — p . 112.; a g a i n we h a v e at p. 204 9FTT:, t f ^ F T I <rspT
or streaks. Unlike the Falcons t h e bill is furnished with a festoon instead
^STCT ^ i t i ; a n d so on in several o t h e r synonymies.
2. Substituted for Smn^JSrnffat ftRt^TFT given as a n alternative
of a ' t o o t h ' . T h e y have been classified in the Fauna of British India
explanation of in ?T. W T . ; cf. also —3p>t i<.«t>5»« %%—ibid. {Birds), 2nd E d n . under two m a i n genera, the Astur a n d the Accipiter.
 219
237 Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
3. I t has been stated in t h e I n t r o d u c t o r y sub-section t h a t it is the
T h e former includes the magnificent Goshawks, the Crested Goshawks
m o r e powerful a n d larger females of these birds t h a t a r e preferred for
a n d the Shikras, a n d the latter contains all the Sparrow-Hawks. I t m a y be hawking. I t is therefore easy to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t where we have a n a m e
a d d e d that the Shikras also are just Sparrow Hawks and n o t h i n g more. I n for individual female H a w k s used for the chase the m a l e of every such
Sanskrit the term WT is often used in a wider sense to include the Hawks female has n o t been n a m e d individually. T h u s the m a l e of t h e Goshawk
as well, for both HHflVlKI and apply the t e r m to all hawking birds, in Sansk. a n d ^tst in H i n d i ) is ^ in Persian and H i n d i a n d ^rr in
viz., Falcons and H a w k s (cf. on f o 85.38). But they ift, SIT. I n TTFRATEMR the m a l e of a n y H a w k or Falcon is simply a 3ft"W (or cftw^)
also have different-names for the several types of H a w k s trained for sport. i.e. a ' p e t t y or little Crow', f r o m sfar, a Crow. It is a c o n t e m p t u o u s n a m e
T h e Goshawk, which occurs in two forms, is ^rfa, or q i f W ; the signifying the poorer killing power of the male as c o m p a r e d w i t h the
Crested Goshawks, the TTTf; the Shikras, the ftpJTO; a n d the S p a r r o w - female:
Hawks, the Trar: a n d the TO:
2. T h e terms ^ r a n d d o not occur in the lists of the birds of prey sflw^fa fWnra": ^H<?4!*I<U+: I
given in or gspr a n d it a p p e a r s t h a t while powerful Hawks like the H ^ + H^lcJHnTr ll Vol. 2,267
Goshawk were supposedly included in the t e r m by both, the
separately mentions the weaker a n d smaller S p a r r o w - H a w k s including the T h e f t . m. confines the terms ^TT or fffaT ( t h e same as rfPw) to the m a l e
Shikras as the ffaipFT: ( f f a l f a sparrow, hence 'sparrow-killers'). Shikra alone, the t e r m to the males of the Besra H a w k s a n d %£T to the
Sanskrit lexicons give gnf^T-^rat merely as a c o m m o n n o u n for ' a b i r d ' males of the Asiatic and I n d i a n Sparrow-Hawks. These terms are c u r r e n t
in general but not in a specifie sense for a p a r t i c u l a r bird (qfeftOT). T h e in H i n d i as well a n d in the same senses.
word TIW has nowhere been rendered as 'a bird or a p a r t i c u l a r b i r d ' b u t . 4. T h e f t . 317. divides the smaller H a w k s into three categories; (i) TTTT:,
f r o m the use of these two words for the Goshawk in the f t . sir. it is clear ( i i ) jftRT:, a n d (iii) R H M I : T h e first are said to be of four kinds, the
t h a t they h a d this sense t h o u g h the lexicographers h a v e overlooked it. T h e second of three a n d the third of several ( ^ r r ) . T h e 3TOT type of H a w k
sprofto includes STjft, 3Tf?r, s r ^ , iwt, fcfaR, a n d 1 W in the list of synonyms thus consists of aiV^-di:, snw:, Hfd^Ml:, a n d Hii+ki: ( t h e Shikras) *. T h e
for ' a b i r d ' in general a n d yet each of these terms also signifies a particular are of t h r e e kinds: TTp>Rr Tfe^Tf (v.l. ^ r f f in 5.5) a n d 5T5
bird a n d we have : Lastly the ftrarfTT's ( t f ^ H i : ) , said to be of different kinds according to
faw: ijl^pKldlifr—srfff.f^aT. Here wfr also differences in size, habits a n d c o u n t r y of origin, have been b a r e l y m e n -
means a ' K i t e ' . tioned b u t not classified to save space (fireefTWTTvf srcfcrT:—4.50). T h e
sriHfd TTFT qfOTTOTfmfWWft:—irf^ft, ^ T a kind different species of H a w k a n d their n o m e n c l a t u r e will n o w be considered
in the following p a r a g r a p h s .
of Vulture
5. T h e a d u l t a n d the juvenile Goshawk, called the =Mi+isfT=rr5T a n d the
'flTO T f e r f a f ^ f t : — i b i d . , ST^pcf, a n o t h e r Vulture
t
•M^il^'tH have been mentioned in p a r a . 4 of the I n t r o d u c t o r y sub-section.
q# T51X«I— ibid., "T^t a H a w k I t is t h e largest a n d t h e most p o w e r f u l of the H a w k s a n d is t r a i n e d to
Mwrr: — strike d o w n the largest variety of g a m e like Grouse, Pheasants, P a r t r i d g e s ,
iRvtTcT grot: ^ O T f ^ (the Golden Eagle) —3{f?T.(Vdi. Quails, Ducks, Bustards, Storks, Ibises, Spoonbill, Peafowl, J u n g l e Fowl,
T h i s is according to t h e rule "qmMlsfr f W q u o t e d in arfir.f^rT., a n d even Kites a n d Vultures, H a r e s a n d R a b i t s b o t h in E u r o p e and Asia.
404 a n d W. wr. too has the following: Not t h a t a single H a w k is t r a i n e d to kill all these, b u t o n e c a n b e trained
q m f a ^wifcr fftr^rg^:—4.31 to kill any five or six included in the above list. I n n a t u r e , however, it
T h e r e is thus h a r d l y a n y d o u b t t h a t the terms ThT a n d TOt also connoted preys u p o n Pheasants, Partridges a n d Pigeons w i t h a p a r t i a l i t y for Hares.
a p a r t i c u l a r bird, i.e. the Goshawk. q^T in the sense of a W o r a fast Because of its all-round excellence, a n d being second only to the Peregrine
bird has been explained as " a i f d ^ d roa ^ q ^ r w " in the etoT on a m a n d the Shaheen, it is called by courtesy the " g e n t l e F a l c o n " (Astur
by sffiiW, a n d it should n o t be incorrect if ^ r a n d Trat for ' a speed gentilis). Its courage, flight a n d t e c h n i q u e have always b e e n a d m i r e d :
b i r d ' a r e also explained in the same w a y : sra^tT TFtt qsrrsFT ^ r : ^rsft T.2
^AIMU <<jii5T qfTsrp^rra; i
1. v.l. STTfSr a n d STTfrpi? in H N t i l H W . C o m p o u n d s like ^ P T f ^ a n d STtfaqfiSnT Terr: qrrfa'q; n
(M.W.) would seem to be c o m m o n n a m e s for H a w k s in g e n e r a l .
2. T h e synonymy " ^ f t ^ F i m q f O T " — ^ f e f t , refers to t w o speedy items, <fFT
and a m so t h a t it is possible to r e n d e r t h e third, tSft also as ' a fast b i r d ' . • T h e s e , i.e. the Shikras, really belong to the RHMI: group a n d h a v e been wrongly
placed w i t h t h e 3WT: as will be explained later.

239 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
dd-^ift^Hrir qf^pimrert: i
iTwrr f ^ s r H T f r f o r srsnr II
5$. 5TT., 6. 48-49
6. T h e t e r m m e a n s a H a w k or Falcon according to M . W . , and
if it is the same as q w , it should prove to be a n excellent adnoun or
epithet for the Goshawk. I t means 'limping' or 'moving on one foot'. Now
the Goshawk, despite its versatility, is "chiefly trained to catch hares and
for this purpose she is booted or furnished with leather leggings to prevent
her legs being injured by thorns as the hare generally drags the Hawk
some yards after being struck. She strikes with one leg , and stretches
the other one out behind to clutch at grass, twigs or anything on the
ground, to put the drag, as it were on the h a r e " ( J e r d o n ) . It is thus
highly probable that the a d n o u n ^ refers to the Goshawk because she
seems to 'limp' on the ground after striking her favourite quarry, a hare.
If my interpretation of the t e r m is correct it speaks volumes for the nature-
study and power of observation of the ancients.
7. Hawks other t h a n the Goshawk are listed with their names below
for easy reference:
(i) T h e Shikra (Astur b a d i u s ) : Four sub-species of this occur in
India proper, the I n d i a n Shikra being the commonest. T h e
female is f r o m a n d the male, ^ n and jt^T inst.WT. corresponding to
ftppcr and JHT respectively in Hindi. T h e female is recorded in
F.B.I 2nd ed. as§wr (?) in Nepal but she is ( s ^ r f f ) and
the male s f t ^ or in iFraWRr.
(ii) T h e Crested Goshawk (Astur trivirgat us trivirgatus) of South
India is known as ifR spto, *ld*Kl or t^RT1 in Hindi.
This is probably the or STEHT of as it lives prin-
cipally on frogs a n d lizards and is hardly, if ever, fancied for
hawking.
(iii) T h e N o r t h e r n Crested Goshawk (A.t. r u f i t i n c t u s ) : This is known
as and in Nepal corresponding to Sansk. ^ f e i f
and m ^ f t i * in W . STT. and W T O T W M T respectively. This is the
JTSJjrr ^ r t of w . 5TT. tgfVfrK and of a p p e a r to be the
same as ^ IVi I <1.
(iv) T h e Asiatic Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus) two sub-species of
which are known : T h e female and male of b o t h are known as
TOFR and STPTT respectively in Hindi. T h e H i m a l a y a n sub-species
is the ' I n d i a n Sparrow-Hawk'. T h e y are perhaps the arkipr
variety of the ^WT in sq\$TT., and s r k ^ r of 1'kmi+c. T h e n a m e
sftt^T seems to be from Persian srftr meaning 'intelligence'.
1. j f R - ^ f k p r o b a b l y refers to t h e H a w k ' s w h i t e breast
while T r f ^ P - T T p ' W refers to t h e r e d d i s h streaks.
219
Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds
(v) T h e Southern and Northern Besra Sparrow-Hawks are two sub-
species of Accipiter virgatus occurring in the country, the latter
being a little smaller t h a n the former. T h e Hindi names for the
female are srarr, ^ t ^ n r , or f t r o (fr. TO a forest) corresponding
to srs^rc of st. WT. T h e male is srfo both in Hindi and Sansk.
(5t. UTT. 4.32) .
(vi) T h e Japanese, the Pale Eastern and the Indo-Chinese Sparrow-
Hawks (A. gularis): T h e first is only an occasional winter visitor
to India and the other two occur in Burma. N o I n d i a n n a m e
for t h e m is known and they m a y well have passed as varieties of
the Basha type of Sparrow-Hawk.
8. T w o series o f l n d i a n ( H i n d i ) names for different kinds of the
Besra Hawk, taken from two different books on Indian Falconry (in H i n d i
or U r d u — n o t mentioned) have been quoted by J e r d o n in his Illustra-
tions of Indian Ornithology, 1847 and they are :
(a) ^cfran, W W , and TOTT (proper);
(b) wst^rr, <sk3«r(, ^ b x t , ipphn, ^ r f e ^ t ^ n r and
H e adds t h a t the last three names in ( b ) may be different names for the
same Hawk, and that while the Northern Crested Goshawk goes by the
n a m e o M w r a in South India it is known as in the Eastern Terai
(Bihar, a n d Assam?). In the same way, referring to the I n d i a n nomen-
clature for the Shaheen Falcon and the Red-capped Falcon, both used in
India for hawking, he observes that several varieties are enumerated, viz.,
the Red, the White, the Blue, and the Black Shaheens b u t these are
merely differences of shade in the colours and in the more or less distinct-
ness of the body markings. I t is therefore highly probable that the
classification of the tott group of Sparrow-Hawks in the W. srr. is not in
accordance with the real species of the Hawks as now separated by scientists
but is based mainly on their colour features and partly on size and
behaviour as trained birds. Insofar as the Shikras (PHI+KI) have been
included in the srrcn group the classification is definitely incorrect. T h e
Shikra belongs to theftprff ( M M ) group of Sparrow-Hawks a n d is not a
qrcfT at all. W i t h these preliminary remarks on the nomenclature of the
smaller Hawks I proceed to a brief discussion of the various Hawks and
their Sankskrit and other names.
9. T h e basis for the ^TOT type of Hawks are evidently the Asiatic and
the Indian Sparrow Hawks known as 3TOT and wrnfa in Hindi. T h e
?q\ 9TT, divides them into four categories:
* Like wtyxr (<sfcj*Kl) t h e n a m e s WcftoXT a n d ^ W T T seem to b e
c o r r u p t i o n s of ^ d j < K I — (the crested G o s h a w k , of the ^"liti <,) a n d (the true
streaked with rich rufous B e s r a ) is t h e ^ I X . WRhTT, tffeand f t s r f l T T a r e e x t r e m e l y d o u b t f u l , ^ f l i t q < . ( i n F . B . I . )
should b e s n z f f X o r <1 c o r r u p t e d f r o m TOTTfor t h e crested G o s h a w k .
240 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219

^k-fj-dl 'cTFFim srfd'-iHIW^T ^ I

f w r m ^ R r «tiuMi' ^ s r r ^rrRrwr^ n psnjfrssrift vrifui+'td, ^fa'+i^^-d, ^ s r o I
4.41 ST^pg fcfH: T^Tftwtsfq- HT^T II - 4 . 4 7 - 4 8
Eliminating the f w r r : (the Shikras) we are left with theaftnfT, ett^t, and
(i) jttPw i m , probably the Crested Goshawk of South India which is iftr-
srfiTOPT Hawks e a c h : of which is supposed to be of more than one variety
or JTif^t^m in Hindi. It is described as TO i.e. dull or stupid, and also as
according to their flight, courage or dash and colour. T h e aTkfpi, i.e.
STETJT (mean, low, worthless), because of its low teachability for the chase
the 3T3T proper would seem to be the two kinds of Sparrow-Hawks named
as in nature it prefers to take frogs and lizards though it also kills sma*
against (iv) above while the a m and srftssPT types are rather difficult of
birds, rats, etc. (ii) or ^ occupies an intermediate posinon
identification. T h e srtT^f and s r ^ r of^krtWK would seem to correspond
to A F T ^ R and ETT^T of the W . STT. and from the delicate build and small size and it should be the Northern Crested Goshawk known as
but excellent speed of the ett^tt described in St. wr. 4. 43 they seem to be in Hindi, the same as w r f f ^ from Sansk. ^ r , ^ , a crest. I t is a
the Northern Besra Sparrow-Hawk which is smaller than even a Shikra bolder bird and kills Partridges, Green Pigeons and even l a r g e r b - ^ -
but very speedy on the wing. T h e sjfawi type described as very weak and Another H i n d i name for it is W ^ s t corresponding to n<w+r«6+: o f ^ ^ -
timid and coming from <4M&r would seem to refer to some foreign Hawks, This name would seem to refer to the dark shafts on the neck-feathers
e.g. the Japanese, the Pale Eastern, and the Indo-Chinese Sparrow-Hawks looking like dark or barley markings, (iii) T h e third is the
not used for hawking. 1 said to be as good as the ^ r r and therefor, the best of the
series. I t is most probably the Southern Besra Hawk, known not only as
10. T h e name WTT for the Asiatic and Indian Sparrow-Hawks seems
the speediest of all Sparrow-Hawks (Jerdon) b u t a l s o a bold bird, and
at first sight to be a Hindi corruption from Persian Basha but it is for this reason a f a v o u r i t e w i t h f a l c o n e r s f o r small birds like Quails and
more than probable that like the Pers. Baz (fr. Sansk. ^ r ) 'Basha' too is
Doves. T h e epithet ^ f i n r may a l s o refer to its verynoisy habit. Just as
from Sansk. ^RTT from ^mr (=fhr ?, a nest) after the practice of falconers to
the terms ^ and ^ mean b o t h a spirited horse and the powerful Go-
prefer young birds taken from the nest as they can be more easily trained
shawk, the name ^ ( ^ speedy) also is common to the mule and
than the adults captured in the ordinary way. This practice is referred to these lower grade S p a r r o w - H a w k s . T h e Besra series are also more difficult
in the following verse: to train for sport ( J e r d o n ) and the name for them perhaps implies
$ 5ZPTT jfteftoTqT ST^Hlfadr. I
their 'mulish' nature as well.
q f a m r ^ r ^ w r r : f w ^ o r f e r SC^TS; I I — w . w . 6.6.7
12 T h e fe^H1 type of Hawks are said to be of several kinds with differ-
t^RT W T ^t^TTST —•RTTOle^TRT,
ences in size, body-colouration and habits, and breeding in different
Vol. 2, p. 267.
parts of the country. I n a word different species of the bird are indicated .
O n the other hand the term may be from root msr-si^, to make a sound—
"^TFI^ 3TOT: Tfaw WW-"—IT- Tf^ftr, verse 296. As compared with the
R H M T FT<TT: II
Goshawk the Sparrow-Hawk is a rather noisy bird, a point stressed in st. srr.: TOT. 5TT. 4.49
"^RTT TO^rPT SRTt, ^Mf JT^tsfirwt^:"—4.54
T h e generic n a m e f ^ r (Hindi TO*; Pnrw of poet ^ . q u o t e d in * j r . J . )
I n this second sense also the n a m e =TPTT would be a purely Sanskrit name is a Prakrit form of Sansk. ^T<> ( ^ ^ r f r , excellent killer ),
for the above mentioned Sparrow-Hawks. 2 defined as a brave H a w k :
11. T h e 4.<rMs^>l!rt lists ^JT as one of the birds of prey and it obviously 'ret ^ ^ f f a ^ r s f r —
refers to the Hawks mentioned as both in nn«Vliti and stfof? sr^r.
T h e latter distinguishes three different kinds of the Hawk: 1 cf afr fiPUT * n r " — q u o t e d in % W. ST.
u n d e r f ^ T . ^ U * H i n ^ f o r the m a l e Shikra in F^I. verse
therefore^ is t h e f e m a l e & f ^ F T the male ShAra; cf SK^Srf^T for
1. I n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e t h e M f d ^ M I : m a y b e the H a r r i e r s . See n e x t sub-section.
female Hawk falcon; also " ^ W T ifi^rrfc: Wl* — a R ^ ^ m ^ m ,
2. T h e H H t i V . K I does n o t m e n t i o n the ^FTT H a w k s , w h i c h it p r o b a b l y includes
2 T h e S h i k r a is a noisy b i r d a n d h a s a l o u d d o u b l e c a l l - t u i t u i - w h i c h m a y also b e
in t h e ^ r c type a n d these it r e c o m m e n d s , as w e h a v e seen, to b e t a k e n f r o m t h e nest.
r e n d e r e d as f ^ J of m a y b e this H a w k a n d it „ lAdy
O n t h e other h a n d , unlike t h e tffop SITC* it keeps t h e crested Goshawks in a s e p a r a t e r a f a n o n s l s k r f imitative n a m e like f ^ P T - ^ T for it h a s b e e n S a n s k n f s e d into
c a t e g o r y as the A|«H«t>P>4+l:.
w i t h a plausible etymology; ef. H i n d i f ^ T P T T - t o shout.
 Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 243
242 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
3) WtfTO: ^ R T R ^ s r ^ : IX: I
According to the W ^ W R T T is the Shikra. It is one of the best known
<U|H<^<u|: ^T ^ FTT^frPTfjPT:"—XHfvTW
Hawks of India, a small, stout bird, grey above, rusty below with whitish
bars and a fierce golden yellow or orange eye. It is a favourite with 4) " ^ V . ' i W J fr^TC
Indian falconers as it begins to catch small birds for its keeper within ten WtfffcW IRrmrfwfinT:"
days of being caught. Stuart Baker describes it as " a most plucky little ''d'-W.: M^cFT: (?]WT: ? ) t > —
H a w k " which is fully supported by the W. SIT. : 5) H l ^ f a " — S T T T T , etc.

gwfarr f|5n: f w r n y u s y i ^ r r ; ' 6) ">j|<H|dd: — t W

7) "-j|<HTd^fl' sft^TO:"—f^SPi'+liil
Wld'd ??ft: II 3TT., 4.45
8) —
The epithet TfT^TT is thus seen to be a fitting tribute to the most power- 9) "cbMHWd, W ^ r f ' ^ h " — f a W T T W , etc.
ful Eagle on the one h a n d and a compliment to the pluckiest of small Hawks,
the Shikra, on the other. Thus the fwrcr proper of wr., incorrectly placed 10) PTRT, —feWOT
m the =mn group, is the common Indian Shikra while the R H M I : are the 11) q^ft —
other forms or sub-species of the Shikra occurring in the extreme North- 12) "idw: —f^mis!
West, the extreme South, and North-East (Assam) of India.
13. T h e female Shikra is the of mwt^TFT where the male is" 2. T h e following five different birds, all going under the name of f r f
named as iHm or the same as OT or of tf. ¥TT. 4.32. In (% 31%, stahrfr, ^t sr^ffa T^rfa) are indicated in the above extracts
Nepal however it is the female that is known as §vTT which occurs as EfaT in and everyone of them is a sr^CT and snffFrfiw i.e. keeps to the neighbour-
Hindi poetry (see quotation inf.n. to para. 5 of the Introductory Sub- hood of water and lives on animal food :—
section). Finally, the Shikra and the Black-crested Baza feed on flying i) T h e Brahminy Kite is m^rerrrf,, W W f f l , ^fwts^
termites and these, particularly the former as the commoner bird, should ii) T h e Common or Grey H e r o n — F S i ^ j - o r ^ s r ^ T ^ or *tr% spp (Art. 82)
be the WWJftft? (fr.^rft, r s r t white-ant) o f t h e M a h a b h a r a t List (5.101.11).
iii) T h e Adjutant S t o r k — ^ T K - , W^s-fW-'O.fliyw-,
^ (Art. 8 1 )
iv) T h e Lesser A d j u t a n t S t o r k — s t w ? (Art. 81)
v) Pallas's Fishing Eagle—fsrcNW-, W X - , f ^ - ^ T f S - , where and
E. KITES, HARRIERS, & BUZZARDS mean a noisy WT, Eagle, (Art. 52).
Equation 6 is true of all five, but Nos. 5 and 7 refer to the Brahminy Kite
1. T h e Brahminy Kite is " a bright chestnut bird of prey with black wing-
alone. No. 8 and the second half of No. 10 are applicable to the Adjutant
tips and a white head and breast, found near w a t e r . " In flight and habits
alone and refer to its pendant pouch hanging from the neck and in front
it resembles the Common Pariah Kite and lives on fish caught by itself or
of its chest, while the first half of No. 10 is shared by it with the Lesser
on fish-offal to be found near fishing villages, crabs, frogs etc. It is also
A d j u t a n t as an allied form. No. I has equated with the Brahminy Kite,
given to robbing Crows and Common Kites of their food. Its oldest name
the Adjutants and Pallas's Fishing Eagle. Similarly it will be seen that
is ^ or more correctly sftfro^rf corresponding to the name, " t h e Maroon
equations Nos. 2-4 have mixed u p several of the above five birds..No. 11
backed K i t e " , given to it by Jerdon because of its chestnut upper parts.
refers to the Grey Heron and even the white Ibis Art. 80) as a
T h e name however, belongs to several other birds with of course
kind o f ^ r f , and No. 12 to the Black Crow or the Raven ((f^W *rffc) prin-
appropriate descriptive epithets and it has been a matter of some difficulty
cipally as a bird of evil omen, and the Brahminy Kite as a permanently
to separate them, especially because the lexicons have lumped together
auspicious bird, the term as a homonym being understood in its two
the different epithets in a common synonymy. Some of the lexical equa-
opposite meanings, viz., 'evil' and 'good'.
tions relating to different kinds of are reproduced below :—
3. I n this article we are concerned with as the Brahminy Kite
alone and for others the reader is referred to the Articles noted against
1) sb+dHiVsr; ifrtH^:
them. T h e present Kite is because of its beautiful plumage, and
ftrmwr JTWT^:"—^MWI TWRTff^T because it was commonly present over battle-fields along with
2 ) Vultures, Ravens, Crows and Common Kites to snatch tit-bits from them,
vft^pst Sfrfe ^ S F R T y ^ P : " — f s p w r f w
 244 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219

and also because its presence over an army was supposed to presage victory
to it. This belief was shared even by the Mussalmans who call it ' R u -
m u b a r i k ' o r ' l u c k y - f a c e d ' . This also explains the name ^JTfft for it. T h e
q^rjTTT1 relates that God fsre was once secretly enjoying the company of
certain pretty women in the absence of Parvati and the latter divining
the truth assumed the form of this Kite ( ^ T f T t ) , flew to the place and
drove off her rivals. People wishing for good luck are therefore advised to
greet the bird at sight and address the following prayer to it 2 :—
"f-^RtfrtHIPfJ IP^Htfl^ I the Kite and the Eagle are
w f i ^ srirffT n
T h e first half of the verse, it will be noticed, describes correctly the colour
pattern of the bird's plumage. People in South India follow this advice
but incorrectly call the bird Garuda. This n a m e (ePTfft) corresponds to
•5fP<.»e<t>^ in a good sense as already indicated above.
4. O t h e r names for this semi-sacred bird are w f t f r r , and ^rrsrr-
«TTpPT a white conch, and sfTcTTfoT a K i t e ) , the last two in reference to
its white head, neck and upper breast. As y+lfHdl and ^fa+i are the names of
Durga or Parvatx they would also appear to be additional names for the
bird whose form she assumed :
hatched out and it will then defend its young (anw) with fierceness and
determination. H u m e writes from personal experience t h a t once this Eagle
attacked a m a n "with an unexpected ferocity from which nothing but my
gun could have saved h i m " . T h e female finding that the m a n was able to
avoid her attack, gave a shrill cry which brought the male on the' scene
and both then charged together with rage and fierceness of despair, and
he had to fire and wound both of them as they advanced, and but for
this they would have certainly hurled the m a n down into the river. H e
adds that the birds are not offensive before the eggs are hatched. Now both
and both may be described as fimiM^, but
perhaps, the Eagle has a better right to the epithet as it loves and defends
its young only but not the nest or even the eggs. 1
6. This Kite is always found near water and is seen flying back and
forth or floating lazily in wide circles overhead. This habit of flying in
circles and thus facing round in all directions won for it the distinction of
being named as a victim for the deities presiding over the points of the
compass in "felt ^ W"—TR.wferr2, and its method of picking up food from
the surface of village tanks where water-nuts and lilies always grow, has
furnished a name for a certain type of ascetics leading a hand to mouth
life :—

"^fei i^rfascrt sr^rtf^r i " — f a w w r A poet has pictured this Kite as the evening twilight :
The name for this Kite is perhaps after its persistent call notes or it
m a y refer to its body which looks as if painted with white and red sandal
^"TTfft f^TRrcrn^Tw^m i
(cf. -q^i-qRci), while otufa'i) (loving the sky) refers to its soaring habit.
For as a possible name for this Kite see Art. 81, (5) p a r a 7.
5. There is some doubt as to the identity of fsraTtRT (lover of one's WKifH^i q f e u T W ^ I ' : " II —^nftcr4
progeny) as there are recorded instances of both the Brahminy Kite and
7. T h e Common Pariah K i t e and allied forms are common everywhere.
Pallas's Fishing Eagle fiercely defending the nest, or young in the nest.
I n literature they are mentioned by the names of srffa a n d while the
E . H . N . Lowther, F.Z.S. speaking about this Kite says:—"there are few
lexicons give fa^r, fWT^iW wrfipT, and as additional
species more bold in the defence of their 'lares et penates' than is this
names. If the equation, <*>.-"—ftf+iu^lcf does not apply to the
species. O f the Brahminy Kite I think I can say, that always it has attack-
Kestrel as suggested in Section D, para 17, it would give two other syno-
ed us when we have climbed to its nest, r or busied ourselves building a tower
nyms for the Common Kite. In the Vaj. Sam. a kite is dedicated to the
from which to photograph the bird; and always it has struck home and
deity presiding over 'Marksmanship' or the Art of Archery : " r ^ m r : f t ^ r
usually d r a w n b l o o d " . . . 3 . Pallas's Fishing Eagle, which does not attack a
stealer of its eggs, shows a different temper as soon as the young are
1. S. Baker holds t h e opposite view, viz. t h a t this E a g l e is a c o w a r d l y b i r d (F.B.I.
2 n d e d . ) t h o u g h he- refers to H u t t o n for a g r a p h i c description of a ferocious d e f e n c e
1. f f e g u ^ C h 53. p u t u p by a p a i r for their y o u n g .
2. I b i d . 53.15. A n alternative r e a d i n g is q u o t e d in fF^POTJT under — 2. 24.31. I t m a y well s h a r e t h e n a m e festTTST of t h e JT^PTTCT List with t h e
"FF^R^RRAFPF J ^ H ^ H M ^ I ^FE ^R^FFR" WTRJ; THE Kestrel, a n d also b e t h e ( p a i n t e d tail) of t h e s a m e List f r o m its chestnut tail.
statement in the F.B.I, that this kite is sacred to god fe^W is incorrect a n d it is based T h e last n a m e can also be claimed by several birds w i t h bars o n t h e tail.
u p o n a n e r r o n e o u s belief p r e v a l e n t in certain p a r t s of S o u t h I n d i a t h a t it is t h e of
mythology. T h e physical hasis of is t h e G o l d e n E a g l e ( S e c t i o n A of this a r t i c l e ) 4. 297.25.
a n d the B r a h m i n y K i t e c a n only he said to be sacred to g o d f 5 R for reasons given above.
3- Journal, Bom. Nat. His. Soc., V o l . 45. p . 6.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 247
Ijrjft^t w n t " — s r n r . #0 20.24 as it picks u p scraps of food u n e r r i n g l y either
f r o m the g r o u n d or w h e n thrown u p to it in the a i r — e v e n f r o m the u n c o m m o n bird to a c o m m o n and familiar one, for the n a m e (pied)
hands of a person carrying eatables in the open. T h e only other would hardly fit the p r e d o m i n a n t l y brown K i t e of I n d i a .
bird possible in the context of the S a m h i t a is the B r a h m i n y K i t e w h o is 10. T h e Harriers also known as Field-Kites, 1 a r e a well-defined group of
a past master a t taking grasshoppers off the stems of growing rice, a n d the Hawks, easily recognized by their flight and a p p e a r a n c e . T h e y m a k e nests
on the ground or amongst reeds in marshes. T h e y never perch on frees a n d
u n e r r i n g aim w i t h which it takes off the insect without seemingly so m u c h
therefore, roost on the ground for the night, a n d here, they are sometimes
as touching the stalk is really wonderful.
surprised and killed by Jackals. O u t of five varieties found in I n d i a only
"jETt in the i m a g i n a r y picture below is no other t h a n the C o m m o n two breed in the country a n d the others are winter visitors. T h e y fly low
Kite: — over the p a d d y plains, marshes and j h e e l s a n d buoyantly q u a r t e r the ground
for hours, poising for a m o m e n t almost motionless aloft, or glide in circles
to great heights. T h e y prey u p o n lizards, frogs, insects, mice, y o u n g or
3TTCFT STWT^T ^ J T TtTT
sickly birds, etc. b u t are simply incapable of catching even small healthy
HT •'MM-McMIcldl WTCT-
birds. T h e Pale a n d M o n t a g u ' s H a r r i e r s are known as (lizard-
Pi^iPcMPfraftu^^ciA ijeft" i —wsr^nw killer, Sansk. fr+<HKt+ ?) a n d tttC (Sansk. "rat a H a w k ) , and the Pied
H a r r i e r as qfrf (3R5T — t h e Pied H a w k ) . These names would seem
8. T h e Black-winged K i t e (13") is light ashy-grey above w i t h the
to show t h a t the term Tp5PT, a p a r t f r o m being a c o m m o n n o u n for ' a
lesser a n d m e d i a n wing-coverts black, a n d white below. It occasionally
bird' is also a specific term for a Hawk-like bird, p r o b a b l y the H a r r i e r s
hovers like the Kestrel and seen f r o m below it appears to be a p u r e white
with fT-MI-H^ a n d 3TOT for birds like M o n t a g u ' s H a r r i e r a n d the Marsh-
bird with black wing-tips. It would therefore a p p e a r to be the |pj? (white
H a r r i e r respectively. T h e significance of the n a m e 75rV for these Hawks
water-lily) of the M a h a b h a r a t a List. Seen f r o m above or w h e n sitting it
seems to lie in the fact t h a t beyond the powers of sustained flight, i.e. wing-
is a small black a n d white Kite but being p r e d o m i n a n t l y white it goes by
power, they have h a r d l y a n y claim to recognition as H a w k s p r o p e r , i.e.
the n a m e of W f f t (cotton-white) in H i n d i a n d m a y well have been k n o w n
as birds fit for the chase. I n other words they possess a graceful flight but
as +iHlfti+l in Sanskrit though this n a m e is nowhere recorded.
are absolutely^useless for purposes of hawking. I n this connection I would
wrjfa being the larger P a r i a h Kite a n d its allied forms sifft^T should be recall the srfgresH type of Hawks considered in the preceding Sub-section,
thus the smallest of Kites. M . W i l l i a m s does not render jPn+l as a Kite b u t
^WHTtPTMT equates Prakrit Kite-names like (sPSjft') and fa<wtl with KljgPwi;
cf. fZT* a sparrow, and ^Pd+l or -idP=t>+i a little sparrow. "qwrcrr: s r f a w r r t*r ? — m 4.43
9. This Black-winged Kite would seem to be the KNRH+I as a bird of I t is thus quite possible that the HPdMH ( f r . srfirw foot, a n d hence the
a u g u r y in :— l o w e s t ? — M . W . ) are the ("Tat — t y p e of Hawks, viz. the
Harriers defined as Mdnwi:—taw^ s m r o i r tffar a^tr ^ g sM^, a w t by
SPT^ Wftr^TSq ci lfH'+T ^ W t q f ? ? ^RT #fRTT I a p p e a r a n c e b u t not in action.
1 1 . Reverting to the n a m e s and ^STOT as probable names for
c f e m w r g0 ? n f w r JTFT TET
ev N fc c\ u—8.37
some of the Harriers it is interesting to note t h a t they occur with other
None of the commentators gives a n y synonym, Sansk. or H i n d i for MHRH+I bird-names in the following verse :
which, however, should not be the C o m m o n Pariha K i t e since the ^f^ciT
does not include t h e ubiquitous K i t e (wjfa, 'jsrf or fowr) as a bird of
augury. Moreover it is only with the rarest of incidents a n d u n - wrf^ ? cM'l+Mi 'TCT^PT^I^kfa II M B h . 13.14.145
c o m m o n combinations in bird-behaviour t h a t the choicest of boons, e.g.
God fsR is supposed to assume at pleasure the forms of the birds n a m e d in
kingship, can go as a prediction. I n the above verse the mere sight of
the verse. f><t><rim+', a g a r d e n lizard, is too m e a n a creature to be considered
wfir^T in certain positions is auspicious, more so in association with WTCT,
in the context and must be understood in the sense of a bird, a n d the forma-
the Scavenging Vulture, but if by a n y c h a n c e it settles on the head of a
tion of the word is analogous to that of (one that takes or kills
person, the latter is destined for kingship. Considering everything therefore
sparrows, discussed in the preceding Sub-section) for the Sparrow-Hawks.
this black a n d white Kite should be the w f i w r of =Wct<M. T h e C o m m o n
Kite is known as or *R55T in G u j a r a t i a n d if these names are f r o m Sansk.
1. C o m p a r e ' h I A ^ M ' in B e n g a l i f o r the Marsh Harrier. The name means a
fiWi, it m a y be a n e x a m p l e of the transference of the n a m e of a r a t h e r
'field o r m e d o w Kite'.
248 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Eagles, Falcons and Allied Birds 219

$4,<Hm<fr should thus be the same as pKpid*lK for, a Harrier ( p a r a 9 above). of prey' has already been suggested in Section B, p a r a 2 for the Crested
M . Williams on the other hand separates the last two words of the first Hawk Eagle but it can also apply to this bird as it has a black crest and
line as fTOTRT and w m „ and renders the latter as 'a kind of bird', but a black tail, for PRS means both 'crest' and 'tail' of a bird, sftafp^ would
this I have not met with it in literature or in any other lexicon. T h e then be a H a w k in which both these parts are black.
term tfRtf may be the same as HTOT for the Crane or it may, placed as it is
with refer to the Marsh-Harrier which flies chiefly over water-
logged areas in search of frogs, water-mice, sickly birds, insects,
etc. for food.
12. T h e Buzzards are closely allied to the Eagles but due to extreme
colour variation among them it is almost impossible to distinguish the
different species in the field. They are comparatively sluggish birds with
a heavy flight and feed upon rats, mice, frogs, lizards, large insects, etc.
and go by the name of ^TfTTT^r (rat-hawk) in Hindi corresponding to
Sansk. PiPtKlH (firfr,frfcfiTa mouse, and w to move or W a d a r t ) for a kind
of H a w k in flp?t ws? HPR but not found in Sansk. lexicons none of which
however claims t6 be exhaustive in any respect. T h e sentence, ' V c i ^ u
sipft *RT:—"the Hawk went away taking hold of the mouse in fireRHJfcpt,
Basu's translation, supports the name fafeiw for a kind of Hawk.
13. T h e Indian Crested Honey Buzzard (27") is a brown Hawk with a
dense body-plumage and the entire face covered with small scale-like
feathers. Thus equipped by nature it is free to attack combs of wasps and
bees and feed upon honey wax, larvae and even bees (Oates, F.B.I., first
edition). It is known as m in Nepal and is the TfJfT* or WipT (honey-thief)
of T w o of the names for the progeny of Garuda in the M a h a -
b h a r a t a List, viz., (wnTOfHPT^f T F T — o ) and ^TW'flTW (cf. "Rett
sR^remt —sra. wi^rr, 12.8.2.15) probably refer to this Hawk.
14. T h e I n d i a n Black-crested Baza is a very small Hawk (13"). It is a
black and chestnut bird with a long black nuchal crest, black tail, a n d
white breast with two broad white and chestnut bands separating the
black neck and the white breast. T h e eyes are beautiful and lustrous. I t
is thus a very beautiful little Hawk and is aptly known as W t (beautifully
dark, cf. WVg^T for in Nepal. T h e term is an a d n o u n for the
Indian Koel but the lexicons do not give it for a Hawk. f T R is a name of
one of the descendants of the M a h a b h a r a t a List, and JTK is also the n a m e
of god represented as a beautiful youth. It is therefore suggested
that the n a m e m a y well refer to this handsome Baza. ;ft?tPt-«a> for 'a bird

* TCTFTT ill the following verse p r o b a b l y refers t o a h u m a n r o b b e r of a h o n e y - c o m b :

jW^HPH I
arfer: ^jrPr ii—MBh. 3.33.70
But with a p u n on JT^T it c a n a p p l y t o m a n a n d H a w k b o t h , for it is j u s t possible t h a t
occasionally b y a d e t e r m i n e d attack b y a s w a r m of i n f u r i a t e d rock-bees even t h e H a w k
is d r i v e n off.
 Pigeons and Doves 251
—VFTT^ VRTW5T, ?
-fj.-j. ? Blue Rock Pigeon

-HKMd—
Pigeon __ } Wood Pigeon
5
„ 4KMd j •

—HKHd Snow Pigeon

53 ^ ^ | Any Green Pigeon

ffctM |
frfcr, ^ —q? or ) Imperial
PIGEONS AND DOVES Green j Green Pigeons
= Pigeon Pigeon __
and Dove )• or 1 Pin-or White-tailed
in the Rg | | Green Pigeons
A/INTRODUCTORY
Veda J
1 No sharp distinction can be drawn between Pigeons and Doves
both of which- are members of the family Columbidae but the name "—otx OTtcT—Little Brown Dove
Pigeon is exclusively given to the wild Pigeon and the name Dove is most -jjiTTOCT^T—Do. & Rufous Turtle
commonly applied to the smaller members of the group. In general Dove
English literature, however, the two words are used almost indifferently.
In Sanskrit literature also, the position is exactly the same, for though the -3P5T or
terms and ^ T denote the wild Blue Rock Pigeon and Dove respec- Doves sfrm-^PTfa H- R e d Turtle Dove

tively in Garaka, Susruta and some Law-books (EPTOTCW), the poets have —fasT-or
not always observed the distinction and the domestic Pigeon is ^ WtcT even | Spotted Dove
according to Caraka and others. The lexicons, with certain exceptions
like the Vaijayanti, have treated the terms as synonymous. Indeed, WH, —ET^T —Ring Dove
would seem to be the oldest name for both Pigeon and Dove, as according
to Vedic scholars m m in the Rgveda does not mean a Pigeon and the ^ k S m a t i o n \ ®ar;taile^
term w m would seem to have been used for both. Thus in Rgveda r x / Cuckoo-Dove
fromg*TM) J
(1 30.4) probably refers to a Pigeon. Here it is evidently regarded as an
auspicious bird, for god Indra is requested to approach the cup of Soma
juice offered to him with the warmth and eagerness o f a Pigeon courting
his mate. In the tenth Mandala (165.1-5), however, which may well be
separated in point of time from the first Mandala by several centuries, the
Wta is a messenger of evil. If this was a particular kind of Dove, as is
highly probable, it would appear to make the beginning of the prejudice
against the Dove as a bird of evil omen. T h e belief, probably originated
as all superstitions generally do, with a few accidental coincidences of
serious domestic calamity including death, w i t h t h e e n t r y of someparticular
Dove into the house. This old Rgvedic prejudice against the ^ T hnds an
echo in the Vajasaneyi Samhita where a distinction between *<mr and
has been observed for the first time. The TTW as an auspicious
bird is named for the auspicious day, 24.25 wlnle w f e

1. T h e equation, rife ^ f T O ^ q m ^ f ^ T : - lrf*fc shows that the

t e r m W t a ' includes both Dove a n d Pigeons.

 Pigeons and Doves 253
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
252
at the river's edge b u t normally prefer to climb down overhanging canes
(Dove) is placed in charge, as it were, of M i t r a v a r u n a , the deities w h o are
a n d bushes until they are within reach of the water. T h e y keep a firm
the joint-upholders and guardians o f t h e world, promoters of religious rites
foot-hold w h e n moving a b o u t in thick foliage, a n d if a bird is shot a t a n d
and avengers cf sin aad untruth, « ^ TlT killed it sometimes simply hangs d o w n w a r d s or if the twig gives way, it
belong to m ^ r the goddess of Misery, ^ fr^T-24.36. ihe comes down with t h e twig still firmly held in its feet. T h e p o p u l a r belief
association of and the crop destroying W is worth noting. ^ that a green Pigeon never sets foot on the g r o u n d except with a twig held
which was hiterto an inclusive terms c a m e to be restricted to Doves, and in its feet has n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n the a b o v e facts for a basis. This fiction
Pigeons now c a m e to be known as q i r o ( c o m i n g from afar, i.e. f r o m hills
has furnished some beautiful similes in H i n d i poetry, b u t , perhaps, not
a n d mountains where they went back to roost a n d breed as against Doves
in Sanskrit.
w h i c h lived n e a r e r h o m e ) . T h a t Pigeons have long been welcome birds is
2. All G r e e n Pigeons are f i f e ? ; 1.26,86), jiftiltf, fRta 1 or ^f<dM,
clear f r o m the following in the M a h a b h a r a t a :- J
corresponding to ^rfer or sjf< -M in H i n d i a n d Bengali, though a couple of
species are k n o w n as ^T^J and +1+3=1 in Sanskrit a n d ^teTT in H i n d i .
JT| q u i d d i s F m w m
Similarly, I m p e r i a l G r e e n Pigeons of large size are f^fffi, qz or TOT
q- w m cT«JT t ^ m f w r : 1 II —13.107.106
in Sanskrit. T h e Green Pigeons of M a l a b a r are the frcta of K a l i d a s a :-
Given even a p a r t i c u l a r kind of Dove as a bird of ill-omen e.g. in R V a n d ^ItN'kyi'-di^I'dl: J W i r a T O : — 4 . 4 6
VS, it is a n easy step for all Doves to be so regarded. This would seem to
T h e black-plum ( (STRT) is the favourite food of the Bengal Green Pigeon
be the reason w h y 47.4-6 r e c o m m e n d s such n a t u r a l waters for
and the ^Tta in the following is evidently this bird. T h e W o o d Pigeons of
princes to b a t h e in as are not only situated in beautiful surroundings b u t
the H i m a l a y a s also eat this fruit b u t they are not found in the V i n d h y a n
also have auspicious birds calling or singing in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d , a n d the
list of birds n a m e d purposely excludes (Dove) t h o u g h it includes country :
7 T W . B h a t t o t p a l a expands the illustrative list of 'VtftRTTOsnrfr:'' by a d d - 4 fti ci JI j c^rta—
ing to it " ^ ^ c s p m * ^ : . According to the sfpT, 87.12-13 all t h e three fiWM ^ S f t f^KTHIT: — 3 W W , 5.27
varieties of Dove c o m m o n in N o r t h I n d i a are inauspicious. K a l i d a s a and
other poets do n o t refer to a Dove as such a n d b o t h the terms Wta a n d T h e i r sweet whistling notes have often b e e n a p p r e c i a t e d . A j u n g l e scene
TTW, w h e n used by them, always m e a n a Pigeon, domestic or wild. on the T a m a s a river :

B. P I G E O N S
•HH'-dd': Wldkdt
*TO wl'U d £ W H ' M V H ^
1. Green Pigeons are well represented t h r o u g h o u t I n d i a a n d despite
differences in colour-pattern or size there is no mistaking a G r e e n Pigeon G o d Siva affectionately mentions a Green Pigeon who, by nesting in a
as they are all cast u p o n a c o m m o n model a n d the habits of all are similar.
b r a n c h o v e r h a n g i n g his shrine and thus seeking his protection secured a
T h e y a r e " c o m p a r a t i v e l y small Pigeons w h i c h m a y be known at a glance
place in heaven :
by their beautifully soft green p l u m a g e , often mixed with m a r o o n or lilac
on the shoulders or back, a n d always with one, and sometimes w i t h two,
bold yellow b a r s across the wings. By ear, too, these lovely birds m a y
Green Pigeons with other beautiful-voiced birds in a jungle-scene :-
always be identified . . . their musical whistling call being quite unlike
the coo of any Dove or Pigeon of other g r o u p s . " 2 T h e y are entirely arbo-
real in their habits a n d live on wild fruits, figs of all kinds, berries, p l u m s ,
<44| g^TSR r^sy M ftl f*>id H 4
etc., including such large fruits as the black-plum and nutmeg
(siTftrw) w h i c h a r e swallowed whole. T h e y occasionally descend to drink
1. T h e E m e r a l d D o v e is also perhaps more correctly.

2. S k a n d a P u r a n a , A y o d h y a m a h a t m y a , C h . 9 . 3 0 .
1. in the Verse is the Grackle or Common Myna and fl-^ilWl the
3. S k a n d a P u r a n a , A r u n a c a l a m a h a t m y a , Purvakhanda C h . 9.
s t a r l i n g — A r t s . 20, 2 1 .
4. M a h a b h a r a t a , I I I . 158, 53-54; M a r k a n d e y a P u r a n a , 6 , 18-19.
2. S t u a r t B a k e r , " I n d i a n Pigeons and Doves-"
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
254
3. T h e Pin-tailed and the Wedge-tailed Green Pigeons are also found
in North India, the former from K u m a o n eastwards and the latter through-
out the Himalayas and the broken country below them. T h e y must also
be regarded as frifor or f f c m , but from the orange-pink colour of their
breasts they are known as +1+^1 in Hindi corresponding to ^ t ^ r and «t>1i>3q
and probably also in Sanskrit. Their notes are sweeter t h a n those
of other birds of the class. In particular the notes of the Wedge-tailed bird
are "fuller, richer, and more sweet than those of any other Green Pigeon"
(S. Baker). For this reason this last bird is very much sought after as a pet.
Both these species are generally seen either singly or in pairs, or in very
small parties of a few birds only. I n this also as in the colouring of their
breasts they resemble the or birds. These two species stand mid-
way in point of size between those considered earlier and the next group.
4. T h e largest among the Green Pigeons of North I n d i a are the
Green Imperial Pigeon and Hodgson's Imperial Pigeon measuring u p to
18 and 20 inches in length respectively. T h e y occur in and east of Nepal.
Both have the head, neck and the whole of the lower parts (except the
tail-coverts) a beautiful pale dove-grey, vinous pink or vinous-grey with
the upper parts green in the first and copper-brown in the second bird.
T h e contrast between the darker upper plumage and the lighter head,
neck and breast makes it appear as if the birds wear a light silken upper
garment or scarf, thrown over the head a n d neck, and brought down in
front upon the chest after the style of women in North India, and this
accounts for their Hindi name of f j s r from Sanskrit for a fine upper
garment; cf. V and "jf?r" in the following from flW^s? :-
qdi^dUil f^Tcna^FT:—
grarcriRfr ^ f t ^ F T R TRiwH-pf^r^m
tffcTFTffST SIMR ^ R T W ^U--ci*ilVdq'<nV—6.8.
5. Now vs is one of the auspicious birds mentioned in Lalitavistara
(ch. 21, p. 398) :-
STcRira I
qsrp is also a kind of bird in w ^ f w u f r . and are almost synony-
mous terms and both are frequently used in the sense of Z r r f m or upper
garment :
l^f PTTirrcft ftfdi^—^r^m
M fcd ft farsm faf:—mf^RW,
£dP)l<tt<^:—^l^fT2
3rnrrc3T s r r f t w T f o — M ^ t T H T ,
1. Sabdarnava, cited by P a t h a k a on M e g h a d u t a , 6 5 .
2. Kadambari, K a l e ' s edition, P t . 1. p . 33.
Pigeons and Doves 255
ts (qS^r f^-), therefore, is either or both of these birds, and so also qETW.
All Pigeons and Doves are bad-tempered and quarrelsome but these are
an exception, and as peace-loving birds, have been selected as one of the
"rrpir qfspjr:" to herald the coming of Buddha, the Prince of Peace in H R-id -
6. i w + N mentions 3WFT qrifa as a "high-flying b i r d " in JTOTTzrr',
8.58, and srergfa describes a particular method of salutation in which a
person after producing a clapping sound with the palms of his hands
holds them like the wings of a wotw w t a :-
"yfd+i ^ p f t m w r ^r JT:"—did-Msnw, 28.70
All Pigeons and Doves make a clapping sound at the beginning of a flight,
and this is what S. Baker has to say about the Green Imperial Pigeon :
" W h e n starting from a tree or suddenly frightened into diverting their
course, the wings beat loudly against one another and make a sound audi-
ble at a great distance." yfd+i in the sense of " c l a p p i n g " refers to this
sound so that it is incorrect of M . Williams to treat yfd+i T S P T H as a com-
pound. must go with ^qfa as an adjective. T h e epithet is indicative
of the size as well as the auspicious nature of the bird, and as re is the
largest (and auspicious) of all the Green Pigeons, it would appear that the
name ^FTW also refers to these large and beautiful birds.
7. T h e wild or Blue-Rock Pigeon and similar forms are 4HMd or ^ftw
(""spfnw: ffl<H+q)t)"—srssRfadmh)1 and u f w r ( M . W . ) while the
domestic Pigeon of similar or different colours and derived from the wild
stock is the i j f q ^ r of Caraka and the poets :
5.7. C\ C
— 3.2
SPW'SP^ 'T^TtcRrt r^lP-i+l-il^ TfiTcT: I
TrrwfWrf^Tfvgr, 4
T h e wild Pigeon has been nesting and roosting i n high buildings in
populous towns as a semi-domesticated bird from very ancient times
and has been mentioned under the name of m<i=id by Kalidasa and other
poets :-
at ^kiMKMdWIH—1.41
Garden set off with white-washed temples, and the latter with the Blue-
1 Rock Pigeons :—
3, under
verse 76 1. T h e lexical verses for MKMd a n d Jpffa a t p . 296 of ERFcTfTpTTC h a v e
b e c o m e disjointed a n d c o r r u p t b u t the terms a n d W r T ^ clearly refer to
the colour of the p l u m a g e of t h e Blue R o c k Pigeon w h e n o n t h e g r o u n d or p e r c h i n g and
5
FT. *TT. Pt. 5 d u r i n g flight respectively. W h e n on t h e w i n g t h e b i r d looks ash-grey chiefly because of t h e
lighter colour of the u n d e r - s u r f a c e of the wings. of t h e first verse ( 5 6 ) refers
to the semi-wild birds t a k i n g possession, as it were, of the various p a r t s of a building.
254
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
T h e blue-grey of their bodies and the iridescent purple of their necks taken
together has offered an excellent comparison for the smoke arising out of
sacrificial fires :
^NhmPH^ldN g^r fafyy^+H i C.
u
<t>Mldl^-l*! fl OTt Tarter: II
T h e behaviour of the cock-bird during courtship has been beautifully
described :-
fe^lM^MdM':
r
^+l'd+l dNr ldM+l u
i,
8. O f the Wood-Pigeons the Eastern Wood-Pigeon or Ring-Dove is
common in K a s h m i r and Nepal, and extends into the P u n j a b in winter.
An allied form, the Ashy Wood Pigeon, occurs in Nepal and in Eastern
Himalayas. T h e former wears a broad semi-collar of buff (dull yellow or
yellowish-orange) glossed green or purple-copper, and the latter a similar
but narrower collar. Sanskrit W f 1 means a gold r r n a m e n t or necklace as
well as Pigeon or Dove. T h e bird m e a n t , must, therefore, seem to wear a
yellowish collar and this requirement is fulfilled only by these Wood
Pigeons and they are probably the W HKl«*d.
9. T h e Snow Pigeon has a dark Grey head and neck, a white collar,
light brown upper parts, white lower back, a broad white b a n d on the tail
and a pure white breast changing to dove-grey on the abdomen. I t appears
white when high u p on the wing. It is a bird of the higher Himalayas
but is found in Kashmir and Nepal. Pilgrims to the A m a r n a t h cave which
contains a "ftnatfcr^1" often see these Pigeons, and a pair of them is said
actually to live in the Gave itself. T h e y are less shy than most Pigeons
and are sometimes trapped in Nepal for the Calcutta market. As the bird
has much white in its plumage and also looks white during flight, the
MKHd mentioned as a Himalayan bird in the P a d m a P u r a n a can only
be this bird :
•f^KMd: !Wd5y+l<:
?T?T TTRT: q??: II 2
1. M . W i l l i a m s a n d t h e M e d i n i K o s a .
2. P a d m a P u r E u j a — U t t a r a k h a n t f a . C h . 221. 20-21.
256
Pigeons and Doves
It is to be noted that the author is referring to wild birds so that the
M a y u r a stands for M a y u r a - K u k k u t a , the beautiful crested Impeyan Phea-
sant or Munal. T h e place is evidently some lake-country in the Himalayas
TcFrjTTT, ch. 180
probably in the Garhawal District which stretches right u p to the M a n a
and Niti passes beyond Gangotri, Badrinath and K e d a r n a t h .
DOVES
1. Doves are the smaller cousins of the wild Pigeons, lighter in build,
W W , 2. 119, 6.
more slender in form, and also dressed rather more plainly. They, therefore,
go by the name of T r w f f a or simply i r o (cf. TF5 colour of natural
wool) corresponding to Hindi <Tf?> or O t h e r Hindi names like zp?, f w t
(HKNd:)
or are of an imitative nature recalling the notes of some of them.
597 2. T h e different species of Indian Doves and their Sanskrit names
(to be discussed presently) are as under :—
(i) the Rufous Turtle D o v e — f f T - f * frita.
f i r r e h m , 9.2. (ii) the Little Brown D o v e — f f i r - a w f t a , w : ^TRT (? )
(iii) the Spotted Dove—fa?-,
(iv) the Ring Dove—sr^t-, srqtf^-^fRr; a w r F f , .
(v) the R e d Turtle Dove—WT-, stWf^rta.
(vi) the Emerald Dove—frcta; sprsafa-, w w - w k .
(vii) the Bar-tailed Cuckoo-Dove—tJTTT ^PTfa.
3. T h e first four birds are members of the same genus and of these
the Rufous Turtle Dove occurs in two forms differentiated as the Northern
Indian and the Indian. T h e former breeds in Central Asia and the
Himalayas as far as Nepal and thence through the lower levels u p to
Sikkim, while the latter is a bird of Eastern India, a n d it is only during
the cold weather that both forms visit the areas to the south of their
respective territories. T h e y are grey-brown suffused with rufous above and
vinous rufous below and would therefore share the name of J f r e r a
with the Little Brown Dove. T h e Hindi name ?TF=r tfp> for the Northern
Indian variety emphasizes the rufous or W in the plumage while the
name WFT f f for the other, the Indian Rufous T u r t l e Dove, stresses the
brown (TO, wnr) in the body colour. As this Dove is neither a p e r m a n e n t
resident of the t o t srtw nor so common about towns or villages it does not
find place in the list of birds of augury.
4. T h e next three Doves, Nos. 2-4, are the commonest and most
familiar birds of India. T h e Indian Little Brown Dove, T ? ^ in
Hindi, is again a greyish-brown bird with lilac-pink on the head and neck
and chestnut to vinous-pink on the breast. " I t is typically a bird of civili-
zation, exceedingly common all round villages and towns and one of the
tamest and most confidential of our Indian birds" (S. Baker in F.B.I.). It
is the of qddV4<H and probably also the OTT ^ffct (the grey-brown
 258
1
Dove) of the lexicons. T h e Spotted Dove is blackish-brown and spotted
white or rufous above and vinaceous-pink below. This also, like the pre-
ceding "is a most tame and confiding little bird, running about freely in
gardens and villages...generally hunting in couples and constantly calling
to one another in the softest and sweetest of coos" (Ibid.). It passes as
F W ' r a in Hindi and is the fasmfa or PWTST ^FTTTT of the lexicons and
literature. T h e fourth and the last of the series is the Ring-Dove,
the lightest coloured member of the group, being lilac-grey on the head
and neck, fawn-brown on the back and lilac to pale dove-grey on the
breast. Some white on the tail and the silver-grey and greyish-white of
the flanks, axillaries and under wing-coverts give the bird, when on the
wing, a whitish look. It is Erk- or aW-TfP in Hindi corresponding
to ER^r-TT'f in Sanskrit. Like the other two it also "haunts the vicinity of
humanity and is most common in cultivated country round villages and
towns, freely entering g a r d e n s " (Ibid.).
5. These three Doves of towns and villages (Nos. 2-4) have been men-
tioned as birds of omen {^ftcrr: srar:) in 231, 15, ^ r f p T , 87,1 and
•reicrcrjr, p. 247 though the relevant text in the last appears to be incom-
plete. Nevertheless it refers to the fk'fl? i.e. three different Doves, viz.
the PnrrfT, the particularly whitish, the faw, spotted or variegated, and the
TO, the brown. This agrees very well with Bhattotpala's commentary on
the 5p[rsrfpT where he enumerates the three species as <wm<«<-, fa?r-and
These names belong respectivly to the Ring-Dove, the Spotted
Dove and the Little Brown Dove.
6. All the races of the first three species listed above have chequered
black patches on either side of or behind the neck and are comprised as
miniature or half-pigeons within the lexical equation an^KHdPHdW—trfefr,
tr^sf, etc. (cf. 'Half-Snipe' for a small Snipe). T h e Ring-Doye, on the
other hand wears a semi-collar of black edged white both above and
below and is therefore the g^RTO ^pffa of the lexicons. T h e Red Turtle
Dove also has a black semi-collar behind the neck and it must share the
epithet. O t h e r names for the Ring Dove are sra^r-'TFf and ff^-^PTto (see
below).
7. So far we have dealt with names based upon the colour of the
plumage b u t some of these birds have also been classified according to the
nature of their call notes. Thus the Spotted Dove with a confluent or
rippling call—a guttural 'croo' repeated several times in quick succession,
is classed as the ^5r^fr 2 type and the R i n g Dove (sr^r ipfta) with its distinct
triple " c o o " call is a fn type of Dove; cf. or (sir separation
of syllables; i n t e r r u p t i o n — M . W . ) a s a synonym for 'PTfa and TTTT^r in
*r»<«<i><rHs*i. £t«jr^r< has the following :
1- "fBTTt t r a ^ f r E P T : " — f a f r f c P T , 138.
The a d n o u n ERR is d e s c r i p t i v e of a d o n k e y a n d c a m e l as w e l l ; b u t see p a r a . 8 b e l o w .
2. T h e L i t t l e B r o w n D o v e w i t h t h e call " C r u - d o - d o - d o - d o " w o u l d also b e l o n g to this
type.
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
259
Pigeons and Doves
qrw^J fg-fcat 5W fWTST: 4-xrlMfH: I
fcfcft srevr: srtrfi: K W^T: VfjZ&fa'- 11
A third type, the includes the next bird.
8. I n the Red Turtle Dove w f a ) alone are the sexes differently
coloured. T h e male is a w a r m vinous-red and the female brown. T h e chin
and throat of the male are albescent contrasting with the dark ashy-grey
head and the vinous-red breast. T h e eyes vary from hazel-brown to dark
brown. Both have a black semi-collar on the hind neck which naturally
attracts the adnoun ^ m s for this species as well. T h e call is a distinctive,
"rolling groo—gurr—goo repeated four or five times quickly" (Salim Ali).
w ^ r f t notes the call and the colour of the eyes of this Dove as under :—
"^flcftsnft W P S — p . 296.
It is possible that the brown female was looked upon as a different species
and the equation, m m w t e : , o f ^ P r r c , 138 refers to her as the
TO .pffcr. Being the"smallest of the Doves it is t h e w W l d o f ^ r , 1.25.37-38
and 1.46.69. on the former explains the adjective (fr.
CT little, small) as s t w m r f r while on the latter renders the name
as s n m w r t c r which has been adopted by K . M . Vaidya in his ^ d i ^ ^ t s T .
T h e n a m e srsw wtfr corresponds to the bird's Hindi names ffejT w ( f e a
brick; the brick-red Dove) a n d * p r a t f | (the rose-coloured Dove). It is
widely distributed in the country and is very numerous in the North-west
but being a shy bird it keeps to well-wooded areas.
9. T h e male of the beautiful Emerald Dove or frfcr has a blue-grey
head, metallic emerald-green upper parts and deep vinous-red neck,
shoulders and breast. T h e female has the head also vinous-red. Even for a
Dove it is rather a small bird, being only 10 inches in total length (i.e.
only one inch longer t h a n t h e Red Turtle Dove). It is found throughout
the greater part of India including Kashmir and Nepal in forest country
with a sufficient rainfall. These pretty birds are very terrestrial in their
habits and are therefore, very active on the ground and frequent d a m p
footpaths in evergreen forests. Like the entire Pigeon family they are fully
vegetarian except for termites which they eat greedily. Another Dove
which shares this habit is the S p o t t e d Dove. " T h e i r flight...is extremely
swift, and at the same time wonderfully silent, and it is often quite startling
the way these birds flit into sight and then disappear without a sound,
twisting and turning so as to avoid bushes and other obstacles in their
flight. Invariably they keep low down, and it is rare to see them rise twenty
feet from the ground even when they dash across some opening in forest"...
( S . B a k e r ) . They are not gregarious, but in some favourite spots half a
dozen or more may sometimes be met with. " I t has a curious habit of
entering and passing through buildings, which, doubtless, it hopes will
a f f o r d refuge from the glare of the sun; but finding the interior so different
from what it expects, it passes straight through instead of resting."
 254 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Pigeons and Doves 261
(S. Baker). O t h e r writers also have remarked upon this curious habit of
Jft-Wld: q^TRt f^frf^r I
the bird. Its note "is a soft but very deep and rather plaintive 'coo', and
during the breeding season they m a y often be heard calling to one another JTBT ^ r : trq- tT^r TTFT TJit jjcjrt 11
for some minutes together" ( I b i d ) . This agrees fairly well with V a r a h a - 10.165.4.
mihira's description of the bird's call : T h e hooting owl, again, is held to be as bad as the ^rqtcf, the messenger of
Death :—
"frOcrer 5 si^ft
87.15. c o^ o cs
gcW^g' f ^ R arfq^ 1 iiMftl'ted: II
T h e voice of Green Pigeons, on the other hand, is, " a very pleasing full-
wpr, 1.14.14.
toned rolling whistle." This bird is TWTTO ^fkr as well as ^reW, the latter
being apparently due to its green wings. It has also been called sniwrta This verse, it will be noticed, is a clear echo of the one from Rgveda. T h e
by srran: on <jmRr, though the name properly belongs to the Red Turtle allocation of inauspicious birds between Gods and others (g,<.i<j<.i:) is as
Dove. below :—
10. Green Pigeons are purely arboreal birds and do not descend to WT 3nTT5 W T ^ , ^FFF ^ f t l ^ t c R R I
the ground except at the water's edge to drink, or at a salt-lick, whereas
Pd'lifdS^d ^ I f T f c W T T ^ T II
the Emerald Doye is very terrestrial picking up seeds and berries, etc.
from the ground and from low bushes. God Siva describes the beauties of sTTfsr?cRt9frs«r, ^ f t r ^ ^ qrr: u
an extensive garden in and refers to a group of Emerald Doves 3- 48.68-69.
("fRta if?") walking here and there along the garden path :— I t will be noticed that the Owl and ^rfir have been distributed exactly in
accordance with the Vedic tradition. With "'jt TRKcfT: ERIT:" in favour of the
" p R T TO H Id ^H R-l d ^ t o P d f r M c f f a r Blue Rock Pigeon and the habit of the Spotted and the Little Brown Doves
of frequently nesting inside human habitations it is evident that these birds
T m : TO^y: ^ f ^ f q - q f d t < M d " cannot be the calamitous ^ffer, nor should the Rufous Turtle Dove, the
R e d Turtle Dove or even the Ring Dove be that bird as they keep away
from inhabited houses. According to the commentator of the s n w i w f ^ a r .
11. T h e Bar-tailed Cuckoo-Dove of Kashmir and Nepal goes by the however, it is apparently the Ring Dove (Dhavala Kapota) which, we
Hindi n a m e of ("grrc a Dove of the cold region). " I t s deep boom- shall see, is incorrect :—
ing 'Coo' calls one's attention from far away, and when the bird is finally
located it is almost certain to be seated high u p on some tree which —3.7.7
stands well above those surrounding i t " (S. Baker). A bird of such striking
Commentary—"^ftcft <<tdHK: ^•M^ifHw-HltfT i
manners, different from others of its kind, would naturally invite attention
As against this srtofr specifies the Emerald Dove as the guilty b i r d :
and it is highly probable that the name f-T* ^ (having a distinct " c o o "
note) f o r ' a kind of Dove' (M.W.) is for this particular bird (Cf. qrqfa feWTfcT Wfa^F: —
for the Spotted and for the Ring Dove) 2 . It is further permissible <tt)MK: +qldltei|: ^^fd: I
to say that the 'back-formation', ^K+qki, was also its name in Sanskrit.
12. I n conclusion, an attempt must be made to determine the identity
^ t ^ f f w f W i n n f ^ i1
of the particular kind of which from the time o f t h e Rgveda has been
regarded as the messenger of Death and Misery, and otherwise a bird of
ill -omen along with the hooting owl : T h e description of the K a p o t a as "w^sPf" (of the colour of a Parrot) and
the attraction it has for the termite ant-hill combined with
its habit of occasionally entering h u m a n dwellings leaves no doubt what-
1. M a t s y a P u r a n a , ch. 180. T h i s verse occurs in a slightly c o r r u p t f o r m in the L i h g a ever that the bird meant by is the Emerald Dove. T h e habits of
u 4 ' ^ 1 26 81
' ' ( C h o w k h a m b a e d i t i o n ; 1.26.86 in others) mentions the bird described earlier fully confirm the identification. It may be
* f * ' r * ~ e G r e C n P l g e o n 311(1 t h e E m e r a l d Dove. T h e L a h o r e edition
reads 5 iks<t> a t b o t h p l a c e s in the s a m e section w h i c h is incorrect.
2. Cf. also ^TOha-, a Pigeon, a n d f-XWW, the T r e e - p i e . 1. Q u o t e d in § a b d a k a l p a d r u m a under
 254
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
added t h a t small I n d i a n houses with a room set a p a r t in t h e m for worship
of the sacrificial fire were not as open a n d spacious as m o d e r n bungalows
which the Dove is known to enter a t one end and pass out a t the other
without nesting so that once the bird entered the house or the sacrificial
c h a m b e r , it would flounder and be forced to settle down somewhere...
even near the fire-altar- ("qc+4)d: $ u fiftt) though it might ultimately
escape. Its low and fast b u t noiseless flight like t h a t of a n O w l a t night
was rightly regarded as typical of a secret messenger. W i t h the clear
authority of sfrpfr before us it is easy to see t h a t correct r e a d i n g of the
c o m m e n t a r y on the 3)I**=M|ah is "srenpi" and not a n d both,
therefore, agree as to the identity of the offending bird. Additional
evidence in support of the above identification is found in the sTfau^l"!
where the cpffa is placed in the list of birds and animals whose
entry into a dwelling is considered o m i n o u s : —
c\
^FTKTW, sqrsr t ^ i ^ r 3T few n 2.10.140.
W i t h its maroon-red neck and breast a n d bright green wings the E m e r a l d
Dove is b o t h W T O (T^cnffa—M.W.) and srersgfe. I t shares, of course, red
legs and feet w i t h all other Doves.
13. T h e bird, as it happens, possesses a good deal of red in its dress
and would thus seem to have some esoteric affinity with fire. T h e Wfa
whose form god 3rf*T was compelled to assume to pick u p t h e 'seed' of the
god Siva out of which was ultimately b o r n should be this D o v e : —
a r f ^ f c r r ^ f t ff 1 3T?r ^rrarfcT H ^FcTT
Pigeons and Doves 262
O u r Dove has a blue-grey head and beautiful p l u m a g e and the a b o v e
description fits it all right. T h e stories f r o m the M a h a b h a r a t a and the
Siva P u r a n a referred to above clearly help to connect this Dove with the
following synonymy for a kind of K a p o t a : —
Wfr fifsft qwt qn: ( ? ipft ZJW: )
sfrrsfrrofjTRw tflwr i^mn: II1
i.e. the bird which is u n d e r the control (IRT) o f Y a m a is inauspicious and
is named 'fire' (i.e. destructive like fire), 'associate of Fire-god', ' f e a r f u l '
and the 'house-destroyer'—all which is r a t h e r h a r d u p o n the pretty little
Dove. All considered, therefore, the m a l i g n a n t bird of the R g v e d a ,
Vajasaneyi Samhita and later literature is the E m e r a l d Dove.
14. Several Doves, and particularly the Spotted Dove m a t e for life a n d
always go a b o u t in pairs. Stuart Baker who closely watched a p a i r of
Spotted Doves regularly nesting in his verandah, describes t h e m as
" a most loving little c o u p l e " , the cock-bird " v e r y attentive to his
little wife, often taking her up special dainties from the table below."
I t is indeed, a pleasant surprise to find t h a t the physical features and
habits of these birds had been carefully observed by the ancients more
than 2,000 years ago. This is proved by the touching story of a pair of
Doves purposely m a d e very h u m a n and circumstantial in the telling,
n a r r a t e d in the M a h a b h a r a t a . 2 T h e y are described as
and NclTf (Cf. fa^FTtcT) and as a greatly devoted couple. T h e characteri-
stic description of the bird's eye furnishes a most helpful clue to its
identity:
q f s *TT TrFSWRTT fatflffT I
^FTC t II3

T h e eyelids and the n a r r o w b a r e orbital skin of the Spotted Dove are

ftrSjTFr I V . 2.158,32-35.
red(TfcT%FcT) and no other I n d i a n Dove has this feature. Evidently the
T h e M a t s y a P u r a n a (158, 32-35) has a different version according to heroes of the story are a pair of Spotted Doves, held up as a model of
which Agni acted similarly but in the shape of a p a r r o t . H e r e the green conjugal fidelity for erring humanity. I n the Western world, too, the
colour of t h e bird is significant, a n d the a u t h o r of the P u r a n a seems to have T u r t l e Doves are " t h e time-honoured emblem of tenderness a n d conjugal
interpreted |RkT or jprssfe isft of some other Manuscipt as a Parrot, for in love."
other versions the bird is a wtw only. Again, the ^flcT-form taken by 15. The in 19.61 beginning—-
Agni a t t h e instance of I n d r a , who, b e c a m e a Falcon, to test t h e moral
virtue of a n d fitrfa would seem to be this low flying Dove which by is the I n d i a n R e d T u r t l e Dove (Para. 8 a b o v e ) . B r a h m a n boys
landing itself into the lap of the two kings put t h e m in great difficulty at a G r a m m a r School memorized the Sutras of Panini by constant
(i.e. ft^ifo)1. I n yet another story, with king as the
protector of wtct, Agni and I n d r a do not figure but the OTta is described 1. SJ^fctft: p . 296, T r s r f ^ n s T r a ^ i f , 138, B h a t t a c h a r y a ' s edition ( 1 8 9 9 ) . C a l c u t t a ;
as a beautiful bird with a blue head which must be assumed to be in p. 332.
T h i s seems to h a v e been the original verse in some older lexicon but it h a s been
effective contrast with the body-plumage:
c o r r u p t e d a n d split u p in the later compilations as in the c u r r e n t editions of EF^g-f*;,
^ f t w i c w f t e ^ITWJT !—TTfWRcT, 3.32,7 and f ^ T ^ p m .
2. M a h a b h a r a t a , S a n t i p a r v a n , c h a p t e r s 143-149.
3. I b i d . , 144, 7.
1. M a h a b h a r a t a . I I I . C h . 131 a n d 197.
264 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

repetition and at the close of the day's lesson applied a little chalk to
their throats to ensure a good memory. The male Red Turtle, the
^ntor, repeats his groo—gurr—goo's every morning and has
besides a whitish throat. Wtf^S also means a Brahman who is ready to
repeat the Sutras at call and this seems to have stimulated the poet's
fancy. Describing a morning scene he refers to the male Dove's repetitive
call, and humorously suggests that he would not keep on calling ^ ^
(the ^—^tftr^T, 1.1.20) unless he had attended a class of Paninian
grammar. His whitish throat, as if marked with chalk, is additional proof
54
of the statement !
SAND GROUSE

1. Sand-Grouse occupies an intermediate position between the Pigeons

and the Partridges. This fact has been recognised in their Hindi name,
ataT (fr. inr, 'a fighter, MxlX, a Partridge) as all Sand-Grouses are known to
be pugnacious among themselves; cf. p f j for a fighting Cock in Art.
55-B, para 1. The Common Sand-Grouse is known in North India as
(having a harsh call) which is apparently the same as ^ of ^ r .

"^f^rf^BiftTTrq", f^RT^TR; |ipxrra"— 24, 20

F ^ r n ( f a f w : ^TT:) would then be a different species of Sand Grouse
possessing some particular character, e.g. a distinctive plumage or a strik-
ing colour-pattern, and the Painted Sand-Grouse, beautifully marked with
a triple band of white-black-white on the forehead and a tri-colour gorget of
chestnut, buff and black on the breast, should be the fePR. Large
numbers of Sand-Grouse of different kinds visit North-West India, a
number spreading further to the east, in the cold season, and this explains
the allocation of these birds to the personified deities of Winter-months.
2. The definition of by t^Tf? qnoted in the is :

o c
This can only apply to the Large Imperial Sand-Grouse which visits
North India in large numbers in winter. It has a good deal of pale and rich
buff in its plumage including some yellow, a black patch on the lower
throat, and bluish or plumbeous grey bill and feet. At any rate ^ is not
a Partridge according to this authority. T h e synonymy" spfRSw* ^V'—amr,
t r ^ j f , etc. would, therefore, seem to refer to these birds as 'allied to the
Partridge, but as their exact identity had b e e n forgotten lexicographers
rendered the names as a Partridge, more specially the Swamp Partridge
(ffafTTC= Prakrit, ^ R ) which, however, is incorrect; see Art. 55-C. WcRt^r
on the other hand mentions w as different from t^fafvrft,, JTrlfafafc
(Swamp Partridge, Art. 55-C, 9), and irhftrfirft:—

" ^ i r d P r l R f c f f e <T7Tcft, ^ r f t T f t f r f a Srfwt 1

TT vnqtHHSPT:, ^+ I 8.30-31
266 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Sand-Grouse 267

too mentions w : as different from and and the winter also on the snows, and is known as 'kaklingma or kakali' (*+f«mr
p. 569, has with Tfq^W a n d fofor. w : is therefore the same or •fr-frfO) in Tibet. These names are very close to Sanskrit and
as Vedic and the terms WPT, t^PT and are merely phonetic and it is highly probable that the Buddhists of Tibet borrowed from
variants of the later w ; for a Sand-Grouse. They are all after the call Sanskrit and m a d e it into ^ ^ f t ; or it may be that f ^ T underwent the
notes of the birds syllabified as K a t a r r K a t a r r , ka ka, etc. change into and travelled back as f^FT to India for the Tibetan
3. T h e pugnacious nature of Sand-Grouse was taken advantage of Sand Grouse. f^PT would thus be an original or borrowed name for the bird
by the ancients who trapped the birds by enticing them to fight with a which fits in very well with the idea underlying the above verse. Incidentally,
decoy, called ^ t o ^ R R (^mn: ^TRFF, N O . 209). iftrofdRu is mentioned in it also helps to confirm the identification of and w*: with the Sand-
iffaaTRFf , No. 404 and other stories, which again shows that WT and fefex Grouse of India.
are different. 5. T h e Common Indian Sand-Grouse ( w * ) and Chakor figure among
4. is either for a bird-form allied to w : , a Sand-Grouse or just a the fowl served at a bacchanalian feast held by Ravana the end of which
v a r i a n t o f i t . HT^tq'^iw,, 15, 26 reads w?; for f ^ r 1 in the following half was witnessed by H a n u m a n when, in search of Sita, he passed through the
verse which it otherwise shares with qfTTflTCT, 13.111,104 :— various halls of the palace :
"-+<*.<ID F ^ H R F ^ H ^ K R ^ ^ F S R A - R T II

" w t w -^UP-mi 5 f ^ R ? f ^ r s s f c r " R a m a y a n a (Alld. edition) 5. 11,17.

T h e Bombay edition of the R a m a y a n a has a different reading with tr^r
Does T^fPT mean 'feather-wool or down and articles made from it' ?
for W * .
Buddhist literature mentions articles of dress made from the soft downy
feathers of Owls, and the Pali Dictionary has for shoes lined with
such feathers; and for other things, probably gloves, etc., and even
bigger items, cf. ""^w^iwrfe j t ^ t ^ r fcRTCH", while p ^ T is often mentioned
in Sanskrit literature. T h e materials recommended in gsjff, 18, 16
for dressing and bandaging surgical cases include 75T>T with linen, cotton,
wool, fine cotton, silk (^Vsra), etc. but the notes of indicate
uncertainty about the exact nature of Tsftw, and the synonyms WftM and
sftcr (washed or white Kosa-silk) in 3PTT are not convincing. 2 If there-
fore, <raW is 'feather wool', a very plausible identification o f f r ^ r a s a
bird-name offers itself with reference t o the punishment for theft of articles
of dress made from that material provided in the above verse. T h e y were
apparently needed for wear in the extreme cold climate prevailing at
places like Leh, Ladakh, etc. in Kashmir and Tibet in and across the
Himalayas. T h e idea, therefore, seems to be that a person, who deprives
another of this special kind of protective clothing, should be made to
suffer the same inconvenience by being reborn in conditions of extreme
rigour. Now theTibetar, Sand-Grouse is not a migratory bird and spends

1. a n d f ^ T for ' A r d e a V i r g o ' in M . Williams seem to be mistakes.

2. T h e tree is r e n d e r e d as 1T3T or STHniil in H i n d i . I t is
described in detail in f^<-<fl ST®? OHK u n d e r t h e n a m e ttl-IIHloi b u t t h e r e is n o
m e n t i o n of a n y woolly or h a i r y stuff o b t a i n e d f r o m it. I t belongs to t h e o r d e r Bignaoniaceae
a n d n o m e m b e r of this o r d e r p r o d u c e s a n y cotton o r similar stuff in I n d i a . T h e seeds are
light a n d h a v e their wings (See Indian Trees by D . B r a n d i s ) . T h e y a r e used for lining
p r e s e n t - d a y Sola h a t s a n d w e r e p r o b a b l y used to stuff cushions in a n c i e n t t i m e s — h e n c e t h e
n a m e wldl=h f r o m OTFT a bag. T h e b u d s of certain trees in this o r d e r a r e curved
a n d h e n c e the n a m e . T h e flowers of some e.g. of genus stereospermum,
are thinly h a i r y or p u b e s c e n t a n d the n a m e TOW p r o b a b l y refers to this c h a r a c t e r .
I t is highly d o u b t f u l if such flowers c o u l d be used for dressing w o u n d s . T h e m e a n i n g of
HtfliT as f e a t h e r wool h a s been lost.
 Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 269

Phasianidae—falMxli:

Pavoninae Argusianinae Phasianinae Perdicinae Turmicidae

Peacook-iPTC Peacook Pheasant pfCT: firffTW^RJT: 5TKT:

Phasianinae—jtjdi:

55
^iTf^T:
PEAFOWLS, JUNGLEFOWLS, PHEASANTS, A N D QUAILS ttl^il:

Red Jungle- Grey Jungle Impeyan Pheasant 1. cheerPheasant—

1. This family includes all birds properly classified by authorities like fowl J^Ffl,
fowl
WW and as 'ftfaur:, though the partial lists of such birds given by them 2. Kokras ,,—TFFTTW
include just a few which according to the present-day scientific classifica- q^if IRT, gpfj?
tion are outside the order Gallinae but which, from their habit of frequen- 3. White-crested kalij
ting the ground either for food or otherwise appeared to belong to the
4. Nepal kalij—
"M^x' group. For example the list in ww includes the the Short-toed
Rufous Lark, and the Adjutant Stork, the former of which somewhat 5. Black breasted kalij
resembles the Quail in its habits and the latter seeks its food from refuse
heaps like the Common Cock; also the Great Bustard, and w , the '—Horned-Pheasants—^PT-,
Little Bustard—ground birds of Order Grallae which look somewhat like Crimson Horned Pheasant—ysr snpT
—Blood-Pheasant—9IK>K f f j z
a Peacock without the train. includes the Nightjar, the —Mountain Quail—WT^T^T
Short-toed Rufous Lark, w f r f , the Magpie Robin and Blackbird, STC^, —Red Spur-fowl
the Little Bustard, and p l ^ the Laughing Thrushes and Babblers. The —Black Partridge—
Nightjar keeps to the ground during day-time and the others find their —Grey Partridge—'fk fafar, +r4^>M
-FIFFEXT:- —Swamp Partridge—jftrfar
food chiefly on the ground. Subject to these exceptions the lists are fairly —Hill Partridge—fsf^T fafar
representative of the Gallinaceous birds of India. —Chukor—
2. arf*raRr™mr«i gives and ^ h p r in the lists of names for a —See-see Partridge—OT^P
—Himalayan Snow-Cock—^fro ffrftTT
Cock, and iffaft and others have fsreft and f w ^ for both Cock and Peacock, —Snow Partridge—^fT fafxTC
f w f e f r a n d fatf (both meaning 'one having a crest') are best interpreted
with reference to the synonymy for fsTWT '—Grey Quail—
ty
hr
''=f3T fj?PIT fwftrg-^TT *PTT:"—^PR^ tf CBlue breasted Quail
13 V- ^Black-breasted Quail
Both the terms thus clearly apply to the Peacock and such Cocks as have a in T r u e Quails
feathery crest contrasting with the Common Cock and Jungle-fowl who # JE [—Bush- 'Rock Bush
have a fleshy comb and are therefore the ^ p r p p - strictly so called. W r Quails- 1 ?^, Quail i k w | 5TRT:
^ are
> therefore, the Cheer and Kalij Pheasants as a group as they have JungleB.Q>ir<+HH | accord-
i n g to
feathery crests. For the same reason the Peacock is fireft f r o m , etc., and /later
the Monal is fire* and more specifically J^mr or w ^ m has observed | classi-
the distinction by naming w , p j s , and (the 'White-crested Kalij') -Bustard Q u a i l s — 5 T R | fica-
as representing three different types separately, and in a similar way ^ J tion
names (Peacock), p f i , (Monal) and W t m (the Cheer and
Bustard and
K a h j Pheasants) as a group as they have red skin surrounding only the eyes Button Quails
which distinguishes them from the Junglefowls which have the whole face -Button Q u a i l s — i l ' f H R
 270 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 271

and head covered with bare red skin and hence described asdUvM+d (red- name may refer to an albino form of the white Peacock imported from
faced) in ^tffcTT, 62,l. 1 T h e w^t^tRt, 213 mentions W for the Monal, China) ; f w i r n ^ (having the orbital skin of a white colour); and f w t
for the Peacock, firat for the crested Pheasants, for the Peacock (having a crest). H e has also been called TffTOT to distinguish it from TOTwr
Pheasant, and for the Common or Junglefowl. mentions or 'the little Peacock', the Impeyan Pheasant or Monal :—
fwT (PIIRSH:, crested Pheasants) and but permits only the last as food,
firet, W a n d j t j e (crested Pheasants, Peacock and Cock respectively) are
mentioned in three consecutive paragraphs of t K + ^ d l . 3 ^ T dMI'd^ll^-Hd' l" —^M^iffdl 1
3. *Tlq»'»fiqi>, as we shall see, is strictly the Peacock Pheasant but the
later P u r a n a literature seems to have grouped all the H i m a l a y a n Pheasants, T h e snake-eating habit of the Peacock, implying the power of destroying
principally those that occur in the Central and Western Himalayas as snake-poison, has been referred to in the "fer^ftwPm of the Rgveda 2
sffa^sffa^rsrrfa (the Pheasant-tribe):— ( " f a w TO4:" etc.). Like the Flamingoes flying high, in formation (wrprfcct)
and the birds calling from the tree tops, the Peacocks also have a
TTrr^Nnmiuii
CS
I permanent association with rain-clouds. Dancing to their mates in open
forest glades, they add a peculiar charm to forest scenery :—
— 5 4 , 3 3 .
"snrnrr w m STI^T ftrfernst: i
c\
n" —mwr^Rf
—^II^IUI, 1.25,28.
iici-ti: ftnryt^ ^ft^^fh^rMw: i
— , 68, 16 44f^ ^c l i i P f W + W : I
T h e common name for all Partridges is faftrc and for all Quails ^ f i m though
quite a n u m b e r of well marked species in both the groups have specific ••»
B ^ I F H R F Q W S R T N R " 11
C «S
—THTFTW4

names in Sanskrit. These will be given under each group of birds.

A. PEAFOWL
India has only one variety of Peafowl within its limits but it also
happens to be the most beautiful and gorgeous looking bird and, what is
more, it is readily tamed. For these reasons the Peacock has been a favo-
urite with the people, and the poets have given him a permanent place in
literature, singing of his love for the clouds, his beauty and sonorous cries
(sonorous by contrast with the thundering of rain-clouds), and the grace-
ful dance with " t h e train expanded into a gorgeous f a n " in which the bird
proudly indulges during courtship and at other times to express his shear
joy of living. No wonder, therefore, that such a popular bird should have
been given many poetic names in addition to the common one of ''TOT'.
Only a few of them may be mentioned : TOffr (enemy or eater of snakes) ;
•fl<H+«6 (blue-necked); (variegated or painted) ; TRHTW (the shining
crane-like b i r d ) ; srfo (shining, but if taken in the sense o f ' w h i t e ' the
B. J U N G L E F O W L S A N D P H E A S A N T S
Two kinds of Junglefowl, w N ? or din+s j t j i , occur in India, the R e d
and the Grey. T h e former is common throughout the lower Himalayas
and the Gangetic plain, and the latter in the Peninsula and as far north
and west as M t . Aboo. This last has been a celebrated place of pilgrimage
for ages and is repeatedly mentioned in the Puranas. The Indo-Aryans,
therefore, must have known and named both the varieties of wild Cock.
T h e Cock has also been domesticated in India from time immemorial
(See AV. 5.31.2) and several colour types of it including the red a n d the
grey, have been mentioned in the ^fr^ffcTT:—
"qcRftcft ift 3T STSfa fafft"
—62.2.
Cock-fighting too was very popular and one such fight is described in the
where the combatant birds are described as and

1. S i m i l a r l y t h e t e r m dUvH-sJ distinguishes the wild Cock with a red fleshy 1. P . 170, 232. The ^ l O d f l T p t , C h . 11,JTTWT, also m e n t i o n s ^ TOT a n d TO73?
crest f r o m t h e o t h e r s h a v i n g a f e a t h e r y crest. 2. 1.191.14.
2. C h . 56, 31-38. 3. f f T ^ T . 570.
3. fafetlH C h . 12., 38-40. 4. 4.28.37.
 270
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
T h e first is evidently the common domestic fowl, but the second,
as its descriptive name shows, is the Aseel type of Game-Cock which too
is a very ancient Indian breed. T h e name Ri signifies a long-necked
and long-legged bird which the Aseel certainly is and calls it
(fighting Gock):—
It is doubtful whether the Aseel is a descendant of a larger wild species
now extinct (Gallus giganteus o f T e m m i n c k ) or was evolved by selection
from the existing Red Junglefowl. Probably it was imported very early into
India from the Malay country. Anyway, the Common Cock has been a
great favourite with the Indo-Aryans and no royal house-hold was without
its Fowl-run, and even the Army carried a complement of Cocks during
campaigns to strike the early hour, as it were, for everybody to get ready in
time for the day's march or action. T h e very best birds were selected for
breeding and their good points have been briefly stated by TO^W^ in his
ftptffarr, and what he says good liumouredly and rather affectionately about
a good hen would be welcomed as a flattering compliment by any pretty
young lady proud of her charms:—
"^wit JJ^TWrProft
ft^SPrfd *fa'<1 -RSPTT "
—62. 3.
2. Returning to the Junglefowl, adnouns like w ? , 5TP5Pf?, w r m r ,
fofcix, TOl, # W 3 , etc. would be common to both varieties of it, and if
the colour epithets given above used in are taken over, the Red
bird would be the srrcr Jeffs' and the Grey bird, zmW Apart from the
differences in colour-pattern, however, the two can be told apart from
their voices. T h e call o f t h e Red Junglefowl resembles that of tame birds
except for the concluding note of the Gock which is shorter. T h e Grow of
the Grey Junglefowl on the other hand is quite distinct—"a broken and
imperfect kind of crow quite unlike the call of the Red Junglefowl" (Jerdon) .
Now <fl4ii<; and "j^Nr are two names for the Common Cock and they evi-
dently signify a bird with a full voice ( y f r wffif) .2 As against these,
there is FrOT^f for ' a kind of bird' which is probably the Grey Junglefowl.
If so, yjpp j t j d and FlTfTft 3pf|>£ would be the most fitting names for the
1. 2.3 ( K a v y a m a l a P t . 5 ) . tTFRfteTRt 2. p . 239 et seq. describes in detail the various
kinds of domestic cocks, their m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d t r a i n i n g for t h e a r e n a . I t m e n t i o n s the
Aseel as )TS73rrffr ^ J J a n d it is interesting to n o t e - t h a t this p a r t i c u l a r Cock is still
k n o w n as " f e r r e q T f W " in cock-fighting circles of N a g p u r , M a h a r a s h t r a .
2. See, yr ill M . Williams.
272
Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails
two varieties of Junglefowl found in India. T h e great esteem in which the
Cock was held by the Indo-Aryans may be seen from the epithet of ^af^rf
(honey-tongued) applied to it in the WTT sTT^TT1 with reference to its
announcing the time for the morning sacrifice 2 .
3. T h e Red Junglefowl is mentioned in literature under the names
(imitative n a m e ? ) , dlHH«s etc. T h e name frfrre? refers to its
long and sharp spurs and it is possible that names like 9TC, wfcnrr,
and particularly ^ r (ss? T«f SRftJRsr i.e. tall or standing erect) are meant
for the fighting or Game-Cock known as in Hindi. Of a thinner build
to look at, it is all muscle and a very popular bird, for cock-fights. Like
the Peafowl the Cock too has numerous names in Sanskrit and they
are mostly self-explanatory. (petty Peacock) for the domestic Cock
would seem to be a left-handed compliment to its gaudy plumage and
proud strutting gait—a petty bird attempting to play the Peacock. T h e
R a m a y a n a mentions the Junglefowl in its natural haunts:—
f+dl+HdlfefT:
f r o m *mrf i" 2.28.10.
It is incorrect to translate in this passage as the Peacock.
4. T h e Bhutan Peacock-Pheasant has the upper plumage light buffy-
brown: the feathers of the mantle, almost all the wing-coverts and the inner
secondaries have violet green-blue ocelli at their tips, each ocellus sur-
rounded with a narrow brownish black band a n d a second broader one of
white; a n d similar but larger and oval ocelli on the tail feathers. " T h e
display of this Pheasant is very beautiful, both wings being fully expanded
with tail, so that the whole looks like an ocellated fan. T h e wide tail is
used as a screen for the young who move about under its shelter close to
the heels o f t h e p a r e n t " (Smythies). A fuller and graphic account of the
display of this Pheasant is given by Stuart Baker in his Game Birds of
India, Burma and Ceylon (3.117). In a small open space the pair "scr-
atched about for insects and then, without a moment's warning, the Cock-
bird began to display to the hen. At first he confined his attention to
running round her with tail partially extended and slightly raised a n d
both wings drooping and spread. I n a minute or two, however, he ceased to
run round and sank slowly to the ground until his breast rested on it. His tail
and wings were then raised until the three were fully spread in the manner
of a fan, the tips of the inner secondaries of the wings almost meeting
above and in front of the tail, whilst the shoulders were brought down to
the ground. T h e head was then withdrawn momentarily into the soft mass
of feathers, but immediately protruded again on the hen m o v i n g " .
5. T h e short extract from Smythies is sufficient to identify the bird
with the Sanskrit <ft3R (a fan) for a kind of Pheasant and "sfr^rftw (v.I.
1. 1.1.4.18.
2. See also 3T3To WffgfT 1.16.
 274
270
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails

defined as " t r y i . e . , having ocelli in the plumage like tragic end of it. Just when the Cock m a d with love forgets himself and
the Peacock, by in his notes on 3TRT. T h e second n a m e is from the all else about him, he is suddenly struck down by an Eagle from the air.
hen-bird's habit of protecting her young under her tail when out feeding. For s f t ^ l M * as the Pheasant-tailed J a c a n a see Art. 60.
refers to the effect of smoke issuing f r o m poisoned food placed on fire 7. T h e Cheer and Kalij Pheasants have feathered faces with only the red
on the and this Pheasant and advises a king to keep t h e m for testing orbital skin bare, and are the of TO and V t ^ o f T ^ W . T h e
his food:— name Kalij in English is borrowed from Hindi ^ s r (*t<?nr) for the birds.
N + k w i r s T t r m r ^TFR fsrsrw 5 " K a l i j Pheasants are not nearly such noisy birds as are Junglefowl but
f w - M R m : call, one can hardly call it crowing, pretty regularly during the breeding
season. This call or crow seems to be uttered only during the mornings
^ r ^ f t d k d d : J^TsilylWIH w r f ^ R " : '
and evenings, never in the middle of the day. A Cock Kalij only calls on
T h e belief has been referred to in and in ilcFrjcrw3 where several his roosting perch before he gets down f r o m it in the morning, and after
other birds also are included. Despite the difference maintained in g'-JcT he has returned to in t h e e v e n i n g before settling down for the n i g h t " . 2
and 3TiR later lexicons like and iffeft make the n a m e sforMfa applicable It will be seen that the Kalij series of birds are the i.e. birds
to ( " s f ^ s N f ^ f t T") apparently because ^ T T like the other, helps to 'who know the time when to call' as against the domestic Cock who crows
save life: C f . " "JTFrctsfe T ajfoff:"—WIMd+Ul. a t a l l t i m e s of day. Again, the Kalij are not such good fighters as the
6. T h e Peacock Pheasants are frequently mentioned with other birds others. These differences fully justify the two separate synonymies for
in descriptions of Himalayan scenery, e.g. the tree-perching habit of Cocks in E F W W T W which regards the common domestic and Aseel Cocks
these birds has been correctly referred to: as set (expert fighter) and srW (proud of b e a r i n g ) , and separates the ftfar,
zmz, ^qf^Tfand TOTTCTfor the wild varieties:—
"wfcnw: TT^mmRrr: w : 1
;
H < H 3 f t ^ 5 f t f ^ r r : ll" "^FgZfZrsrff^T ?IWTS«T faffed: I
4
—-JTfmTcT, 3.159.87-88 ^ r w : f ^ c r r j ? ^ faster w r p r s r : 11"
T h e hermitage of :—
"qzq^t^ndPwRw WI^Kft- I T h e m i x i n g u p of the names of the wild varieties is understandable. T h e
Kalij Pheasants as a group are, therefore, <4d<knVor TFRr-fr^H:.
qo^ f w ^ t f c r p s r ^ k ^ f a ^ r f e r r r> 11"
8. T h e Pine tree is known as in Hindi and TO or TO in Sanskrit.
JT^mTCT, 3.101.14.
T h e Cheer Pheasant (34"-40*) also is Ttror (from TO) in Hindi so
A pair of pet birds are described as perching on the top of a rock in a that Sanskrit TO for 'a kind of bird' is no other than this Pheasant and M .
garden in the +kh<1 :— Williams'rendering as 'Pavo Bicalcaratus' (the Peacock Pheasant) is in-
''' H Rf HI ^tocil14 l^V ^ ^-jf) 4+ AH H' . . . " p. 97. correct. Another Hindi name for the Cheer is ^ which is the same as
T h e picture of the Peacock Pheasant drawn by to illustrate a Sanskrit TifFT ( f ^ T I ^ ) or TWT for a Cock. defines as a
moral in ?fl«;<.i«i based on actual observation of the Cock-bird's display very large cock. Sanskrit names for it are, therefore, TO- or ^ r - f ^ .
before the hen, is simply unique and fully bears out what Stuart Baker 9. T h e White-crested Kalij Pheasant, known as ^TftR, or in
says about i t : Hindi a p p a r e n t l y derives these names from Sanskrit =rrm?r (a Cock),
'and black, and 5R a Cock) respectively. Perhaps m like
" w : ^ +iw<9iir fsprqr ^Twrfe^TTfcr: 1
^ T is a Prakrit form of for a Cock. ^ has barley and,
* afa h f^r *ffafcr s f r p f c r ^ : 11" —8.20. therefore, of a white or whitish colour, and a lock of hair, a crest) for a
kind of gallinaceous bird, and the white crest of this Pheasant contrasting
T h e poet has not only seen the display, but what is more, the occasional
with its black body fully supports the name m r ^ : for it.
10. T h e Nepal-, the Black-backed-, and the Black-breasted-Kalij
Pheasants are closely related birds, principally of a dark or black colour and
1. 1.30-33.
2. 6.23.108.
3. 220, 18-21. 1. 118.53.
4. Also 5.1.30-32; 42, 65; a n d 3.41.76. 2. S t u a r t Baker in Indian Game Birds, I 1 1 - PP- 279-280.
 276
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants and Qiiails 277
with black crests. They are always found in the neighbourhood of water 14. T h e srf^aiHiNiJ has *P™TfcPT (^fanp, under ^ n r r f ^ ) for a kind of
T h e first two occur to the West and East of the Arun river in Nepal respecti- ^trfsnr and if w r f s n ; has been inadvertently used for whrrfsR, and it has
vely, and the third further East in Assam. Prakrit ^ (from means certainly been so used for the s f c r ^ ^ p and the name clearly refers
'black and is therefore 'black-crested'. With for to this three-crested Pheasant as vwftpp ( P f ^ ) - 1
the White-crested Kalij is highly probable for these black-crested 15. The noble Impeyan Pheasant, " t h e most magnificent" of all
Pheasants. Their habitat near water would seem to justify the following Indian Pheasants, is common in Garhwal, Kashmir, K u l u and K a n g r a
reference to them though it m a y well be to the Water Cocks which also
valleys. It has a Peacock-like crest, a most brilliant body-plumage of
perhaps share the name as a homonym, i.e., through a different
derivation :— metallic green, copper and purple, and a cinnamon-chestnut tail, a n d
"when seen in sun-light the effect is indescribably beautiful". T h e orbital
"ft^tifq^iifr ^ftcrTfr ? I skin and cheeks are smalt blue to brilliant ultramarine-blue. In the Peacock
^Rmf^rwrf? ^ II" this area is white (Rtdini^i). From its crest and brilliant plumage, it has
—THTPTTT1 been regarded as a sort of small Peacock and is known in Hindi as •flHu'U
11. T h e Black-breasted Kalij is known locally in Assam as w or or ijnw (Prakrit for f r r w = J ^ n ^ r , because the bird eats roots and tubers)
which , s from Sanskrit T^Fr musk and m colour. «of ^ ^ ^ 'q{ and ^fim (sTfcf, ttsr; a cutting or digging implement) after its powerful
bill used for digging u p roots for food. Sanskrit names for it are f f j m
musk' i.e. black or dark-brown) for a (black) Cock. As all the three Black-
(having the colours of a rainbow), a bird of arfadlllA'l (having
crested Pheasants are allied, they are J K T R - p p i n Sanskrit
blue orbital skin) ; W S ("TTOrfirfrfir"—ST^JTSTf^fTJTfw) a little Peacock;
12. O n e of these crested Kalij Cocks figures as " a w f t p " ( b i r d
(Cock resembling a Peacock) ; f?ra«rtor or f%$rsrff<T (a bird with a
with a pendant crest) in the where a cock hunting cat offers
coloured or painted tail or a peculiar kind of Peacock) ; and probably also
to be his wife without any dowry if only h e descends to her from his high
JTfP (short for T T ^ ? in t w f f t appears to be significant).
perch on the tree, but the shrewd bird replies that no matrimony is possible
With its "great shovel mandibles" the bird is said to be " a great digger"
between a two-footed bird and a four-footed animal, and finally advises
her to seek another mate : for tubers and roots, and srcwtevsr for 'a kind of bird' in M . Williams
would seem to be a descriptive epithet for it from some old lexicon; Cf :—
"^f^tT TtTS^T ?T5RRT f^TpTT
s r T d f f T R T r a w JTSTT « n f w w r f t r cf I I "
It is quite probable that the Hindi name TO for it is from (edible
The Cock :
root of the lotus) as the bird perhaps digs u p the tubers of ground lilies
"-ty-ssi ^nfir ftq^Tf , also for food, and hence the name. T h e terms and T^m in the J a i n
:m~ii<t,<'j| refer to the Peacock and this Pheasant respectively, while the
fort qftw tfrfi^ II"
CMfn, refers to them as and or vice versa.
13. T h e Koklas Pheasant has a fully feathered face and a triple crest 16. T h e following from the M a h a b h a r a t a refer to this Pheasant as
consisting of a median anterior tuft and two very elongated lateral posterior STf^T or w : (cf. Hindi Ttspftr) and arftraTTTf :—
tuft, (one on each side of the h e a d ) . T h e crest thus bears an obvious
resemblance to the trifoliate leaf of the fin* or ^ tree (Butea frondosa) "H^lriHTTf ftpi^? dTf t R h m ^ r W ' f m ^ T : I
and he bird is no other than the <*mr o f t h e f ^ w ^ r m . It is' crr^R"^ - ^ f ^ m f ^ m ||"—3.24.18 2
actually known as ^ in Kashmir and in the neighbourhood of
"TPT?;: iildM^W ^ l ^ - f i w r j f e l : I
: Sanskrit lexicon gives the name but there can be no doubt
that it was T ^ r - or T T ^ r - p p i n Sanskrit as well, and the compilers of the W T d M H T l ^ m T j g f s R T f r ll" — I b i d . 3.108,8.
Hindi lexicon had the name from some manuscript glossary. T h e other
local name ^ t e r m is a palpable corruption of f ^ w ^ r or q ^ m r p p 1. See ibid u n d e r w^foy'.
2. ^ P T W ^ E r on the trees m u s t be the tree-perching Hill Partridges which
1- All. E d n . 6.39.11. h a v e a white gorget u p o n a d a r k neck as against the black gorget of the ^ f r f t . They
h a v e , therefore, been r e g a r d e d as a kind of ^ R which however is entirely a ground
Water Cock sce
seeArfeT^ " * - Art. 58 and for ^ as tne P a i n t e d Snipe bird. T h e Simla Hill Partridge^ is actually known as (beautiful or God
2. No. 383. Rama's in H i n d i , Cf. ^KTTfsPT for the same w i t h the H i n d i n a m e .
 270
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 278

Appreciation of this Pheasant, one of the most beautiful birds of the world T h e eyes o f t h e Monal are brown and to this extent the above definition is
is indicated by the fact that it was considered as a fit present for young incorrect but it would be equally so for the Peacock as well for there is no
frrf%%JT;— red in or about its eyes. It would be ridiculous to take the phrase "wfw
^feft srff" as the common Peacock devoid of its splendid train, for then the
"gqtrffs^T ^ t TRR facHf^W l" - M . B h . 13.86,21 reference to TRcft living in the midst of Peacocks shorn of their glory
"wt T9X f ^ ^ T l" would be a most graceless one and there seems to be little doubt that what
"^fuwiHi-i w t ^ i is meant is " a Peacock-like bird which does not possess a long tail like the
Peacock's". T h e identity of W ^ J ? (a Cock resembling a Peacock without
S i ^ l W I WC\ ^ m srf^R O R
11" the latter's long tail) with the Monal or Impeyan Pheasant should thus
17. as a name for this Pheasant has been defined by t^rrf? as a be beyond doubt. Nevertheless, the compound name has been misunder-
stood a n d rendered as two different birds, viz., the Peacock and the
particular bird resembling a the Brahminy Kite, and of a variegated
Common Cock, in a later Purana. A gift again to :
plumage ("qf«rfa?r<T:sFf*nf9ft ftfetw:"—sm^-^wtw). Now this bird with a
square tail, unlike most other Pheasants, and a large hooked bill does bear
"'TB^KRRC^ Tfsrwt tl srwj^t I
a certain amount of resemblace to the Brahminy Kite and for this reason
has been considered as mystically related to ires as his son. T h e T9T said JRT: qcTPPT % ll" —^n^pii-.i
to have been born out of the tip of a feather or knocked out by the bolt
In this verse the singular of the following would seem to have
of in ^rwfsqw, 28, is obviously this Pheasant.
been mistaken for two different birds :—

' 'fe?T f^OT dcfjf^RR <RT "JRT: < R m % ^TJRT I" —^Rjrm2
c r w r a ^ ' ^ R W T t RC\: : i"
T h e tfzx as the mythological mount or vehicle of ^ r f ^ should therefore
This clearly explains the relationship with G a r u d a and also the converti- be this Pheasant and not the Peacock but here too the position has often
bility of the terms and srffw for the Peacock and this Pheasant as already been misunderstood.
indicated above, f ^ r f again in the TfTTW^T list of Garuda's progeny is The Monal has been mentioned as iRTTfefeqT (fecq- 'living in heaven, i.e.,
evidently this bird, the f ^ r ^ r of the Puranas. O n e of the Naga Kings of in the Himalayas' or 'shining') in verse 26 of and as "g^ur
the Buddhist Literature was named after this bird as ftrfe^T3, which ^ irk" or in J T K ^ ^ described as :—
simply means a Cock with feathery crest and body-plumage of the
w r f ^ T t <TWR ftnfsR 1"
colours of a rainbow—cf.
Goddess Trcwft, i.e.,<TRcft, is said to live in the midst of iRTjpfjs; birds:— It is said to pray to the sun morning and evening, referring to the whistl-
ing calls of the bird, quite unlike the ^ i n f a of the Peacock related to
thundering clouds, " w r r srcr* refers to the rather longish
^ T R T - ^ q ^ ^ R ^TTT'TH'^TTTs^ ^ n" —JTPP. " p m 88,14 cinnamon-chestnut tail between the wings. T h e name has its
analogue in Persian—"Murgh-i-Zarreen", the Golden Cock, for this
and the doubting commentator has fortunately reproduced the following Pheasant.
alternative note on JPR from the commentary of SRR ^^^ff on
^f^RrfiT^rr :—-
C. T R A G O P A N S , B L O O D P H E A S A N T S & P A R T R I D G E S
"tPTTT: ^ f ^ j ^ f e T T JRTf^fHT: I
q^RTf: : — 3TK^-g-fq?®nfr TRT: f f f J : f R : I 1. " T h e H o m e d Pheasants or Tragopans are amongst the most beauti-
fully coloured of all game-birds, the males being more or less clad in red
3f3RT srff JT: F ll"
with white or grey spots, and armed with a stout spur. T h e male has an

1. 2.10.47.
1. I ^ f a l f t ^ T Ch.30.
2. StTo 11.46.
2. 2 n d ?To, <prR 5.49.
3. N o . 511.
3. T^TSTRfTT 168.47.
4. N o . 159.
 270
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
occipital crest of lengthened feathers and two elongate erectile sub-cylin-
drical fleshy horns one from above each eye; these usually lie concealed
by the crest, and are only erected when the bird shows off. There is
also a brilliantly coloured apron-shaped gular wattle or lappet, that can
be spread or withdrawn at pleasure." They have a bleating call in the
breeding season ( H u m e & Oates).
The Crimson Horned Pheasant is mostly crimson above and below,
spotted over with white black-edged ocelli. T h e horns are larger in the
breeding season, at times over three inches in length. T h e Western Horned
Pheasant generally resembles the crimson variety though it has less of red
and more of black in its plumage. Its names in Hindi are # T JRM (Horned
Pheasant), fsPTTH (fr. Persian a head-ornament, and THT beautiful : or
by fusion from Sansk. fspR: fire and ^ r f ^ a goat; arfrr: stt:"—
^rRTOTfTO 1.93), and.-T^R (corrupted from ^FT a g o a t , f ^ r ^ w q , irfcfr).
T h e bird is undoubtedly a fafatrT, and the Lahore Edition of the
has f f T f o r a kind offefafT bird, but there is no such word in the dictiona-
ries. qrt'fre:, 6.43 has s r t (a goat) instead, so that f^T in ^ ^ is evidently a
mistake for sm: 1 (a goat). T h e T r a g o p a n has not only a pair of horns but
also the bleat of a goat, and ^ or 5PPT as a bird is no other than the
Tragopan. T h e ^PTJCTW mentions W ' a s a Himalayan bird :
"sftcj^lcf+rfita- In^pTf ^ ^TTfet: I
JTWrf^PTTfa" ^ f^TTfet: ll" 36.3.
It is also a bird of the woods on the banks of the Tamasa in the f ^ ^ j O T .
" f e r r f e f -H i ^ H c f ^ n f s f a :
S n T r T C R ^ f f ^ ^ r f ^ r : l" — .
In the latter case the term w^T can also mean 'sweet-voiced', but looking
to the general sense of the passage it would appear to be a bird-name. Yet
another possible name for it m a y be ^ r f e as a kind of bird given in
( " ^ r f e F j JRrrff") which is from will, determination or
H^T ( ^ T O r a W ^ f t T M s T : — v o c e andiffe: a stick i.e. a horn
in the Case o f a bird; cf. irfep and for the Water Cock which carries
a red, flat, horny shield projecting from the head, ^ p f e thus means a
bird which can erect its horn-like appendages at will; cf. the meaning of
in :—
Tsmn-ifr dor^^fcr i
— f f ^ K i W t T p T T ? , 4.4.5.
Being a kind of Partridge or game-bird it has been declared fit for sacrifice
1. as a b i r d - n a m e occurs in f ^ S T i f f a i ; , 1.151.43
mistake f c r ^RTPT
Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 280
2. M. Williams renders y ^ T 1 as the Common Cock (Phasianus
gallus) which appears to be incorrect, for Emperor Jehangir describes a
bird under the name o f i n his Memoirs 2 and his description fully
agrees with that of the Tragopan. means 'resembling a flower" and
is evidently an extempore or off-hand Urdu rendering of Sansk. y ^ w f *
(bird like a flower). This last name also means a spotted bird ( 5 ^ a spot,
referring to the spotted body of the Crimson Horned Pheasant) but'
looking to the colour pattern of the bird the first may well be the intended
meaning. J ^ r again, (357 flower or spot and TV body) a bird in the list
quoted from in the (^stcW-s^T p. 1018) appears to be this
bird just as ^ ^ of the same list is clearly the Ostrich which not only has
long legs and neck like a camel but also only two toes like him. T h e
Ostrich must have been known as an imported bird. It is evidently the
Camel Crane of the Chinese Traveller, J u - K u a , who mentions it in his
description of the Chinese and A r a b trade of the 12-13th century. 3
3. T h e Blood Pheasant is noted for the unusually large number of
spurs he wears on his legs—two to four and even five of them. T h e female
also has two on each leg. w r m of ^ r (fr. mx. hurting or mx strong; cf.
m for the Grey Partridge and wfr* for the Cock) and s k r u * (having spurs
resembling a plough-share; cf. sh"Trf*r) of the list of H i m a l a y a n birds in
icW^OT, 118, 54 probably refer to this bird. His voice is ' a peculiar cry
not unlike the squeal of the Kite' (S. Baker) and the vernacular names
like ferftrfa (cf. fer for kite) and Sftfin (cf. fejw for the K i t e ) seem to
point to the bird's original Sanskrit names like fer-pfs or f w ^ - p f z
which have now been lost.
4. Another bird to claim the names s m r c and srkrre ( p f r ) is the
Red Spur-fowl of the Nepal Tera'i (and related forms occurring in other
Ch. 9. parts of the country) which too is armed with two to four spurs in the
male and one or two in the female. It is known as 'Sarva' in Tamil
country. The propriety of these names would seem to lie in the fact that
both the C o c k and the hen of the Blood-Pheasant and the Red Spur-fowl
are furnished with spurs whereas in the Common Junglefowl the male
alone bears this character. T h e Peacock Pheasant, however, also carries
two or more spurs but he is better named ^ s f a r a r after the protection the
hen gives to her chicks who walk under the cover of her broad tail. Again,
the R e d spur-fowl, though a member of the Partridge group, looks like a
small^fowl and might well have been known in Sanskrit as (sreror,
sr^raf . Its Hindi name is indeed snral (the small jungle fowl).
—
!. P r e s u m a b l y on the basis of a lexical e q u a t i o n like TOnrW f^Ffff w h i c h
however, is correct in a w a y inasmuch as the h o r n e d b i r d is big e n o u g h to*pass for a kind of
COCK.
2. T u z u k - i - J e h a n g i r i ; Vol. I I . 221,
3. P e n z e r ' s Ocean of Story• Vol. I .
4. = and the latter t e r m h a s a c t u a l l y been used for t h e C o c k ' s s p u r
where is a clear m the expression in w f e r ^ i w j at p. 296. But t h e corres-
p o n d i n g passage of f W s m f t l T , 1.151, 42-48 reads 9 T m r ? .
 270 282
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails

5. T h e M o u n t a i n Quail (10") found only within certain areas in the 8. T h e Black and G r e y T a r t r i d g e s of north India are a>i>"lldfrK or simply
outer Himalayas (e.g. neighbourhood of Nainital and Mussoorie) is the faftn: (v.l. ftrfeft) and JiURifrk. or respectively, and have been well-
firfwsfr (v.l. frfOTfcrerr) of TOT and Pi Run of gsjr and ("PiRmi known in Sanskrit literature from the Rgveda onwards. T h e former has
P i R * ! ^ " — A bird breeding on the mountains; cf. J&KDIIRI+I, J'^IKI^ etc. as given its n a m e to the of the Y a j u r Veda (hence called also
bird n a m e s ) . ^ U I M W equates Pi Run with PiR=iid+ and gives (Trcrt ?) a n d the connected 3<tfn»i<$ a n d S T T T ^ . T h e beautiful verses of the
as a n alternative. I n its behaviour it closely resembles the Bustard-Quail
fa^iRr of the Rgveda addressed to the a bird of the farmlands who
as it refuses to fly until almost trodden upon, pitching into the grass again
'sticks to t h e farmer as close as he c a n ' have been given in the Introduc-
after a short flight, and would therefore a p p e a r to be the M of ^IMM+IKI,
tion and need not be repeated here. 4KM>< I F ^ f (1.19.8) advises the
srsrfsfirerrc 121. See Section D paras 5-10 for Bustard-Quails.
flesh of the p l u m p and contented-looking Grey Partridge (+f4^>M) to be
6. T h e Hill Partridges are confined to the H i m a l a y a s only and do
fed to a baby-boy at his srasrar ceremony if the parents want h i m to grow
not occur in the plains or the peninsula of India. T h e i r call is a low soft
up in opulence as a well-fed and h a p p y young m a n . O t h e r names for the
whistle, single or double, quite unlike the call of the Grey and Black
Grey Partridge are w r ^ r ("srr^ft and therefore a bird living in
Partridges. Unlike these again, they normally perch on trees. T h e C o m m o n
such country. I n this sense, the term probably also means the H i m a l a y a n
Hill Partridge and the R u f o u s - t h r o a t e d Partridge, as also some of the
Snow Partridge, a bird of the snow-line, another type of w r ^ r c o u n t r y ) ,
varieties of the Eastern Himalayas, are known in H i n d i by the n a m e fTJT.
and firfar (irfw grey). T h e Black Partridge is also fwr«T (of veriegated
M . Williams gives sripfiPT (5rfT = f3TT = f?TT) and the fsppat has ^rcfsfzr for
or spotted p l u m a g e ) and its spotted plumage is accurately described in
a Partridge, both obvious synonyms. Now the term fsrr in a may
the sraTT srr^rw1. T h e n a m efasTTSTas a n a d n o u n would also include the
optionally st?nd first as T^ftr: or ftm^:,1 so that fsrrfcpr would be the same
Painted Partridge which occurs south of the Gangetic plain.
as fipmr a n d this latter would seem to have given us the bird's Hindi name,
9. T h e Grey Partridge or ^fr^^ro, being always associated with crops
f ™ (fOT-fqTT-pR+%?;, ?). Apart from this inexpert playing
and his breeding season falling in spring ( M a r c h - A p r i l ) , he is dedicated
with etymology there is a reason for this Sanskrit n a m e to denote the Hill
to the beneficent deities, the TOT: a n d to the deity presiding over the
Partridge, viz., that both Lord Siva and this bird, being permanent
residents of the Himalayas, are supposed to be born companions, f^rfsnr spring season :—
(or ftmrr) may therefore denote the Hill Partridge. "^g^t — V S . 24, 38; T S . 5,5.16.

7. T h e Chukar is a beautiful Partridge of an ashy and buff colour with "cIWPI — I b i d . 24.20
a black gorget and red bill and feet. I t is rather lucky in that it has been T h e Black Partridge, fafcrfr, continues to breed till J u l y when the rains set
allowed practically to retain its Sanskrit n a m e T^IT in English 2 . is said in and N o t h e r n Painted Partridge, and allied form, begins to breed with
to be a bird resembling a W R ( " ^ m w + R r e : " — ^ ^ T on TOT). T h e the break of the rains and this fact coupled with its black colour accounts
Seesee Partridge stands nearest to the Tffa in physical characters and shares for n a m i n g this bird either for the rain-deity or the W : —
a c o m m o n h a b i t a t in the hills of the P u n j a b even taday. In olden times it
"3CTTVT: fafaTto" — V S . 24, 20,
m a y well have ranged along the hilly country further east. It, therefore,
appears to be the of TO, and JrgTOKcr :— " ^ F I T fcTfrm" — T S . 5.5.16
As food for the prowling snake:—
Tfifrf¥T3fl^jfN+:" 3.178.7.
"ipr^t fafaf^ T7W — I b i d . 24.36
OT^ and TTR are again mentioned together in a very ancient work :
c\ c\
"^m^M+kiuii p m u z f r r f q - " — , 174 10. T h e K a y a h or Swamp Partridge occurs from the Gangetic alluvial
is also the Sheldrake (Art. 84-C). plain eastwards. It is known as ^TK in Bengal and <fftixr ( jftRTCT-jfaftR?)
in Assam. It is brown above with buffy white bars and white to pale
buff below. T h e male has only short blunt spurs but is the most pugna-
1. P a n i n i 2.2.35.
cious of all the Francolin Partridges. It is probably the ffaffTTof TO? as the
2. A c c o r d i n g to p o e t i c t r a d i t i o n , b a s e d u p o n t h e b i r d ' s h a b i t of r o o s t i n g o n o p e n g r o u n d
brief description of it in ^fTS^Tw,
a t n i g h t , t h e TfTlT is said to b e g r e a t l y d e v o t e d to t h e m o o n a n d to live u p o n m o o n - b e a m s .
T h e e p i t h e t T ^ l T T O a p p l i e d to a m a n o r w o m a n i m p l i e s his o r h e r i n t e n s e d e s i r e to
* ffafcR:"
look c o n s t a n t l y a t t h e b e a u t i f u l m o o n - l i k e f a c e of t h e b e l o v e d a n d h a s n o r e l a t i o n to t h e a g r e e s v e r y well with the colour p a t t e r n of the birds's p l u m a g e . TOTTl^r,
s h a p e of t h e eyes: T STCTTFT I ?TTT TW ^ + II 8,20 mentions three different Partridges according to the c o m m e n t a t o r
— V « r R T f W P R , 7 7 . 5 0 ; see also ib. 76.11 a n d 93.45.
1. 5.5.4.6.
 270 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 285

and a proper reading of the verse 1 gives the three names as (1) ^wferfwft placed in the Order Hemipodii, but as there is a general similarity of
(2) ffrftrpTpf, the great fighter t P ^ w t s f i m ? ^ ) and (3) T*kftrpTrfr and appearance common to both they have been distinguished and named
of these the first two are said to be of equal value with the third separately in Sanskrit in accordance with their size and habits. ^ ^ and
for purposes of augury. Now ^TT, i.e., frPT®* is a kind of grass or water
divide the true Quails into three varieties, viz., and ^ f f t or ^fff^r,
reed M.W.) and the n a m e frtfirMr therefore points to the Swamp
and place the Bustard Quails in a single group as 5TR (fr. small) since
Partridge which keeps to and breeds in elephant grass, " n a l " , etc. either they are the "most diminutive of the game-birds". This point is made clear
close alongside some swamp or water-course... (F.B.I 2nd ed.). in the :—
11. T h e Himalayan Snow-Cock is a huge Partridge with a variegated
<rfa ^ '"
plumage of white, buff, black and chestnut. It is 28 inches long and often
weighs upto six pounds, i.e. four times as much as the Common Grey
T h e name ^ has variants like ^rafo, etc., and ^ T O is similarly synony-
Partridge or+Pl^tfr. It is thus not only the largest Partridge known but its
mous with srrfaPT, etc. Owing to this confused spelling mistakes have
flesh also is 'one of the best for the table' and far superior to that of the
crept into some printed texts o f t h e above two Samhitas. All the names
Grey and Black Partridges. It thus appears to be^Pro (ftrpTrf?) of the lexicons
seem however to be derived from root and probably refer to the quick
for ^Pro means 'the largest or best' and the Snow-Cock is both. In the
running movement of these p l u m p little, almost tailless, birds on the ground
following synonymy:—
like a rolling ball.
" . .- .^fwg; i 2. T h e largest in the series of true Quails is the Common or Grey
sfro d r a ^ ^ j p f t r f a n" Quail ( a b o u t 8") and next to it are the Black-breasted or R a i n Quail
(about 7") and the Blue-breasted Quail (5.5"). T h e first is the ^ and the
s f r o is clearly a descriptive epithet for the best or largest Partridge, the
other two are wftm of as explained by wrrfw^T :—
best kind of pepper and the best amongst the metals, viz. copper. The
Napali name for the bird is #TT or STTTTT which like Hindi srfer for the 'was- "effd'ti'l ^WfluMM-rUih .... 3FJT*TT tcfk^-l ^d^T? 3fcl MT
h e r m a n ' are perhaps corruptions from In Kashmir it is known as 1,1
FTlcT 1
which is the same as described as a bird with variegated plumage:—
It is thus clear that the feminine has been deliberately applied to
qrfsfr"—^pfar the smaller Quails, s ^ w also holds ^ and ^ R T to be different species,
T h e name ^qnr is certainly for a kind of Partridge and probably belongs to "•^fat.Kd't.nyfeV'. 3m°hlm has and ^ f i m for different birds in the list of
the Snow-Cock as the lexicon gives it with other names for Partridges. thirteen individual names for as many kinds of birds. W W and
also means 'lofty or excellent' and is quite in line with for the bird. also regarded the two as different. If the Grey Quail is mJ the other
W is included with the Quail, Grouse, Grey Partridge and other birds two a r e ^ f r r srih; (fr. Telugu f w small) in Hindi.
in a medical formula for elephants in sickness by i M ^ N in p m ; . 3. T h e equations and "srfim f w r f w f f ^mr" of
12. T h e Snow-Partridge is known as sprfwrr in Hindi, which is from give merely descriptive epithets and if 4>M<sMl is 'a bird that favours culti-
Sanskrit ^rrfw, an adnoun for the Grey Partridge of the Plains. This name vated fields' it would apply to the Grey Quail which always prefers wheat
indicates a dry region more or less poor in trees, and it is quite under- and barley fields to grass or jungle. It also fights like others of the group
standable that two different birds of the Partridge family inhabiting dry with its wings and TWfmr would thus apply to all fighting Quails (see Art.
territory, one in the plains and the other above .the snow-line in the 27 for a further discussion of this equation). PwPH^fl (having the sectarian
Himalayas, should share a common name. Another Hindi name for it is mark of a t ^ R ) probably refers to the buff coronal streak and supercilia
probably from ^rw M t k '?), a synonym for ^ f q ^ T in the common to these birds. T h e equations are therefore not specific for any
T R f a w and, therefore, o f s r r ^ r also. etaw is 'fire and brightness' and the particular bird or birds in the Quail group.
n a m e refers to the bright red bill and feet of the Snow-Partridge ( ^ f t 5rrpT- 4. T h e Bush-Quails (6"-7") ''resemble Quails in size, but differ widely
fef:). from them, and, to some extent, agree better with the Partridges in struc-
ture and habits. ...armed in the males with a blunt tubercular spur"
D. QUAILS & BUSTARD-QUAILS.
( O a t e s ) . T h e y are great fighters and fight even with greater rancour and
1. Science recognizes two kinds of Quails, viz.,(i) true or four-toed Quails clamour than the Grey Partridge ( H u m e and Marshall). It is to be noted
belonging to the Order Gallinae, and (ii) the three-toed Bustard Quails,
1. Based upon the rule— *Tpcf"—3PTC. 3.5.7.
1. Q u o t e d u n d e r A r t . 54.
270 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails 287

that the Grey, the Blue-Breasted and the Black-breasted Quails have no
spur at all. These differences had certainly been noticed by the ancients
and they therefore differentiated the Bush-Quails as ^ f f r or gcffft^.
describes ^ f f r as "^ft^^r^i"!^:" i.e. ' a little Partridge' and the lexical synony-
my, ^ffxtsCTvfesTw:"—tn;Ma=hl!ii, brings out the same fact. T h e expressions
and ^ r ^ n ^ r mean the same thing and the equation "<rtM+l ^rwsrr^r"
—fs^F^wv, fully corresponds to the one from TCTS^ftw. But it shows that
the Bush Quails came later to be looked upon as varieties of 5TR (WR^tf—
spfTKra ^fR) . T h e names ^ f f r and ^ f f f w therefore belong to the Rock and
Jungle Bush Quails of North India. As a result of their inclusion into the
5TFT group, however, they came to be distinguished as Tfg^r-and 'rfe-^TR'
(see below). ^HT and «H«)[d+l should be simply a wild as against a pet or
domesticated Quail, as all, except the Rock Bush Quail, live in the Jungles.
T h e above four-fold division ' of these seemingly similar birds as noted
in para 1 above is indeed creditable to the Indians of at least two thous-
and years ago, for they must have been distinguished long before : ror and
adopted the classification in their works.
5. T h e Bustard-Quails, including the species called Button-Quails,
have only three toes and lack the hind toe. Outwardly they bear a close
resemblance to the true Quails but are definitely smaller in size. They are
the 5TFT of tot and sffar of the snw. *%rr. T h e Bustard-and Button-Quails
together with the Rock-and Jungle and Bush-Quails came later to be
classified into four varieties of WR as follows :—
sftrfi: fMwft: fefaa^cPTT II
— o n g^cT
"^TT^T M w ^ t f w ^ xf^srf q^fT f t : I
"rnpft qrVf^r n"
—WRSFPW and " J ^ T f t f a wo.
T h e first question to be decided in this connection is whether the names
are related to the colour-pattern—which is very variable in all members
of the group—or to the habitat of the birds. Considering however the facts
(i) that animals and birds have been divided into SRR^RR: and 3TRTT: accord-
ing as they occupy dry and wet zones respectively, and (ii) that their food
values, from the point of view of medicine, are related to the habitat, it
would appear that the above names also refer to the type of country
favoured by these little birds. T h e name Jfk^ in the second verse has an
alternative reading of nft^r under "5TR" in the W l - ^ ^ + l m and also in TOT-
is taken in the sense of 'having a y ? mark on the head, the term would
apply almost to all Quails which cannot have been intended. It is there-
fore suggested that the four names including 'rfe? should be interpreted
with reference to the type of land favoured by the birds. As all the
Bustard-Quails have similar habits and confine themselves to grass-land or
crops including sugar-cane, they would fall within the WT and groups
and it is difficult to pick out birds which prefer hills ( f t f t ) or sandy areas
to grass or crops. I n other words no Bustard Quails can be classified as flf^r
or TFpT and one is forced to include both the species of Bush Quails of
North India in this so-called 5TR group to complete the series. Bush-Quails
are definitely smaller than the common Quail and therefore came to be
treated as varieties of 5TR. T h e equation w w ^ r : " fully bears this out
and they are actually known as 5RT in Hindi. This view finds further
support from the fact that the generic names of TO^ and gsjct for Bush-
Quails, viz., ^fffo? and srcffr, have been completely omitted from srprsrerra
and tMrdRPtw. T h e following classification is based on the above consider-
ations.
(1) qtgw <=TR—the Rock Bush-Quail (7") which avoids forest hills and
dense vegetation, and is chiefly found in sandy or rocky
ground. It is one of the ^ f k group and is the wr^f of the
equation "<Hi«i+t ei^isTa 1 :".
(2) fife 5TR—The Jungle Bush-Quails (6") which frequents hills ( f r f t ) ,
thick bush and forest. Another member of the ^ffa group.
(3) <=TR—the Button-Quails (5.5"-6.5") of the Indo-Gangetic plain
and lower Himalayas found in young sugarcane ( y ? ) and
borders of cultivation (Stuart Baker).
(4) STOTR—1The Bustard-Quails (6"-6.5") chiefly found in grass or low
bush. Their local names are after the names of grass, e.g.,
the Burmese Bustard-Quail is firftw (fr. <m) in Nepal and
Bihar; the Common Bustard-Quail is 'FST or (kinds of
grass) in North India and R a t n a g i r i ; and the Calcutta
Bustard-Quail is also JPST.
The only improvement that this classification makes upon that of the old
authorities is that the original ?TR group has been divided into and
corresponding to the Bustard-and Button-Quails of Stuart Baker (in F.B.I.) .
Curiously enough felt sure about the *rf*3> and TRW but not about T>TT
and which are the true ?TR of TO? and for he says.
A
•o

TT^rfaw (Bom. Edn.) and the latter
reading. In the first place, the
type of country and can only
but
in this case it would seem
sense (i.e. of the colourof the
appears to be the correct
term cannot be related to any particular
refer to the colour of the bird's plumage,
to come in conflict with "Tfaf^ in a similar
pale variety of sugarcane). Secondly ifTVpr
6. T h e 4 . g i v e s a few additional and odd names, probably of
Prakritic origin and also perhaps corrupt in spelling which need not detain
us, but two of them ^fr: (fifr ? ) and are probably connected with
the breeding habits of the Bustard-Quails. These live chiefly in grass and
low bush but are seldom seen, except when disturbed. The bird then rises
 270
288
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Peafowls, Junglefowls, Pheasants, and Quails

at one's feet, flies for about ten or fifteen yards, and drops again into the
grass, whence it can very seldom be flushed for a second time. T h e y differ
in another respect as well from the true Quails. T h e ordinary conduct
of the sexes is reversed during the period ofincubation and it is the females
who " d o all the courting; they fight with rival females, for the favour and
possession of the males, to whom they relegate the care and incubation of
the eggs and the up-bringing of the young. O n e hen will apparently go on
laying eggs as long as she can find a supply of males to incubate t h e m . . . " .
(Smythies, S. Baker and others).
7. In respect of the breeding habits of these birds H u m e cites a state-
ment by Jerdon that the Indians knew them, a fact which is clearly reflect-
ed in the names given to the female and the male birds in the wr^fRT, viz.
and f w : respectively. T h e first may mean (i) 'having a defective
hand or limb' from or tfbr, " f ^ " — m x , and the n a m e should refer to
a Bustard Quail which is short of one toe, o r ( i i ) as an abbreviation of
jppffr' 1 'harlot' in reference to the breeding habits of the female. This is
no doubt a little far-fetched and m a y not stand the scrutiny of g r a m m a r
but the name for the male bird is very suggestive of this latter sense, JJTTCP
(with f f a c r r o ; Cf. " T F R 3 7 : J t j f a is a half-witted, hen-pecked
or servile youth and refers to the jilted male Bustard left in charge of eggs
and young.
saving one from a fox, the Asvins defeated the mischief of the latter, and,
seen in this light, the propriety of naming the ^ffTTW for them with of
course a touch of humour becomes quite clear.
9. Quail fighting, as a royal sport, is described in v m t e m r , 2,253 where
three varieties of wild birds are named ^ i w (from d a m p areas; cf. ,
JR^r (from the Vindhya territories, cf. j u s ^ f f t for a Q u a i l ) , and THpr
together with three home-bred hybirds of the first and second degrees. As
the wild varieties are said to interbreed in captivity it is highly probable
that they all belong to the group of Bustard Quails, the females of which
are great fighters. In any case it is not possible to fix the identity of the
species particularly because the nomenclature has undergone considerable
change under Dravidian influence—JTMtfl<•<•)!*) being a South-Indian work.
10. Like many other birds the Quails too have contributed their
share to sacred and other literature. T h e has the distinction of being
mentioned in the Rgveda with the As'vins as their protectors, and in the
Vaj. Samhita with its enemy, the feurwFT. It has furnished a beautiful
illustration to the logician in and a picture of helplessness
against superior force in :—
f% spr U 1 — ^Mdl'Hm, 8.8.

8. Finally, the skulking habits of Bustard-Quails as a group have given
us the very ancient name of5t>tt2 for them. has 'V-flM Minify wit" and
the n a m e is from root ^T, 'disappearance'. T h e skulking habit after
the first flight, is so persistent that they prefer to be caught by the hand
or even hammered to death at the place of hiding rather than escape by
taking wing again ( H u m e and others), and naturally theyfall an easy prey
to the prying fox. This peculiar trait of these birds and the employment of
dogs to make them rise again, if possible, have been described in w f a *
simr:—
Against this last may be set the resourcefulness of the little tUttl^l (Bus-
tard-Quail) in the ^Tf^fisrwRRr (168) which not only successfully avoided
the attack of the Falcon but, by a sudden manoeuvre, also brought about
the latter's death. T h e wzi+^ld^ (35) is a replica of the story of 'F^rnr and
mf^PT in the M a h a b h a r a t a with Quails as the principal actors T h e story
of the Quail a n d the Crow in the HitopadeSa illustrates the evil conse-
quences of keeping bad company (section 3, story 5).

" ^ T :o frfKl^ta o
<T3r*Tcft:
>
I
W f l K qfcRf: <rsft
-^sprr s n r w T r n f f ^ (-?£ ? ) f s r a w n (6.32-33)
T h e Indian Button-Quail is known as <=frwT qw =r:) in Hindi. T h e
Indian fox is known to eat small birds so that 5rPmr is ( m q T f w a fox in
fircronw) a fox that eats the <#tt birds. In the 'sfmw' 3 is dedicated
to the As'vins, "<#mr 3nf?^T:" 24.36 which helps to connect the story of the
As'vins saving the life of a Quail so often mentioned in the Rgveda (1.117.
16;118.8; etc.). The enemy of the # w w a s of course but the term
apparently included the fox, for on t r (8.235) e x p l a i n s ^ as " w
snrfa," and the gfopT of the Veda was most probably a Bustard-Quail. In
1. 5 p T H T — C f . Prakrit spfoRT— r o t t e n .
2
- Ph's.is a m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e n a m e f o r these b i r d s : cf. SPfPFT^ K 9H fTtWsf FTRT—
^rftra'T, 1.1.CO, i.e. t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of a t h i n g p r e v i o u s l y o b s e r v e d is
3. d i m a n d ^ r t w r a r e m e n t i o n e d in t . 5.5.18 a n d 21.
 56 57
MAGAPODES BUSTARD-QUAILS

No bird of this family occurs within India proper. These birds as a class are the 5TTT, J m , or wnrf'm, the females being
and the male in Sanskrit. Generally speaking they are regarded as
smaller varieties of Quail and have, therefore, been considered in the
combined article on Quails and Bustard-Quails —No. 55D.
 293
Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot

in the vicinity of thick cover near water, cultivated fields or gardens. It is

the f^rrr ("STTFTT srwj^fst ) of
3. T h e White-breasted Waterhen, most remarkable for its "atrocious"
and " r o a r i n g " calls, and named for this reason in TO and g^T, is
one of the commonest water-birds of India, found wherever water is
surrounded by a certain amount of thick cover. It is a dark coloured bird
with white forehead, foreneck, breast and abdomen.
58 4. T h e Purple Moorhen is a large blue and purple-coloured bird with
a red bill and shield and red legs and feet, found in reedy marshes and
RAILS, CRAKES, MOORHENS, WATERCOCKS AND COOT lotus-lakes, walking about over the partially submerged weeds and floating
lotus leaves and "on the whole the bird is comparatively seldom seen un-
less beaten out of cover." From its striking colour and size it is "one of
Waterhens including the Rails, Crakes and Coot the greatest ornaments of our marshes" and, it may be added, of our
tanks with lotuses and reedy margins. Not quite so noisy as the White-
breasted Waterhen, it has a variety of loud calls. It feeds on tender shoots
o f t h e lotus, other water-plants and on the rice crop. Sanskrit nomenclature
Waterhens proper Coot
- Trfww,' for these two birds is closely allied with certain names for the Pea-cock,
sti^qr? „ the Black-Ibis and the Hawk-Cuckoo and they are considered in the
» following paragraphs.
5. and as bird-names of obscure etymology would
Small in size of medium size of largie size seem to be inter-related in some way, the first three from root and the
W JtjfcpT,
last from root ^ , and an attempt is made here to distinguish and allocate
Jc^qiO,
f^wtw White-breasted Moorhen the terms to their respective owners with the help of lexical synonymies
Purple coot Water-cock
waterhen or Moorhen not a few of which have sacrificed perspicuity for the sake of brevity. It
wgtijW. may even be doubted whether the authors themselves had a clear idea of
what they meant to define, and there is reason to believe that some of
ffFPSrejf. TRk, them at least have merely tried to summarize and compress what they
found in the older but more detailed lexicons. Or it may be that they
Note—The meaning of T T f e R ( v j U f t o ) as s r w p f J has been missed in proceeded on the assumption that the names were too common and well-
M.W. and other lexicons except t^nr^fV. The commentators of the known to call for any elucidation.
W W and tow also have overlooked it. See para 9 of the article. (i) 3Tcipj—the Peacock and Hawk-Cuckoo :
1. All these birds are comprised within the general term and (a) a a g ? bird in TO corresponding to in is the
possibly also TTf^R in Sanskrit (para 9 below). T h e Rails and Crakes Hawk-Cuckoo (Art. 37).
which resemble slim chickens are the smallest of the group and are much (b) wrecjpfftfrmftaaV'—|*r,
alike in their habits. They spend the day among reeds and rushes and ( c ) " a f ^ r jftfa^m 3^"—
come out to feed early mornings and late evenings. They are the sr^-f^ffe^r
(d) a r ^ : sRft, —w^fafctmfw.
(tiny water birds resembling a chicken) of V'fT and of TOT. The
(e) afc^—Peacock; gallinule—M. Williams.
Blue-breasted Banded Rail and the Banded Crake arc the J ^ f t ( ^ - f
m5R>'5 in (c) and (d) is the Peacock and snTf in (d) the Hawk-Cuckoo
frequenting water near the b a n k ? ) or fawFjf? (having painted bands on
and Peacock. Both have a traditional relationship with the dark rain-
the body) of :—
cloud. If the one welcomes it with his loud calls, the other begs of it,
e q u a l l y vociferously, a few drops of water. It is interesting to note that
2. The larger birds like the Moorhen, the Purple Moorhen, etc. are also means a rain-cloud. M. W.'s rendering ofst- Jf as a Gallmule can
^ r a f ^ properly so called and each of them has one or more specific names only refer to the Purple Moorhen as s r ^ r which means the indigo which
as well. The Moorhen looks like a full-sized black chicken and is found yields the blue colour.
 294 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot 295
(ii) — " P r o b a b l y = Datyuha in the R a m a y a n a " ( M . W . ) . Although (g) "ftrfd+W^ "gR^^HIdj.sf? fearer.
this word occurs more than once in the R a m a y a n a it is surprising With ftrfr for 'black' the first equation stands for the Black
that the older lexicons and even Apte do not give it. From the Ibis, and ftrf?r for 'white' it is for the White-breasted Water-
context, however, it appears to be the White-breasted Waterhen. h e n ; see below. T h e second equation calls, for no
T h e term occurs as an alternative reading for in some editions remarks.
but as the latter means both the Hawk-Cuckoo and the above (h) "fPRnro — a n d M.W.
Waterhen one has to deduce the meaning from the context. See (i) " +M+U6=F:
examples given later, sf^tsftr T "SMl^l Trcmtsfa T W WT:"—
(iii) TRJjf-the Hawk-Cuckoo, the Black Ibis the White-breasted This refers to (1) the Black Ibis, (2) the Hawk Cuckoo
Waterhen, and the Purple Moorhen, each with a specific epithet.: and (3) the White-breasted Waterhen (STciftf and *rra?r are
(a) HM*»<M>:—anrc. sfternft gives as v.l. and explains explained later in this article),
as 'black-necked' and ^M+ud* a s ' h a v i n g black feathers. ( j ) "5ff*»7:?Tc!T|"; "ifRf: |»r, irfefr etc.
Tmrsrat M , on the other hand, explains the former as " f p ^ K l ^ r a TRrf^ratrfsFft:''—JTfrr.
W W ' ' — o n e that calls during the rainy season. T h e first as ''sipr w r f r " is applied both to the Hawk-
(b) =t>M<t>"d=t):—frorrfrfw which gives ^M-wt) as v.l. and Cuckoo and the above Waterhen, while the second seems
explains both like itfkwuft, and as "TSTfir snr^r ttws:" z m z to refer to the Waterhen alone as it is actually known
in this last sense is the Hawk-cuckoo but =t.H°w or ^H^udy as TrarV in Bengali and 'sif^' is clearly from f f W . This
srn^ is the Black Ibis for which see Art. 80. According to the name or epithet has been explained by in his notes on the
explanation in TmTspft i m , +N+U4 as a homonym, should 3RTTWTI of — "ff?^: TrafwT. I f R r f f m : f f m : " The
also be the Hawk-cuckoo and the White-breasted Waterhen second part of this is fully descriptive of the call-notes of the
both of which are very vocal during the rains. white-breasted Waterhen during the breeding season, actually
(c) ; with =P#Tir the name can described as "roars, hiccups and cackles" by EHA. T h e call of
signify the Hawk-cuckoo if this etymology is parallel to the Hawk-Cuckoo on the other hand does not at all resemble
a " h i c c u p " or This helps us to fix f p s p TTcT^ for the
(d) "STc^: +M+U4 PTR t"—fafcf. Waterhen, and ^K+^k'Tf for the Hawk-Cuckoo,
—ITHtT, iffe^t. (iv) (a) is equated with Tiw;? in Tr^rafr^dmfir and M . W . , and with
These two equations make it quite clear that TTW? as TTTF,, the (1) Tftfr or the Hawk-Cuckoo and (2) a kind of deer in
Hawk-Cuckoo, is quite different from the ^ i W s or •t.M'W'ft fif?)' urs? s t f r . In view of the fact that deer-names like ^PHW
TTcq^ which is the Black Ibis. This makes the w ^ t gloss on and TFsffa are associated with the Purple Coot or Purple
t>M=hu6 as untenable. Moorhen as a kind of TToTjj it would appear that W f
(e) "^w^rofg to conceal or hide) also refers to that bird and its identity with
Rid 141^ Tift ?TR% ll" "rftfT in fif^t F T I R is incorrect.

"Rm and
This synonymy is final on the question of interpretation of "srar^^g; T^^r: (H^-JM: ?) —twrtfl
or Tt^nre both of which, as applied to the different
birds, simply mean 'black necked'. T h e Black Ibis, the Magpie
Robin, the Large Pied-Wagtail and the Peacock are the " J i ^ M ^ r e ^ ( ^ r a r f t ? ) —^HRwt
birds meant here and everyone of them has an entirely black " s h f r ^ 3 IT^-T:"—Rrra-
or blue neck. " i f h : ^ = i n
(f) "srsrerr^fa; TTcTi?: ^ w i c ^ ^ r ^ : " — a n d Trsrfew. = sr^R^f—M.W.
This places the identity of WOTW ^ ^ beyond doubt, as All the above equations apply to the Purple Moorhen as a
sra^TRT in the present context is no other than the Black Ibis. kind of TRTf. It is " o n e of the most beautiful birds found on
our Indian jheels", keeps to rushes, reeds and dense lotuses, is
* T h e K o e l also calls persistently like t h e H a w k - C u ckoo, a n d expressions like "JTTSTi^-
averse to flying and walks upon lotus leaves and other water
^05 q ^ W ' — 4 . 3 for the former make it highly probable that
is t h e l a t t e r b i r d .
vegetation and runs to cover when disturbed; rarely swims
though it can swim, and has a variety of hooting, cackling
 294 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot 297

and hoarse calls. I t is particularly noisy d u r i n g the breeding T h e above syllabification of the calls of the bird helps to identify the
season. I n short it has beauty and behaves like a skulking of the following verse :
little deer on w a t e r and fully deserves the names JT^pr-STcq^,
^ T 5FT ST 3T5T ^ I
a n d sr^iTSf-^ra^1. T h e only other birds that can
claim these names are the J a c a n a s b u t they are small birds, ssfa" : Jjft s r s r s s ST s s s r n " —srss^reir
have no skulking habits, nor loud and powerful call-notes.
I t roosts a n d often places its nest on low trees in the vicinity of w a t e r and
It will be seen that the so-called substantives of the lexicons are really in
is also " o f t e n found some distance from w a t e r " . T h e of sRsrfo
the n a t u r e of descriptive epithets and the n a m e 5TWS principally means ' a
spending hot hours of day in the hollow of a tree appears to be this
noisy b i r d ' and it is only the qualifying adjectives which m a k e it specific
bird :—
for p a r t i c u l a r birds.
6. ST^If (v.l. is n a m e d in "sTcJftfr iiumih" ^ r . (24.25) ' ' s r e s t f t s f T s r c s d < 4 Rr ^ F t fa^fw f ^ m " —*THd1*iras, 9.7.
for the deity presiding over the M o n t h s , and in all p r o b a b i l i t y it is the
This verse, perhaps, helps to solve the following synonymy in t ^ c f t : —
White-breasted W a t e r h e n which is dark or black above and a clear
white below, and mystically represents the dark a n d the light halves of the "3T4 S P ^ r f S #
m o n t h . Support for this view comes from the tfer. W%TT (5.5.17) where a SFSS^PTtst St ^ M M K I H J S J ^ l"
tortoise is d e d i c a t e d to the same deity— "imrt W^TT:", and here too the
back of the animal is dark-coloured and the belly a pale white so that that is, the n a m e s f t ^ s t ^ applies to two different birds viz. a n d Tftcvp?
cTT^ is the same as the JpRTTO It is from this dedication that the ( = q r f e p r ) called respectively ^twtt? (the Coot) and s n ^ p f ? (Rails and
bird has earned the n a m e m a i 5 (knowing the m o n t h ) as in the synonymy W a t e r h e n ) . Now sr^z is the fofcrcr tree (Ougeinia dalbergioides, usually a
(iii), (i) above. small tree yielding valuable wood used for various purposes including
7. I n f^: ^ R T O " — 2 4 . 2 9 , again, it is the noisy carts and hence its n a m e st^fi or FT^fRre) a n d according to *mfcT, the
White-breasted W a t e r h e n w i t h ^ f a the Screech Owl or the C o m m o n Owlet White-breasted W a t e r h e n occasionally does conceal itself (srrfwfcf) in the
( A r t . 48) and the Green Barbet (Art. 35), the last two being hole ( f w ) of a tree. O n e of the birds, therefore, is this SRJjf
equally noisy birds. T h e alternative explanation of by S a y a n a on a n d the other, in a homonymous sense of the term(w^fcT5r = 3rrfr?r confused,
as sra-fo' ('living on lotus-ponds') is perfectly true of this snpjarf—mass formation or array, i.e., a bird moving in a confused mass)
W a t e r h e n . This selection is quite a p t as the noise m a d e by these birds is is the Coot, the WTO^rrfxT:" of TOP.
typical of the din and u p r o a r a t t e n d i n g horse races. T h e White-breasted 8. in the following examples is ^ r f ^ or srerf according to the
W a t e r h e n breeds during the rains when the males " b e c o m e exceedingly c o m m e n t a t o r and therefore, the present W a t e r h e n :—
obstreperous" a n d their calls begin with "loud raucous grunts, croaks and
chuckles suggestive of a bear in agony and settle down to a m o n o t o n o u s " W f [ w r ScSfT: c^TST: qt I
a n d metallic ku-wak...ku-wak or k o o k . . . k o o k . . . k o o k . . . O n cloudy days this cfsrr"T^rf^rr: ^ g T f s ^ T q f ^ f e r : 11" tptptw1, 2.103.43.
is often kept up for 15 minutes at a stretch, and calling continues more or
less t h r o u g h o u t the n i g h t " — S a l i m Ali. E H A also remarks that " t h e clam-
^cSf^TS^T 11" tptrw, 15.14.25.
our which this little bird can raise is something a s t o u n d i n g " . i m R of TOP
is clearly this bird b u t ^ f T has incorrectly rendered it as the which T h e h u m b l e W a t e r h e n and its smaller cousins have not been overlooked in
however, is not a w a t e r - b i r d at all. the Epics :

1. P r o b a b l y also o n e t h a t gives c o l o u r o r c h a r m to a t a n k . In
the synonymy— ^ ^ : s r a T ^ r : " — h a s to be wr^er, 5.4.2.
treated as a h o m o n y m r e f e r r i n g to t h e Black I b i s (<t,M=t»^), the Purple
Moonhen and the Hawk-cuckoo sfk^TT'TV o r 3TRT, 2.5.17
5rfcffTfo?TH; ll" 7JHTW, 4.13.8.
gives for a n d o n 2.5.22 for STWf. E v i d e n t l y is also a
h o m o n y m o r m e r e l y a d e s c r i p t i v e e p i t h e t f o r m o r e t h a n o n e b i r d . As a p p l i e d to t h e 'VTS*tspPST%r f r t ^ f f f i : l" tJ^TWTm, 3.158.56
IcI^T of -JI<>I means 'rain-water'.

2. Cf. <WTwrt s m j c u T T ^ r r j t r t ^ ifeflw:— 1. M a h a b h a r a t a I I I . 1 4 6 . 4 4 is a s i m i l a r verse p r o b a b l y t a k e n o v e r f r o m t h e R a m a -

cpcrjTTW, pPTTW^, 22.56. y a n a . H e r e t h e ^ ^ T : a r e t h e C o r m o r a n t s a n d ^rR^^^T: the C o o t s .
294
9. mPo-OH (v. l.TTfaspr, agitated, confused), as just seen, denotes ^ r a p f z
and the term probably includes almost all the members of the Rallidae
family, excepting the Coot which is a bird of open waters, skulking about
nervously amongst the reeds and vegetation lining the banks of rivers and
tanks. In the following examples, the term appears to have been used in
this comprehensive sense. T h e y are said to be within the cane and reed-
beds flanking a river. also figures as one of the river-side trees :
" ^ F f t t f ^ r M ^ w =rft: i"
"MI r<H=|iil detail: 3 I g ^ t ^ f ^ T T p ^ T I
TTrjfmr rfterr [ ^ f a d r n"
q i TH i R f a ' f t w w r a p q i f w a r a r c m f r i
^<Kd>iI fq^RfN1 TPrrai^nf^ f f e : n"
It will be particularly noted that Kalidasa has very correctly described
the m k w birds as concealed within the reeds lining the qmr lake.
T h e Saras Crane too looks for prey in such beds. TT"i-+.r-4 also mentions
qiRirH birds with other water-birds in specifying the type of country in
which royal elephants should spend the winter months. 1
10. T h e Purple Moorhen, as seen above, is or It
goes under the name of ^ f t T in Hindi which is from Prakrit ^ftPT for
fftoftcWT (^ffarTTRTT
) the blue lotus. Sanskrit Tnfa too is the blue lotus. Now
both TMfa and also m e a n ' a kind of deer'. X R ^ again, is one of the
birds of diurnal habits (r<4«M<) and tfRH one of the ^Twrxt group, i.e.,
those which are active both by day and night, in the s r f r r j ^ :—
'JTRST^ra' ffcf t?TT K=fH<l : il
| w W F T T O (? ) 2 ifTOT l ^ w ^ r f x w : II 213, 16-19.
T h e list of birds in the (118, 52) includes for a particular bird
along with nfaf for the is evidently a mistake for ntat). Thus
Hindi ^wtr and Sanskrit si^r and TTsffa are names for the Purple Moorhen
from its blue colour and association with lotus plants amongst which it
lives and moves like a pretty little deer.
11. " T h e Coot is a slaty black bird resembling a typical Waterhen on
land but rather duck-like on water in the distance, with a white pointed
bill and white horny shield covering the forehead. Gregarious by habit, it
is always found in flocks on open sheets of water including slowly moving
rivers. Large numbers visit India in winter when the birds collect in
1. See ' ^ r w j f ? p. 200.
2. T h e c o r r u p t r e a d i n g of t h e last line c a n b e a m e n d e d w i t h t h e h e l p of «T o
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot 299
'immense herds', and on the larger jheels of North India great patches of
water are often literally black with their multitudes" (Salim All). H u m e
also speaks in the same strain... " C o m m o n Coots cover on the M a n c h a r
(Lake) a square mile of water which is perfectly black with t h e m . "
(Stray feathers, 1.249). Their call, often heard, at night, is a clear and
loud trumpet-like cry. I t is one of the commonest birds and has naturally
won several names for itself—some from its white bill and blaze on the
forehead standing out against the dark body-colour, and others from its
gregarious habits. It is the y ^ i d ^ i O ^ ("t^RT: fi^icHiftui:") of ^ ^ and Wfprrft
tf^TTFTW:", F W , from the white face against a black body) of ^SRT.
T h e following lexical synonymies are based on the characters just
tftww, 4.27.23.
mentioned :—
(i) ^RT^PRft
•^r^r, 13.30
(ii) " 3PT
(iii) —f^Iig-^
(iv) " w w s r t J T ^ m Y ' —fsp?^
T W : " —srfaOT^fa^prf'ir
Before proceeding to a consideration of the above it is perhaps advisable
to state that the terms <=?nT, and +l<«« ( v . l . + i w ) refer to more than
one bird. ^ ^ means (1) a water-bird in general, (2) a Cormorant, which
often takes a j u m p clean out of water before diving, (3) a Duck in general
and the Pelican in particular as both swim or float like a boat and (4) the
Coot which not only swims and dives but also patters along on the surface
of the water with its feet like a frog ( (^W^) before rising into the air. ^MMIS
is ( l ) a n y web-footed water-bird and particularly a Goose or Duck, and
(2) the Coot which moves in a mass (stfjt, 'a multitude' with T?, to go),
i v s i means (1) the Coot from its gregarious habit—+1 in Pali, 'chaff,
sweeping'; cf 'barley C h a f f ' ; 'a bee-hive'; 'a box or wicker-
basket which may contain many things' = fc^ = 'a m u l t i t u d e ' ; "
«<«h>k =rr TTT'^:" and, therefore, a bird that lives in large numbers like
bees in a hive and that looks in the mass like so much chaff floating
on water, or again that has the shape of a wicker basket, in reference,
probably, to the duck-shaped baskets of old; and ( 2 ) a Duck e.g.
the Mallard and others.
12. T h e first quotation defines the Coot or as +l+=Hsf i.e. having
a ^trt or sectarian mark, firw, on the face. The bird's facial white shield
resembles such a mark. T h e bill of the Coot is white and far too small
and thin( 1.4") to be comparable with that of a Crow. Its Hindi name <*<unl
(fr. Telugu ^rft, a worn by the Hindus of South India, or from Sanskrit
SSFfaT corresponding to g r o of-;TOi) and fepft (fr. Sanskrit fcW+, Prakrit
87.3.
 294 300
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Rails, Crakes, Moorhens, Watercocks and Coot

— H i n d i sterr; fi+<Hl in Hindi is such a m a r k or a spangle worn by is t h a t the good qualities of Lord 3TWff+cl!m are as i n n u m e r a b l e as the
w o m e n on the f o r e h e a d ) fully support the interpretation af ^re^RS. E m p e r o r Coot birds in a called T h e n a m e tl+ilPsH for t h e Coot, where
J e h a n g i r mentions the Coot by the Persian n a m e of " Q u s h q - u l d a g h " SRTH' stands for srarjap;, is fully parallel to ^Ro^apj.
( Q a s h q being the sectarian m a r k of white sandal worn by the Hindus, a n d 16. I t will be seen t h a t the m a j o r i t y of the epithets for Coot are
' a spot') 1 . It is immaterial w h e t h e r the bird is actually known in Persia by clever synonyms for the simple terms, and fl&qkMlfl of gsjcT and
the n a m e given in the Memoirs but what is certain is that that was how and only one, viz., 4M4K has been actually used in the f r f o literature to
the bird's I n d i a n n a m e was explained to, or rendered, for him, and it un- avoid confusion with other b i r d - n a m e s . I n the Puranic literature t h e term
doubtedly helps to get at the true significance o f t h e epithet The has been used p r o b a b l y in its h o m o n y m o u s sense i.e. m e a n i n g
other two adjective's in the definition indicate the large feet and the dark b o t h Coots and Ducks particularly in the stock phrase "
colour of the Coot. In the alternative <t>K"sa would include both Ducks and Coots by ^q^TSTTT.
13. T h e quotation from the fspT^ft has already been considered earlier Coots being a p e r m a n e n t f e a t u r e of all waters including slow-running
and it only remains to point out that sprerfaw as is no other t h a n the rivers flanked with rushes, canes a n d reeds there is n o mistaking them
Coot and both these terms refer to its gregarious h a b i t . It m a y also be as in the following :—
pointed out here that ^RPTTC'occurring with ftf in wfif or SPRITE literature, "pr=hi w c f i s r i t a r mxmfAWird'4T" (^PTKCT) 1
where the birds that m a y or m a y not be eaten are discussed, means the
Coot, but almost all the commentators h a v e missed the t r u e meaning, a n d
l" (^S^fTT)2
I need not refer to some of their absurd explanations like, 3T3rra"qr?TS
fa FWRT J ^ ^ T J T . " 2 ?TFTW ITTEHMI4, however, in his notes on QTRREPT- NO
tf%RR has frankly stated t h a t he does not know the birds n a m e d STMTT^ a n d
3
^ K T T ^ R F E ^ N F F R S J F F T P T *RETF% ^ N" (TFRWT) 3

?RST.
14. T h e equation ''^rrawp^TO:" stands for the Coot a n d not the
Goose or Duck, q^sr^ 4 m e a n s 'crowded or standing closely together' a n d
not 'many-teethed' as assumed by M . Williams. I have not come across
any reference to the teeth of a Goose in Sanskrit t h o u g h the action of
their bill a n d tongue in sifting out food (sfft in the sense of qtoT) f r o m
water is often mentioned. Both the terms of the e q u a t i o n thus m e a n the
same t h i n g — ' m o v i n g or living in dense flocks'.
15. JT§rT«r in "JtTRos'sfr T^rrsft" again, refers to t h e great or large (5fr)
parties (TO) in which the birds are always found. 5 So too (moving
in their thousands) as a descriptive epithet of ^TW? is on a p a r with
srwtR as explained above. Lastly m a y m e a n a bird t h a t cannot live
w i t h o u t water as explained in the W^^CT^T or it m a y be a humorous
reference to the birds in the mass a s ' t h e devil's host'. This series of
adjectives describing the gregarious habits of the Coot may be c o m p a r e d
w i t h the title of the Buddhist work- 3R%Tf<tidM< ipr ^TR*^ apr, describing the
thousands of the virtues of the sfrfsTCrc^ "WTRUS clearly refers
to the packed mass of Coots containing hundreds of thousands of indivi-
d u a l birds covering the surface of large waters by the square mile. T h e idea
' ' ^ h ^ o ^ W ^ r a w N ' ^ q r S F T T O ^ t c ^ j r i" (FFS'JTPT, ^ r ^ f a ^ ) 4
^Riid'^or ^rw^rfg^r: " ( w ^ n ^ j o w , 3rn:.)5
17. Because of the Duck-like a p p e a r a n c e of Coot w h e n on water,
the n a m e ^R^W has been applied to certain Ducks with suitable adjectives
(Art. 84-c).
18. T h e Water-Cock equals the P u r p l e M o o r h e n in size but is of a
slate-grey colour. T h e bill, the shield on the forehead a n d t h e legs are
red but the shield of the breeding m a l e grows into a long horn. T h e note
of t h e m a l e consists of loud b o o m i n g calls, chiefly heard in t h e breeding
season. I t is a skulking n o c t u r n a l bird frequenting reedy tanks a n d is
known as ^Kr, ^Tro, or WfT in the vernaculars. I t is a very pugnacious
bird a n d is often kept by people in Bengal for fighting, and it is from its
fighting h a b i t that it has b e e n n a m e d Water-cock in English ( W h i s t l e r ) .
19. qf^rr for 3 T ? r f ^ in W^wtstt and SF^TstP^ditk can o n l y be this
bird which carries, as it were, a stick-like h o r n on its h e a d ; cf. crater—
"afeyiftiiWi"—si^+eMo i.e., ' o n e a r m e d with a stick' or fighter. It is
a l s o ^ r f e (% fiR% irfefw w ) in the same sense. Yet a n o t h e r very
expressive.name for the water-cock is ^ w ^ j - j r a f t e r its b o o m i n g call notes.

1. Memoirs ( T r a n s l a t i o n by A . R o g e r s , I . G . S . ) p . 342.
2. fiRTRRT on J T r a ^ W j f a 1.174. 1. 3,38.20.
3. C h . 6 . 1 ; B o m b a y S a n s k r i t Series N o . 5 9 , Vol.11. P t . i,1898. 2. SRgTlfa
4. F o r t h e use- of ??T-3ftRr in this sense see M . B h . 3 . 7 . 1 8 ; 5 . 1 9 5 . 1 1 ; 6.56.8 (said 3. 3.8.14.
of a n a r m y a r r a n g e d in T ^ s q f j ) . 4. 32.101.
5. C o m p a r e ''iT^RSt fasw" for 'a friend having a l a r g e n u m b e r of supporters' 5. 35.10.
in JJTm^fi ifrfareriT 7.66 ( t r a n s l a t e d b y M . Williams).
324 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

This name contrasts with the ground bird (^T^rsr J^f"*), the Crow
pheasant or Coucal with a similar powerful voice (Art. 37-B). T h e
lexical definition for the latter " J 3 f T : 3tf«Tof%RTTo is applicable to
both the birds. p. 159 mentions *i<H$«$»r as calling from its nest in
the reedbed bordering a river but qfrfet^; refers to it simply as
fT^fT in a list of water birds (<TT: TcTff:) at p. 529. 170
20. Sanskrit * > I M + (Prakrit + > I M < | ) from ^rtw a stick, and a^w 'a curl
on the forehead', may well be the present bird, and if so the name offers
a better relationship with the vernacular ^ m or =Pfrrr than the name MASKED FINFOOT
Vhrfe.. 1 +>im+ in the verse below should be the booming Water-Cock or
the Black-crested Kalij which too lives in the neighbourhood of water
(Art. 55) :— This bird occurs in the most inaccessible places in the extreme east of
" f a m w f ^ w n f a ,'SPTC t f a a i f r ^ I India, and from its Rail-like characters it would pass for a variety of

^ T ^ T ^ r f a w r f a yKUlfawPT ^ n" TTTTq^r All. Ed. 6, 39.11.

f T O or JTW is the Painted Snipe and these latter would seem to
have got mixed u p with TftTFT^ as a homonym for two other birds the
water-cock and the above named Pheasant (^tw Prakrit for black and
sra^r a crest).

1. Lapwings a n d c e r t a i n m e m b e r s of the H e r o n g r o u p also s h a r e the n a m e ^tafe

A r t s . 71 a n d 82.
 Jacanas 305

Commentator ftwr^rerc offers a rather curious explanation of the compound

«M*«wnti<stlu£'i: which runs as under :

^ T H sftiKifl apCRr I sHIWq:

( v.l. S^RIT:) I FWIFT TPK: I"

60
JACANAS
1. T h e two species o f j a c a n a found in India are about the size of a Pigeon
and entirely aquatic by habit. T h e Bronze-winged J a c a n a is o f a blackish
colour with bronzed b a c k and wings and a stumpy chestunt tail. It is a
noisy bird specially when a n u m b e r of them are together and tripping
about lightly on their extraordinarily long toes on lotus leaves and floating
vegetation in a n a n k a n d they give an impression of having an irritable
temper. A flight of them as they move from one part of a tank to another
reminds one o f a flock of Blue Rock-Pigeons despite a pronounced differ-
ence in their mode of flying. It is the ^ T - ^ R , o r # f t of the
lexicons :
sra-TRTScr: sfrnt w p r t o : — T r s r f a ^ .
Sanskrit ^ ( a m * j p ^ . J f c the same as *>nr*T o f ^ i N l 4 incorrect-
ly equated by him with of ^ (Jeevanand's Gal. edn.; N. Sagar
edn. reads and ^ which are incorrect). These names are after
the bird's supposed bad temper a n d correspond to its Prakrit names 2 like
or W . -TT^r or qi%cr as a water-bird in verse 2107
is the same as ^ - r a r in Sanskrit. I have not met with this bird in litera-
ture. Its Bengali n a m e w - m t m a y be a corruption from
2. T h e Pheasant-tailed J a c a n a , on the other hand, is a decidedly
beautiful bird with a striking plumage of white, gold and brown with
a distinctive, long, pointed sickleshaped tail which is often held well above
the water in a beautiful curve. T h e nesting and other habits of this are
similar to those of its cousin but in all its actions it is more elegant and
has earned the poetical n a m e of " T h e Little white water-Princess" in
English (S. Baker). It has a piping note which is rather pleasant and
musical though it has also a mewing call (hence its names -fift and
in H i n d i ) . It is the ^ - ^ ( f i r w a tail) the long-tailed water-bird or
Water-Peacock; cf. the Peacock-Snipe for the Painted Snipe (Art. 61) in
Telugu after the ring of white feathers round its eyes, a character shared
with the P e a c o c k — ( A r t . 55) of z t i ^ ^ H f r , vmf^mutm, 272, where
both the ground and the water-Peacocks are prohibited as food :
1. Articles 71 & 82.
2. sfr^T^T p r , 4; arfwFTWsr; tffif^qitsrnpir (snJmrtft
H e thus renders the word ajsr as 'water-birds like Storks and Herons', and
FT5T as 'land-birds like Egrets', a n d separates ftrafer:, Peacocks, from both.
In the first place Storks, Herons and Egrets are all water-birds in an equal
degree and cannot be separated as proposed, a n d secondly there is no
warrant to interpret the simple terms like 3p?r and W5T to m e a n water and
ground birds. It is submitted t h a t the correct way is to split the compound
as and F r w - f w f e r as noted above. T h e Pheasant-tailed J a c a n a
goes by the n a m e of ^M-TOftr (? SW-TOR) i n H i n d i whose TOR should mean
the Peacock ( v i d e F . B . I . ) . T h e forms TOR or TOR for TOT occur in Nepal
according to Turner's Nepali Dictionay. srarop is thus the same as S R T O T
or arer-fererfer.
3. The Pheasants as a g r o u p are comprised within the expression
^W^ili^snfo (Art. 55) and most of t h e m are characterised by long tails;
and corresponding to the n a m e 'Water-Peacock' we have the n a m e ' W a t e r -
Pheasant' as well, viz. ' a water-bird' in a n d a t p. 198 in
Again, gftrosffar in the following examples, descriptions of lake-
scenary, can only be the Pheasant-tailed J a c a n a :—
^Iq^rhitiTjTlor "Wic+K^eflc+'dK i — f ^ ^ r r r r , 32.101.
qsr ITS fsPTT#ft Tmisfrrr j g J T F R I
Wfa ^•Wlcflw sfiraTW: II —TT*TPTW ^T^RV, 3.1149.
—M<MMH , 5, above verse 57.
arfwrn^Rmrfw, on the other hand, has mixed u p this sfcrnfcr with the ^ T
in the following equation :
sfto^sfrw TOmt f w ^ W T cC W : i
O -o O
H e r e the first part describes sfcrraffa as JF5TW i.e. as a bird that constructs
a nest with the veriety of watergrass whereas the WlT, which lays it
eggs in a hollow in the bare ground, only sometimes lines it with dry
leaves a n d grass but never with the *Fsrr grass. Both the J a c a n a s on the
contrary make a nest of rushes a n d water-grass and place it on floating
vegetation, ips^r sftrosjfa is therefore the same as *Hpii<3ir»;H a n d not the
^r)T which is supposed to die at the sight of poison (fwTOWTRWT:; Art.
55-c).
1. sfh^rafR: appears to be a h o m o n y m ; (i) ufl=IM w m n w afl=tqRf isftcpfsffa:,
the Peacock Pheasant; a n d (ii) sft^rf tsfrrr ^ftfsppT q^q- ^ f l ^ ^ V : , the Pheasant-tailed
Jacana.
306 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

4. T h e ^tTOwrar of H c m a c a n d r a has Ttfasrw for a particular water-

bird with "FTU'AAR and as synonyms. These are difficult to solve or
resolve but if ^.iq'sisr can be analyzed as 3? etst spr? tj^fTfer i.e. an unsteady
or agitated bird, the n a m e m a y refer to the Bronze-winged J a c a n a . Similar-
ly ^tftt^t m a y be explained as Tra ^ ^ —^^—Tt.tf.T.).
^ifi)^' on the other h a n d m a y be closer to arepispc and would then refer to
the other J a c a n a . I n this sense the letter OT would stand for Sanskrit
like the *ffT in Prakrit 'a water carrier'. If so the synonyms also would
belong to the Pheasant-tailed J a c a n a with perhaps a different analysis.
It is also worth noting that the second line in the following illustrative
verse in ^sfmwmwr, 2. 29 is comparable with the verse from
quoted above :
?TTT5T 'epJlc^t tWf3PTT I
^ :pTim3T gfpft ftr ^WT II
T r a n s . : People separated from their beloved do cry out of sorrow when
a cloud dark like the T a m a l a tree begins to rain, but how strange O
snqaar! t h a t thou shouldst cry even when thy m a t e is with thee.
I t is quite possible, however, that srotjar of the verse is the noisy Browny
winged J a c a n a with a predominantly black body and therefore supposed
to be in sympathy with a dark rain cloud.
 JPIrani
40 so cm
 PLATE VIII
1. Demoiselle Crane 6. Macqueen's Bustard (or Houbara)
2. The Black-necked Crane 7. The Little Bustard
3. The Hooded Crane 8. The Lesser Florican
4. The Great White or Siberian Crane 9. The Great Indian Bustard
5. The Eastern Common Crane 10. The Bengal Florican
 >2 2 4 JN

PLATE IX
1. Rosy Pelican 6. Bearded Vulture
2. White Stork 7. Himalayan Griffon
3. Black Stork 8. Scavenger Vulture
4. Flamingo 9. Common Peafowl
5. Lesser Flamingo
 J5JL.

9
^•IlCaohtlrA.
1964 • 150 MH

PLATE X
1. Red-tailed Tropic Bird 6. Black Ibis
2. Great White-Bellied Heron 7. Glossy Ibis
3. Indian Reef Heron 8. Spoonbill
4. Bittern 9. Yellow Bittern
5. G i a n t Heron 10. Little Bittern
0 10 20 30
I I I I
cm
 61
T H E P A I N T E D SNIPE

T h e Painted Snipe is not a Snipe at all but an aberrant type of Sandpi-

per and as it cannot be fitted in with any well defined group of birds it
has been separated as a family by itself. It is one of those few forms in
which the female is the larger, brighter coloured of the sexes and the
dominating partner in sexual matters. T h e females fight for the males and
challenge one another with a loud note. After a male has been secured
and eggs have been laid the female entrusts the duties of brooding the
clutch and rearing the young to her partner and so soon as she is ready to
lay again she seeks another partner in the usual manner, and so on. From
her larger size, handsome colouration and the ways just referred to she
is often mistaken for the male of the species. These birds inhabit rushy,
reedy swamps or margins of tanks and lakes up to about 5,000 ft. in the
Himalayas and at suitable places in the plains. Being birds of crepuscular
habits they possess, like the Snipe, very large eyes which, unlike the Snipe,
however, are placed in a forward position.
T h e female is olive-brown and bright olive-green, closely barred with
black above: rich chestnut on the upper breast which is separated from the
white belly by a blackish-brown pectoral band. A white ring surrounds
the large eye and is prolonged into a streak behind it. T h e male has a
duller plumage, a drab or brown breast and a white belly. T h e ring round
the eye is buff. T h e wind-pipe of the female is longer than that of the
male, and curves into a full loop, and it thus provides her with a powerful
voice apparatus, for it is she who does all the calling with a deep mellow
note. Frank Finn's remarks about the eyes of the bird, quoted by S. Baker
in Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vol. II, 132, are very interest-
ing : "Like Owls, also, this bird has a singularly expressive countenance.
... O n the rare occasions, however when one sees the bird walking about
at ease, the feathers over the eyes are raised so as to be higher than the
crown, which gives quite a wide awake expression. In moving about thus,
the head is carried high, and the bird looks tall and graceful." N o wonder
it is called the 'Peacock S n i p e ' i n South India because of the beautiful
plumage o f t h e female and particularly the white ring round her eyes and
its extension (cf. W i r f ; a Peacock).
324 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

as a water-side bird included in the list of in is

explained by as s t a t e r : — 5 f i r 5rt%", and the ^FTJ^tw
also defines the frtHfa' (?^>TT5r) as a kind of 'water-quail' or Snipe :
"defter: »M<lfd<t>l"
i.e. the water-quail known as sfbffrr is dark above and white on the abdo-
men. This agrees fully with the description of and there is reason
180
to hold that the original has been deliberately or mistakenly changed
into by the scribe to make the name correspond in sense with the
descriptive epithet WTTO. M . Williams gives the forms p « f , CRANES
+)HM, and +HM+ as names of waterbirds. Evidently names of more than
one bird and some wrong spelling are involved here.
]. The Cranes are among the largest wading birds with long bills, necks,
T h e Painted Snipe is known as aft^^Ni^i ( ^ r a Snipe) in Nepal,
and legs, large broad wings and short tails. They fly with the neck and legs
from Sans, srwxt^w, Prak. a f i ^ i 'to descend' in reference to the bird's
straight out like the Storks and since they bear a superficial resemblance to
descent from higher to lower levels in winter (in Nepal), or from Prak.
them members o f b o t h the groups are often confounded one with the
^t^d'H after its mellow call-notes. It is +ln«iddi (^fhnw-pM-^'^') in
other. They may, however, be readily distinguished from the Storks by
the Singbhoom district and TFWT (»W4ld+r) in South India. Taking these
ttieir graceful form, thin and smaller bills and the fact that the hind toe
with the definition in it appears that (fHW) is the Painted
is rudimentary and does not touch the ground. Unlike the Storks, there-
Snipe, is the Water-Cock (Art. 58 ) and possibly also the Black
fore, they are unable to perch on the trees. Another radical difference
crested Kalij pheasant (Art 55 B).
between a Crane and a Stork consists in their breeding habits and the
f ^ M as an auspicious bird of "HfcldfakK1 and of the (536)
nature of the young. Indian Storks always nest on trees and the Indian
are most probably this bird. The beautiful story of the birth of Asoka's Crane, the Sarus, whose habits have been well known in India, nests on
son juiin is given in fs^rra^FT2 where the new-born child is named ground or in shallow water. The young of a Stork are helpless and must
because his eyes were as bright and beautiful as the grwRT bird's. T h a t it remain in the nest until they are well able to fly, whereas the young of the
is a water-bird is clear from the following verse :— Crane are active from the start like young chickens, and follow their
"fffcsTF? frfwpir s r ^ r y ^ r a t sT^rrst i parents. A majority of cranes have fine trumpeting calls while the Storks,
- having no voice clatter their bills during courtship or when excited. The
f^rra ^ r f e r fommft ^arftr ^ ^ t w srm^prfr II"
former are mostly vegetarian while the latter feed on fish, frogs, reptiles and
Page 406
insects. No Stork or Heron ( ( ^ ) is mentioned as a pet-bird in literature
T h e prtWRRT mentions also a lake fwra^tf, in the Himalayas, apparently but the Common Crane and Sarus have ever been favoured as pets. It is
so named, as its shores abounded in these birds. In the ^rferfrorc 3 the necessary to stress these differences as the term for a Crane has often
sweet voice of the Lord Buddha is compared with that of the J^m bird been rendered as ^P-fwr (a kind of Stork or Heron) in commentaries and
whose deep mellow note fully justifies the comparison. lexicons. 1
T h e name Jprrer appears to be analogous to grra' for the Red Munia,
2. Of the seven species of Crane described in the Fauna of British
both being derived from the bad or coarser and good or finer reeds or
India by Stuart Baker only three are regular winter visitors to India and
grasses ( f - b a d , TO'-reed or grass, and g-Tra) in which they live and breed.
one, the Sarus, is a permanent resident over the greater part of the country.
It is also possible, on the other hand, to derive the word from p r refer-
ring to the soft "kone-kone-kone" notes of the Painted Snipe (Tickell).
1. —Sffcr Spf? f f a *TFTT,—STS^tTJT.
—^ijrfaifk:, I b i d . i p F T ? : — ^ R W W T .
—ifcr —sr^^m^.

N o n e of the older lexicons connects the with the sRT a n d it is only f r o m

a very superficial likeness between a crane a n d a stork that commentators a n d
1. C h a p t e r 5,44; 13,186 a n d 21,377. compilers of present-day lexicons have fallen into the error. Explanations like the above
2. P p . 405 et seq. should therefore be understood to m e a n ' a bird resembling a stork or heron*.
3. C h . 19.357.
 310 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Cranes 311
Amongst the visitors the commonest and the most numerous are the Com-
(b) ^ mcTfavsrr: J^r: I
m o n and the Demoiselle Cranes. They are powerful fliers and form into
WTSTt Xxfi^t TTf^TT'R: I
huge flocks before moving from their breeding grounds in Central Europe
and Central and Northern Asia and again on their return journey from ii«MI<«: ^'fi+'d'AH: l" —spfTJ^Tftr
India. They arrive in India in September-October and leave by March- ( c ) "s^Nr: frrq-fefw"—•sr^f^RiTrrftrr
April. " T h e observer who is favourably situated will hear one
(iii) (a) ^frfe Wicf"—
morning a l o u d clanging call (of the common crane) and looking towards
(b) "i+'+vld: WRf spTJ: ^ T T S ^ : " — s r f a " . fcRrmfar
the sound will see in the distant sky a vast tangled skein of birds. As it
approaches it resolves itself into an immense concourse of Cranes flying (iv) (a) "j^TTf^ gror:"—31TR.
a t a tremendous height. T h e stream of birds travels across the sky like (b) cTSrinJT: W Jspro^T: ^T^T: 1 %
a n army. ... As they go a single bird trumpets, answered by others"
^fan^: w f t ^rrrff WdTSqt TtTOTScRT: l"
(Whistler). T h e flight is generally in the form of open V-formation which
was the model for t h e ' f r ^ T f of ancient Indian military science. 1 They walk —srfl. f^RRfw
in a stately m a n n e r and " a r e lively and cheerful to a degree, devoted to (c) ififr?: " —fspprwr
their mates, and addicted to social amusements and athletic exercises, in d
( ) S^Ti:" — srcrsrct
the way of dancing and running and playing with sticks when on the
ground. ... They display much affection for the young, and are easily ( e ) "3T«r w w r o f t ^T'jfT Tf^F: ^rrft
tamed, often becoming very affectionate" (F. F i n n ) . The great white or ^$=11+ ^rftraw^r: i q W ^ i s : j ^ T r ^ t i"—
Siberian crane arrives in much smaller numbers and is fairly common in (f) "flTOTt TftpF; W f f t ifT'TT^r ^ f a c T R ^ : " (JTfaTdrT^: 2 M.w.)
N. W. India and is found as far east as Bihar. T h e Hooded crane from 1
"il'.-i^yiT i + l ^ r r f i r a ' c ^ r w : ll" —"T^fasr ^
J a p a n and Eastern Siberia is a rare visitor to Assam. T h e Black necked
crane is canfined to the Himalayas (Ladakh, Tibet etc.) while the (g) "sror: ^ r ^ g ^ s a : i
Burmese Sarus is found in Eastern Assam.

3. T h e following information (A) and lexical synonymies (B) bear- 4. T h e information brought together in section A of the last
ing upon their Sanskrit nomenclature may be considered before setting out paragraph shows that at least four different varieties of Crane have
a brief description of the different species and allocating the appropriate been recognized in literature, viz., j ^ r t ^ , (v.l. ys^Rreq-), tfRST,
name or names to each : v
and f t * . These are actually the best known members of the family since
A. jHrrtf^, and for three different species of Crane, and w ^ S the others are of rare occurrence and have not been known to visit India
for the flamingo, are included in the list of or water birds in during recent times. T h e attention of classical poets and dramatists has
-•H+uTsidl. been chiefly confined to two of the commonest, the Common Crane and

lit^, and ?rror, as above, inTO5RF?fcTquoted by *rsst?r*T in his

commentary on 85.28. 1. ^ w r r r aT^fjt —^^TT^JT:, as the S a r u s C o u p l e is k n o w n
t o indulge in love-dance a n d sport as a p r e l i m i n a r y to c o n s u m m a t i o n . T h i s is a t t h e
^Ys^r, JTfnils^r, JT* and SRS as above, listed with oiher water-birds b o t t o m of other p o e t i c epithets like w f t , ^ T ^ W S T , a n d x f a ^ for the tfRST
by I M ^ I ^ in ch. 13, p. 198 where JroffiwY^ refers to the flamingo. alone as t h e breeding c r a n e of I n d i a .
2. C o m p a r e Jrfw#5T for the p o m e g r a n a t e fruit w i t h red seeds. qP'IdK'fr
B (i) Sffor:"—3T7R, srfa. (having red-eyes, for the Sarus is o u t of p l a c e in Verse 120 at p . 331 of
W where the text h a s suffered mutilation as at o t h e r places.
(ii) (a) "^JX: WiV!T^: ^ Tfe^T: wi: I — ' T P r f a w
3. I n this s y n o n y m y t h e epithets fasPFER ( h a v i n g a p a i n t e d or b e a u t i -
ful n e c k ) , and i + i l K hold true of the S a r u s C r a n e while TWTK
1. ifiV^Hi •TpfcTcT: SnSpSTPRT | and (blood i.e. flesh-loving) w o u l d seem to refer to the b e a u t i f u l
w h i t e stork w h i c h looks like a Small W h i t e C r a n e a n d feeds on frogs, mice, lizards,
S^fRjfa SfiY^^i JTqr II
etc. I t has evidently been r e g a r d e d as a kind of Sarus a n d i n c l u d e d here. N o C r a n e h a s
W^fcTCTR, 4.7.279. a r e d bill. T h e legs of the Sarus a n d the G r e a t W h i t e C r a n e a r e merely of a pink colour a n d
Eagles n e v e r fly in f o r m a t i o n a n d is the a r r a n g e m e n t of a n a r m y in the it is d o u b t f u l h o w f a r they can be described as <.=k14l<* w h e r e a s the white stork has
shape of a n E a g l e o n the wing. a b l o o d - r e d bill a n d red legs a n d feet, the eyes b r o w n . F o r Storks see A r t . 81.
 313 321
Birds in.Sanskrit Literature Cranes

the Sarus while the harsh-voiced Demoiselle is mentioned only occasion- C o m m o n Crane, the f o r m e r having a very long and flexible neck and the
ally either as JTT or simply as srrar * D u r i n g the later Vedic period when latter a l o n g neck and a powerful voice:
the B r a h m a n a s and the Samhitas like the aftrcto, «*I*KH41, etc. were com-
(i) s r m : s f i r arfasRT ^ H p ^ f f t fsisT i s r . 19.73
piled the Flamingo (Art. 83) and the C o m m o n Crane, both very c o m m o n
in the North-West and further East, were the first to be named or ^ p r (ii) F s r r f r m t ^^fFr I Ibid. 24.22; for. tf. 3.14.3
and respectively. It is quite probable t h a t the resident I n d i a n Crane,
(iii) ^ p j f r Sftfenrq-HT I Ibid. 25.6
with a t r u m p e t i n g call similar to that of the C o m m o n Crane, was also in-
cluded within the term qsfeT. Later on it came to be distinguished from the (iv) : (stpts) I 2.22
C o m m o n Crane principally because of its r e d h e a d and larger size and n a m e (v) I cTT^^Rn^Pir, 11.10.19
srWHTTOt. T h e lexicographers, as seen f r o m the synonymies collected in
(vi) ^pNfjTS STZ I fsrrjipMr ^-TTCFJST, 21\ 2.44
section B, have since maintained the distinction between the C o m m o n Crane
as i f e r a n d the I n d i a n Crane as tfrro or and treated the other species I n the first three of the above passages ^ and W^f refer to the Flamingo
of Crane simply as varieties of the Sarus. T h e next step was probably to as a long necked bird having the power of separating rift from srm (Art.
separate the Demoiselle as JXt, Hfarf nrer, and TTTO?, the Great White 8 3 ) . T h e others refer to the Common Crane with a loud and sonorous
Crane as Y ^ - , or S^T-HTOT, and the Black-necked species as as t r u m p e t i n g call which is the relevant element in each case. According to the
we shall presently see. T h a t is how we find and put together and commentary on Aphorism, 11 of the s i m d H ' i f ^ r the ffTfwft hymns have to
all the rest either defined asflTOTor put under that n a m e in mixed synon- be recited in a tone lying between the (low) a n d the W (high)
ymies like those in B ( f ) , ( g ) , and ( h ) . At the same time a vague con- defined as TK or which would seem to connect the bird and its n a m e
sciousness t h a t they were all allied forms, i.e. were merely varieties of with the W ( w to cry) or high note.
was also present a n d we have a n a m e like w r - ^ T for the Demoiselle 6. T h e synonymies in B (ii) describe the ^ k r birds as 'birds of the
with a harsh note quite unlike t h a t of the trumpeting Cranes, a n d the a u t u m n ' (sKfeflf) a n d ' f l y i n g in formation' (qfapn:), while fTT is a
Sarus proper described under the n a m e of in the second introductory with a 'harsh voice' a r r c ^ ) . ) . T h e epithets T W ^ (curved or bent
chapter of the W W . T h e Buddhist work fenwf (circa 300 A.C.) has a bill),W3> (havingred in the p l u m a g e ) , ii=Mi« (living o n minute water
verbal form ^V^Pd from root ^ k r for ' t r u m p e t i n g of an elephant ( M . W . , plants) and ^ s O + t ^ i (lotus-eyed) belong to the Flamingo, regarded as a
Appendix) which makes it highly probable t h a t the term was applied kind ofspto^. T h e equations in B (iii) exclusively refer to their?: the
principally to such Cranes as have a trumpeting call note. Demoiselle Crane, as TOrfe corresponding to its H i n d i n a m e , «t.<4>fcqi, b o t h
5. T h e first equation with ^ and after its call, 'kurr-kurr-kurr' (TOT ' f l T T T — T h e series in
a s synonymous terms, though
slightly incorrect, may be taken to imply that they refer to two birds B (iv) contains a mixed list of names and a d n o u n s a p p a r e n t l y for the
possessing some features in common. T h e n a m e » ^ ( ^ T - ^ f ^ w f h r m t : , Sarus alone but including the Great White C r a n e ( j s r o r p , the
to be crooked or to shorten) stands for a bird capable of curving or Black-necked ( t a r o ) and even the White Stork ( ^ a ^ ) regarded as a
contracting some i m p o r t a n t p a r t of its body, e.g. a long and flexible neck, ffTOT allied to the Great White Crane (Art. 81). All these will be dealt
and q j ^ snjftrcw) for one resembling the Allied to root with more fully when we take u p the individual species for consideration.
is the root f r which means 'to curve or b e n d ' and also 'to sound'. R o o t R e t u r n i n g to the term tfc^r which is also specific for the C o m m o n Crane
it is to be noted that in later literature it has been utilized as a base for
again may have contaminated the root and the idea of ' m a k i n g a
coining the names of some Storks, Herons and also the Flamingo, all
sound' is perhaps involved in or associated with the word During
sharing the common feature of a long a n d flexible neck with a ifc^f or
the later and 'TT^m period and meant Flamingo, and the
C r a n e ; and which have h a p p i l y been described as (resembling the
in general outline) by T w r n r at 4.48 of his book.We thus have Jfta
• Illustrative passages from literature are quoted later on. for the Purple H e r o n ; TO # T f o r the Bitterns a n d Night-Herons ( A r t . 8 2 ) ;
**The rendering of s p T and as " t h e c u r l a w on s n i p e " in the Vedic Index for the Spoon-bill ( A r t . 7 9 ) ; • ^rfror for the Black Stork; a n d
of Names and Subjects is p u r e guesswork a n d w h o l l y i n c o r r e c t . F o r C u r l a w a n d S n i p e see snw ^ k r f o r the Flamingo ( A r t . 8 3 ) , and finally the Open-bill Stork has
A r t . 72. been mentioned simply as a ^Yro' in the following:—
S i m i l a r l y t h e e n t r y — ' a n o s p r e y ' a g a i n s t ^ f i ^ T o n t h e a u t h o r i t y of s o m e l e x i c o n
in M . W . is i n c o r r e c t a n d is d u e to a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n a m e JXX w h i c h m e a n s
b o t h a crane (the ^ T ) a s well as t h e fishing E a g l e s i n c l u d i n g t h e O s p r e y •Marathi is d i r e c t l y f r o m S a n s k . f o r this C r a n e .
(Arts. 50 a n d 52).
314 Birds in.Sanskrit Literature Cranes 321

"sfiN'SJ^JJ^T fPfcTST: l" carriage, it is " t h e C r a n e p a r excellence', occurring in flocks, often of

Page 14 large size, throughout N o r t h I n d i a and south to D e c c a n in the cold
w e a t h e r . I t is very destructive to the crops. Like the Sarus it has a very fine
T h e phrase f f^^Bpj describing the attitude of the b i r d in action is w o r t h t r u m p e t i n g call, uttered b o t h on the ground and in flight. I t is known as
noting, for it strengthens the derivation of qpTand from to 'curve
J W (fr. ^ t ^ ) a n d | p r f * i n H i n d i a n d being the commonest Crane of
or b e n d ' . Similarly the term sror means (i) a water-bird in general, e.g.,
N o r t h I n d i a is the proper of Sanskrit literature. I n the following
in " s p a r e r " — ^ m r f e w R , 70.59 and a w w : of+eHrf+lm, p. 331 and T r a p p y ,
examples the wailing cries of hundreds of women have been compared
p. 471; (ii) any Crane a n d specifically the I n d i a n Sarus according to the
with the trumpeting calls coming from large flocks of the C o m m o n
rule "HTm^tsfafaw (iii) a Goose in ^ ^ w ^ f l , 9.1,145; 359 a n d in
C r a n e , but d u e to the n a t u r e of the simile and poetic necessity the
fwr^RET, 12.44 (cf. also ' ^ F f ^ T O f t from the quoted by J R s n ^
biids have been mentioned in the feminine gender ( ^ f t ) : ^
in his commentary on the l a t t e r ) . T h a t the I n d i a n Crane, though popularly
n a m e d as was known to be a kind of ^ ^ is clear from the story of sage error s f t t s : F^T: i T r a m , 2.39.40
m?iftf% cursing, out of righteous indignation, the fowler who killed the
^ V ^ k i f i r e •rrcftrr fcTT??^ spsrt i
male o f a pair of q^t3^ birds engaged in love on the sands of the 3 ¥ I :
sncTRt W T ^Rfcfnt II I b i d . 2.76.21
^ f w f ^WT^TTfsRTT I
A c c o r d i n g to TO^rfo, 12.64 a person stealing cotton-fabrics is condemned to
SS3T ^TSiTcra" ^^TtMl^f'fHH'iT II be reborn as a (^rrf^THR , the reason for which would seem to
cf s f t f a c m t a r ^ w t f t if|lcr# i lie in the long disintegrated tertiary plumes drooping gracefully over t h e
^ ftfcf S^JST W S ^ W f fTOT I short tail of the bird. T h e grey colour of h a n d - s p u n a n d hand-woven
f^TcRT TFcFTT fg^T y ^ l R u i l 1 cotton fabrics is an additional reason for selecting the C o m m o n Crane with a
ciimflMV* TfOTT f n grey plumage. I n the alternative ^rrfwFtR m a y m e a n a long w a r p prepared
with y a r n ready to be placed on the loom for weaving. T h i s would seem
TTTTiPT, 1.2.9-12
to agree with " t ^ m s V - ^ ' ' of 5fT<> 13.9.17 based upon the flight of
T h e poet's description of the birds possessing a beautiful voice and a red Cranes in long skeins. T h e Demoiselle and the C o m m o n Cranes both appear
head leaves no doubt as to their identity with the I n d i a n Sarus which, it to travel together (Whistler) and this is borne out by the following passage
m a y be pointed out, is the only resident and breeding ^ ^ r of I n d i a . Despite relating to their return journey f r o m I n d i a : —
the extended use of the terms ^ ^ a n d srrar, and the mixed synonymies
noticed above, it is, however, possible to determine the names and epithets
a p p r o p r i a t e to the different species of Crane found in I n d i a with a very grrrfa- ! f?rr: j f r p r r f r f ^ s r : i
fair degree of a p p r o x i m a t i o n and an a t t e m p t is m a d e in this direction in IcTT: «rn'' HH*HI*Hegr:
the following p a r a g r a p h s . ^TTOTT: sjfcfTuiwfa-Sl: I I — 2 . 9 5 . 1 3
7. T h e Eastern C o m m o n Crane (45") is a m e d i u m sized C r a n e of a
light to rather dark grey colour with long neck and legs. T h e bald crown T h e '3TOTT:' are the the Demoiselles flying in mixed formations
is black in front a n d red behind, the bill dull green a n d the legs black. with the C o m m o n Cranes: T h e phrase ^V^l"! is w o r t h noting in
T h e eyes are red, brown or even yellow (F. F i n n ) . T h e tertiary plumes of connection with b o t h "T^r: ^ V ^ " and TORidi-a^.
the wing are particularly well developed, long and loose textured which 8. T h e Sarus or I n d i a n C r a n e (58") is a huge french-grey bird with
this Crane, more t h a n others, has the power of raising and showing off the b a r e head and u p p e r neck of a red colour, becoming bright scarlet
though all Cranes d o so to a more or less degree. Elegant in form a n d * T h e story of the f f c r ^ f W T related in W R c f , 7.2.50-56 is clearly based u p o n
t h a t of the in the TWTW. T h e r e it is the female ( j f a - f f t ) which is
t r a p p e d by a fowler a n d the m a l e cries a n d bewails his own a n d his y o u n g ones' lot. I n the
* T h i s rule applies equally to the specific n a m e of for the C o m m o n C r a n e as m e a n time h e too is killed with a n arrow by the fowler. T h e C o m m o n C r a n e is known as
against the general m e a n i n g of the t e r m — ' a n y C r a n e ' . " K u l a i i g a " ( K u l a n g i in F-B-I-) or p e r h a p s as ' K u l i n g a ' in T e l u g u a n d the a u t h o r would
the a u t h o r of the fcr^qrisqT on TTfWT (Bombay edition) had seem to h a v e used the T e l u g u n a m e for purposes of the story t h o u g h the w o r d ^ ^ is also
a p p a r e n t l y no clear idea of the for h e explains it as a bird having a red crest like used in the W R W . T h e use of the T e l u g u n a m e of the C o m m o n C r a n e probably goes
the C o m m o n C o c k — J ^ S l f c ^ l t . R W m g ^ r ^ W T w h i c h is incorrect. N o I n d i a n to show t h a t the a u t h o r was a S o u t h - I n d i a n . T h e great Sanskritist, C. V. V a i d y a , also held
C r a n e has a crest. a similar opinion which is recorded by Winternitz in his History of I n d i a n Literature, Vol.1,
p. 556, f.n. 3, Calcutta, 1927.
 317 321
Birds in.Sanskrit Literature Cranes

d a r i n g the breeding season. T h e legs are pink, the eyes red, a n d the bill Art. 63), and (ii) the Bittern with a booming call in reed beds by the
of a greenish colour. 1 he Sarus is "always to be found in pairs usually water-side (ife 31% ?r?fir-Art. 8 2 ) . I n the latter sense the n a m e may well be
accompanied by the last hatched y o u n g " and hence the Sanskrit n a m e or applied to the Sarus as well but as the lexicons have no feminine form of
adnoun or for it. " T h e y are most affectionate birds, pairing jffrf and give <flinsl* instead for the female there is good reason to believe
for life, and if one is killed the grief of the other is quite distressing" (S. that the proper n a m e or adnoun for the Sarus is and not 'fi-K.
Baker). Salim Ali, an authority on I n d i a n bird-life and a keen observer, Fortunately however the fw^wffrn: mentions this n a m e :
remarks that the devotion of a pair of Sarus to each other has earned
them a degree of popular sentiment a m o u n t i n g to sanctity, and if one of
a pair is killed the survivor haunts the scene of outrage for weeks calling "^r^iwi^i-i Tin^nir^d+id" —1.151.44
distractedly, and has been known to pine away to death. Emperor
Jehangir also relates in his Memoirs a most p a t h e t i c and touching example T h e confusion between and is probably on a par with ftntM
of a Sarus sitting continuously and without food upon the bones of its m a t e and f w r t for the Ptkt tree (M. W . ) and is due to a graphical error of
so much so that when the dying bird was lifted u p its breast was found copying from M S S in an older script. T h e correct names for the male and
to have been eaten into by worms and maggots. It was such knowledge female Sarus should thus be 'fta*? and in the sense that a couple per-
o the Sarus that m a d e ^ f l f r lose his temper with the fowler w h o killed form their marital rites on the ground: nfa 3T wr.**
one of a pair of them. T h e reason why the exemplary conjugal devotion
11. A few of the Sutras of Apastamba dealing with the question of
of the Sarus has not received poetical recognition in Sanskrit literature,
particular birds permitted or not permitted as food are as below:
excepting the Ramayana;, is to be found in the fact that the similarly
devoted couples (the R u d d y Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck, A r t .
84 C ) would seem to have gripped the imagination of the Indo-Aryans r=fr+<|uiw"— 1.5.17.32
from the Vedic times as both the Rgveda and the Atharva-Veda mention "csre: — „ „ „ 33
them in couples. I t is therefore more t h a n probable that the Indo-
Aryans were already familiar with t h e m before they got to know t h e
Sarus whose habitat does not extend beyond the Indus.*
9. T h e Sarus Cranes are essentially birds of well watered open plains
and avoid hills, forest country and desert lands. Their flight is powerful „ „ „ 36
but they rise slowly and seldom fly at any great height from the ground
(Salim Ali). Like all Cranes they indulge in dancing, more so in the T h e last aphorism quoted above permits three categories of birds as food,
breeding season t h a n at other times, which is much less graceful than their viz., ( a ) the Flamingo, (b) the Common Crane, and (c) the Hornbill, but
dignified quiet walk (S. Baker). T h e call is a fine trumpet uttered morn- makes an exception in favour of i.e. the Sarus Crane. Both H a r a -
ings and evenings, and if the pair h a p p e n to feed apart during the night datta in his 3^-TT-efaT and Dr. Buhler in his translation (S. B. E. Vol. 2,
they keep in touch by constantly calling to each other as the w i i couples 64-65) have missed something in explaining this particular aphorism.
also do. They are much less gregarious than other Cranes and move from 3TO f°T¥ being an unknown thing to both, they have treated it simply as
their favourite grounds in small flocks only if forced by drought or other a n adjective of W l and translated the compoud literally as the ''leather-
cause and at such times they adopt the usual V-shaped flight. nosed L a k s h m a n a " thus creating a non-existent curiosity, 'a leather-nosed
10. Lexical adnouns for the Sarus are w r * *, w t r w , f w f ^ r , etc. Sarus'. For gTETfrw
These are self-explanatory but the name iffat for the male and 'fH^I for as the Hornbill see Art. 42 and for , the Flamingo,
the female Sarus call for a few remarks. as a bird-name is a homonym Art. 83. As regards the correct interpretation of the itself it will be
and belongs to (i) the Great Bustard who bellows like a bull noted that Sutras Nos. 32 and 33 permit the whole of the and srgr
classes of birds as food subject to only one exception in each case. Sutras 34 and
* T h e B u r m e s e S a r u s is very similar to the I n d i a n b u t is of a d a r k e r colour. Being
m o r e of a forest-bird it flies m u c h h i g h e r a n d is f a r m o e shy t h a n o u r Sarus. I t occurs in
35 are entirely prohibitory while No. 36, as suggested by Buhler and H a r a -
E a s t e r n Assam. T h e call, like t h a t of his I n d i a n cousin, is a b e a u t i f u l t r u m p e t — " a fine
s o u n d w h e n it rings o u t in t h e early d a w n of a clear I n d i a n w i n t e r m o r n i n g " (S. B a k e r ) .
* Lexicons do n o t give t h e m a s c u l i n e f o r m of jflHni).
I t s Assamese n a m e is (fT^T—
**Substituted for 'Tfe ^ H ^ l f d ' of I t will b e noticed t h a t m y ex-
* * 5 T W f , o n e possessing a distinctive m a r k (5TST), e.g. a red o r w h i t e h e a d
contrasting w i t h the b o d y c o l o u r ; also ' h a n d s o m e or b e a u t i f u l ' — W I : sfWT^t p l a n a t i o n of t h e t e r m is b a s e d o n the q u o t a t i o n f r o m t h e R a m a y a n a given in p a r a . 5.
as in s r f a . fcRrrrfw.
 319 321
Birds in.Sanskrit Literature Cranes

datta, each in his own way, permits some and prohibits one or long past it travelled further west and was known to the ancient Indians,
more of the birds named in the list.* Reading Sutra 36 with No. 34 may be even as an aviary bird in Royal establishments. T h e HTOT
Biihler is of opinion that the mainly vegetarian, and therefore according to H a r a d a t t a on the s n T O ^ a ^ p , 1.5.17.36 quoted and discussed
not and are permitted and the gTST (singular) in para. 9 above, is of two kinds, one with a white head and the other
is disallowed. O n the other hand H a r a d a t t a holds that the latter with a red head:
alone is permitted and both ^ p ^ and ^V-^ are disallowed. Now that
we know that =rrsif<w too is a particular bird and that one was "sfcft m % f r 3T ^TT *rsrf t 5TSRW: I "
sacrificed to god P m as a most favourite dish of his (Art 42), Biihler's
interpretation is obviously the correct one and we have only to add the The or should therefere be the Hooded Crane and
Hornbill to the Flamingo and the C o m m o n Crane to complete the list of the 5Tt%lWT-or W R O T - W I the Sarus i.e. the Indian Crane. T h e Hooded
three great birds permitted, leaving out the (flTOr) as an exception. variety being a bird of rare occurrence the of the Sutra in question,
This finds support from a somewhat similarly worded Sutra in another as already pointed out in p a r a . 9, must be taken to be the well known
Smrti which permits 3TEr'V<TO' with P(P>+< birds like PdlrK, irar, etc.:— Sarus.
13. T h e Black-necked Crane (about 46") is slightly larger than the
q f y " I Rrd Pd R + 1 H i d + f q =>~A <H d I s f r T O - Common Crane and is known to breed in Tibet and Kokonor, not very
T P T W r W ^ r ^ m f : q-^ M%TT: I 1.5.154 far from India, and Frank Finn says that it m a y be expected to visit
I n d i a in winter [How to Know the Indian Waders, p. 67). The body
Here, it will be noted, the first five out of the six PdP««t> < birds including the plumage is greyish white and the whole of the head, neck and tail black.
(same as m r f w ) are permitted while the last, viz., the 3TCW (the T h e bill is horny-grey or-green, iris yellow and the legs black. T h e bare
Great Bustard, Art. 63) is not allowed. All Cranes are good eating and skin of the crown is dull red. Like the Common Crane it has a trumpet-
the reason for the exception in favour of W I , the Sarus, is to be found in ing call. T h e breeding grounds of the Bar-head Goose also are the lakes
the extraordinary devotion observed between the Sarus couple which has of L a d a k h and Tibet and if the ancients knew, as they certainly did, the
endeared them to the Indians from very ancient times.** It is also worth home and habits of the Goose they must have known this Crane as well,
noting that poet dlctlpF includes ^V-d and j t t but not the Sarus in the list and the d1<HW o f t h e mixed synonymy, B (iv) (f) quoted above from
of water-birds recommended as food by ^f^sr to R a m a when the latter and ERRrfr, should be this Black-necked Crane. It is mantioned with
made a long halt at the Pampa lake (para. 15 below). the Ruddy Sheldrake, the Bar-head Goose, the Pin-tail Duck, and other
12. T h e Hooded Crane (35") is of a dark grey colour with the neck healthy and happy-looking water-birds ('sPRrcrrct:') *as giving character to
and the whole head except the bald red crown, pure white in contrast a Himalayan scene in the PPTJTTW under the name of - T M ^ S T **:
with the rest of the body colour. T h e bill is yellowish horny, the eyes
orange-brown, and the legs horny-black (Finn) though the colours of
these parts are slightly different according to the F.B.I. Breeding in
Eastern Siberia and J a p a n it migrates south to China and in smaller T h e second 22.59
numbers to Eastern Assam within Indian limits. It is possible that in the
This Crane is therefore the dM+'Ji s r w or

*The fwrafipIT, chapter 51, disallows all five-toed animals and all birds
14. T h e Great White Crane (54") comes next after the Sarus in size
except these expressly named — 4=-«M<s(litll!(H fl1^- and is mentioned as the n ^ V ^ with the and grer by I I O T I ^ (Para.
3 A ) . It is pure white throughout except for the wing-quills which are
* * T h e v o i c e a n d s i g h t of a S a r u s c o u p l e a r e a m o n g s t t h e best of a u g u r i e s : black. T h e naked skin o f t h e head is reddish, eye pale yellow, bill brown,
fMTsrfcrfe H ^ n g fesr I and legs pink. Breeding in Siberia it visits North India in winter in small
SjWTFT TO pH? «T IWRznftKj ijf t ^ TFRH II flocks. A large number of them was- caught and taken to the Calcutta
iilPeu-HW+iO si^rsmr ^ T O t s ^ s t I
TT^st tfTOTJmipp IkTR^ ^?4pd ^ w r f ^ II
* T h e I n d i a n s S a r a s is not a hill-bird and the compound snRRTTX^ m u s t be
WTFT, 8.9-10, p . 2 3 4 .
t r a n s l a t e d as above.
T h e first a n d f o u r t h q u a r t e r s of t h e s e c o n d verse furnish an additional clue to the
**FfTTSI also means 'the neck', "T5T: F f ^ S " — P t ^ - H H d + R T . Compare . Jp
significance of t h e a d n o u n +lP*lc)e<H*T ( b e l o v e d of t h e p l e a s u r e - s e e k e r ) f o r t h e S a r u s .
^St%5tr:, fH^'Sr^STT: for the neck-mane.
S e e f. n . 1, p . 311.
 320 Birds in . Sanskrit Literature Cranes 321
market about t h e year 1916-17 ( F i n n ) . T h e y feed more exclusively on
(csraT :, Art. 58), the C o m m o n and the Demoiselle Cranes frequenting
water-plants t h a n d o other Cranes and d o not attack crops. Closely
the P a m p a L a k e :
associated as it is with weedy tanks and Jheels it has been regarded as a
kind oftfTOT and its specific names, gwwr, ^rrer ipN?, "cT5T p T : c^PTT: spV^T: fTTTH =T W I
hence 'the W h i t e - S a r u s ' ) , a n d gpprrf (yap* amro 3T jpfir*—' X X X
'one heard calling near a b o u t water or in the sky') have been assimilated
^criwtTfTFT ^ T ^ n f e s T R ll"
with those for the HTOT in the lexicons. Its call is not a t r u m p e t but a
R a m a y a n a , 3.73.12-14.
soft one w h i c h is syllabified in its H i n d i n a m e ' K a r e - k h a r ' repeated rapidly
but r a t h e r softly (S. Baker). I t will be seen that the H i n d i *PT^n:**corres- Some thoughtless commentators have unfortunately rendered as 'frogs',
ponds closely to Sansk. f t ^ T which is synonyous with or a n a d n o u n for as for example, in fasppater, Nirnayasagar edition, Bombay, 1930. »
the yqnj^- in Not having a W or ^i^FTC (a trumpeting call) it is
16. T h e identifications m a d e in the preceding p a r a g r a p h s are sum-
not one of the birds whose loud notes a r e discussed in p a r a . 17 below.
marized below:
It is rarely found on d r y land and the n a m e y^t^Tf as explained above is
fully justified, w w and g s p mention it by this n a m e . 1. T h e Eastern C o m m o n Crane—
15. T h e Demoiselle Crane (33") is the smallest of I n d i a but very 2. T h e Hooded Crane—stcPTEfa—or stcTORnp JTSTT,

elegant both in form and demeanour. Unlike others it has a fully feathered 3. T h e Black-necked Crane—sirens or
head and wears a pair of p u r e white aigrettes springing from the region 4. T h e Great White C r a n e — — j t ^ j - ^ r t ; ys-PTTf <r,
of the ear and projecting beyond the head in a beautiful d o w n w a r d curve.
5. T h e Sarus or Indian Crane—<<t<md=P ( p ^ ) ^nst
T h e crown is grey but the rest of the head and neck including t h e very
6. T h e Demoiselle Crane— f r r , mj-^r^n,
long and lanceolate ornamental plumes overhanging the breast are black
while the wings a n d the greater wing-coverts a r e blackish. T h e rest of the 17. As there is reason to believe that Sanskrit scholars have very hazy
body p l u m a g e is grey. T h e bill is dull green, eyes bright red and the legs and often mistaken ideas a b o u t the his cousins, barring of course
black. I t arrives in I n d i a crossing the Himalayas a b o u t O c t o b e r a n d the well known Sarus, and particulary as Dr. S.C. Law, F. Z. S., misled bv
returns in M a r c h - A p r i l in huge flocks, flying across the skies in broad the rendering of ifc^T as in Bengali in has identified t h e
bands often a mile or more long. I t does n o t stay for a n y length of time s i i ^ of Poet Kalidasa with the Pond-Heron or Paddy-Bird (Ardeola grayii)
in N o r t h I n d i a n plains except as a passage migrant b u t makes straight for in his well known book, 'Kalidaser Pakhi' (in Bengali), page 93, it is
the peninsula where it attacks the rice and other crops. T h e call is a neceasary to add a few more words about the voice of the described
harsh ' k u r r - k u r r - k u r r ' distinctly h e a r d below as a flock passes very h i g h b y Kalidasa as a far carrying resonant sound ( f f e ^ f t ^ r e ) . T h e P o n d - H e r o n
o v e r h e a d . Epithets like BTCFR: a n d m. refer to its harsh voice contrasting known in Bengal as 'koncha-Baka' "is a silent bird b u t invariably utters a
with for the trumpeting Sarus, and it is the 3rrFR-or g r - ^ t ^ , j t t , a n d low, hoarse croak as it rises, whilst at night, when the colonies settle down
of the lexicons corresponding to in M a r a t h i , f r f , ^ r r f to roost, there is a considerable amount of querulous croaking and flutter-
and ^ r f c r r in Hindi for it. T h e ^ " j h i ^ H K also renders ^ f e as 'a kind i n g " (S. Baker in F. B. / . ) . Neither the occasional low croak nor the
of *tkw'. It is also the il-Hi s m r of the lexicons because it is the darkest querulous croakings on the trees can come a n y w h e r e n e a r the sonorous
coloured crane of India. Like the C o m m o n C r a n e the Demoiselle too is t r u m p e t i n g calls coming from a flock of C o m m o n Cranes feeding in the
a luxury for the table and is m u c h sought a f t e r by sportsmen who call it by rice fields or flying in formation high up in the air. T h e powerful and
the n a m e of ^ ( P r a k r i t ^ s r , accepted as Sanskrit in srfVr. farlT. as v. 1. for far-reaching call of the has indeed been stressed in the following
Its flesh was appreciated in ancient India as well and we find description of a particular way of reciting a i j i : -
advising R a m a to kill and eat the rich and fat Geese and Ducks, Coots
— ? f % r r , 2.5.11.

where the adjective sngr refers to its high note. m ^ i H i j commenting on

* Compare % fW—TTTPSTift star o n SITT. S e e also for the "=rrt ibid. 5.5.12 describes ^ ^ as 5 M T O : TftrfeTiT:, i.e. a parti-
R u d d y G o o s e in M . W . a n d c o m p a r e and — u t t e r i n g a call like t h a t of
cular bird with a very loud call. At a sacrifice to secure heaven to the
a cart-wheel (Art. 84).
host ( W T F T ) the priest must pronounce the exclamation ^ in a very
* * I t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d in H i n d i as ^ f t <pPT, t h e Chinese Crane f r o m JWT the
loud tone: - "^st: ^ V ^ f i ^ w i + i H w " — P t . 8, 21.2.44.
Common Crane.
Again, ( ^ ^ ^ R ) has been explained as follows in
 322 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Cranes 323

fSTt W ST I I spNfSS TOS: srcfe •Hrin'i m x r a H r f i r w n ^ : i 3.55.19.

^ ^ T c r r y+ui-ri to w ^ t f s r * ^ 1 i b i d . 3.55.95
fa^tfc?^ i"
Sub Voice sifa in the last line clearly stands for the starrer ( t h e Crane known by t h e
name of t m , 'the white') or the Great W h i t e Crane, for no Hawk or
"T^TT IT^T ^rsRs^iTPirr i " — J T ^ sr^r frqar Eagle is known to fly in numbers or in formation ( W N C T ) . 'STOT' as a
bird of the a u t u m n , srccTsft, in the above passages is synonymous with titer,
Ibid^ Vol. 5. pp. 1445-46. for the Sarus proper is not a winter visitor (wrfro^) with us nor does it
The mountain in the Himalayas is described as resounding with the fly very high or in large formations. T h e Demoiselles may also be intended
loud calls of the ^fter birds: by the term STKfT.

^r^t*: l" MBh. 9.46.84. 19. Small numbers of Sarus, flying low in V-form have been compared
to a decorative festoon hanging in a curve over a n arch-way in one of the
T h e trumpeting of elephants in pain or when wounded with a shower of most beautiful similes of K a l i d a s a :
sharp arrows:
^iWK fw^f^WRTi" I
"3TWtew ^ N w r f i r " — T F P P F 3 T , 3.5 ( p . 3 8 5 ) ;
3TOT: T S f a f f j f w F F T : II ^fTST, 1.41
h k n i R s t ^ i t n^n: i" MBh. 7.20.52.

T h e sharp neighing of a spirited war-horse: But the poet would seem to be indebted for the beautiful picture to the
following from the R a m a y a n a :
f v ^ m ^fcR" i 97.7.
fs^mwrf^mrfa n^fadr i K f i i w ' f e 1
18. A selection from literature, illustrative of the associations a n d
TO ^T^TRfd" STaTSfdT II 4.30.48.
habits of these birds as also in support of the earlier remarks that the term
ffror (tf with srror, having a loud call) has been used not only for the Sarus
but also for other Cranes, is given below: A very large flight of Cranes, probably the Demoiselles, called mmtT'id in
the text, is beautifully described in the following verse:

"sTSTTpT fe? dcTFT TftSdt I

^ f s w r ^ scffacrr
S^T p W ^pt^Tar ^TPTOFT Smifcr ^ II **
^Rffwifferf ^ fa^Hs i
^ ^ F T , ^l^lR+l 33.182
ftmwmsw^rnkxfaiMPT
•o o
T h e arrival of the Cranes in a u t u m n and their flight in formation: ^hnfiTSFSTdWT fTO^TRPT ll W H ^ I ^ r l ^ , 4.2.

^ c W - W l + W t STCcf smfeTTSWT I M B h . 3.183.10 T h e charming association of the Common a n d the Demoiselle Cranes w i t h
the larger rivers, the C o m m o n and the Sarus Cranes announcing their
presence in the wheat and barley crops covered by the heavy morning
ffTSrT?: ^FM TO qr=r I ^gfffTC, 4.18
mist, their undisturbed happiness in the rice-fields combined with a cloud-
sq-d^d" TT3TT ISTT^; | MBh. 7.139.33. less a u t u m n , crystal waters and smiling flowers—all these have been re-
f^ST ^ fWT 'RTf^J^II^+H I called with affection. T h e ancients loved their birds a n d did not grudge
them a share in the rich bounties of mother e a r t h : —
fSTT II T1TOT, 4.30.5.

^ r a r o r ^ r ^ : g r ^ s r y*Fdd: i
• M f t l i i i : ^s-^HKfHHllcjd WTT fast? is the p r i n c i p a l sentence.
* * T h i s s t a t e m e n t is b a s e d u p o n facts observed by the a n c i e n t s t h a t the m i g r a t o r y Geese,
^ d M i + W d s^rf frwf n x n m m , 4.30.63
Swans, a n d C r a n e s a v o i d i n g the h i g h e r H i m a l a y a s pass t h r o u g h the valleys o n e of w h i c h is sft^T +fadIH (^TCfa) I MBh. 3.64.113.
k n o w n as t h e
 462 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

ssf:p;: II TPTTST, 3.16.16.

•O , <0 O -G
SOT W II ffxSW, 2.16.21.
^ m w j g n y f i w S P N ^ ¥iikf=H f ^ m v i TPIPJT, 4.30.53.
The Common Crane and the Sarus were among the pet birds of Royalty,
e.g., the palaces of Queen Kaikeyl and Crown-Prince Rama had them:
63
I TRHW, 2.10.12. BUSTARDS »
STO^S fsSSf^fSTrfacTq; I Ibid. 2.15.34.

T h e well-known hetaera, WTO^m, of JpS^fcp maintained a large aviary 1. This family of birds is a link between the Cranes on one side and
induding the tfrar as a domestic pet: the Plovers on the other, the Stone Plovers being intermediate between
them and the Plovers proper. Bustards are endowed with large wings and
"i^ST* I S WcRT: #STfer 'TpTvETT:** l" stand rather high on the leg; have small heads but rather long necks.
Act 4, after verse 28. They are ground birds affecting dry open country or grass lands. With
broad and flat backs, their carriage, with neck and legs perpendicular to
the body, is peculiarly their own The larger birds of the group fly
heavily like herons but with necks and legs stretched out like the Storks,
and "in genera! superficial appearance they are perhaps, most like the
gallinaceous birds, especially in regard to their heads and wings" (Stuart
Baker). When disturbed they run at great speed. Their young, like the
common fowl's, are hatched covered with down, and can run about
almost immediately after leaving the egg. Six species of Bustard occur in
India, three of them as winter migrants and three as permanent
residents.
2. The following Sanskrit names refer to these birds some of which,
being crested, have been regarded as a kind of Peacock :-

jftro and =rnz (^nr- a field or open plain, therefore, a bird that fre-
quents these) as birds in and These two
names belong to the Great Bustard and the Florican respectively
as we shall see presently.
jftets^ and (pied, or a horse) as sr^s and fcrffejR respectively in
^^jcT. These are the Great and the Little Bustard respectively. It
is interesting to note that Persian 'kodan' like s r c ^ also
means both 'a Bustard' and 'a pack pony'.
in M . Williams is an adnoun for the Great Bustard;
adnoun for S R ^ the Little Bustard, in where and
ftmfsfisr are listed with synonyms for WT.
* C o m p a r e t h e a p p r e c i a t i v e r e m a r k s of S. Baker q u o t e d in t h e footnote to p a r a . 8. a'gsrate, in the Synonymous list for a Peacock in sffa. f^crriFT the same
* * T h i s w o u l d seem to c o n t a i n a n ironical h i t at t h e institution of e u n u c h s in R o y a l as *JW5.
harems.
a kind of Peacock in M . W. is the Houbara.
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
v.l. ' K " ^ , incorrectly for fenm in This and the next three fan, drooping wings and the feathers o f t h e body turned the wrong way
names refer to the Great Bustard again; cf 'TTOfr for a kind of about. At the same time he makes a deep moaning call, heard at a great
Peacock in M. Williams, the same as | T C f . distance. The food consists of principally large grass-hoppers and other
TO?, (Desert-Stork) a kind of Crane in M. W. insects but lizards, mice, young birds, etc.; grain and green shoots are
3TTW, a r«m.'< bird in ^Ihijjh ftfir, 1. 15.154. equally welcome. In addition this Bustard has a "curious taste for snakes
and the natives give it credit for being a constant slayer and devourer of
f ^ P T , a kind of Cock ( f ^ f o w per Sayana ont.*%TT, 5.6.22)and 5 ^ + ' , *
these reptiles". (S. Baker).
also per Sayana on 3.9.10.
f w f w , a kind of bird in tstrRfl. This and the next three names belong to 4. The Great Bustard has a peculiar and very disagreeable smell
the crested Bengal Florican. when alive, and its flesh is not now held in much esteem. Dr. E. T.
f<sMfti<H, in the list of Peacock-names in 3ff«T. f^mrfw. Aitchinson informs us that when he was on the Afghan Delineation
Commission, a flock of these Bustards was met with, and Lieut. Rawlinson
in iriPHWiM, 7.12;
succeeded in shooting one, but the stench of the bird was so great he
STT^fir, in f*tdiiH<.i<ri=tii on 4i?i=i<rWjfd, 1.175. almost thought of leaving it; it was so dark that he scarcely knew what it
3(^1^+"!, in 1. 7. 10- This is the lesser florican. was that he had got, and the scent was almost enough to put off any one
3. T h e Eastern Great Bustard is a winter visitor to the extreme from even a new acquisition. 1 This writer also refers to the comments
North-West of the country. The fully grown male attains a length of three o f F . Finn 'on this curious smell o f t h e Bustard'.
and a half feet and weighs up to 30 pounds. The Great Indian Bustard
is larger and heavier with a wing-span of eight feet and weighs up to 40 5. As the habits of both the Great Bustards (Eastern and Indian)
pounds. H e is in fact the largest and the heaviest land-bird of India are similar they share common names in Sanskrit. In the above list it will be
corresponding to the elephant as the heaviest land-animal. T h e plumage seen that >rfc£and J f a ^ f . (bellowing like a bull) are afier the bird's bellowing
is deep buff above finely vermiculated with black, the general effect call corresponding to its name in Hindi. The names ^ > 5
being a rufous brown which is well described as "wfcx 9m" in and sqpr#r (thick-necked) are again for these birds with reference to their
while the neck and under parts are white with a black band across the habit of puffing out their necks during courtship, while names like
lower breast. T h e head carries a recumbent black crest. This magni- and are merely Prakrit forms of ^ P S unless is from
ficent bird occurs in pairs or parties in semi-desert land and about (laying a large egg). The Peacock is ^ r ^ (woody-egg) and the eggs of
cultivation in the Punjab, Sind, Rajasthan, Kathiawar, etc., and the the Great Indian Bustard are larger than those o f t h e former. Jrere. would
stately Cock can be spoited from a distance from its long white neck as however appear to refer to the Indian form which has a white neck and
he proudly struts about. He has an inflatable gular-pouch connected under-parts and lives in semi-desert areas. This name corresponds to
with a small opening beneath the tongue. The call "usually uttered Marathi ( m and tirear fr. sror, meaning spp); cf. also the Turkish
before daylight, is a booming cry, not unlike a distant shout" but when name for the allied Little Bustard which means 'Sand-fowl'. 2 w r ? ^ftST
alarmed the note is a bark. When feeding, however, the members of a defines the female as ^RTT but the author is incorrect in attributing a
party keep up a sort of cackle. During courtship the Cock greatly inflates booming call to her. is however, the same as W ^ r .
his neck and throat** and struts before the hens w th the tail raised into a 6. Is it possible that the name j w ( flower of the yellow amaranth)
• B e c a u s e of superficial similarity of a C r a n e (^fi^T) with a Stork (^FT) is independent of J J W U S and really refers to the European Cock Bustard
t h e t e r m fTl^d h a s often been r e n d e r e d as 33T- fa ii ^ in the lexicons a n d c o m m e n - (found in the extreme North-West of India), for it fluffs out all his
taries. Similarly a certain a m o u n t of resemblance between the G r e a t I n d i a n Bustard with plumage and looks "like a surprising animated giant white Chrysan-
his long w h i t e neck a n d white lower p a r t s a n d the C r a n e or Stork is responsible for n a m e s
themum"3?
like >T533> a n d for the f o r m e r .
* * A f t e r a few p r e l i m i n a r y a t t e m p t s a t inflation " o u t goes the whole t h r o a t d o w n to t h e 7. The sfterppT f j f o mentions (^rrwaVfa one that wards off or for-
breast, a n d t h a t p a r t of it next the l a t t e r swells m o r e a n d m o r e a n d the lower t h r o a t bids) as a . bird that must not be eaten :- " q f a ^ f a f t ^ W f a s s r -
b a g gets bigger a n d bigger, a n d larger a n d larger, till it looks to be within six inches of t h e
^ralirffw^^Rwr snrwfsrf: cp^r faN^r: i" ' 1.5.154.
g r o u n d . . . . a n d looked at in front, he seems to h a v e a h u g e b a g covered w i t h feathers h a n g -
ing d o w n b e t w e e n his legs, which wobbles a b o u t as h e struts here a n d t h e r e . " ( H u m e q u o -
t e d by S. B a k e r ) . T h e old n a m e , 3TTW, is thus seen to be after the Cock's d a n g l i n g p o u c h
1. S t u a r t Baker, Game Birdi of India, pp.150-151.
suggestive of t h e t r u n k of an e l e p h a n t . T h e e l e p h a n t is a because his g r e a t strength
2- Stray Feathers, I V . 1 8 4 .
enables h i m to offer resistance a n d this Bustard is also a TO a h e w a r d s off o r resists
3. H . G . Wells, Science of Life, p . 1144.
(«! KH Id) w i t h his horrible smell—See p a r a s . 4 a n d 10 below.
 367
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe

^TTT also means an elephant. T h e great Bustard, with its large size,
weight and the forbidding stench, answers to the name in both the
senses. T h e Chinese also consider its flesh as inferior.
8. It is also suggested that fafrpr of the following is very probably
this bird :—
"ST^T: 4^-HIM: ferfestfs: cSTSfT: I
t . ?T. 5.6.22;
Sayanacarya in his commentary on the renders factor as ^ f z f ^ M
which agrees well with the Bustard's resemblance to a gallinaceous bird
and justifies its inclusion under the name of 'ftof in the P * < . list by
but in the m^lW he equates it with which also agrees with TO^ for
this bird with a long white neck and white under-parts and looking 1 ke a
Stork in the distance. being the expert artizan of the gods beautiful
victims alone would seem to be appropriate for him, and that is what we
find in the beautifully marked goat and the chestnut and blue Kingfisher,
so that the Great Bustard with his "magnificent plumage" could very
naturally be the third item in the list. The etymology of fafhBT is however
beyond me and I can only offer a guess that the word is Prakrit—'fir' 'a
bird' and s f t h r — — l a r g e ; or fr. 'fe' and ft^R—frrq",, 'elephant',
as a bird occurs in fTPFT 3IKPP (536) and sncRr, verse 2105.
9. T h e Little Bustard is quite a miniature of the great bird just
described. It is only about eighteen inches long and weighs less than two
pounds. It is however a very pretty bird, sandy buff above pencilled with
black. The wings are black and white and the under-parts white. T h e
neck and breast of the cock in breeding plumage are black with a white
necklace and a white breast-band below it. It is a winter migrant chiefly
to the North-West including Kashmir and straggles as far east as Saharan-
pur in the U t t a r Pradesh. It frequents mustard fields, flies high, flutter-
ing and skylarking about in the air, whence its other name, the Butterfly
Houbara (Finn). It does not inflate its neck, has a very graceful gait and
runs very fast on the ground. It has therefore been most appropriately
named ffRf ( = black and white, & 'a pied horse') and described as
totter from its small size and habit of 'skylaiking', and f W 5 (thin-
*In both the Jataka stories 4I h a s been r e n d e r e d as the
I n the t h e expression ^TWf^T^T can
ing call of t h e G r e a t B u s t a r d , b u t in t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n
also said t o b e c a p a b l e of c a r r y i n g a w a y small .children. A p p a r e n t l y this last n a m e w a s
a p p l i e d to two d i f f e r e n t birds, t h e G r e a t B u s t a r d and the
the bird, A r t . 81. I t m a y also b e n o t e d h e r e t h a t t h e T u r k e y - c o c k
n a m e of ' f e e l - m u r g ' — e l e p h a n t - b i r d , in Persia. If t h e w o r d
in t h e lexicons it only shows t h a t it h a s n o t b e e n used in l i t e r a t u r e .
necked) as against WfTO for the great Bustard. as a fafw?: bird of gw^r
is certainly this bird. ^TTT^ also means 'a black and white horse' and it is
more than probable that the name implies an underlying similarity of the
breeding male with a smart pony decked out with silver trappings. The
erect gait of the bird and its speed on the ground also are quite sug-
gestive. T h a t similarity with the horse did strike the ancients is apparent
from the vernacular names like Wl-si^^(horse-heron) given by for
jftTO of and Hindi s f t r T ( s f t e r ) f o r the Great Bustard. An alternative
ST. 3.9.10.
note of Sf^iwii on grcff runs : ""3RTt p w w i ^d+i+iO ftffe:" which is
clearly reflected in "tfR^TTOTCR: gnffTO:" of ^ i + l s i . It- is interesting to
note that one of the riddles posed in5TR. fff|clT 23.11 is, "f% ?"
Which is the great bird ? T h e answer in the next ipsr, is "am 3mfte . ^ a S : " I
" T h e great bird is the am, the horse". Is f ^ t w the same as ffpfir ? The
riddle would thus consist of a double meaning of as an animal and as
a bird : cf and the vernacular names noted above.
10. Macqueen's Bustard or Houbara resembles in build the
Great Indian Bustard but is much smaller, being only about twenty
nine inches in length. It is sandy brown above, beautifully marked
with minute pencilling of black on buff. Both sexes have a black crest. It
is known as ftrar in North-India which is from Sansk. fd?t*m from the fine
pencilling of black (fd^lF^d) in the upper plumage of the bird and the
long crest. The equation from fa^nus^tr given above should be interpreted—
'thefa^PTfT; s a kind of fxiEw; or Bustard', otherwise it would be incorrect
as the two are altogether different birds. The Houbara, when attacked by
a trained Falcon and probably also in nature, protects itself by ejecting
foul-smelling liquid excreta on the body of the attacking bird which gives
u p the chase in disgust. Would the name EfiTW apply to this bird as well ?
Perhaps not. But it is evidently the ffFRFsr mentioned with in ^raTsiWV,
2105, so named from the habit just described (fr. f ^ , the evil smelling
asafoetida) . I t is also possible that "^Knii-f^KM!" is a compound name
t s r j k w ) for the evil smelling Great Bustard: cf. JK^KW an elephant in rut
exuding scented ichor from the temples. The flesh of all Bustrads except
the adult Great Indian Bustard is excellent.
11. T h e Bengal Florican is practically a black bird in the breeding
plumage with wings mostly white, and back pencilled with buff markings.
It has a long black crest and long black hackles on the lower neck and a
tuft of still longer feathers hanging down from the lower breast. The male
only refer to the boom- is twenty six inches long. O u t of the breeding season both the cock and
verse 2249 the ffcsrfiTT is hen wear a plumage of mottled buff and black. They love cover and live
in the grassy plains between the Himalayas and the Ganges though they
A d j u t a n t Stork. See note on have been found as far west as the J u m n a . The male is known as in
goes by the Hindi (fr. ^T,, a spy and are to move ? because of the bird's habitat and
for is not found movements in grass cover) and or 'kind of grass' and MT,
a peacock) in Assam, and 5PT*ftT ( ^ v m ) in Marathi. It has been a favou-
366 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

rite for hawking and is mentioned by the name of
STTC5T :—
"#*PETT ^Tftrrr Htsq- cfiRfl^qr |rf: l"—7.12.
in the vtf^RJ this habit. As however the crested bird is and this bird is ftra in
Hindi it would follow that the name though applicable to both was pro-
bably reserved for the Lesser Florican. The original name may well have
been 'a bird', i.e. a bird of the grass-land) or simply sfir—
'the playful bird'; cf. sr^sptsr for the sportive Wagtail.

I t is also probably the of and mentioned in the f w s m

£toron 1.175. Both these names evidently refer to the habit of
the bird frequenting grass covered plains
12. The Lesser Florican or Likh is the smallest Bustard known, and
is in form and general colour a fairly accurate miniature of the larger
Florican. T h e cock in breeding plumage has neither crest nor hackles on
the neck or breast b u t from each side of his head, behind the ears, spring
a number of long feathers, and three of these on each side are the longest
"sometimes reaching as much as five inches in length, and generally
exceeding three and a half inches. As a rule, the three longest feathers
are graduated, and though in some cases they are subequal, three is nearly
always a great difference in length between these three feathers and the
others, which may vary between one and two inches. These feathers, more
specially the longer ones, are spatulate in shape". * Evidently, therefore,
the total number of such feathers is not less than five on each side. The
illustration in The Indian Waders by Finn shows five, two small and
three long.
13. One of the different kinds of forceps mentioned in g ^ r , 1.10 was
designed after the shape of the bill of the bird s^P-H."! which seems to
be no other than the Lesser Florican with the separated feathers of the
ear tufts jutting out well behind the head. Now if one raised one's palm
to cover one's ears with the fingers spread out, the latter would represent
the spatulate feathers in position about the bird's head, and the pictur-
esque aptness of the name ar^srf^PT would be apparent. The Prakrit
expression 3T3rf?r" for a palm or hand with the fingers branching
out offers a very good comparison. It is explained as follows :—

"ap^zTRrfxcTT ^ •o m *rr ^II^IRH: d O

m^fnT
N f
smwv p. 188.

14. Another Hindi name for it is fcra1 which is merely a truncated

form o f f e f e f c r or RswfW?! (playing, delighting in uncultivated or grass
land). Both forms of Florican, particularly the breeding males, are in the
habit of constantly springing or j u m p i n g up high above the grass, as a
part of their love-play to attract the hens and the name clearly refers to

* S t u a r t Baker, Came Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon, P- 200.

 64
STONE PLOVERS
1. In this article we are concerned with only two birds of the group,
viz. the Indian Stone-Plover and the Great Stone-Plover. T h e y form a
very natural link with the Bustards and lead on to the Plovers proper,
and are found throughout Old World. They are ground birds of a brown
plumage, with a large head and large eyes, the latter necessitated by their
nocturnal habits. During the day they rest on the ground in the shade of
bushes or a grove of trees. T h e call of the Indian Stone-Plover is mostly
heard during the night (after dusk), more particularly on moonlit nights
—a series of sharp and clear whistling notes...pick...pick...pick followed
by quickly repeated double notes, pick-wick...pick-wick...pick-wick..., and
very often duets are indulged in (Salim Ali). T h e voice of the Great
Stone-Plover which frequents river-beds and sand-banks is a harsh croak
though " i t is also heard occasionally piping at n i g h t " (Smythies). T h e
piping call of the smaller bird is quite musical in effect, resembling that
of sharp taps on a well-strung small d r u m and has indeed been described
as "wild and musical".
2. T h e Stone Plover goes by the n a m e of or in Hindi.
has Hiifa* (v.l. TFrfofr) in the list of sff? birds. T h e name, from
W , means a ' d r u m m e r ' and ^ P i r w f ^ would be a 'pleasant d r u m m e r ' . Now
the Hindi name is directly from Sansk. +<HHnR=h1 with 5T and 7 of
the latter changed to T and T and the omission of fa so that both the names
WTFtfop and TPTfasf? belong to the Stone-Plover. T h e ^ r a t ^ m r mentions it
as sn^m —vol.. 2,276. 39.
3. sttfsrc (large-headed), is a kind of bird in M . Williams a n d
exactly corresponds to Hindi iffftrd (v.l. srcftrfr), another n a m e for the
Stone Plover. There is thus <fhrftn; for both the Great and the Indian Stone-
Plovers.
65
COURSERS & PRATINCOLES
Three species of Genus Cursorius are found in India. T h e y frequent
dry plains and are of the size of a Lapwing. T h e y are fast runners, so m u c h
so that like the spokes of a swiftly turned wheel their legs become invisi-
ble 1 , and the best known among them, the Indian Courser, found
throughout the country, except East Bengal and Assam, is characterised
by ivory or even china-white feet. It is evidently the of q^jcT placed
in the H^f group. Most editions of gsRRrfjprr give ftclTTCT instead which
however has been rightly omitted by M . Williams as it does not make
good sense. T h e N i r n a y a Sagar edition mentions s t w c r in the foot-note as
a n alternative reading, a n d this is given by M . Williams. Another n a m e
for the bird is fsfiTW which is included in the quotation from T T T R K given
by TO^T^rin his commentary on 95.28. Its name in Telugu (Dura-
wayi) also means 'a fast runner' and is the same as fcntwr of TTTT5TC and
'Swift-foot' o f j e r d o n .
T h e Pratincoles (Sand-Swallows or Swallow-Plovers) have short legs
and Tern-like action a n d flight. They have Swallow-like bills with a large
gape which helps them in catching insects on the wing. They hunt in
flocks b o t h on the ground and in the air. " T h e y keep to the open ground
...running at great speed in short dashes hither and thither as they feed
on various insects and small grasshoppers. They fly very strongly and at
great speed, constantly whirling and wheeling about as they g o " (Stuart
Baker). T w o of the species frequent dry land while the third is associated
with wide stretches of sand and shingle beds of the larger rivers.. M a n y
birds are known to perform "the broken-wing trick" when their nests con-
taining young chicks are approached by m a n but the behaviour of the
Pratincoles in this respect is particularly noteworthy—less so of the Ring-
Plovers. Douglas Dewar describes his experience in the following words :
"Swallow-Plovers were surrounding me. T h e y were nearly all on the
ground and striking strange attitudes. Some were lying on the sands as
though they had been wounded and fallen on the g r o u n d ; others were
1. Cassell's Book of Birds.
 366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

floundering in the sand as if in pain; some were fluttering along with one
wing stretched out limply, looking as though it were broken; while others
appeared to have both wings broken." 1 H u m e also records a similar
experience in Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds.2 Dewar comments that
" t h e little pratincole appears to be a bird having a singularly unbalanced
mind while it is breeding", and again, "it would seem that the pratincole
when in breeding condition, is sometimes so excitable that if one of a flock
takes fright, the alarm is communicated to its fellows, and they then often
behave as if attacked by an epileptic fit." 3
The Rwsii'* and $i<w<ril of jWtrTT ^ give names of some water-birds
as below :
i "3PT ^Wl"
fTjf^fiT y ^ P d + r i ^ f c m w r f c p
ii Tf^k: I ^ T f e i w p f V
iii " T f t w k : T f ^ T r r I f F p f t TTWff^T l"
iv i f ^ w n ' ^ ^ i j + j d V i"
v "*Kir«ird<iOsw i f i ^ t T T ^ f ^ r r " i
aiZTSR in ^K+Wrfir under T H ^ f ^ T 4
T h e extract (iii) from is from its stwfPmfET section which
implies that the names in every half-verse are synonymous, but a compari-
son with the extracts (i) and (v) from f a w ^ h r and ^TCTER shows that the
equation " i i t w k i | <:" is complete by itself and independent of the
equation "gi^cfl which latter therefore corresponds to " w f t
f r j f e T <a P"i1.1" of fssrPWW and "^tgaV of T h e second
part of f^TOTk, viz.," *ra" refers to a different bird
(Pipit, Art. 26-B). It is submitted that both the lines from ^Riwt belong
properly to the part of it and have been wrongly placed in the
sraHI+Mla section.
No. (iv) would then be divisible into two equations: ( a ) T f r f ^ f l 3
and (b) Pttwt ^i^jtjdl each referring to a particular type of bird. Now
as the name ^i^tatii is placed with Hvft and <st°-^tPi=tii in fsws^lq and with
XRirfbPT in gKM*ft, and also as the last three names mean the Little Ringed
Plover (Art. 71) it would seem that the author intends fPjf^T also for
the same bird. I t has already been stated that the Little Ringed Plover's
behaviour at the nest is similar to that of the Pratincole, though not so
markedly, so that it is just possible that the n a m e 1 was applicable
to both. Considering, however, the particularly exaggerated reactions of
the pratincole the name seems to have been originally meant for it and
came later to be mistaken for the Plover as well. This would explain the
mixing up of the names of the two birds, and once f r j f s m was equated
with the Ringed Plover the author was under a necessity to give a
separate synonymy for the Pratincole which he did with jW^^d)".
Now clearly signifies a very small water-side bird (cf.
and for the Rails and Crakes, Art. 58) and if T^Tfawfi' is a
Gull, which is as big as a Crow if not larger (M. Williams, and Art.68),
would be a most improper synonym for it. T h e name, therefore,
belongs to a small bird otherwise known as Pm^T. This last implies a bird
that moves and flies in all directions (faw) and the Pratincoles, as we
have seen, fully answer to this meaning, and their small size suits the
name of fawfa from faj+fa a bird that flies in all dircetions)
— is one of the birds prohibited as food in (Chap. 12) and is
l" Ibid. probably the same as Pw+I fT^f as a bird name is included in the list
quoted by WSdlcM^ from ! u n h in ^rtif^ll (85.28). We thus have f^pjfa, Pn^nsT,
^KMtft,
and for the pratincoles. T h e very apt name of f r w t is based on
h u m a n behaviour, e.g. PSMK, a Brahman, on being told by an astrologer
that his little boy of seven would not live beyond a year, falls to the
ground, calling bitterly, " M y son, oh My son."
"fT p - p j t f o TO ^ l"—frnSTTTFT, Pt. I, Ch. 43-11
C o m p a r e also :
" T R T IPR>F: qrfcrrft srcwr f r P ! s ^ n r K : I "—fesrre^FT,
p. 4 1 5
Commenting on atWTTsnr (V.8) ufcrcfer s t t s j t r has rendered f t t f ( T e r n ,
Art.69) incorrectly as fTKft ;fcr srfirjr ^ J ^ f w m f t , but the statement that f r ^
( ^ m t ) is a TOT faw i.e. of the size of a Sparrow is correct, for the small
Indian pratincole of the larger rivers in North India is not over 6.5
inches in length. This supports the interpretation of ^dJtJsV given above.

1 • Glimpses of Indian Birds, p . 206.

2. V o l . I I I , p . 231.
3. Birds at the Nest, p . 183.
4 . E a c h of t h e a b o v e h a l f verses consists o f t w o e q u a t i o n s e a c h c o n t a i n i n g s y n o n y m s
f o r a single b i r d a n d f o r m s a l l i e d t o it w i t h , h o w e v e r , t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e first h a l f of N o .
( v ) w h i c h m i x e s u p t w o m e m b e r s o f t h e I b i s g r o u p — S e e A r t . 80.
 67
66 SKUAS

CRAB PLOVER
T h e Skuas are large Gull-like birds seen along the Sind coast. T h e y
live on fish which they r o b from Gulls and Terns, pursuing t h e m in the
This " v e r y extraordinary b i r d " with a peculiar nesting h a b i t has been air until they d r o p the desired morsel, which they t h e n seize "(S. B a k e r ) .
placed in a family by itself. I t is a Plover-like white bird (16 inches) with T h e i r call is a piercing scream or gull-like " g a c k , g a c k " . T h e r e is n o
a black back. It nests "in colonies, often of great size, scooping burrows
Sanskrit n a m e for them, b u t from their general a p p e a r a n c e and habits they
a n y t h i n g from one to four feet long in the sand or, occasionally a m o n g
would be included in the general n a m e of for the large sea-birds
the loose boulders a n d rocks, in which it lays its one p u r e white egg"
like the Sea-Gulls and others.
( S . B a k e r ) . It feeds mostly on crabs and hence the n a m e Its breeding
grounds are on the islands a t the A d a m ' s Bridge, Ceylon, and
some islands in the Persian Gulf Ancient indian Law-givers were
undoubtedly m e n of religion and some of them must have come to
know this bird and its curious habits d u r i n g their pilgrimage to R a m e s h -
v a r a m situated on a n island next to A d a m ' s Bridge. Law-giver was
p r o b a b l y one such and he has included a bird called in the 14th
c h a p t e r of his Samhita in the list of birds prohibited as food for the twice-
born Hindus of the time. This is p e r h a p s the same as f=Midi, 'a kind of
b i r d ' in M . Williams. Both are from fer ' a hole' or 'to conceal' and imply
a bird t h a t lives or nests in a hole, t w i w , however, m a y also be from ^TT
sea-coast, a n d would seem to imply a coastal bird (cf. ^ i t K — M . W . ) .
Most probably, therefore, b o t h the names refer to the Crab-plover which
nests in a hole a n d along the sea-coast. N o other Samhita or ^irfa mentions
these names so far as I know, nor do the commoner lexicons give them.
H a d the n a m e applied to a n y of t h e N o r t h I n d i a n birds nesting in holes*
some at least of the lexicons would surely have given it. I n the circums-
tances it m a y be presumed that sage ^ftra having known the bird during
his visit to R a m e s h v a r a m m a d e it a point to include it in his list not only
as a curiosity b u t also to prohibit the H i n d u s of the neighbourhood from
killing it for food, particularly as it is so easy to catch it in its nest-hole.
All this is p u r e conjecture, and t h e r e m a y b e nothing in it, and if so, the
Crab-Plover of the extreme South must go like so m a n y other birds even
in N o r t h I n d i a , without an old Sanskrit n a m e . I n fact one has n o right
to expect Sanskrit names for u n c o m m o n birds even of North India, much
less of birds beyond its limits, except perhaps as curiosities in royal
aviaries.
• F o r e x a m p l e , Bee-eaters, Kingfishers, B a n k - M y n a s , a n d m a n y others.

68
GULLS
1. Alfred Newton, the great British Zoologist and author of The Dictionary
of Birds seriously questioned the wisdom of separating the Skuas, Gulls,
Terns and Skimmers, all placed in the genus Larus by Linnaeus, into
separate families (see Ency. Brit., 11th ed., Vol. 12, 714), and the last three
were indeed so placed by Blanford and Oats in the first edition of The
Fauna of British India (Birds), but, following the classification of Lowe,
Stuart Baker has separated them into distinct families in the second edition
and yet he admits the correctness of the earlier grouping of all three in a
single family. Since I have followed throughout the plan of the second
edition I must stick to it in the case of these birds as well.
2. Gulls, the "most beautiful dwellers of the coasts and marshes" are
medium to fairly large sized birds with long, moderately broad wings
almost square cut tails and webbed feet. The bill is stout and wedge-
shaped with the upper mandible hooked at the tip, and when hunting for
food they usually fly with their bills nearly on a line with their
body. The predominating colour of the adult birds is white with
a grey mantle, varying in shade from the most delicate pearl-grey
to dark blackish-slate, and the head is often more or less marked
with black in summer. The seasonal change is not great and affects
chiefly the colour of the head. The young are a mottled brown and
take three or four years to assume the adult plumage. They are grand
fliers and show perfect mastery of the air and wind, remarkably quick
and clever in their manoeuvres. They have voracious appetites and live
mostly on dead fish, floating garbage, offal of all sorts, insects, grasshoppers,
etc. They are in fact perfect scavengers of the waters and coastal areas
just as the Vultures are on the land. They pick up their food from the
surface of the water and never dive for it like the Terns, but they are
experts in catching with their feet any lit bits thrown up to them in the
air. They often swim and rest on the water floating highly like the Ducks.
The Terns, on the other hand, are of a small to medium size with long,
tapering wings, deeply forked tails, narrow and straight bills, short legs
and small webbed feet. Expert on the wing, their flight is exceedingly
graceful and when out for their fish food they carry their bills pointed
downward, scanning the waters below with their searching eyes for an
Gulls 339
individual fish or shoals of small fish at which they dive from a height of
10 to 20 feet. Unlike the Gulls they never touch any dead or putrid stuff.
The colour scheme of their body plumage is, in the majority of cases,
similar to that of the Gulls—-black on the head, grey on the upper and
white on the lower parts. Writing of these birds in his interesting little
book, Birds of the Sea R. M . Lockley observes that the Gulls and Terns are
closely related. " T h e y seem to fly like embodied spirits clad in grey and
white, though some have black hoods and some have black on their wings.
The long-winged and long-tailed Terns are altogether more volatile and
dainty and less aggressive than the larger and heavier built Gull-tribe."
Both are sociable, breed in large dense colonies, and are very noisy when
feeding in company and at their nesting grounds.*
3. Of the nearlyfifty known species of Gulls in the world seven are
represented in India, four along the coasts and four of these occur also on
large inland rivers, lakes, and marshes. All except the Sooty Gull and the
Slender-billed Gull, which breed on islands off the Mekran coast and on
the Mekran coast respectively and may be called resident birds, are winter
visitors with us. The Brown-headed Gull breeds on the lakes and marshes
of Ladakh in Kashmir and further east in Tibet. T h e Indo-Aryans may
well have been familiar with the Gull and its breeding habits before they
moved into India but at any rate they must have got to know about
those breeding nearer home.
4. Four of the species that spend the winter in North India are briefly
described below:
(1) The Great Black-headed Gull (length 26", wing-expanse 68")
has black head and neck, the upper parts pale grey and the lower parts
white. The bill is yellow and the legs and feet yellow to orange yellow.
In winter the head and neck become white streaked with black but
the summer garb is assumed as the bird leaves India for its breeding home
in Central Asia by about March-April. Its great size and magnificent flight
render it conspicuous wherever it occurs. In India it is found on all the
great rivers. I n addition to the usual food of the tribe this Gull has a bad
reputation for stealing the young and eggs of other birds. Its call is a very
loud raucous cry, much like that of the Greater Black-backed Gull, which
is described as a low ha-ha-ha-ha, a braying ha-ha-ha, a deep keow-
keow, a short barking note and a long drawn moan (Birds of America,
1936).
(2) T h e Black-headed or Laughing Gull (length 16") is about the size
of a Crow but with a much longer wing-expanse. In summer the head
* T h e m a l e G u l l invites t h e f e m a l e for c o p u l a t i o n b u t a m o n g s t t h e T e r n s either m a y
invite either, a n d , unlike m o s t o t h e r birds, c o p u l a t i o n m a y b e c o n t i n u e d b y t h e Black-
h e a d e d Gulls a n d c o m m o n T e r n s even after the eggs h a v e h a t c h e d ( J . Fisher in Watching
Birds, P- 173—Pelican Books). D u r i n g courtship t h e G r e a t e r Black-backed, the Lesser
B l a c k - b a c k e d a n d the H e r r i n g Gulls indulge in c o m m u n a l aerial dances ( J . Fisher in
Bird Recognition, PP- 140 ff. Pelican Books) .
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
and neck are chocolate brown, the upper parts pearl grey and the under- addition are experts in breaking hard and soft clams. These they pick up
parts white. The bill and legs are deep bright red. In winter the head from the shore in their feet and drop them on hard ground or rock from a
and neck become white with a few dark spots here and there. It lives height of 50 to 60 feet for the contents. They are coastal birds of Western
largely on worms and insects, following the plough for this purpose. They and North-West India but straggle far inland to the larger rivers and
also eat all sorts of grain, shoots of crops, sand eels, small fish, snails, slugs, lakes as far North as Kashmir and East as Cachar in Assam.
etc. and at times young and eggs of other birds. In addition to a harsh "gek, 5. The ancient Indians had evidently noticed the similarity of physical
gek" and a loud wailing "ka-yek, ka-yek"cry it also utters "long derisive features, close association with the water, and the noisy habits of both the
though far from unpleasant ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha, from which it derives Gulls and Terns and regarded them as closely allied forms, so much so,
its name, 'the Laughing Gull', for seemingly it laughs and no great that they named the former JTT (from roots J , f s or JT—to make a sound:
imagination is needed to assume that its loud cries are those of real mirth." qrr^, JTftr—fTc) and the latter JT^t as if the former, with their heavier
"Some observers call the sound demoniac or lunatic laughter, but to the build and greater dash, were the males and the latter, with a graceful form
writer's ears it is the joyous, buoyant, free laugh of the open sea" {Birds of and finer discrimination as to food, were the females of closely allied
America). Numbers are found together flying and wheeling backwards species. It is also probable that with Gulls named as JTT the smaller Terns
and forwards over lakes, jheels and the larger rivers and when not feeding were distinguished as frft" on the principle, ^rT^iMifefirsretiiHq
they rest either on the water or sands and banks.
qfe" — TOW, 3.5.7; e.g. we have T^F for the larger Common Grey Quail
(3) The Brown-headed Gull (17") resembles the Black-headed but and =itd+l for smaller Rain Quail (Art. 55). Some of the Sanskrit lexicons
the colour of the head in summer is ashy-brown instead of chocolate-brown. mention only three birds sharing the name fxx, viz., the Osprey, the
The bill and legs are deep red. In winter the head turns white. It visits Demoiselle Crane (^ter) and 'a kind of Eagle' (see si^f^TCT and M. W . ) . *
the plains of Eastern India during the winter and its habits and voice are Both TO and gsRT place f T T in their lists of'Birds of Prey' (sra^T:) for the
those of the Black-headed variety, following the plough for insects and Fishing Eagles including the Osprey, while both have s^pftr (very noisy)
worms brought up by the ploughshare. in the lists of 'Water Birds' ( » ) for the noisy Gulls. But as both the
(4) The Yellow-legged Herring Gull (23" to 25", wing-expanse 58" Fishing Eagles and the Gulls are very noisy the terms JXT and have
to 60") is, like the Great Black-headed Gull, a large bird with white head, been treated as synonymous both in literature, particularly Pali literature,
neck, tail and underparts, and a dark slaty-grey mantle. The bill and legs and the lexicons. M. Williams' rendering of 'sc^Pfsr as 'a sea-eagle' is cer-
are bright yellow.* Its call notes are similar to those of the common Herr- tainly correct but it is not so on the authority of TOT as we have just seen.
ing Gull, described as a loud and raucous series of "cack-cack-cac-cac-cac- The earliest homonymous equation for these noisy birds, barring of course
cac; or sometimes a querulous scream, kuh-r-e-e-e-e, kuh-r-r-e-e-e-e-e-ah, the D. Crane which is a ^rx but not but including the noisy Terns
mingled with duckings and subdued hen-like gobblings" {Illus. Ency. of and the Curlew is "^c^TfT^wft" of 3rR"?=f;t?r. The 3ff?r. feu. expressly includ-
American Birds). Like others they are omnivorous scavengers and in es the Fishing Eagles and Osprey in the extended synonymy: "spfwwt
TRFFTISH: FT^::", while the ^HS^TST includes the Terns and Curlew also with-

in it: —
* Sanskrit lexicons m e n t i o n (i) the white (jfk or for), (ii) the red (TW),
(a) fePTT tel^K: 1
a n d the black ( f ^ r ) varieties of Rape-seed or Mustard (#T) corresponding to
( b ) ^ f t f t JTcFFmR: I
Brassica Alba, B. J u n c e a a n d B. N i g r a o r N a p u s respectively b u t n o t t h e yellow (tftcT)
variety. A fourth variety is however mentioned by t h e n a m e of d e f i n e d as ( c ) fTCT (? J T f r ) I
^TTlifEr (of t h e colour of the feet of t h e f T T b i r d ) w i t h (coming u p naturally
T h e first equation i n c l u d e s — S T ^ f w t and f x r - f r f f (cf. jp; ^Hdlfdf«:
with t h e r a i n s i.e. self-sown a n d t h e r e f o r e w i l d ) a n d fa^R (not d y i n g o u t , h e n c e t h e s a m e
fefri 3 fkt—JpTcrafaOTrfe) as homonyms applicable to several different birds
as t h e p r e c e d i n g ) . N o w t h e variety Brassica C a m p e s t r i s , t h e yellow R a p e - s e e d , though
possessing a harsh voice ; the second to as noisy fish-
cultivated, grows wild i n N o r t h I n d i a a n d is k n o w n in H i n d i as q ^ T TOT. I t is, t h e r e f o r e ,
killing birds; and the third to ^TX or g k t as a noisy bird resembling a
submitted that (cf. TWTcT) is this yellow R a p e - s e e d a n d ^TX in its d e s c r i p t i v e
synonym, JTTTfesT, is no other than the Yellow-legged Herring Gull or the
G r e a t B l a c k - h e a d e d G u l l h a v i n g yellow feet. *TT. 1 . r e n d e r s J T T as a n d fTTW; a n d J T t t as t h e f e m a l e of J T T , b u t
(the s a m e as J W , j p x ) is e q u a t e d w i t h ( i j q f s r M r T , (ii) JTSPTSlt ( p o i n t i n g to t h e
N o other bird sharing the n a m e has really yellow feet. I pH .fl "
fishing E a g l e ) , (iii) fCTTsft", a n d (iv) a C a t .
(poetic for fTTt) has been rendered as '^Ptsr in the commentary on
g f t , commentator of ^ r ^ , r e n d e r s J T ^ as STWPfi a t p a g e 144
JRrferarqr^, page 248, The synonym y ^ l P w given t h e r e is h o w e v e r i n c o r r e c t . a n d t h e b i r d m e a n t is n o d o u b t a G u l l .
 480 Index
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
343
water-hen, viz., the Curlew. Now since commentators like irfer^r have
the wing (Arts. 69 & 72) Bearing these considerations in mind it is not
interpreted jptf as ^ f t ( ^ r , 14.68; see also commentary on
difficult to see that the numerous birds in the following passages
6 verse 90 fblIow
> ) " s that the f e m m i n e s ^ ^ f t and f x f t for the Terns relating to day-time scenes can only be the Gulls and Terns:
indUded thC §eneral com
r ^ ^ Prehensive equation,
gfTTsfx^^d": |
T h e several different birds sharing the names f ^ and ^ m a v ,
2 y be ^R^t: ^ ^ W r F ^ ? II T^T^nTcT, 3.158.56
distinguished as below:
(i) the -rferat-frr is the Demoiselle Crane (Art. 62) ; —^Tma", 3.21.43

(ii) the „ „ Osprey* (Art. 5 0 ) ; ^mftprfrtww 1 1 — T R m , 3.15.6 (Gal. edn.)

(iii) t h e ^ r - p r „ „ (IT^PTOFT) Fishing Eagles (Art. 52) ; srwnrflT sraf^^rvrn sf^fsrart: 1
(iv) the toi^ or g^Ptw-f^ )f >} Gull;
fTTr: TO? TOfaT: II—TTWT 4.52.12 (Bom. edn.)
(v) the ^ f l - f ^ T „ „ Tern (Art. 69) ;
(Vl) t h C Curl
The sportive duels of Gulls or a Gull trying to snatch fish from a Tern in
^ " " ' « v ; rarely ^ as perhaps in the TRT- the air over the Tapti river is referred to as ^ f ^ r in ^ ^ ^ ^ 6
or HUT (Art. 72).
verse 25. An important point worth noting in the above passages is the
It follows, therefore, that the particular bird or birds intended in a given fact that the poets have taken care to mention birds that are on the water
passage must be determined from the context, e. g. in the lists of Z at the water's edge, on the bank and those that fly in the air above for it
and w in TO and ^ as explained earlier in this article ^ T n is all these taken together that give character to a lake or river'scene
association with water-birds like the ^ or ^ would refer eithe; ^ Coming to the later names for a Gull we have for the Black
Gulls and Terns or the Demoiselle Crane; and ™ hteratu e headed Gull (M. W . ) or, for the matter of that, for any Gull and which
should be taken to include the Gulls, Terns and Curlew, for the Demo is perhaps from the following synonymy:
sefle Crane would be included in term * * for all Cranes, and the Osprey 2
5 sr^fr, fern ^^r --fsm^-sr
- d a s h i n g Eagles wouldfall within the general terms like ^ a n d X or
T h e femimne the
other hand always signifies e i t h e f t h . T h e name (Ganges-Kite') refers to the Kite-like scavenging habit
Tern or the Curlew as the contcxt may demand. It n r u s ' afso b n o ^ of the Gulls picking up offal from the surface of the water or tit bits
here that according to a well established convention birds of prey are thrown up to them in the air which they greedily catch with their feet
held to be rather inauspicious (cf. fef^r in 47. 4-7 and com! Referring to the coastal Gulls Salim Ali remarks: "Gulls are to seaports
mentary of and are not mentioned in passages descriptive of and docks whatkites are to inland towns and bazaars - efficient scavengers "
beautiful natural scenery while they are inseparable concomitants o L tie The name (fcfc ™ ^ TO «n 3 ^ ) r e f e r s either to their
r magnificent flight or s ^ f a ) to t h e i r s e a s o n a i v i s k tQ t h e
^ a t l 0 n g r O U n d s ' e t c - w h e r e the sentiments of disgust
T °
^ and fear
W a r e i n v o I v « * . Turning to the call notes of * 0 country from beyond the Himalayas (cf. ^ r m ^ r f ^ i : for the Himala-
common in simies, the reference is always to the sorrowful wail of women yan Cuckoos, Art. 37). Gulls being essentially sea-birds who "swim
when in personal danger or when in fear of the loss of their near and dear excellently and can be seen even on the roughest day, bobbing up and
ones Such a reference to a large number of women crying over a threa down on the waves as happy as can b e " fully deserve the picturesque names
tened loss during the day time is to the Terns as birds of diurnal h a b t (Wave-bird or Crow) and (Sea Crow). T h e latter term
who gather m large flocks, crying plaintively, whenever their eggs and is wide enough to include, in a general way, all other sea-birds as well
young are m danger. O n the other hand, references to a single woman or Hindi s m r (Dhomra in F.B.I, is probably a Bengali transliteration like
a number of women crying piteously at night or before dawn are alway •Jol' for m ) for a Gull should be from Sansk. ^ onomatopoetic for
to the Curlew or Curlews as these are chiefly heard at night and when on 'uproar or tumult' of festivity or strife (cf. anrorr, ^ 3 ^ ) a n d e mpha-
sizestheir screaming and scrambling habits. T h e equation, " s m r in
and
would seem to be based upon the story of a n ' o l d
* T h e O s p r e y is a w i n t e r visitor t o I n d i a a n d as it is noisy m o s t l y d u r i n g t h e b r e e d i n g
^ e a t i n g the eggs of other water-birds related in the M a h a b h a r a t a
season lt is s e l d o m h e a r d i n this c o u n t r y t h o u g h its call notes a r e a l o u d K a i l ^ a i T s Z
B
cable t ^ ook of Indian Birds). The epithet or a d n o u n t h e r e f o r e , is n o t appli-
g 1 1 13 m d U d e d 3 g6neraI W3y Within the t e r m
1. I l l u s t r a t i v e e x a m p l e s f r o m l i t e r a t u r e h a v e b e e n given in these articles.
Eagle. ^ ^ for a n y F i s h L g 2. F o r t h e second h a l f of this s y n o n y m y see A r t . 6 5 .
344 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Storks

2. 42. 32ff. No bird of the Goose family is known to eat eggs in a state of
nature and it is probable that some egg-eating Gull like the Great Black-
headed Gull has been called a in a mystic z) or etymological sense
of f^twlfd ^t:, and some old commentator perhaps rendered this ^r of the
story correctly by the local vernacular term of STW, a Gull. The lexico-
grapher would then seem to have picked u p the term STW as a Sanskrit
feminine form and rendered it back as f^T.
T h e Gulls as a class, we have seen, are of great help in maintaining the
cleanliness of the waters and the surrounding areas by making a clean
69
sweep of all dead and putrid animal m a t t e r and it has also been pointed TERNS
out that some particular species are of particular service to humanity by
destroying large quantities of harmful worms and insects which if allowed
to multiply unchecked would produce famine in the country, and history
1. A tern in general outline is an altogether more gracai, more beautiful
records how at one time the people of the State of Utah in North America
but a smaller edition of a Gull. 1 Unlike the latter it hi a straight but
would have suffered grievously but for the timely help rendered to them by
thinner and more pointed bill, long pointed wings, andiitnany species a
the California Gulls and how they expressed their gratitude to these
deeply forked tail. In size they range from ten to twentmches in length.
wonderful birds: " T h a t at least one community has not been unmindful of
They have a beautiful plumage, black on the head and ii, pearl to ashy-
the substantial debt it owes the Gull is attested in Salt Lake City, where
grey on the upper and white on the lower parts. Billegs and feet are
stands a monument surmounted by bronze figures of two Gulls, erected by often red. They are as noisy as the Gulls but unlike fern again they
the people of that city 'in grateful remembrance' of the signal service exclude offal and garbage from their dietary and live msiiy on small fish,
rendered by these birds at a critical time in the history of the community. sand-eels, crustacea and insects. They are very active al seem to have a
For three consecutive years— 1848 to 1850—black crickets by millions ceaseless flight which is buoyant, fast, easy and excemgly graceful. 2
threatened to ruin the crops upon which depended the very lives of the They are "among the most beautiful of God's creature The beauty of
settlers. Large flocks of California Gulls came to the rescue and devoured their form is perfect. Their shape is a dream of comelintsmd their move-
vast numbers of the destructive insects, until the fields were entirely freed ments are the poetry of motion. Wherever there is a riveitr lake in India,
from them. I t is no wonder that the sentiment of the people of U t a h , as there you will see Terns. You cannot mistake a T e r n ; tlilim white body,
reflected through their laws, affords Gulls the fullest protection" (Birds the long racing wings, the easy flight and the frequt descent to the
of America, 1. 38). In India, also we have the Black-headed and the water are a combination of characteristics peculiar to these feathered
Brown-headed Gulls who follow the cultivator's plough, gobble u p all the exquisites" (Douglas Dewar).
pernicious vermin exposed in the furrows and thus render a great service
2. They nest, as a rule, in large or small colonies or id-banks along
to us, and one would not be surprised if the Vedic Aryans too were fully
the larger rivers and the sea-coast, the nests being mertbllows scraped
conscious of their services and left a still more lasting memorial of their
in the sand. We can form some idea of the reasons behiuthis communal
gratefulness to them.
breeding if we recall the well known fact that people »e particularly
stimulated when working in cooperation in various fids like sports,
community dances, social activities, war, etc. and in tinwf danger group
consciousness helps to create confidence and a sense I security, and
ensures ultimate success of an undertaking. Applying iis analogy to
social birds like the Flamingos, Terns and others it wot eem that the
presence of large numbers on their breeding groundias the effect of

1. T h e r e a d e r is r e q u e s t e d to r e a d the first two p a r a s of t i e —ding article.

2. C o m p a r e the n a m e srrfif ( 3 F T — t t l M T O : one ths: constantly o n
t h e m o v e ) for t h e allied f o r m , the S k i m m e r . I t is m o r e t h a n p r o l i t h a t arrfir of t h e
R g v e d a m e a n t a T e r n as well as t h e closely allied S k i m m e r . T h e m is discussed in
t h e next article.

346 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
stimulating their sexual impulses which leads to simultaneous mating and
breeding among them. In other words the Terns would seem to have
realised in t h e course of evolution that their safety and survival in the
struggle for existence lies in keeping together and breeding in packed
colonies. 1 As a preliminary to mating they indulge in lock-displays and
social flights resembling the communal aerial dances of some of the Gulls,
e.g. the Herring Gull. The courtship display of mated pairs includes (i)
what has been aptly described as a 'fish-flight' where a bird with or with-
out a fish is sportingly pursued and overtaken by another; (ii) swift
glides from a height; (iii) slow-motion flights; and (iv) parading, bowing,
scraping, stretching and 'scissor-billing' when on the ground. Both sexes
brood the eggs and young and take part in feeding the latter, and some,
like the Sandwitch Tern, are known to 'pool the young' of a colony after
they are a few weeks old. 2 They are extremely demonstrative in their
affection for young and eggs, for " a human being has only to set foot on a
sand-bank for a scene of great excitement to ensue. Sitting birds rise from
the n e s t s , others arrive from the river,...and the air is filled with Terns
flashing backwards and forwards and wheeling round and round overhead,
their shrill plaintive cries indicating only too surely the presence of the
eggs and offspring they seek to protect" (Whistler). They also appear to
be very sympathetic towards their fellows that may get into difficulties.
If one is killed the others in the neighbourhood will at once come and fly
anxiously about uttering their plaintive cries all the time. 3 Salim Ali's
explanation of such behaviour when one has been actually shot down
into the river, is that "the unwounded birds think their companion has
discovered some food and are anxious to share the spoils" and in the
particular circumstances stated it would appear to be correct. Mated
Terns, again, are very attentive to each other, and ''one of the most charm-
ing sights o f a visit to a colony is to see one of these little, gentle creatures
feed his mate as she sits brooding her eggs".
3. About fifty species of Tern occur throughout the woild and India
claims no fewer than thirtytwo of them either as winter visitors to her
coasts and inland waters or as resident birds. Brief notes on some of the
more important Terns found in India are given below :
(i) T h e Indian Whiskered Tern (10") has a velvety black head and
neck, ash-grey body and black abdomen. It is a resident bird of lakes and
marshes. It breeds in colonies and makes a nest of reeds and rushes which
is placed on lotus leaves or other water plants in lakes or swamps. When
1. R . M . L o c k e y in Birds ofthe Sea (1945), p . 17.
2. J . Fisher in Bird Recognition V o l . 1 (1947), p p . 124-150. A c c o r d i n g to S. Baker
in F.B.I. {Birds), 1929, however, the S a n d w i t c h T e r n is very careless of its eggs. 'Pooling
t h e y o u n g ' refers to t h e feeding of the y o u n g in a colony b y the a d u l t birds irrespective of
w h e t h e r t h e y o u n g a r e their own, i.e., they a r e all fed in c o m m o n .
3. T . G i l b e r t P e a r s o n o n the L e a s t T e r n s ( T e r n l e t s ) in Birds of America
Terns 347
fishing a whole flock generally works in unison, commencing at the end
of a lake and working their way to the other end, when once more they
return to their original starting point. In this they resemble the Skimmer
who, however flies over the water very low, just a few inches above the
surface. The flight is most light and elegant, and the sight of a flock
feeding is a really beautiful one.
(ii) The Caspian T e r n (20")is easily recognised by its great size, large
red bill, black legs and feet, black head and grey and white body as it flies
singly or in pairs over the larger rivers of India. It breeds on the lakes of
Central and Western Asia, and the Mekran Coast wkhin Indian limits. It
is often mistaken for a Gull because of its large size and is known as %3>n
(a dialectical variant of f t f t ?) in Sind after its loud harsh cry. Describing
its ways in The Birds of America, W.L. Finley remarks that its greatest
anxiety seems to be to keep them (the young) crouching low in the nest,
so that they do not run away and get lost in the crowd (of other young
from the neighbouring nests). If a young bird did start to run out of the
nest, he was immediately pounced upon by his own parents and pecked
and beaten until he dropped flat on the ground or hid in the leaves. A
similar trait was observed by the ancient Indians as we shall see.
(iii) The Gull-billed T e r n (15") is rather stoutly built and in point
of body-shape stands intermediate between a Gull and a typical Tern. It
is pearl-grey above and pure white below but its stout Gull-like black bill
and legs of the same colour help to distinguish it from other Terns of the
same size. Its scientific name of 'Gelochelidon nilotica' (lit. 'Laughing
Swallow of the Nile') is after its call-notes described by Dr. Ridgway as
'a chattering laugh' {Birds of America). It shows great courage in defend-
ing its young. It breeds in Kashmir and other places in India and
frequents the larger rivers and lakes often singly or in twos and threes.
It feeds on small fish and insects and like so many Terns and Gulls, is
especially fond of grasshoppers.
(iv) The Large Crested Tern (20"), which occurs in several races in
India, is practically equal in size to the Caspian Tern but is readily
distinguishable from it by the yellow bill and a well-developed, long, black
and slightly curved crest. * They are coastal birds and one sub-species
breeds off the Mekran Coast and another off the Sunderbans in lower
Bengal.
(v) The Indian River Tern (15"-18") and the allied forms, the Black-
bellied Tern (13"-14"), and the Tibetan Tern (15"-18") are the com-
monest Terns of N o r t h Indian rivers and lakes, the first two breeding in
large colonies on sand-banks of our rivers, and the third on rivers and lakes
of Ladakh and Tibet and winters in India. Other members of the group
* Smythies in Birds of Burma (1940).
(1936).
366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

like the White-cheeked and the Common Terns 1 are coastal birds. All these Terns rarely settle on the water, and "it is a pretty sight to watch a
have black heads and crests, grey upper parts and white or white suffused flock of Terns following a shoal of little fishes with clamorous glee,
with vinous-grey lower parts. All have deeply forked tails. T h e bill, legs dropping one after another with a splash and rising again and chasing
and feet are yellow or red. The Black-bellied Tern frequents also small one another ceaselessly" ( E H A ) . Such a scene is recalled in the
ditches and village ponds for food. T h e River Ternlet (10") is following :
practically a smaller edition of its larger cousin, the River Tern,
ERrwdwr: s f i T IfCdfafa'frPidl: I
which it resembles in breeding and other habits.
fo*rrfcr<HkHli!|i1l: II —<IHWI, 4.30,59-
The common Sanskrit name for a T e r n is f r d as already noted in
the preceding article, and for a small Tern or Ternlet, $<f<°hl as we ( ju^ITH-D 1 , f r f r )
shall see presently. The Indian River Tern, a permanent resident — w f e r a ^ r q - , p. 248
and the most numerous with us is known as f r f f in Hindi as well. 2 j r f t f o r and the wailing of hundreds of women of Ravana's household on the
a female Osprey or Fishing Eagle (Art. 50) is merely a grammatical occasion of his death at the hands of R a m a is reminiscent of the clamorous
feminine of g m 3 a n d the term is never used in literature in this sense scene witnessed on a sand-bank when a large colony of nesting and
because the names of all birds of prey like w , JTT, «mr, etc. are always brooding Terns is alarmed;
used in the masculine irrespective of sex except in mythology where 'TSr'V,
sTrat, and are said to be the 'original mothers' of certain groups of f s t j r s s f a m r Trermfwftftra": i
birds in the Epics and Puranas 4 and JTErt is occasionally used for the f^q- I S SF-Wnf^TWT: 11 —TPTTSW, 6.110.26
Common Kite e.g. in sratsi^ster, 4.3 (see Art. 52). Moreover the Osprey
breeds very rarely in India and its callnotes are seldom heard in the Similar scenes are noticed elsewhere as well :
country as pointed out by Salim Ali in his Book of Indian Birds. T h e ^ f t ,
of literatures is therefore either the Tern or the Curlew according to T ^ r f R s ^ s r f c ^ r t snxrsrm- i
context. It must also be noted that the cries of birds of prey have $<'<NllfiHldlHi SSW 5 II — T . ^TT. 11.12.5-
always been regarded as inauspicious and are never used as a simile for
the plaintive wail of women of noble birth like or dramatic heroines arot Tist ^ d V r r crsrs^fts
like wrwt of To' render j r f f , in such contexts as the female T3R I — I b i d . 15.15.11
Osprey or the Lapwing ( ( f e f s n ) is wholly indefensible.
The Curlew 6 breeds outside India and is only a winter visitor with us. WSWrfWdMi I—gftwrlwrrqw, 4.24.
The ffcd of w i k , crying plaintively at the loss of her young, is there-
The above passages, it may be noted, relate to events occurring in day
fore the River or Black-bellied Tern, both breeding on the North-Indian
time. #T, a falcon, it may be noted, is a bird of diurnal habits.
rivers :
The Whiskered Tern unlike others, as we have seen, constructs a nest
m: m v i t a l f r r t s i of rushes and water weeds wound round a lotus leaf in a marsh or tank
and has therefore been very aptly named y+^nRi+i (mjnii&Mi in )
R f R faWS i f l c P f t cRTPT SSTSPTCft 3 R K II
explained as Tsmwrfim by on and this is the same as 'tl+y
S.t^f-'rf, 8.51.
(v.l. l l w ^ i f d , i.e. — ) for a water-bird in d< wra^, verse
1. W r i t i n g a b o u t the C o m m o n T e r n , w h i c h is a w i n t e r visitors to I n d i a along the 2104. The Vedic «IK 2 or <j&+<*K is therefore this Tern :
M e k r a n coast a n d is closely allied to our R i v e r T e r n , E . H . F o r b u s h says t h a t these birds
are useful to the fisherman as they serve to m a r k the schools of edible fish. T h e s e fish drive ^Fs^f: €l%n% cSPSIT —ST3T. 24.31
the small fry to the surface, the telescopic eyes of the T e r n s m a r k the d i s t u r b a n c e f r o m a f a r
a n d w h e n the fishermen see the gahering, p l u n g i n g flocks, they p u t off in their boats, well
knowing t h a t their w o r k lies there. (Birds of America-) 1. T h i s is a c o m p o u n d n a m e for a single b i r d b u t has b e e n incorrectly split u p into
Hl'HsH a n d tudt>, a n d r e n d e r e d as two different birds in the pali Dictionary ( P . T . S .
2. Suresh S i n h a in fpTrft M?*Tt ( A l l a h a b a d , 1941).
edition).
3. See A r t . 68 for the different m e a n i n g s of JTT. 2. y + ^ t K is r e n d e r e d simply as 'lotus-sitter' by K e i t h on tif^dl,
4. 3.14.19; JT.'STT. 1.66.58; 6.31-32; f f c w , 1.3.107; ?T5r 5. 5.5.14; : by ; a w r on ibid., a n d g^FOTSft Tf$rfwwk: by ^ c f ? on
3.93-94; a n d o t h e r P u r a n a s . It is hardly necessary to state t h a t n o T e r n feeds on a n y p a r t of the lotus
5. See A r t . 72 for J ^ f t the curlew. plant.
201
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Storks

cofs^T being the expert artisan of the gods three beautiful creatures have
been named as his sacrificial victims at the sj^ftet—(i) ^i-rPpgi.e. the Ttwrs
T^rfe^, the Weaver Bird which builds a beautiful rain-proof nest (Art. 22);
(ii) the prettily marked Coral Snake; and (iii) (one
nesting on a lotus leaf), the Whiskered Tern. This Tern is no bigger than
a Ternlet and has been correctly called $<r<+! and its nesting habit
as also its love for the young have been accurately described by f^r^rar ^rf
(see para. 3 (ii) a b o v e ) : 70
m : M)d=Mld+ j c f i + l : TO: II — c P l i W ^ , 3.2. SKIMMER OR SCISSORBILL

f r f e n means a small Tern or Ternlet but the poet would seem to have
used the term with a feeling of compassion also (3H+»-m4|i ^ r ) as is clearly
implied by the earlier pitiful remarks of the boy-hermit in the d r a m a :
3T^r HdPd'Jn-H'^rfcTirqFr: : I
In the above-context the expression wirsnr: has been correctly rendered
as pqrRHFPT by the commentator.
The Skimmer is a white Tern-like bird with a black cap, a white collar
and very long black wings. It is purely a water bird found on the larger,
broader rivers where their course is placid, flowing smoothly between
sand-banks. Occasionally it visits jheels and tanks, but only where there is
a clear expanse of water free from weeds. It is the most curious and highly
specialized bird and its "method of feeding is correlated to its peculiarly
formed bill. Both mandibles are deep and greatly compressed, m u c h ^ s if
two knife-blades had been set edge to edge; the upper mandible is con-
siderably shorter than the lower which projects beyond it by nearly an
inch. When feeding the bird skims along the surface of the water with the
beak wide open, the lower mandible inserted into the water and the
upper quite clear of it. As soon as a small fish strikes the razor edge and
runs up the incline the jaws close swiftly upon it. A party of Skimmers
flying steadily backwards and forwards along the surface of the water
appear "literally to plough the m a i n " with the lower mandible of their
bills. 1 Though the flight is slow and leisuerly when feeding, they can go at
immense speed when frightened. Their note is a shrill chattering scream
(S. Baker). Only one species of Skimmer is found in India. Other
species, known in America, have names like 'Cut-Water'. 'Razor-
bill' and 'Scissorbill'. It is known as mf-t<1 ('water-cleaver' or 'cut-water')
in Hindi. It is a faithful rendering of Sanskrit SKKl ( f r . smr 'water', and
3TK, 'to insert, to place in; Cf. srnr, a cobbler's awl or a probe, and
"srcrfwr •TTy+iftffl"—WTJ^tsr).
Existing lexical synonymies notwithstanding, and 3rc£l (v.l. snfe,
arrfV, srrst) are two different birds possessing two different types of bills
after which two surgical instruments named STTRtW and S T R I W were de-
signed by g w as mentioned in the gsproT^di.2 The snnhrw instrument is
3 4
r e c o m m e n d e d as a blood-letting lancet and as a pair of scissors . It is,
therefore, a dual purpose instrument and commentator accepts

1. Whistler & Ency. Brit. 11th a n d 14 editions,

2. 1.8.3.
3. P a r a g r a p h 4, i b i d .
4. P a r a . 7, I b i d ,
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

this and calls it by the alternative name of or scissors. Conscious of nature of their bills have been completely missed and for this not the
the fact that ttttc)' and sfHT were different, he was, however, misled by the commentators but the later lexicographers, who were each more of a
incorrect synonymies of arrrc and and equated arret with srartbft and grammarian than a field-naturalist, are responsible. T h e confusion dates
postulated two varieties of snrct characterised with long bills, one having back at least to the time ofaprcf*rf, and his false synonymy on the identity
a white shoulder and the other a red head, the first of which he called of the names of several birds has been copied in the later lexicons includ-
the 9TTTTt proper :— ing M. Williams. We have thus the following lexical equations :—

WTRtTOfirfa', W r r f o n N ^ : q f s r f w r : fgfsa: — (i) sr<rr«ird<ife»—srrpc.

a w ^ j t T r p s f r m , g r a ^ r ^ a ^ r srcrcrfr ?TSTT d ^ ^ - H ^ H H t F r ^ r k r - ( ii) 3Trfo HKlfUlfd: FTRT—^TTSa and f l ^ ? (srfsT. )
(iii) s n f d ^ l f e : ifTCTfoFT — t W c f t
(iv) i ( K i r « i r « i r d » w r W f a f e s r P r
As already stated, there is only one variety of the Skimmer in India and
the red-headed bird mentioned by him is no other than the 3TT3T or the
Black Ibis with a red papillated head (Ast. 80). His equation "arrfT ^HMtHldur ( v ) ?TT%: -iiKlfdMSft — o f •
qfeTfwr:" also confuses between the Ibis and the Skimmer, for the name (vi) -3Rwr<^ir<r«f —
srtM to cut', and T&fl <a broom') means (i) 'water-cutter' and
(ii) 'water-sweeper'or'water-broom', i.e. a bird that cuts the water or (vii) 3nfe i i K l R j . l P ^ fsfWT SMSTfTJft—H^HM'Mfa^
sweeps over it. Both these senses are perfectly applicable to the Skimmer
It would be seen that while m , f^rmr and have confused wnrft or
but none of them to the Ibis. The epithet ti^H^sr may be said to be true
auk with arrfc or anfc, t ^ R f r goes further and includes ^niferr in the same
of the Skimmer with reference to the broad white collar it has, but if it
equation, goes still further and brings in wrrfcr as well. It may
refers to the white shoulder patch of the Black Ibis, it would be difficult
perhaps help if,, before proceeding with the identification of srcrd the above
to maintain a distinction between the two birds intended by the commen-
names are allocated to their respective owners :
tator as both the epithets and TwriW would then signify the Black
Ibis alone.
(i) wrrfV, 3nfr, 3TT%, J)|<|ftr —the Skimmer
The editors of the Nirnayasagara Press editions of have failed to
(ii) 3rr€t, srrfe, 3irit —the Black Ibis (Art. 80)
understand the dual nature of the sKKHT'sf instrument as explained by
and also by the statement "^ii^mi hhiO^sO 5fT tfr •foUITa ^ r ^ i"1 in (iii) DKliWl (v.l. —the White Ibis (Art. 80)
the text itself and, falling back upon tp'crt, they argue that HKifl^q, as a (iv) W p T , WTFft —the Whistling Teal (Art. 84 C)
lancet and pair of scissors, must be two different instruments, for one and
the same instrument cannot perform both the operations : The other synonymies for sraft found in and tft^+rHSH have
proved of considerable help in identifying it as one of the names of the
(^SRT) STWT w f f a r w r f ^ n w ^ r ^nr Skimmer. They are SIT and F^wT. Wilson's Dictionary also equates F^T with
2 snrft. Now s r r means 'fixed', 'constant' and in music 'the introductory
crfHT^d^rj^sPT "Tsm ^rfafrrtfa" I
verse of a song recurring as a kind of burthen'. SJT^PT (CTTrtfTCTTTTT, atTTTTfrfpT:
Haranchandra's identification of mrfr with (i.e. 5Ktfo or Whistling —<l"KHq|jtefg*) is a particular mode of ploughing the land where a
Teal—Art 84c) is also quoted in this footnote and as the Duck's bill is flat plough or a team of ploughs proceeds straight in a direction to the end of
and broad a rider is added that refers only to the length of the Duck's the field and works back to the starting base-line, and so on. is fr. f^T-
bill and not to its breadth ! Nothing could be more absurd, particularly fTlTWl, wittrw and means 'to sport' and r^Hltf, cognate with ff^Tfrr, refers
when it is remembered that prescribes a length of 12 fingers or to a 'to and fro motion' (f^FRARFR, T F A R F R ) . If these senses of the words S I T
approximately 7 inches and the Duck's bill is less than even 2.5. inches. and f ^ r are checked up with the habits of the Skimmer as described by
The fact is that the identity of the two birds, 3TT^ and srtcI and the exact Whistler, no doubt is left as to the identity of snr, ff5*T, and srerct. The
bird is constantly on the move going back and forth over a fixed beat, and

1. 1.8.7. T h e P e r s i a n n a m e f o r t h e b i r d is also d e r i v e d f r o m a w o r d ( m a q a s s ) m e a n -
ing scissors. *1.62.
2. Foot-note to 1.8.8 ( 1 9 3 8 e d ) .
366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

the names 3tt1% (arcr and srcrfa sRftqfr araUr) also refer to this difficult for him to capture her. 1 T h e TOWWT^TT2 also mentions the story
trait of the bird; cf. fdfddr in synonymy (vii) above. The and describes the birds as frisking, skipping or flying over the water :—
statement "HSTT ®rrfw: ^SRRFO:" in MD^R-I T F R M ^ T also brings out the
1

close association of the 3tT% with a river. It flies very low over CTT AR^RAR 3TTCRT ? P R R HRMMRA I

the surface of the water—hardly a couple of inches above it—for

it must cut the surface with the lower mandible all the time—and,
therefore, appears to cut or sweep the surface of the water as it were
and this has given it the name of (srebfr, 'a cutter' or 'broom').
The name anft in is merely short for 5Rrft and supports the
derivation of the latter suggested above. The open position of the two
blades of the bill and their closing upon a tiny fish clearly resembles the
action of a pair of scissors and this, evidently suggested the w d TOW
as a dual purpose surgical instrument. The lower mandible of the Skimmer
projects considerably beyond the upper and resembles a knife-blade with
a vertically flat and rounded point so that if a pair of scissors resembling this
bird's bill is made it will act as a scissors up to the tip of the upper blade
while the projecting flat tip of the lower blade, if sharpened, will serve as
a blood-letting lancet. One can only admire the power of acute observa-
tion and originality of the Sage 5?j?r in designing his instruments. srr€V and
TOfc for the Ibises, and wrrfa for the Whistling Teal Duck will be found
discussed in the articles noted against them above, but a word or two in
explanation of how the different names came to be confused, one with the
other, would not be out of place here. It appears that the earliest lexicons,
now lost, gave the names separately for 'a kind of bird' but later when the
identity of the birds themselves was forgotten, lexicographers who, working
within the four walls of their study were concerned more with con-
siderations of Grammar and brevity than anything else, treated the names
as examples of substitution (according to "T^Rfttwr'', " ^ q k w ? : " , etc.,
and the changes of cf—£—s— e.g. in words like srfcPTT — qferr, qw^—rer,
— ' T O T — ^ r etc.) and therefore held them to be identical, that, in
short, all of them were variae lectiones (qTS#3T:) of one or two original
names. At the same time it is difficult not to blame them for overlooking
the distinction between stKlO and arret' so evident in gspr.
2 residential house is considered an ill omen :
In Vedic literature the Skimmer occurs under the name of srrfir in RV .
and in the ^r.fffpT. 3 In the former and her companion-maids are
discovered sporting at a lake by who goes in search of her. She asks
him to return home, adding, that fast like the wind as she is, it would be
We have already seen how parties of the Skimmers fly up and down
their beat over a given stretch of water (river or lake) and how when
alarmed they are capable of immense speed. T h e behaviour of ^ f t and
her friends in the form of anfa birds is therefore perfectly in keeping with
the ways of the Skimmer. The dedication of anfo with (a particular
type of Python, a snake being sTFR'ST in Sanskrit), and (the Spoonbill,
Art.79) to the Wind-god is quite in keeping with what as an anfo
says of herself—
pTq^T 3TcT WIwftiT I
and no further comment is called for. It is submitted that to render arr%
as ^T is incorrect.
In secular literature also the Skimmer has been mentioned, once in the
Ramayana:3
g % r r T^T cRPt jfl^nwdH, i
?r<iR^$wi+>r ^xhRRT: ii
and again in the <. 4. 6 :
s r a ^ f r a r f r g ^ K r a r f r ( ^ I c H i f a ) , ?rerfa q^rnr u
Here if it is remembered that the Skimmer is associated with perfectly
clean sheets of water and the Whistling Teal prefers weedy waters, the
alternative reading of STCTfa necessitates the r e a d i n g ' t o w t P t ' w h i l e sraft:
goes well with siw and srkra' (clear and cool) waters.
Like the Vultures, the most unlikely entry of a Skimmer (^shft) into a
^IN^ar ^ f t % f w f a r *Tf n f s — w f ^ r j m r , 2.20.17.
An appreciative reference to the charm that the 3n1% bird adds to a lake
should be a fitting close to this article : T h e Ducks are at home in the
lotus-bed at one end; White Ibises (w^) fishing along the edges; a pair of

1. 6.1.127.
1 "j,<Ndl 9TcT WFrf^T" 95 2
--
2- 10.95.9. 2. 11.5.1.
3. III.15.6 (Cal.Edn.), quoted under in 5ro^?<TJT.
3, 24,34,
204
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Storks

the Ruddy Goose resting on the water elsewhere; beautiful young ladies
singing in the shade on the bank, and the Skimmer sporting over the
clear waters complete the picture :—

dl < <1 ' i f t ^ F M + J ' - t ^ l H " M t l

T r a f e j r m r t d <H ^ f i i
71
gmfacr, p. 220,19
PLOVERS

1. Plovers arc round-headed and short-billed birds of open meadows and

sandy ground, not resorting to cover. They range in size from a small Quail
to a Dove, have rather long legs and walk and run freely on the ground.
They have no hind toe or only a rudimentary one and are, therefore,
unable to perch on trees. A majority of them undergo seasonal changes
of colour-pattern and, being winter-visitors to the country, their identi-
fication from a distance is a matter of some difficulty, and yet quite a
number of them have Sanskrit names based on some physical character-
istics and the nature of their call-notes.
2. The Little Ringed Plover (6.5"), the smallest member of the group,
is w f t (fr. W mustard, indicative of its small size and rolling or tripping
movement on the ground) and y^tfa+i ( ^ s n r sw 3tN<fd—ST^PTI^fur, or 'a
little Wagtail') from the black b a n d * below the white collar and the habit
of running nimbly in short spurts- along sand-banks and edge of the water.
Its smart, neat and trim appearance has won for it other pretty names
like Trsnrds^T and ^M^fd+l 'the Little Princess'. Its larger allies, e.g. the
long-billed Ringed Plover of Nepal must naturally share the above names
with it. The synonyms in f^+i^nlfci and s r a w r for these birds and the
Pratincoles have been considered in Art. 65.
3. The Red-wattled Lapwing (13") with its well-known call of 'ti-tee-
tee-it' or 'did he do it' is the most familiar of resident Indian Plovers while
the allied form, the Yellow-wattled Lapwing (10.5") is less common. The
Spur-winged Plover, (12") also has a 'did-he-do-it' call. These are
undoubtedly the fefjpr of sfK^m and other lexicons, ' m f e however is a
different bird according to ^na?, JR, etc., but it has been equated with
fezfe^r and other birds by others. An attempt must, therefore, be made to
clear the confusion if possible.

• B e c a u s e of this black b a n d the R i n g e d Plover indirectly shares the epithet of DM<ti"<s

with the a W h i t e W a g t a i l , a n d as it is smaller t h a n a W g t a i l it h a s been called
or g ^ r f i m — y ^ O d , W^li, w t — i r f c f r . The gram-
m a t i c a l f e m i n i n e often indicates the small size of a n o b j e c t — = f r r f w f i P W i ! T f e -
fesww t f e — a n r t . 3.5.7.
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

4. Some of the relevant dictionary meanings, lexical synonymies and keep standing in shallow water for hours waiting for prey to come to
a couple of other references given below would perhaps be found useful:— them. This trait of theirs and the possession of thin crests may be explained
( l j . ' q f e p — ' A kind of water-fowl' and the Lapwing in M . W., and with reference to the derivation of the name given in the TTTFSRV Jftrr on
'-•Mj'tji' in and Ki«j|«ilawful. 3TTO and elsewhere, srer Tfedx^nFr" to which I would add another "%
(2) ^tofe—'having legs like sticks', the Lapwing (or a small white qfefwpr". If the word Tfc in the latter derivation is taken for 'a. stick' it
Crane, commonly called Paddy-bird) in M. W. would be true of the Water-cock as well. See Art. 58 for Water-cock and
(3) f w f r Parra jacana or goensis—M. W. ( = t h e Red-wattled Lapw- Art. 82 for Herons.
ing) 6. The equation "+W<>d: f w f t TOY' is, therefore, equally true of the
(4) fefen and fc-feror-Parra j a c a n a — M . W. Green Plover and the Water-Cock. This is evident from the fact that it
has been extended to include sraf in Nos. (7) & (8) Sbove. The name
( 5 ) +11*1+1—
f w x t means 'pointed', 'crested' and 'erection of the hair on the body'.
(6) : fwtt — t i n R f t •+1 or srRfewr again, as a bird with powerful call-notes is either a fefcsr,
(7) +"Utftd: HfiyO —srfw^f^mrf^ the Red or Yellow-Wattled Lapwing, or the Water-Cock according as the
(8) VFrfe: —(d+iwlq bird is placed in a drier or wet zone or with water birds. O n the
(9) ^WFE: FEFEW:—SM^R other hand Wrfe, or more correctly as a water-side or tree-perch-
ing bird is any (one or more) variety of the smaller crested Herons or
(11) ^ k f e or +l4ftxi+ and fcfbr are different birds in (i) Bitterns. 1 Unlike the piercing and persistent notes of the Lapwings the
5.11 & 13; (ii) TORT^cm 118.50-51; (iii) srrofar; and ( i v f q r a - voice of these birds is a mere croak, uttered at intervals.
^ T , 1.173, where +W<>d has been loosely rendered as ^V^r, i.e., 7. Names like ^ t a f e r 2 and ^"firfeTOT3 are clearly formed on the analogy
Egret or Heron in the froTSTCT dfaT (cf. the expression of fcfewand fefeTO? and point to the adaptation and appropriation of the
for 'birds resembling a Crane' in W W , 4.48). term (small crested Heron) for the commoner Lapwings and they
5. A consideration of the above material shows that originally the too, like Jlftd+I, mark another stage in the assimilation of the name +kf«>d,
terms and fefew, corresponding to ^fafo and of tot,1 with for the Lapwings. It must, however, be noted that the poets
applied to different birds and it was through the already existing jqfefrr have used all the variants of indiscriminately for the Lapwings or
as a synonym for fefe'ff that the name ^ w f e also came very early to be small Herons according to the needs of the metre in hand. Thus even the
identified with the red and yellow-wattled Lapwings. The terms form has been used for the smaller Bitterns in TTWTf (Art. 82).
f r f e p r (diminutive from masc. and seem to form a In the following examples the birds meant by vfafc, and ^rtrfc^
sort of homonymous series based upon two different senses of ^rfe for (i) are the Lapwings:—
a stick or support, with reference to the longish legs or horn-like crest o f a
bird, and (ii) hair or anything thin or slender, referring to the thin and
longish crest-feathers possessed by others. Similarly the prefixes and i r t H F t H SfPflRffet cTSS JTfS II
suffixes f , and would seem to have been understood in several senses, TRWT 3.75.12
e.g., (i) jfferaw, a^mf, (ii) a variant of ^—srp?; (iii) fifR:; (iv) ^—
and (v) +•1—m+ki^. Thus mI^ti as a homonym should be (i) the Water-cock
favfkW ^ f j ftm n
(ftrafT or with a horn or stick like appendage on the head and
Ibid., 2.54.43
(ii) the Black-winged Stilt, a bird of the Lap-wing family, characterised
by very long legs and called snrotft (the long-legged) in the vernacular, \ o -o

j^fri+i would then be (i) the Lapwings with shorter legs in comparison to
the Stilt and (ii) the Green Plover or the Peewit with its long, thin, 2.30
pointed and recurved crest, sfhrfe of tot, TO, etc. and R>d+ (m+kut
1. ^ r p r f e h a s b e e n r e n d e r e d as i.e., a H e r o n like b i r d or alternatively as
ofstro, ^spr, and TO^fa are the smaller crested Herons and Bitterns which
in t h e s a m e sense in t j 1.173.
2. R a m a y a n a 2.54.43.
1. M . W i l l i a m s gives by separating "faftil?jqfe^l" of TOP in
correctly. 3. I b i d . 5.1.44, a n d A l l a h a b a d E d . , 6.38.9.
360 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Plovers

Lapwing has a mewing wail of a single loud and harsh note and occurs
<T-H>lRM<tHMW: ^fflfTf^nf^SRPT 11
as a 'not uncommon' winter visitor in North India. The name there-
JTM, 58.24. fore, most probably refers to it.
STCflTpr I
10. The wrn^r* bird (?), has been dedicated to the sun in his friendly
aspect along with two others, wr^T the Bee-eater and the Paradise
srmer, 8.2.15. Flycatcher (Arts. 40 & 11):
8. The Red-wattled Lapwing being one Of the commonest birds of
STT'T: M W ^ WT: I
India has earned for itself several other names and finds a place in
literature under the n a m e o f f e f b r . It is a very demonstrative bird, is *TFST. 24.33
greatly agitated and becomes noisy whenever a human being appears
anywhere near its nest. Its anxiety for its eggs or young accounts for As the first two are insect-eating birds it is probable that mmu^-ft too has
names like sroikr (ar^-f f r ?) of the and ap*pr ^ ?) of similar habits. T h e name perhaps bears some analogy to spisfxwr and
tspp^t. T h e epithet for the Red-Wattled Lapwing, and may possibly be derived, spr+arn^-f
^cTRSPPT indicates its habit of resting or sleeping while i.e., a bird that lays its eggs on the ground and cries (# m^) anxiously
standing on one or both legs, but the story-teller forgetting the original for them when in danger. If so, it should be the same as fcrfe'ff. All the three
sense of the birds are beneficial to the crops in the field, orchard or grove. Moreover
expression has founded a wonderful conceit upon it. The their striking colour-patterns are best set off during flight in the sun. T h e
bird is said to sleep on its back with legs stretched straight up with the mild sun of the winter-months is indeed a friend to man as are these
deliberate idea of protecting
3f?ST<3r fefpr: itself
TOB should
STfw the
f ^ heavens
T : I* fall down upon it ! birds:

fad'Hid'N
• w r srWrsrt ^ r : C i
A king is advised simply to ignore the unworthy pressing his request
repeatedly like the Lapwing : —
TTWff Sftfara': q ^ fa^r: Wldd 1 : I
fefjpi cFtFTTOd' TfFfTTTcT, 12.114.4.
f<T3TFT, 43.21-22.
Both this and the Yellow-wattled Lapwing, as also the Spur-winged
Plover are =hd<wi"i from their harsh cries and the first two are from 11. The most prominent feature o f t h e Avoeet is its long, flexible and
their yellow legs and (sjjTT gifspif—a scar—sr^Rrftftw) f r o m their upcurved bill with which it probes into the mud for worms and insects.
permanent scar-like wattles: The upturned bill reminds one of a digging tool or a ploughshare. Its
Hindi name f f w ^TfT (a Snipe with a bill like a ploughshare; fr. jftr^, a
ftfpfr Hl'dMK'SSr ^KMcTT •pTFR: ploughshare) is the same as +RI+H"), a water-bird in and +|iifl+l,
-o
and ("37pm qfsr5rrf%:"-^lTf% 4.16; 51; W t o j ^ r :
and OT a thong which is of course flexible). again, (from JTif to
9. The of TTOT^TFT, ' T ^ T M I W H C T T ' would also seem to refer to
draw out or extract) occurring in 5. 5. 13 appears to be the same
a particular Lapwing as the name is analogous to +d<ttiui. The Sociable
as ^rfa^T . Prakrit Ipffat also is the Avocet. qfe-T as a probable name for
the Black-winged stilt has already been mentioned. Another vernacular
• S i m i l a r l y , the poets, c o m m e n t a t o r s a n d l e x i c o g r a p h e r s h a v e m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e name for it is viwftft (red-legged) which helps to identify SPTRFTK (red-
name a G i r a f f e , a n d i n t e r p r e t e d it as a f a b u l o u s m o n s t e r w i t h eight legs, t h e n o r m a l
legged) , a water-bird in 4M+I% as this bird.
f o u r a n d a s e c o n d set g r o w i n g u p w a r d s f r o m t h e b a c k . See 3tir^<|U| of 27, 70
a n d 31, 25 w h e r e t h e 3tȣiH<; t a k i n g a s o m e r s a u l t i n t o t h e a i r is d e s c r i b e d as l a n d i n g safely
o n his s e c o n d set of legs. T h e b o d y of t h e G i r a f f e is m a r k e d w i t h a c h e q u e r e d p a t t e r n resem-
b l i n g a c h e s s - b o a r d ( 3 | i d | i K ) , a n d h e n c e t h e n a m e . Lexical e p i t h e t s like >dtHI<*+
*More probably, it is the same as SW^fT, the Spiny-tailed Lizard known
( s t a n d i n g h i g h o n legs), ^ t H f S J ( h i g h - s h o u l d e r e d ) , and HH (looking
as ^TTST in Hindi. It is found in open sandy places. Like the garden lizard,
h i g h u p ) also b e l o n g t o h i m . I t is i n c o r r e c t t o describe as a f a b u l o u s a n i m a l though
it loves t h e s u n . I n f a c t , like o t h e r r e p t i l e s , t h e l i z a r d s dislike cold and are
as d e s c r i b e d in t h e a b o v e w o r k it is c e r t a i n l y u n r e a l :
active in bright sunny weather.
 Plovers 363

362 Birds in Sanskrit Literature the body of which it picks up parasites and as the monster is sunning him-
self on the bank with the mouth agape, the bird boldly enters it to draw
12. T h e beautiful, though curious-looking, Ibis-bill has been rather out the leeches sticking to his jaws. It renders another service as well to
doubtfully placed with the Plovers in The Fauna [Birds) of India. It has him, in that being a very wary bird, it flies off with warning cries at the
a long, curved and red bill, red legs and feet, and wears a double band approach of danger and the crocodile taking the warning slips into the
of white and black as a gorget or necklace separating the blue neck from water. Another Plover popularly known as the Zick-zack (Hoplopterus
the white under-parts. It is a bird of the banks and beds of the Himalayan spinosus) is also said to have similar habits. It will be readily seen that
streams, ranging in summer between 8,000 and 15,000 feet and in winter the leeches are the *mr and the warning cry of the birds is the cry
between the edge of the plains and 10,000 feet. of the story. It is p r o b a b l e that in former times one of these birds fre-
13. The n k h < l^rgsr recommend., the flesh of the f W i bird ( ^ P + T quented the Sind coast or the estuary of the Sind river where Crocodiles
having a beautiful or ornamented neck) at the 3RnmH ceremony of a male occur, or else the ancient Indians heard of the b i r d ' s habits from the sea-
child if his father wishes that he should be long-lived. T h e commentator faring merchants of ancient India. T h e Plover lays its eggs in a hole in
gives as a synonym for p w . Now *fnfpJT means nfciti*.:, TTFT:, a the sand and hence the name ^frrffsiffa. T h e habitat mentioned as
garland in and HHM"fi twrafslsr:" in Jr^y+Indl+IOK. ffJT=m: q*" would seem to refer to the country beyond the south-western
T h e bi-coloured gorget of the'Ibis-bill is certainly a ^r^pr both in the o u t - s p u r s of the Himalayas, viz., the Suleiman Range, considered as a
sense of a garland and a multi-coloured set of lines, and it is therefore wing o r e x t e n s i o n of the Himalayas. Evidently the territories to the North-
more than probable t h a t the above synonymous names belong to the west of the Indian Ocean are meant.
Ibis-bill. It is known as Tnn (fr. sreif a halter or neck-rope) in Nepal.
It will also be seen that the bill of this pretty bird resembles that of the
snfl (Black Ibis) the flesh of which is said to ensure holy lustre to the
growing boy, and like the latter the auspicious red colour is very pro-
minent in the Ibis-bill. The bird's habitat would seem to protect it
against persecution by man and so to ensure it a full normal life. Consi-
derations like these would account for the selection of the bird in the above
context.
14. Finally the wfa^rgjfa* of the T^rflrcr (2.41.19-21) cannot be
omitted even though it is not one of the present-day Indian birds and
therefore not included in The Fauna [Birds) of India. The relevent verses
describing the curious behaviour of the bird are reproduced here:—

^ r f w r w P T f r f r r <mf f ^ m : TT I
vfrcr? ! ciwr: STPT: II
*n m ^ r f w t e *rr H^T JTPJRT fer i
STftf ^TSc-HH'lidl'4 ^ r f t T T ^ S n t II
TT ff q-raTW ^TCTT ! 'T^TcT fafFT WScT: I
^^TRRf^'T^T q W ^ S ^ ^ T T T II

The word in the above passage stands for a Crocodile (Cf.

synonymous expressions like j w f ^ f and and wfw^T^fw is the
African Plover, Pluvianus aegyptius, commonly known as the Crocodile
Bird, so called from its frequent association with the Nile Crocodile from

r^-yjdlfa ^T^t T f e f w i k : — Hl<H+»5 on t h e above verse.

T h e b i r d is n a m e d TRTT^T S l j f t ' b y l i p f ^ in T f t f w q^T, 3.141. T h e a u t h o r ,
however, d i d n o t k n o w t h a t the bird was a k i n d of plover, for in the story related by liim h e
makes the bird p e r c h u p o n a tree w h i c h t h e Plovers never do. H e h a s also m o d i f i e d the
version i n t h e M . B h .
 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Ruff & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 365

TTET5T, the hero of the drama WRcffrTTHT by i w f e compares the soft and high-
pitched piteous cries of his beloved HMd) as she is on the point of being
sacrificed to the goddess +M+I with the 'most mournful wail' of the jTTt
bird:

hi i d PM;fHarc i
72 (Vtfr+tfT qfrfara" f s ^ l y w i ^ P d n Act V. 20
CURLEW, GODWIT, SANDPIPER, RUFF & REEVE, WOOD-
COCK, & SNIPE One of a group of love-lorn maidens ('Mt) of Gokul, when they find it
impossible to go to sleep at night for thinking of their "beloved Krsna,
1. This family comprises the longer-billed waders some of which are as
questions a solitary Curlew calling in the air in the following words:
large as a common fowl, others as big as a dove and yet others no bigger
than a sparrow, the majority, however possessing long legs.
2. The Curlew is a sandy-brown bird as big as a common fowl, or to frfi ! srafasrr a- srt,
quote from the Britannica: " I n bulk the Curlew is not less than a crow, SSfifcT ^PlPcF T T ^ s k t T^sftsr: I
but it looks larger still from its long legs, wings and neck" (11th E d n . ) . sqf^qr *rf% ! ^{w^rrePsP^^aT,
3. It is a winter visitor to India, arriving in September and leaving by
the middle of May. In winter it is found inland in small numbers—singly,
s n w r , 10.90.15.
pairs or small parties—about jheels, marshland, and rivers, but it is
rather more plentiful along our seacoasts (Salim Ali). It is active during It will be noticed that both the above examples relate to occurrences late
both day and night but its call is mostly heard at night. " T h e commo- in the evening .or at night when the Curlew is often heard high up.
nest notes are a loud musical quoi quoi and crooee, crooee, crooee,...
with the second syllable higher-pitched and more emphatic than the first 4. When R a m a returns to his hermitage after killing Marica he
expresses his fears to his brother that Slta has probably been carried away
and often uttered in long sequences. T h e song begins with a succession of
by blood-thirsty Raksasas and how she must have wailed like a jrCr: "^t
low long drawn-out liquid notes, the first three or four delivered in a
f^TR *TT *i=kH<ii™+icH<?ii"—TTWI, 3.63,11. Similarly the wail of
rather slow measured manner, Oorrr-oorrr-oorrr..., then gaining speed
and passing into a louder and higher-pitched bubbling trill impossible to Sita, when she was abandoned by Laksmana at the bidding of R a m a near
the hermitage of sage Valmlki, has been compared by Kalidasa to the
render in words, finally sinking again and often ending with some low
plaintive Cries of the fptfl" :
notes like the opening ones" (Smythies). S. Baker describes the notes of
the Curlew as a haunting cry of 'curlew cur-leW' heard far overhead
at night and a loud screaming note when frightened or disturbed. 3T JTrFi^ ^'y'dTPd'mTcr P^RT WS: I
It is quite possible that the Curlew in India does not give us its full Raghu, 14.68.
repertoir but a shorter version of it. T h e relevance of the above
detailed description of the bird's "plaintive voice" fully manifests The following verses refer to the great sorrow of the ladies and maids
itself when we come to references to j k t (masc. fxx, the Curlew) in at the palace of prince srf^reg who had been suddenly abducted away
Sanskrit literature. The name j r t f ( j t t T is probably a copying error) in the at night, and the poet wishing to present an impressive picture of the
single-names-list of +<rHsi+Ur is perhaps different from the feminine of f r x of pathetic scene has campared their wail to the plaintive cries of hundreds
of Curlews:—
the equation"!',•Ck^isi:" i n the same lexicon and most probably refers to this
bird. In other lexicons, however, the synonymy is comprehensive enough.
a c f t s f a ^ J T >r| I
The following simile based on the plaintive notes of the Curlew gives
us a very vivid picture of the sorrowful wail of a young lady in distress: frnt a T w r ? ^ : JTS ^ ^ipr 11 ^Pcsw, 2.121,1.
a t t ^ H K W ^ a f f T T l f t s ' SlWfa; I
Wf fdHM-cff I[fTJ|: II arot f ^ a ^ w a t y f 1
I ^ T T O , 3.63.20 j<0«iirHcn+i^i wdl^fi *rpr?r: 11 jb. f 2.121,12,
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
5. T h e Whimbrel is a smaller edition of the Curlew but it has quite a
different voice—"titti-titti-titti-titti-titti-tit in very even time and with even
emphasis throughout" (Smythies). This bird is also known as 'titterel'
from its voice in England, and it would seem that Sanskrit fcfe is for
it though the name has been confused and treated as synonymous with
fdiP-tT. The name, however, occurs with single names of several other birds
in the VFTsT^tw- " ^ r f e : fefesr: fcfe JTTT (?JT9T) Everyone of these
names stands for a different bird just as single names of thirteen different
birds are given in —'%tf few frctat ..". also gives a
similar list. It is the proximity of ftd and feefbr in passages like these
that has led to their being wrongly treated as fully synonymous and some
commentators have incorrectly explained both frfV and ^rprfer as fddfdw.
6. The Black-tailed Godwit (16 inches) is a migratory bird, visiting
Northern India in flocks of fen to over a hundred from October to March. It
has a particularly long and straight awl-like bill, 3" to 5" long with
which it probes into the mud for worms, insects etc. It is evidently the
very expressive STRT or ANXTTOF ( STRT —having an awl-like beak) of the
corresponding to its Hindi name in Nepal, WT5TT from w , ' M u d '
and JpHT,'a bamboo-pin'. It is also known as ^rr ^TfT (large Snipe) in
Hindi (per J e r d o n ) and Jprr also in Hindi from Sansk. sre, sre, wm to break
or pierce—H. 'sMi to dig and jfr^TT to prick or pierce, whence one
that pierces (the ground).
7. Snipes are ^ T f k w n ?) in Hindi from their habit of springing
suddenly out of cover in marsh-land and their confusing zig-zag flight. In
Bengal they are known as ^rrcr'^hT (^tft, mud and to scratch), the
same as S a n s k r i t ( < ^ f , mud and y, to scatter or disturb). T h e resem-
blance of the colour of their plumage to that of the Quails accounts for their
name th^tt^t (Water-Quail) in Marathi and ^-Hdfd+i in Sanskrit. The Eastern
Fantail Snipe breeds in Kashmir and the Himalayas, and the behaviour
of this bird during the breeding season was certainly observed by the
ancients who named it ifr^ish: 3rmt or sn^nrf ^r, w l r , the
fwfftr tree, Accacia sirissa, so called because its numerous dry seed-pods
vibrate and produce a rattling sound when shaken by the breeze). The
Fantail, when flushed from its nest, soon mounts aloft and executes a
series of aerial evolutions of an astounding kind after wildly circling about,
and reaching a height at which it appears a mere speck it abruptly shoots
downwards and as abruptly regains its former elevation. This process is
repeated many times. A few seconds after each of these headlong descents
a mysterious drumming sound is heard—evidently produced by the rush of
air through its tail feathers as the bird shoots downwards (adapted from
Ency. Brit. 11th Edn.; see also Whistler and other authorities) . The bird
is silent on the ground and when alarmed rises with just a 'pench' call
which cannot justify the alternative derivation—"tfe 5f% w f r : arfir < I H H ; " —
SWDUHS^. T h e term implies a continuous sound (3|RHMMC=I) and it is in
Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
recognition of such a sound that the fsnfa has been named w f t or srafeff-
The above description ofthe bird's flight and the consequent 'drumming'
therefore fully bears out the beautiful name, ' f r w k , given to it and the
faWOTT e q u a t i o n — " ' f r w k : q-^+K:" should be interpreted to mean that
>fiwk is a kind of or Snipe, for every q ^ k is not exactly a
Thus we have l ^ K and as common names for all Snipe, and
J f r e 3 ^ for the Fantail, indicative of its peculiar drumming habit.
8. The Woodcock is a medium-sized and long-billed Himalayan bird
(14 inches) whose russet-coloured plumage somewhat-resembles that of
the Common Grey Partridge. It is also about the^ same size. It moves
down from its breeding haunts in the Himalayas from 8000 to 12,000 feet
to the plains in winter. It is known in Nepal as ftmfpfRj or ftmcffar,
names which directly derive from ftrr-or f ^ T - j ^ : ; or far-or ffT-ftrftrc in Sans-
krit("fqrc: Msrc flWt f^rtsft for 'snow'—fsrwt) and it must have
been so named though these terms are not to be found in the present day
lexicons. (Pseudo- or imitation-Partridge) is mentioned in
(547) with ^Pfw?; and faftrt for the Grey and the Black Partridges in
verses 2098-2099. As a Himalayan bird, therefore, w f o f a r : is most proba-
bly the same as Hindi fim^R, and the name may well be from Sanks. W -
R r f ^ (a mimic or false Partridge). also means 'a jester' and the name
most probably refers to:
(i) the male Woodcock's habit of flying playfully backwards and
forwards in an arc with alternate croaks and squeaks during
the breeding season ;
(ii) its curious and twisting flight in and out of trees at a pace that
is very deceiving; and
(iii) its 'acting' to entice one away from the nest and young by
shamming injury and then flying clean out of sight after a
while (S. Baker).
If so, the name K - o r W - f e for it is really a very picturesque one.
9. T h e Watercock bores holes in soft ground for worms, grubs, etc.,
and its presence is often inferred from the holes made by its three inch
bill. It is, t h e r e f o r e , possible that it also shares the name of arrow* with
the Godwit, particularly as both are sub-equal in size and fowlers often
pass a Godwit for a Woodcock at the Calcutta market because the latter
is considered a greater delicacy for the table than the former (F.B.I., first
edition).
10. Sandpipers and Stints are comparatively speaking long-billed (less
than one to two inches) waders of medium to small size which are rarely
found away from water. They are more or less alike, the majority being
grey-brown above and white below and with a good deal of white in or
above the tail. Their constant connection with sandy ground near
water and their piping call notes account for their common name of
 366 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

Sandpipers. From a distance they look like Snipe and are therefore several other errors of this type in the work. Hindi <K«IM corresponds to
known as 'Snippets' which gives the unsportsman-like Anglo-Indian an Sansk. =tWM or +«6HM as 7 and often change places in Prakrit, and
excuse to shoot them for the pot. Unlike Snipe, however, they are birds these latter are known as epithets for the Great Crested Grebe because it
of the open, do not take to cover and have not the tricky and fast flight wears a ruff of long feathers round its neck. This feature is possessed by
of the Snipe. They are thus easy to kill and are not regarded as 'sport- the male Ruff as well, and in an exaggerated form, and it, therefore,
ing birds'. Excepting a few like the Common Sandpiper and the shares the names V M H and +»44M with the Grebe.
Redshank most of the members of this group are winter visitors only, and
of these the Wood Sandpiper and the Little, Temminck's and the Curlew
Stints are the commonest. The Redshanks are known as srzff or p r , the
Greenshankas forfein (after its piping call), and the Little Stint as T^fffT
(lit., 'water-greedy') in Hindi.
The name gzFr would seem to be related to ?7<r for a kind of bird in
the ^ 5 ^ , 1 1 8 — " ^ k fofcTR where the association of the name
with those for the Lapwings, birds of the same family, is significant. The
alternative name ^ ( ^ n ^ 'a self-proclaimed warrior') also points to
, 'a fighter'. That is because the birds often parry against one another on
the ground or indulge in aerial mock-fight out of the breeding season but
more seriously during that season. The ^ < 1 ^ 1 , now extant, mentions
f ^ a n d to in its list of waterbirds (chapter, 11) and the first name ft^
( t o * ^ ) most probably refers to the larger Sandpipers because of
their piping notes. We thus have two names for these birds, ^ and
fair-
T h e call of the Little and Curlew or Pigmy Stints is a 'wick-wick-
wick' or the same as 'pick-pick-pick' which makes it highly probable that
fe? is an onomatopoetic name for them. The Little Stint is qroftfr (<H?ft«n)
in Hindi corresponding to ^ f r f " ^ - - ^ ^ T^;: fa.) i n Sanskrit. This
last name has been thoughtlessly confused and equated with ^ ^ in the
lexicons and commentaries.. T h e latter, as we have s e e n / i s the
Purple Moorhen (Art. 58). The Stints as a group are therefore w r ^ and
to.
Birds like the Marsh Sandpiper and the Greenshank are known as
"ffar in Bengali and if the name is from ifrs:—iff it would appear
to be but a rendering o f s t r o f . If this is correct ^ n : ^ may well be a com-
mon name for the Sandpipers and Stints together as birds whose mainstay
is water.
11. The Ruff and Reeve arrive in India towards the end of August
and leave, " t h e males often in nearly full dress", in April. As the birds
breed in northern Europe and Asia, the fights of the males for the
possession of the females probably do not take place in this country and
they have been named in Hindi and Sanskrit after the extraordinary ruff
grown by the male as an ornament during the breeding season. The ruff
extends from the nape downwards and covers the entire breast. It is
known in Hindi as tom ( t o w n e c k , and ^ r hair or feathers); Gehwala
noted against the bird in the F.B.I, is an obvious misprint just as
Panloha ( w t f r ) for the Little Stint has become 'Pauloha', There are also
 66
211
PELICANS
CORMORANTS & DARTER .
Pelicans are huge, squat-looking birds of rivers a n d lakes living mainly
on fish w h i c h they systematically h u n t in parties in a semi-circular form-
a t i o n , driving the fish into the shallows a n d then gobbling t h e m up. 1. T h r e e species of C o r m o r a n t s are f o u n d in I n d i a , viz., the L a r g e
T h e i r most characteristic external f e a t u r e is the enormous elastic skin-bag C o r m o r a n t w h i c h measures a b o u t 32 inches in length, the I n d i a n Shag
which hangs below the large flattened bill, a n d this is large enough to (25 inches) a n d the Little C o r m o r a n t (20 inches), all of t h e m of a
c o n t a i n a m a n ' s head. Besides fish they pick u p a n d swallow y o u n g birds generally black colour w i t h a green gloss, T h e y live entirely on fish
a n d even half-grown Ducks c o m i n g w i t h i n their r e a c h . T h e species t h a t which is c a u g h t by diving u n d e r w a t e r w i t h the thin b u t hooked bill.
are found in I n d i a r a n g e f r o m 5 to 6.5 feet in length a n d u p to over 10 W h e n not feeding they p e r c h on rocks, stakes in the water or on trees
feet in wing-expanse. N o w o n d e r such a bird is called in H i n d i a n d w i t h wings spread out in the sun for d r y i n g . T h e y f r e q u e n t b o t h fresh a n d
also in Sanskrit. " J a l a s i n d " in the F.B.L is a p r i n t i n g error. T h e water- salt water, the latter near the sea-coast.
bird called in TOT, a n d in (lion a n d tiger respectively) is T h e D a r t e r or Snake-bird is a b o u t three feet long including its long
n o other t h a n the pelican; Cf. qfsrffff for or the G o l d e n Eagle, m ^ r of snaky neck. I t is of a black colour b u t w i t h w h i t e on the neck. I t has a
the lexicons and of "rciwrfa, 6.2, are a d d i t i o n a l n a m e s for it. Lastly long, thin and s h a r p pointed bill with w h i c h it impales fish u n d e r w a t e r .
it is also t^FT in a special sense as defined in ^CTS^hr:— I t is a m u c h b e t t e r diver t h a n the C o r m o r a n t s .
2 . T h e well-known naturalist " E H A " speaking of C o r m o r a n t s a n d
the D a r t e r says, " T h e C o r m o r a n t is a t h o r o u g h l y shabby b i r d , w i t h large,
But it would be more correct to call it T^n^nr as against for the r a g g e d t a i l , arid coloured all over a sordid b l a c k , . . . t h e Snake-bird so
c o r m o r a n t a n d the coct. also defines in a similar way, a n d c a l l e d f r o m its s e r p e n t i n e head a n d n e c k . . . s i t t i n g on a low tree, w i t h

the t M ^ f t f a w referring to its size, calls it a JTsfrcssft. As the different its wings held out to dry, looks like a big C o r m o r a n t 1 with the neck of a
species of Pelican are difficult to distinguish in the field they are not H e r o n fitted on its shoulders; b u t at close q u a r t e r s it is a very h a n d s o m e
differentiated in Sanskrit n o m e n c l a t u r e . bird. Its p l u m a g e is peculiar, the feathers on the shoulders especially
b e i n " long and n a r r o w , like the hackles of a Cock. E a c h feather is black or
Prakrit sirrfaf (=3p?rfcrf) a n d ^r-qMhr 1 of s i m ^ i + ^ i a n d qfrrfhr ( y ^ t k ) of
dark b r o w n , w i t h silvery border, or spotted with a silvery white, a n d the
^feiM'i.1'!, all refer to this b i r d . T h e following c o r r u p t synonymy in
effect is very b e a u t i f u l . " 2 Because of its p l u m a g e it is also k n o w n as the
H^gRTfx p r o b a b l y includes ^hR)^ for i t : silver-laced Snake Bird.
sraroft T f m f r i 3. T h e H i n d i n a m e s for the C o r m o r a n t s are srsr- or ^TCT-sra^srr (Skt.
wxmr) corresponding to the L a r g e a n d the Little C o r m o r a n t , b u t there
If the second half of the a b o v e is read t h e expression
is no s e p a r a t e n a m e for the Shag which being larger t h a n the Little
s r f w w m a y refer to the belief that fish are a t t r a c t e d to Pelicans by
C o r m o r a n t would pass as sffT I n Sanskrit they are ^ or «mi>ii>
their oily secretion ( J e r d o n ) . T h e first half of the verse (not r e p r o d u c e d )
t h o u g h the n a m e M H l w P w would seem to imply the Little C o r m o r a n t .
is also corrupt but includes yet a n o t h e r Prakrit n a m e for it, viz. q w r r
(TTSPRT) , the same as JISH+JM of ^WS+IKI.
1. T h i s is t h e r e a s o n w h y b o t h ^T^, t h e c o r m o r a n t , a n d W T , the D a r t e r , h a v e b e e n des-
1. ^ f T R f f h r e q u a t e d w i t h —Lake-tiger in IT, jt, is t h e same cribed as a k i n d of w a t e r - c r o w in e q u a t i o n s N o s . 1 a n d 3 r e p r o d u c e d in P a r a . 3
as 3rrfT? of the s a m e lexicon. below.
2- The Common Birds of Bombay, 2 n d E d . , p p . 186-187.
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Some of the lexical synonymies bearing on these birds and the Darter are
noted below:—
(i) —-fawsiwi; |wst
(ii) —srfVsTRfwRftir
(iii) «Mi>i=t>: ( T ^ n m r c r : ) — a r f ^ r .
(iv) JTcPTtar (v.l. M. Williams
(v) ^ w r t r F f l i i ^ i P t . ^ i — o n T^fJ; TtfFTtor quoted in TTTTfesT
o n 3pn:)
(vi) f w f o r o ^ TTW^: wmTTif: JfTTHT:—f^l^ltf
(vii) ^Tp^T: ^TXR^ft
The first shows that means both 'the Coot' ( - w ^ , Art. 58) and the
Cormorant { s m ^ , ' t h e Water-Crow'). The second speaks of ^ in its
two meanings and states that both go down completely under water, i.e.,
are divers. M. Williams has rendered 'iietm-^c! as 'the Pelican', but this
is not usually a diving bird and the error has, perhaps, arisen from the
fact that "^Pr also means a Pelican. Nos.(iii )and(iv)taken together show that
T^T is a bird that spears fish and is a kind of or Cormorant, i.e., the
two have nearly similar habits, and they are indeed members of the same
family, m mentions w , ^TR^T and as different birds and since
is the coot (Art. 58) and none of the Commentaries on 3PR seen by
me renders ^ as the Pelican, we are left with for the Cormorant and
f°r the Snake-bird, w r is also a water-snake and the fact that the
name is shared by bird and reptile is significant. The Cormorant swims
and also "dives with a j u m p into a i r " and has been very appropriately
named swimming, leaping). No. (iv) makes ^ T ^ T ('Fish-impaler')
and synonymous which appears to be perfectly correct as the principal
difference between the fishing habits of a Cormorant and a Darter is that
while the former always just catches a fish under water with its Rooked
bill, the latter, as a rule, transfixes it with a sudden rapier-like thrust of
its thin and sharp pointed bill (aptly described as "spear of a b e a k " ) .
This action is greatly helped by a peculiar arrangement of some of the
vertebrae in its long neck, which act like a powerful spring and suddenly
straighten out for each thrust at a fish (Whistler).
4. The aptness of the name w r for the Darter is reinforced by the
remarkable likeness borne by the long and flexible neck and small head
of the bird, as it swims very low in the water, to a snake coming up to
Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
the commonest of the Cormorants. T h e feminine gender of the name
also implies the smallness of the bird, cf. "^t^nr ^fa^mr FTRT"1
Equation No. (vi) refers to W o w (the black-necked) 2 as two kinds of Ibis,
viz., aTTcJTf, the Black Ibis and +-iid<, the White Ibis but •M'Wrr is certainly
misplaced with them for none of them is a diver. The error is due to the
fact that all the three share the descriptive epithet of - ^ H ^ M ( c f. "STSPPTTOJ
—EFTOrft). The last synonymy from is wholly incorrect as
sn-TTf belongs as a group-name to the Stint and Sandpiper type of birds
which again do not dive for food or sport.
5. The names w r and borne by two of«the sons of 3PK in ffrrsT 3
(see alternative readings) are worth noting, for j r t as the Snake-bird and
•Mt>H<'T as the Cormorant, preferably the Large one, which is about six
inches shorter than the Snake-bird, a r e evidently the physical basis for
them. Finally or C5TTT are merely variae lectiones for "^rr.
6. fcTrsf^rr:"—fawprfa, 44.16 condemns a water-thief (probably a
farmer misappropriating water from a canal belonging to another 4 ) to be
reborn as the aquatic bird arfawr. "^TT being the Cormorant srfa^R should
mean a superior bird of the same type and the Large Cormorant is
certainly intended. During the breeding season the male of this species
is readily distinguished from other members of the family by the white
cheeks and a broad white patch on the flanks and it is this feature com-
bined with its large size which has given him the name of srfip^rr. This
inference is fully borne out by the fact that a particular Vedic rite derives
its name from this bird. The srf^^re is defined as ""Twit szftfwrsffp^rrr
•srafcf, apfJTcft TO. wi^rw, 12.2.2.1, and Eggling explains in a foot-
note at p. 149 of Vol. 44, S.B.E., • that the srfa^T has light (szftfro) on
both sides of it because the s T t f a ^ J T ^ m is sung both at the beginning and
at the close of the ceremony, i.e. on the first and the last days. This sjfrftrcr
is clearly, in reference to the snow-white patches on both sides of the
face and body (or in front and rear of the body) of the bird, the
Large Cormorant of India.
7. A few examples from sacred and secular literature should prove
interesting:
f w n r iR'Ta—3T3T. 24.22.
-
TCfafra — Ibid., 24.34.
Here the comparatively beautiful Darter is named for the Sun-god
because the bird seems to love the sun, as it were as it often perches with
expanded wings in the sun for long periods. Similarly the Cormorant,
1. Per r ^ T on 1.27.47.

breathe. This has been well brought out by E H A and other observers. 2. T h e equation f w f i r ^ S : also refers to t h e w h i t e - b r e a s t e d W a t e r h e n , the
WT5PP>5 w i t h ftrfr t a k e n in t h e sense of ' w h i t e ' .
If follows, therefore, that jt^j is the particular type of «M4.n. which is by
3. 1 . 3 4 . 1 2 . ; a n d 3 8 . 52.
habit a TTfFTtspr. tohtI'j ( ^ t i c t : ) occurs in TO 1.25.38 and T ^ r
cf
renders it as TFftwrfer (No. (v) above) which clearly refers to the Little , ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ I • • • 1 tJT TO 5TFRT Sjfa I
Cormorant which is just as big as the Common Crow and is also by far rSpf'Tfa'xrmfw, V o l . 4.277.
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

Darter and fish are quite appropriate for the Lord of the Rivers as all ^fte'tfV T r a f ^ T focirsT: I
three are permanently associated with the water. m i f W S W 5FS* 3-5% II —Ibid.1
8. The interpretation of as the clean T ^ R bird by JTTW1 may not be
correct but the view that a bird who spends much of his time in or upon It need hardly be added that the Darter is most awkward on the land as
compared with the beautiful and dignified gait of the Peacock on land
the water shares the purity of that element seems to have been in favour
and of the Goose both on land and on water.
w i t h t h e ancients, for we find two spiritual preceptors named fsr and TS^r
and 'flying down' (^rfawr) to impart spiritual knowledge to young. 2 The 11. T h e characteristic pose of the Darter as it perches on a stake in
supposed association between cleanliness and spirituality is obvious in this the water with wings spread out to dry finds poetical expreession in :
picture and the position of honour given to the lowly Silverlaced Snake-
bird is perhaps unique. The graceful Swan has of course been honoured CP? srm^T TiTT^ JTfar:|
in every country and particularly in India where the Sun and the Moon H ^ h m t s tptt:, r 9iWrsr u

wfaw)" and the liberated human soul have frequently been pictured
as the Swan par excellence.
9. *R3 prohibits the Cormorant, as food and 4 decrees that a water-
thief would be reborn as that bird and thus condemned to an aquatic life.
In the same way a person stealing animal-fat is destined to be a Darter
m w in
—^M'+f^i'ir 2
Here the wooden stake would seem to demarcate the clear waters of a
lake from the area covered with lotuses and lilies, and the bird extending
his arms as it were, addresses the Goose sporting in the lotus-bed, " I may
be permitted, Sir, to have the water on this side for my own use." T h e
Darter fishes only in clear and weed-free waters.

f^1" 1 sr3rra% I — and sr^rjTFT,5

is again the Little Cormorant with the glistening oily plumage

not affected by constant immersion in water. TO6 punishes theft of
drinking water, the punishment this time consisting of a denial of all
but a few drops of rain-water, for the thief must be reborn as a Hawk-
Cuckoo ( ^ f t o ) . Do these point to the Indo-Aryans having lived in
areas stricken with drought or of the nature of a desert before they
settled down in the happy land of the Five-rivers ? Or did they
suffer from a long period of water-scarcity in the P u n j a b itself ?
10. The reference to these birds in the TPTPTW and stth+I^h a r e m o r e
interesting. W I offers his love to tftaT in captivity and she insults him with
a number of disparaging similes two of which are based upon a com-
parison between the mean-looking Darter on the one hand and the
princely Peacock and the graceful Goose on the other:—

JK^rR S T W f ^ t W t : W T O M T I

—(WIW

1. On RV 1.124.4.
2. ^idM WOT—ST^lT 4.7.1 a n d 4.8.1-2.
3. 5.12.
4. 12.62.
5. 13.111.122 a n d 217.107 respectively.
6. 12.7.
1. 3.56.20.
7. 3.47.47.
2. 3.30.
 75 76
GANNEX OR BOOBY TROPIC BIRD

Gannets are large long-winged sea-birds with stout conical pointed Tropic-birds are about the size of the small Gulls and resemble them
bills, serrated along the commissure. They are expert fishers, fly round in habits and appearance, T h e y are rare along the Indian coasts and no
over a s h o a l o f fish a t a height of 6 0 to 1 0 0 feet above the surface and Indian n a m e is recorded for them. Generally speaking a Tropic Bird would
periodically dive headlong into the water with the half-closed wings; this pass for a ^Pp^PW.
dive comes next to the stoop of the Peregrine as the most impressive sight
afforded by a bird on the wing (Smythies). T h e y have been frequently
seen along the coasts of I n d i a but I have not come across any name for
the bird in any Indian language including Sanskrit. Its method of fishing
however, reminds one of the following verse (already quoted with reference
to the Osprey which sometimes fishes in the tidal waters) :—

WTFVftr h ^ R I I
f f arryft smf^frfw t ^ r ?n

It may well share the name HcFTT^ with the Osprey or the King-fisher
associated with inland lakes a n d rivers.
 64 215
ERIGATEBIRD
PETRELS

These are large black tropical sea-birds given to piracy. Their food
Petrels are, with some exceptions, the smallest of sea-birds about the
principally consists of fish snatched from other fishing birds like Pelicans,
size of the Common M y n a and despite their fragile appearance they have
Gannets, Cormorants, or Terns. T h e y are the most aerial of birds except
wonderful powers of flight and are perfectly at home at sea in the wildest
the Swifts. No Indian name is recorded for them but their habits remind
storm. T h e y have slender but long legs and webbed feet, and, when feed-
one of the Hindi name w s w (robber) for a "kind of b i r d " a n d Sanskrit
ing, pat the water with their feet, springing along the surface in a series
<wi<t. as one of the names for a Crow. Like other sea-birds without
of hops with wings outspread. I know of no Indian name for them but
specific names this too would go by the general n a m e of fl^snin or OTJ- Sanskrit l i f t l ' f would be as good for them as for the Gulls.
 79
SPOONBILL
A tali white wading bird recognized by its black spoon-shaped bill,
yellow at the tip. It is seen in flocks on the margins of the larger jheels,
sand-banks of large rivers, etc. W h e n feeding it wades in shallow water
with its neck stretched out and moves the half-immersed bill from side to
side with a regular action. " I t rises spirally to float a l o f t " (Cambridge
Natural History), and is often seen "flying in single file in long white
gleaming lines at a considerable height above the ground—moving—in a
very regular and stately m a n n e r (Smythies).
I t is undoubtedly the sfirer (v.l. STforr) of the m^r. ^rffctT1 —"srrfirefpt
^ ", and the name is after the shape (a spoon) of its bill. T h e
definition and synonymy given in ^hppxft ffar is definite :
This makes it clear that the (lit. Spoon-bill) belongs to the tribe of
Herons or Storks ("«i<Mirtf", corresponding almost e x a c t l y ' to O R D E R
"Herodiones" as accepted in the Fauna of Birtish India, Birds). T h e
selection of the bird for the Wind-god is based on the bird's flight as
already set forth above. A flock rising spirally aloft typyfies a tornado or
wind-storm marked by an inward spiral motion of the air with an upward
current in the centre carrying u p with it leaves, sprays of grass, etc., while
the straight flight in a line represents a regular breeze. Yet a n o t h e r n a m e
for the bird is w w or sw^T (fr. ^ r ' a churning stick'and ' a ladle, spoon'):
qfsrFw WRT: 'STWI — ^ V r r f e w r sWr
This name is justified in both senses of the word as the bird moves its bill
both right and left like a churn a n d the bill also resembles a spoon, "sfsspra
HJT" of the commentary on s n ^ 3 is no other than this bird although
it has been mistaken there for arret, the Black Ibis.
1. 24.34.
2. 4.68.
3. verse 2106.
80
IBISES
1. T h r e e different species of Ibis belonging to <=i<MiRt (Art. 79) are
found in India. A long, slender and curved bill is common to all three
but there are differences in body-feathering and colour of the plumage.
They also differ in their habits.
2. i) T h e White Ibis is wholly white except for the skin of the head
and neck which is bare and of a bluish-black colour. T h e young bird,
however, has a feathered head and neck which becomes bald as it reaches
the adult state. I t is a bird of inland waters, like swamps, tanks and rivers and
feeds principally on small fish, frogs, insects etc. Ordinarily it is a silent
bird but during the breeding season it has a remarkably loud booming
call. T h e flesh of this bird is described as being " e x e c r a b l e " to eat.
ii) T h e Black Ibis is a dark brown and black bird except for a con-
spicuous white shoulder-patch and a bare black head ornamented
with a triangular patch of brilliant red papillae with the apex at the
crown and cut off square at the nape. Here again the head of the young
is feathered. This Ibis is found more often in open country or dry culti-
vation as fish does not form any part of its diet which consists chiefly of
insects and most kinds of fallen grain, and it is only on occasion that it
resorts to water for frogs. Unlike its white cousin and the Storks it is less
inclined to rest and meditate, and is always on the move in search of
food. Its call is a scream consisting of two or three notes. T h e important
difference as regards habits between the W h i t e and the Black Ibises is
that the former is always associated with water and finds its food along
the water's edge and by wading in the shallows while the latter has
to wander about a good deal on dry land and fields in search of its insect
and grain food. This is the main reason why it cannot afford to "rest
and m e d i t a t e " like the other. T h e i r names srcrfc (sr* stidlfa) and arrfir
(^ i.e. 'a wandering b i r d ' ) respectively are based on their way
of life just described.
iii) T h e Glossy Ibis is distinguished by a permanently feathered
head and the plumage is dark-brown and chestnut. It moves about locally
in an extraordinary manner changing places as a breeding and non-
breeding bird, but it is essentially a bird of the marshes and large masses
pf water and does not frequent cultivated fields and open meadows. This
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

bird is the qwret of the and the oldest names of the three forms, cf. below and w s M arret of in Art. 70. —the Cor-
Black, White and Glossy are anfe, snrfc, and TcTTfe, respectively, w^tt (% >jfer morant, is placed in No. (vi) (see Art.74) where ^ r e T (v.l. ?^rre: fr. ^ hair
*rrar: %wt: fffcr arw) is another name for the Glossy Ibis and fully corresponds or a scar and 3re to move, or ^ r w w arefir in reference to the bald
to Turret. 'Tantalus falcinellus' given for it in M. Williams has now been head and neck which also look as if burnt or scarred) is the White Ibis
changed to 'Plegadis falcinellus'. kno'-vn as in Hindi. The name snrsmir for the.Ibises is preserved in
3 . The white and the black varieties are known in Hindi as Cutch, where the black form is known as the Crow of the R u n n and the
<MliU (also TO, 'the b a l d ' a n d f?STT 'white striker'?—fr. s t a f e ? ? ) , white as the White Crow of the R u n n . More correctly, however,
and ^Tt^r, respectively and the Glossy Ibis as ^ff^T or ^taTrt. In Western should be the White and TO the Black Ibis. T h e name sra^rre? connects
India (Cutch) the Gujarati names of the Black and White Ibises are TT Tf equations Nos. (x) to (xiv) with the White Ibis, which is, therefore, BSTTSST
and tw ;ft atwt ^rrrt i.e. 'the crow and the white crow of the R u n n ' (SSTRST—qk^rfsit from the bird's booming call), (calling near water), «rer,
respectively. TOte and iiiwu'w as well. The constant association of this Ibis and the
4. Sanskrit synonyms relating to these birds are :— Common Grey Heron ( ? f ) with water and their habit of resting in
meditation are stressed by the epithets and <tm in No. (xiii).
(i) 5Kir«ird<[fesr—am.
6. Reverting to equation Nos. (iv)-(viii), it seems advisable to consider
(ii) arrRr^Tfe: TlTrfH^n"—fsrzRft. the name a little more closely. In its application to these birds it is
(iii) sn^V ^ 5 TSTHt IcJrPt— possible to derive the word in two ways: First from sra or^rfir—for a curved
(Cf. H^K, Tantalus falcinellus, the Glossy Ibis, per Wilson in M. knife or sickle used in villages, in reference to the sickle-like bill of the
birds-SI^ =TT S R W N T srr^ftfir; feral srfe T stfr.- ?R?r «rf^5R—^RQF; 3*fsrrcrer
Williams).
S c O T T O — C f . " F a t h e r Sickle", the name for the White Ibis in
(iv) STcZTf: —STfTT. Egypt. Secondly, per aHwufli onanrr—"fcfcr f f w =rr '^f T^fir fosrere, crpmw
(v) ^H^iftw^ . .. -1^5". arid this may well refer to a change from the feathered head or head and
( vi
) M^P®^ cHR^f: ^T^-fR'T: ^TJT:—flRTFWT. neck of the young to the baldness of these parts in the adult birds, as also
to the third form, viz., the fully and permanently feathered Glossy Ibis;
(vii) sfiT^fT^:—srfw. f^RTPTpT; tf^ft". or again, the statement may refer to the three different forms ( w f t : ) of
(viii) W ^ R T ^ ^TcJTf: % ^ ^ f T W ^ : I —wfaw:. the Ibis found in the country.
ix
( ) —3TRT. 7. arret as Turdus ginginianus', now 'Acridotheres ginginianus', i.e.
(x) ^T^c^lc^ft —3TJR. the Starling known as the Bank M y n a ; a r r e t s (w.r.ofarrets) as ''a name
of a b i r d " ; and srret for " a species of bird in C h a r a k a " in M. Williams
(xi) zwrm: m—^urg. are all incorrect. arrets? is merely a descriptive expression, meaning 'a
CTT 5 ^fcRrpFr: mq;—tapr^ft-. kind of arret' used to define <raret in No. (iii) above, and is the result of a
faulty separation of the compound +1 W«iret into ?re<>¥ and ^rret instead of
(xii) sr% f r ^ t sr^rte^q;—'irfff. f ^ i w f r r .
and arret. It occurs as "+Ku<s«idl>»M4W«Frt" (Coot, Black Ibis and White
(xiii) W^PCVJ ? mW:— Ibis) in ^FRTOW, 8.14. Some editions of tot also incorrectly give «rret for
(xiv) ^ " t e —fopi^fa. arret.
8. Other names for the Black Ibis are (i) TOT?1 ( ^ ? t ? as a kind
(xv) — of ^bw in (ii) ^sstfs same as ertcsrf or a 'kind of fowl' ( M . W . ) .
This is from ^rerf the shell of a turtle (^rer^: mf?f ? ftrrt arer; the
5. The first two synonymies mix up several birds including the srrfe
(v.l. 3TTfe, 3JT5-, arret, etc.) and srrrfe as discussed in Art. 70, while the third
regards <T5fret (the fully feathered), Glossy Ibis, as a variety of arret but 1. i j ^ — ^ ^ r s t p g ; , Hl^+qld:. These are (a) the P o n d Heron, (b) the Black
incorrectly includes the m ^ m i (v.l. srettret), the Nukhta Duck, Art. Ibis as against sra^TRi for the White Ibis, a n d (c) the Blue R o c k Pigeon respectively. It
84-c. Nos. (iv) to (viii) relate to the Black Ibis as a black-necked bird like m a y be noted that 3TW-, or sffft-^TOT ( — f l f ) also m e a n s the C o r m o r a n t . I n the former
stands f o r ' a b i r d ' i n general so that TOT? i s ' a g r o u n d - b i r d ' , a n d in the sense of a C o r -
the Peacock, and call it and srer^nr. The epithet probably m o n a n t the expression means a 'water-crow' though it is not always possible to
does not refer to its plumage as assumed in 3rftr. f w w f a but to the red maintain this distinction, e.g., in C u t c h the G u j a r a t i n a m e s for the Black a n d W h i t e Ibises
papillae on its h e a d — w fe^rftrf <«w=iu|f: ars^ru:ftrrfcrw r ; 'red lead', are *ft til'isl a n d ^ft sjWt +HI«1 respectively.
384 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Ibises 385
papillated head of the bird resembling the rough and grannular shell of a patch on a dark body signifying the sun against a deep blue sky. 1 Second,
turtle; cf. +M+"d+), and (iii) 7«r-fsF§ from the white patch on the because the bird has a bald head indicative of spiritual wisdom, and third,
wing. The first two names are evidently in opposition to (i.e. sraft) it wears an auspicious triangular patch of red papillae on the back of
and <tHid< (implying a bald and smooth head) for the White Ibis. the head representing the sacrificial fire. T h e last two characteristics and
9. T h e Pali for 3nft is arre or 3rreT mentioned in ^ c R ^rre^, 2106 where the metallic gloss on the plumage are acquired by the bird in adult life
the White Ibis with a booming call is distinguished as "arret H P W S R I W . The only and these strange features, unique in the bird world, would seem to
Commentator's rendering of arrer as srfepjj *r|pT is, however, incorrect, for invest it with special spiritual significance T h e above points are, perhaps,
trfsspjf is the same as the Spoonbill (Art. 79). anfe is really a Prakrit borne out by the following few extracts from sacred literature :—
f o r m o f a r T f t and is given by Hemachandra in his Mtwrwrr, 8.24 along
withwirrfe forsraft. The P w r s T O translates arret as a kind of Heron (wwf). (i) arfMHofi s m ^ - . T P r gsf ¥T3fr SUT^ |

10. fcf-r for 'a kind of water Crow' should really signify the White —3TRSHPPT 'Tirgw, 1.21.4
Ibis as means 'Cotton' and the name implies the white cotton-like ( » ) 3I«r W F T ^ F T H T S i + ^ c l I f s STSfa SfT tf W.
plumage of the bird, arret ^fcr of roaiTWi and arret M t e of w r t c r s ^ r s s ^ f t ^ r r f a f o a f f f tf *r§jmr...i
are from Sanskrit s^r+arrer i.e. the White Ibis, anft or arret is thus both a —51cmST^PT, 2 3.2.13
general name for any Ibis and specific for the Black Ibis as will appear
presently. -
(iii) Tlw^flr ftaT . . ^ i i S^m^TFT W T I
— t ^ ^ r ^ t a ^ f w r f a wt^TW, 2.7.1
11. T h e struggle between the Brahmanas and Ksatriyas for social
and political supremacy in ancient India has been beautifully allegorised Sayana comments : 'qftsrsft ftrcfo.<h<ii+i}ui ift^r t ^ %^rr ^r 5 Tst 1
as a duel between their leaders, sage and s a g e f o m f w , transformed by ft^rtwFT ere ^ r ^ m w r 1 3m: ^ T ^ R srFTtfcr 1
m u t u a l S I N or curse into the 3rret and sr? birds in *rpp§*r S^FT, styled as (iv) fw^w:—t^pRft, i.e. Offerer is an auspicious
"arret-S^-fS". The combatants, arret and are described as brothers, being triangular mark, a triangular crest-jewel (M.W.).
sons of arfOT (probably formed form a r f s j ^ 1 for a 'Heron' or STc^) in It is interesting to note that the Glossy and the White Ibises were held
TRW JOT—"^uraT aTTfeqfrrT"—156.12 and also in ^tiR+i sacred in Egypt.
ch. 28.
1 3 . The Black Ibis, found in the open and away from water, was a
This relationship indicates similarity of form and family affiliation, and
favourite quarry for purposes of hawking with the Peregrine or Shaheen
the inconclusive fight shows practical equality in size and strength as well;
and is mentioned by the name of ( =+M+ui<*ici|jf) in a book on
Cf.— Falconry :

irts ^ w r m — W C R ? srfcTs^TrTHT'g ^ l ^ w i f r f s p j r n r i
m^T S^T ff ^J^STrT THir II — 9 T T C S T , 6.37.
T h e birds, therefore, are the Black and the White Ibis. T h e import-
ance of the fact t h a t ^ s , the Brahmana sage, possessed of S ^ n w , i.e. The quarry tries to out-wit the Falcon by mounting higher and higher but
spiritual power or lustre, assumes the form ofarrer would be clear from what the latter rises still higher and finally makes her stoop and brings the bird
follows. down. The Ibis often escapes by rising very high into the sky. It is this
12. T h e flesh of the Black Ibis (arrft)2, must be given to a baby-boy flight of the bird which has probably given it the name of W R (flying
at thesrenrm ceremony according to4KH><'i$i^(, 1.19; if the father wants high into the sky). This is, however, subject to M.W.'s rendering as .'a
the child to acquirea^nrttf (holy lustre) when he grows to manhood. Why gallinule' being correct. 2 It has also inspired a beautiful simile where
should the Black Ibis typify ? First, because it has a white wing-
1. Cf. D r . A. B. K e i t h ' s observation in his i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e a f t T .
O'l^dl, " w h i t e of course is t h e V e d i c s y m b o l of t h e S u n as in the r o u n d w h i t e skin which
1. = in 3H>dl-j}£<Wbl¥l. represents t h e S u n at the T ^ T W . . . " p . exxxvi.
2, T h e W h i t e Ibis is " e x e c r a b l e to e a t " while the flesh of the Black Ibis is " v e r y g o o d "
2. I n t h e alternative <a<i*M ( = = o M + u 4 ) w o u l d be a W h i t e W a g t a i l w h i c h is sup-
(Jerdon). The tffpT, C h , 11 also r e c o m m e n d s t h e flesh of arret—'"arret posed to d i s a p p e a r i n t o t h e sky a n d descend a g a i n to t h e e a r t h f r o m there. Cf. or
sUdR+K+i^riHTr ^ r r ^TT sflmV apTOTsF in A r t . 2 6 ; Cf. also <S^<.di t h e m a g i c a l p o w e r of flying into the sky.
366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

the pearl necklace of king with a deep blue sapphire in the centre has The White Ibis occurs in parties which have been tailed «(+n«t><i: by
been compared to a V-flight of Bar-headed Geese with a Black Ibis as the ^R-iMtM who, however, makes them stop eating fish in their immediate
leading bird :— neighbourhood because they have been charmed into inaction by the
^srfir T q i f t ^ n ^ r f f r h f t I sweet tunes of Lord Krsna's flute :—
^fnsrrr ^prr^rs srrfcT ^ T ^ r w r r n T d H l d i R W F T W i M ' ^ K / ^ + ' M + U: I
-—-^T s n f a j T M (sir^r?), 5.6. ^ f W m r , 2.10.
arret and (i.e. White Ibis) dwell at a lake on the Vindhya These Ibises flock to the shallow edges of tanks and rivers.
mountain : -^•idTt^r-rer^i i w s: H n < i
^nftcf, 222.33.
—CT^j^r, ^tpi^, 2.22.
The deceitful tactics of the apparently gentle and polished ministers of
Verse 8 of the Subhasita, p.219 mentions anfe, the Black Ibis, as moving state dressed in spotless white have been beautifully compared with the
along the edge of a lake : fishing methods of the White Ibis :—
i
It will now be seen that the aTrfrwi'Sr of is a pair of long curved
f w a w r q w : gWciWRgK: I
tongs and the illustrations of it in published books including The
Surgical Instruments of the Hindus by Dr. G. N. Mukhopadhyaya are
incorrect. TTHWET (3.12.74) calls the instrument as S T ^ (qiw^'W), Tlc^ fcWS S^tf^TT % S 11
being the Black Ibis or arret. wfccr^rpj, 3.191.
14. The strikingly white plumage of the White Ibis and its constant Verse 13 under ^FmT^k^H in 86, institutes a parallel between the
association with water has appealed to Sanskrit poets more than the other moon and the White Ibis and declares the superiority of the latter
Ibises, but it is always mentioned by the name of 5pf>". This name, it must be because it has entirely white wings (isft) as against the two fortnights (tsft)
remembered, includes in a wider sense also the Herons, Storks and even the of the former both of which are partly light and partly dark. Numbers of
Flamingo and it is, therefore, very necesary that the identity of the particular these birds moving quietly through the reeds or resting amongst them
bird meant in a given context is carefully determined. A few examples of until the next urge of hunger, have been held up as a model of prudent
srcfte, and etsst or spssn as the White Ibis are given below :— and cautious behaviour for persons finding themselves in a difficult situa-
prohibits this Ibis (sptf) as food as also its wanton killing, while tion in enemy country. The and STTSST in the examples
it decrees that a person guilty of stealing fire would be reborn as a The below is the White Ibis in groups :—
origin of this last punishment is to be found in the dedication of the
White Ibis to the Fire-god at the Horse-Sacrifice—spsnit'ft —3'iW. e%rr, F-qfWT ^ T : I
24.31; and "ar<w wf^n, 5.5.19 where sjsstt and s j ^ w mean the
White Ibis (from sTT^sr-TfcTTfsKf, to utter a loud cry; both the Grow and ^Fm^'fWJ^'T^f: !
the White Ibis are noisy and share the name between them). The —JTfnTTTFT2
reason for naming the bird to the Fire-god is to be found in the bluish-
b l a c k colour of the bare skin of the white bird's neck resembling skin
that has been scorched or burned by fire.2 A parallel idea occurs in the SFT cR^'I'ifl TPS? S3T58TT aWiRM I
9RTTT where a yoke-bullock is said to partake of the nature of fire because that —irfr'flTTFT4
part of his neck which bears the yoke loses the hair and appears to have This bird is never found away from water except when roosting for the
been scorched by fire : night, and the sight of one on a hill-top is, therefore, considered unlucky :
. . .sftrrr ^ s p t sr, € ff ^ n - s ^ s f f a ^ f a a r i r ^
Sf^TI " " — W T S WTfTT, 4.5.1.15 1. K a u m a r i k a K h a n d a , 21.236.
2- X I I . 1 0 5 . 1 5 ; also 1.47.12. T o s e p a r a t e the c o m p o u n d as
1. 5.14; 11.135; a n d 12.66.
2. I t is also very significant to note, in this connection, t h a t the G o d of F i r e himself as suggested b y some is a b s u r d . See R . B. R a d d i ' s edition of B o m b a y , 1909,
h a s b e e n called 3 r f e r # ? black-necked, in V . S. 23.13, a n d a n i m a l s h a v i n g black necks 3. I X . 4 1 , R a d d i ' s edition,
in p a r t i c u l a r a r e sacrificed to h i m , e.g. ^"Ull'IT 3)HHqi-VS 24.6, 9, 14, i.e., T: ST'HT "TftcT; 4. XI.142,29.
WRT tT a n ^ q T S 2.1.4.6.
462
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

"fw* (smn:)—"TTTTfT TSFpCFT.1 5R5RTW does not m e a n t h e

albino form of the c o m m o n C r o w , for it would be inauspicious anywhere
a n d not only on the top of a hill.
15. Poets have o f t e n instituted a comparison between a W h i t e Ibis
(sR?) a n d the Swan (both all-white with black bills a n d feet) stressing the
difference between their feeding habits, gait, etc. T h e S w a n ^ praised for
his supposed power of separating milk f r o m water which the p ® r Ibis can
not do. Such poetry is, of course, of S M Y - M type c o n t a i n i n g a satire on
81
persons devoid of merit b u t aspiring to high rank. A single example
STORKS
should be enough :
fFf: ^cfT 5PF: ^t sR^PTt: I
1 pft Wt SHF: II fflTfw2
Eight species of Storks are found in I n d i a . T h e y are tall a n d stately
T h e W h i t e Ibis shares the h a b i t of 'resting a n d m e d i t a t i o n ' with the birds with long legs, long, stout a n d powerful bills, and a p l u m a g e of
Storks and Herons—all going u n d e r the c o m m o n n a m e of SHP, and it is a striking colours—characters which m a k e t h e m conspicuous wherever they
familiar t h e m e with the poets to describe the seemingly innocent b u t really are found. T h e y often soar very high, like a n d in c o m p a n y of Vultures.
f r a u d u l e n t conduct of m e n in different walks of life as a n d such T h e y a r e almost omnivorous a n d feed on all sorts of animals, such as
m e n as M or s^T^ST^cft. frogs, fish, crabs, snakes, locusts, small birds and mice. Some, like the
f q f p T O f m : 5PERT I A d j u t a n t Stork, feed also on carrion. A few serve as food for a n o t h e r
^Rt T ?r fer s ^ s r s c f t s f f a : II3 type of omnivorous c r e a t u r e — M a n . W i t h one exception (the A d j u t a n t )
they are voiceless a n d give expression to their emotions by clattering their
T h e first line describes correctly the a t t i t u d e of t h e W h i t e Ibis w h e n long bills a n d indulging in a sort of d a n c e d u r i n g the b r e e d i n g season.
fishing in the shallows. For other examples see Art. 82. As a class or g r o u p they are a n d fall u n d e r the larger category of
sTfrr:* which corresponds to the O r d e r Herodiones. T h e i r voicelessness has
been recognised in a verse on the virtue of silence :—

sncHdl 'PJIcClQ"! I
gw^dd ^ srsiRt sprmmnrfl; i i — g m f w , 86.1.

Four of the larger Storks are n a m e d after their physical features i n ^ f i r a n d

j a w literature, e.g., the W h i t e a n d Black Storks with red bills a n d
feet are called (s^rsrT) in 'fldH^fd, ch. 17; the calls the
White-necked a n d Black-necked Storks as fJiftTO: (ftrfa black and w h i t e ) ,
while, W F j f a , 17.26 a n d 1.97.70 n a m e all the a b o v e four as
<<MHl<a:. T h e specific individual n a m e s for the different m e m b e r s of the
group m a y now be considered.
1. T h e W h i t e Stork (42 inches) is only a winter visitor to N o r t h
I n d i a a n d remains with us f r o m September to a b o u t the end of M a r c h . I t
is all w h i t e except for the wing-quills a n d some wing-cover.ts w h i c h a r e
black. W i t h his red bill a n d legs a n d a predominantly white p l u m a g e set
off by black wings it is a beautiful object when seen on green grass n e a r

• P r a k r i t d e r i v a t i v e s like fs^T a n d f r o m S a n s k . E3T3ST for t h e W h i t e I b i s o r ^ have

b e e n a p p l i e d n o t o n l y t o t h e Ibis b u t also t h e S t o r k s a n d t h e F l a m i n g o , a n d it is f r o m t h e
1. C h . 56.750. S t o r k s (SfT) t h a t S^gjt a n d t f f f P T for a p a r t i c u l a r d a n c e r e s e m b l i n g t h a t of t h e storks, a n d
2. 221.6. m e a s u r e of t i m e i n m u s i c , h a v e p a s s e d i n t o S a n s k . — S e e M . W . u i i d e r
on 2.550.
366 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe
Birds in Sanskrit Literature 367

water, and he is the TO<M or <mto described as : leg as if absorbed in meditation" (Salim Ali), thus recalling the following
verse of sails' which is true not only of Storks but also of the Common or
jjtsepfn^rarqTFft H W v & r f c r o : i Grey Heron, also called a TO :—
n^rmr^, 12.170.21.
TcFTFff ^fST PTFFS l^HI^H" I
Here the ornaments of the colour of fire or the rising sun ( t o ) are the
d+dwt, ^T R ^ - H left II
red bill and legs of the bird and, as this is the most beautiful of the Storks,
he has been well named * He is also the TO of the a^vttvfrwr, "T^cRT 1.93 ( ^ . t t t . Pt. l)
Pt. 1, 7th tale, where his Egret-like thin and white neck is described as He is known in Hindi as HifdWl? ?) from his green-glossed black
"^mpnw-a^w ^pNr", and he is also the Stork par excellence of Aesop's crown though our Muslim friends explain the name with reference to a
Fables. H e has been incorrectly listed with the Sarus in ff^RrWrw where story which need not detain us. He also shares the name TO with
the adnouns like and suit him better than the the next species.
Sarus (Art. 62). 4. The Black-necked Stork (52 inches) is also a black and white bird
2. T h e Black Stork (40 inches) is principally of a black colour with red legs and black bill. He is wre^in Hindi because of the black
glossed with purple, bronze and green, and has red bill and legs. It is a parts being glossed with metallic hues (vftf) and the pied plumage ( * n r f ) ,
bird of open marshes and wet ground away from villages. He is the and mx^TO in Sanskrit. is 'a large kind of Crane'—Ardea sarunga
or sfirefta — c o r r e s p o n d i n g to Hindi f w r f (of according to Carey quoted in M. Williams and the term evidently refers
the colour o f f w , collyrium, and hence black; cf. ^ r f t o - f W ^ r ) . The name to both the birds*. Another name for him is fwrafa by which he is men-
fftwr^ (black-bodied) as a synonym for firot in EFR^rft and w f r o is tioned as an inauspicious bird in H^i'HKd :
probably due to a confusion between a Stork and Crane or to misunder-
standing of an older equation like. "jftory where '3TOT meant 'a water F ^ f f f a r a Wfprr w r r c r wwr:—5.143.25.
bird' only, for the Sarus is neither blue nor black, jfftrrf: should, therefore,
be an adnoun for this Stork just as it is for the Purple Heron and +M«H> Again, the Griffon Vultures (4i^<i:) and Storks in the TPTm:
is yet another name comparable with the last but it has incorrectly been
w r r w r r e r a r fafnT: ^ n W f e r r : — 6 . 3 5 . 3 1 .
given as synonym for srfwrnr in s r s r o ? ^ for the This latter is
the most wary and suspicious Purple Heron as defined in the —• The name fWiffa makes it just possible that the name M T O J S may not
after all be a homonym covering both the White-necked and the Black-
HW^^sf^rnix: i HNI jf) necked Storks as suggested above and may be specific for the former
3. T h e White-necked Stork (36 inches) is a glistening black and white alone.
bird with a conspicuously white neck, black bill and red legs. As a soaring The dancing propensity common to Storks as a class is more highly
bird this and the Black-necked Stork have been mentioned as fsiRwCT: in developed in the Black-necked variety than in others. This dance and
T^nrrer where Arjuna speaks of the great speed of his chariot drawn by music of their clattering bills has been fully described by Hume in his
white steeds :— Nests and Eggs, vol. 3 and by other observers as well. " T w o birds (male
and female gravely stalk up to each other and when a yard or so a p a r t
w : W T : P i l f d w r a ' ^rRTT, 5T5TT S^TSJS cHSR?? I stand face to face, extend their long wings, and flutter them rapidly, with
5.48.104. the points of one bird's wings flapping against those of the other; they
then advance their heads till they nearly meet and both simultaneously
TOT: in the verse are the Adjutant Storks mentioned elsewhere in the com-
clatter their bills. This display lasts for nearly a minute after which one
pany of Vultures as carrion eaters. HilRwi is a homonym for the Black-
walks a little apart, to be followed after a moment by the other, when
necked and White-necked Storks as already stated. T h e solemn looking
they repeat the performance; and so on for perhaps a dozen times"
White-necked Stork occurs single, in pairs or in small parties about
(Smythies). It will now be seen that the equation"^rPTPpfoft «r%"—(ftir^row
rivers, jheels, tanks, etc., and is often seen "standing motionless on one
and trr^Tf) can only refer to this Stork who is a TC i.e., a dancer, actor and
even musician, all in one. srrcFpiW TO is thus this particular Stork. In the
• T h e g r e a t T u i a s i d a s , a u t h o r of TT^TfCcFTPRT, c o m p a r e s this TO w i t h the
(cygnus d a v i d u ) : —
• T h e P a i n t e d S t o r k is also a k i n d of yrr^ff k n o w n as ^I in H i n d i (Sansk.
wwsfihr wt^mt'Tt ^ jjtmI ^rrsr i t u v f f as a b a j k - f o r m a t i o n ) .
FFFT F ^ V F w i TO SF? II-—^iwr, 333.
392
alternative, it may also be a common name for the Storks as a group. T h e
spTFTO^r spfi (stork, having terribly large mandibles looking like plough-
shares) in the following should be the Black-necked stork with a twelve
inch bill. He is a "more regular fisher than most Storks" and has, next
to the Adjutant, the largest bill of all. The Adjutant is excluded as the
verse is descriptive of the src? season :—
3TFTT d ' ^ d d d l ^ W m H ' —
5. T h e Gigantic or the Adjutant Stork is not only the largest but
also the ugliest and most formidable member of the present series. The
male is five feet long and stands four and a half feet high, distinguished
by a bare red head and neck, and a long pouch of skin hanging from the
neck and resting against the chest. The enormous, thick, four-sided bill
is wedge-shaped and measures no less than thirteen inches. T h e wing-
expanse exceeds twelve feet. H e is indeed a monster among birds. T h e
English name Adjutant is derived from his "deliberate, high-stepping
military gait as it paces up and d o w n " (Salim Ali), and fully corresponds
to Sanskrit (ft#: TR^mr: 3TCT, long-paced) as against (long-
legged) for other Storks and the larger Herons. Names like ^T-or J T ^ ^ *
are after his bill. He is essentially a scavenger and performed his duties
as such in India till not very many years ago and was one of the most
familiar birds of towns and villages, and naturally won for himself quite a
number of epithets with ^ and as the basic names. They are listed
below :—
Birds in Sanskrit Literaturi
^rapftaraT, Ch. 18
Storks 393
last really means the medicinal plant or creeper arfFHT^rct of HRinPTsr,
' l ^ l P i ^T (Vitis quadrangularis), Hindi fif^ffft, supposed to help join up
broken bones. Both the Adjutants are known as ircf in Hindi because they
eat snakes which supports the derivation of given above.
Adnoun ^ w r o is from the Stork's black back and this is shared by
Pallas's Fishing Eagle and the Black Buck antelope, while sfffays^ (^rfrris
Prakrit for chest, and the name means 'a bird with a tail in front of
the chest') and (also ' w s i ^ — f t w ^ m n ; ) refer to the long pouch.
The seriess K«I fa<si<.«<faand is after the scavenging habits
of the Adjutant. A Hindu woman does not make any daily ceremonial srfa-
and what is humorously described as '^fir' in these names is the house-
rubbish, offal, scraps of animal and other food which were formerly, and
in the villages are even now, thrown out of doors (CR) by the women,
and these the Adjutant turned up for offal, scraps, etc. It is in this sense
that this (gKdfaw) is placed in the list of PIPM>< birds in
(Lahore e d n . ) . It is also possible that the original name was only gR^ftm^i
and due to an error in copying gK became src which in turn led to
"wk-d" as a clear substitute for No other Heron or Stork found in
India turns up at these rubbish heaps, though the White Stork takes
its place in Europe.
No Indian male Stork or Heron is known to receive food from the
female during courtship or when sitting on the eggs, and the following
verse from the srraftRrerat would seem to be based upon a misunderstand-
ing of the name saterrefcnj^ for a wz which is on a par with the absurd
statements about the siwrc and (Art. 71):—

^inmttw^: jftefrf sfqcnr i

f s p r — g m f a f f f — , ^ f a y F ; ; , ^teRf^rav—-, ?)—(v.l. ,
S^-HwRi—, ^ i f e ^ E f — , 9 J W f S T — — , —, T f F ^ f — , ffffTTC—, etc. •H'^MH^'frr f r o 1qf II—599
arpr. R^mPn and t w ? f r have mixed up some of the above names with
those for the Brahminy Kite and Pallas's Fishing Eagle, but fawwr and npfc (a monkey) is yet another humorous name for this quaint looking
^irrewt have kept the Kite and Stork apart (Art. 52-G &E). Coming to bird, and if from to cleanse, as assumed by w n on R V 10.27.20
the propriety of the names in the above list, ^K'llfc and dWiH (both in where he interprets as or sfrafwr, would mean a 'scavenger'
Wilson and the latter in M . Williams) means the Garuda and a kind of which the bird certainly is. Or again, the name may mean 'a small devil'
'crane' and this 'crane' clearly refers to both forms of Adjutant who eat after the mythological demon The name, however, may well be from
snakes, apparently from analogy with the snake-eating habit attributed root jt-ir, in which case the correct form would be-ina^, and this would
to the mythological Garuda. These names are the origin for Hindi |Tfwr make the bird an attendant on 'death' with Vultures, e.g., upon cholera
(fr. f f t frog or snake and ftw to swallow, later, corrupted to ?.?<il<n bone- epidemic or the battlefield, as a carrion-eater.
swallower) and probably also the element 'argala', in the older scientific T h e first of the following two synonymies has mixed up the adnouns
name of 'Ardea argala'. Unfortunately, however, the name ^Ffai led some- or epithets for three different birds, viz. the Brahminy Kite (wtf<TO or
one to identify it with Sansk. 3rfar*rcr (a dog) and to apply the latter to •wt'as—.), Pallas's Fishing Eagle ( f w w r - ) , and the Adjutant, while the
this bird, and that is how it finds place in sr^i-HrfT. M. Williams also, no second has confused those for the first and the third bird :—
doubt similarly influenced, gives as a name for this Stork. This
<t)+i«irgr: (^FTJ,-? ) cpfe (TT^T: ? ) .Fin-Ob,*: ( ^ f T - ? )

• T h e clHlPdd (noisy) SRTte in t h e n e x t verse is t h e W h i t e I b i s ( A r t . 8 0 ) .

^TETTRT" fa'TRWT STtff®?* TTwT^:—
394 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Storks

Pallas's fishing Eagle ( ? l ) , Tawny Eagle ( m ) , Imperial Eagle ( w ) , and

Vultures as feeding on dead h u m a n bodies and animals killed in battle is
sfTfpst f r w ^ : II —srpT&IM'h'd mftl*
the Adjutant Stork : —
T h e correct names ++dH>--a (w^x—?) and ^ a w r ? for the Adjutant have
srata fcjT: jg^iMciw+ii:
suffered mutilation in both, i.e., one of them in each synonymy. Both the
SPPT: q ^ r m d + IHKSR:—TfFfTTCT, 7.50.9;
names refer to the bird as if he is holding a pot or vessel about his neck see also 6.2.17
or shoulder, and correspond to for a beggar who carries his
bowl hanging from the neck and in front of his chest Ff^r by itself IRIRR: ^ T SPR: W^RR I M T ^J-4+IWTT—
Ibid. 7.97.13; see also 5. 143.19
cannot mean a Heron as in M . Williams. The epithet ^ j p t ^ belongs to
the above named Kite with a white and bright chestnut plumage and not "i-HMMycimyi: TT H H M K ^ :
to the repulsive looking Adjutant "with the coarsest and most tumbled WtsfrWTTTq-: TOfw^ ? )^f%cft
of plumage." Both the Adjutants, funny-looking bald-heads, have been *Wi<l<J|, 153. 137-
jocularly named in Hindi ^ f ^ n f r (:*rferTfx—enemy of the barber; Cf.
Prakrit ^TT—bald) as they never need a hair-cut 1 Similarly the TO o f t h eTO5ITTO,300 ready to attack a lamb or kid, if near
The of M d ^ - H i R H , 3.66 equatesTOTwith Now if TOT is from enough, is the A d j u t a n t . T h e again, in the following is the snake-
ija as suggested by M . Williams would be the Brahminy Kite which e a t i n g Adjutant who in an atmosphere of spirituality prevailing at her-
greedily snatches away tit bits from other birds like the Kite. If on the mitage permits snakes to play about freely in his body plumage :—
other hand we accept Sayana's derivation "Pm'TO TOT:"—q^TT 2.2.1,
com., ^ng would be either the Common Grey Heron or the Adjutant from TSfrrnT: ^ W T fa'9Tf% ^ I
their habit of swallowing their food. The latter, however, is known to q^JTFr, 6 ^ t T T ^ , 184. 28
gulp down or swallow at one stroke an entire dead cat or half a leg of
This ugly and fierce looking Stork is also the physical basis of the TOTg*
mutton and the probability is thus in his favour. If so he would be the
of Indian mythology e.g., in the wra^r, 10.11 where he is called it^TTO.
l^f ^ f • 6. T h e Smaller Adjutant resembles the Adjutant but has no pouch,
(proud of his powers of eating or swallowing) is the name of a and not being a scavenger does not " h a u n t civilization". H e naturally
Vedic sage and is camparable with TOR of the a w ^ for Pallas's fishing shares such of the names for the larger bird as do not refer to the pouch.
Eagle—Art. 52-C. O n this analogy, however,TOTwould seem to refer to Prakrit for a TO refers to these Storks as if they have lost the hair
the Brahminy Kite which shares the names of *>HidH and with the on their heads from itches, cf. "f^T f w s T T — ^ pf — arfa.
fishing Eagle, and it is possible that this particular Kite was also known under ^gP)U|d<yil.
as Jj^R^^vf— Art. 52, E. 7. T h e Painted Stork in a little smaller than the White Stork, with
Finally, three more synonyms for the Stork, one each from g^T a white plumage closely barred and marked with shining greenish-black
and must be mentioned. ^ ( H i m of ^ r ? corresponding to WTTCT of above and with a black band across the breast. The eyes of the young are
gspr refers to the Adjutants, both of whom have white irides. The Adjutant brown and of the adult, straw-yellow. If the Adjutant is sparer this should
bellows like a buffalo or a cow separated from her calf (Hume be the ^T^TTST* of G ^ R . . This name has been rendered as a ^ T T O in the
in Stray Feathers, vol. 7, pp. 32 & 51) and was also believed to " r o a r Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series edition of (Benares). The
like a tiger" (Charles Knight in Pictorial Museum of Animated Nature, also has WTOT for 4^*1+, while *c£J|Mi4 takes it for the Indian Pied King-
vol.2, 1871), and would therefore seem to be the RtrfHK of ^T%TT, as a fisher with hazel irides and the epithet may well belong to both the birds—
bird of augury. It is doubtful, however, how far this last is a bird-name and this Stork as ?RT5TTO and the Pied Kingfisher as TOTT^. T h e Hindi
does not refer to the roar of a lion as lions were quite common in North for this Stork is =t>d«K<l STClfTO), i.e., a smaller variety of
India, till a few centuries ago. and it was probably known as as the name is in line with
T h e Adjutant is the only to that eats carrion and numbers of these and ^i^Wdl. f w w i (fr^iTaT having yellowish eyes) o f t h e J a i n sftvnfro
have been known to consort with the Vultures both when soaring high ^ and S W ^ I ^ I should be the same as or this Stork. v
and at a feast on dead animals (Stray Feathers, vol. 4, 21 and Gassell's 8. The Open-bill Stork is easily distinguished from its curious bill
Book of Birds) and the TO mentioned in the following in company with which has a clearly visible gap between the two mandibles. It feeds
*5f7T^) wax, hence, h a v i n g yellowish eyes.
*For other syonymies see A r t . 52, Section E.
 367
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe

chiefly on fresh-water molluscs or shells which it breaks open before As there is reason to believe that the physical basis of the semi-
swallowing. In many Indian dialiects it is known as 'the shell-breaker' and fabulous irrro looking like a huge egg, or laying a large or
sfNnr (Sansk. sft^pP a shell- Pm) in Hindi and siTf* ^ (sr*f?> with v ^ r r heavy egg), W f , etc. of the Puranas, Pancatantra, etc. may be the
breaker) in Bengali. Sansk. TTf (more correctly perhaps Trpf) for a kind Adjutant Stork or some other bird, I conclude this article with just a
of bird in f w r o m a y be for this bird, mentions smr^nT (sntmay be suggestive note on it and it must be clearly understood that what follows
a mistake for or $ r for a shell ?) as a particular bird in connection is pure conjecture. Some of the references to these mythical birds and
with surgical instruments one of which was designed after the shape of lexical information bearing upon them are noted below :—
its bill. Now a bill with a curious gap like the present bird's is not
(1) prater mr^r ^r Tferr:—T^SW
likely to have escaped the keen eyes of g^cT and he must have modelled an
instrument upon it resembling a pair of black-smith's tongs. No particular (2) w tfUT'ftaTfa: 3r*r#Pir<*fUlt:—HfWKd, 1.70.39
instrument is however mentioned by the name of sttw^spt ire but one ( 3 ) a ^TWT a w TTfai: c f t v r ^ l ISPTFTW:
called ARAIFA (having space between the j a w s ? ) is described as J T S W ? *raTa
G > -O s r f e q f ^ ^ — Ibid. 6.8.11
regarded as synonymous with the former :—

(4) JTfsqrWaaTSTFt f^oTT:— Ibid. 12.169.9.

fafrsn^T I WRPJJ "TTT ^ST-ifTO ^"t^TFPT (5) twr P 1517
— a r c r p F r , 77.88
(6) M^-fT: qfsTTTJ ^ ^RWt jffcfatftot ( f g w )
T h e expressions iiwra', f^rsrTT and srt^S clearly point to the inter-space w ^ n ^ r r , C h . 164.
between the jaws, their curved edges and crescent shape respectively,
characters that fit in admirably with the inner and outer contours of the (7) w s M i q s r r a r a qrracr^pT^r^fr—11<imhh fa, 6.7
bird's bill, and it is suggested that this is the instrument made (8) frr^rir — 1 7 6
a f t e r t h e bill of a m ^ r o or the Open-bill Stork. T n r g w ^ too may well (9) fgTTStwfJT:— Progeny of ^ in ^ J T T W , 6.17.
have been its name.
T h e list of water-birds given at p. 198 of ^WIIW of tM+M contains (10) son of 3TiTPT in Ibid. 6.36-
several incorrect readings, e.g., for MIV-II for q f t ^ r ; and f ^ X (11) terror: w n ^ : — q - f x f w w f a , 2.408.
for j f j s r and I would amend the expression f z v m : to which would (12) TP1^":—'TaxfHwsrwf^wr i STm—^K+^p
make sense with "JJ-J^ meaning 'a shell', and may be rendered as the (13) w^t sftw OTt; —^w^s
'shell-breaker' or the Open-bill; Cf. Pali 'breaking open a bean'. Is t w M f r c s r a qfe-ofr fafc—fa5?.
Pali tfd$dd4. of TOrawOT, verse 2098 a wrong reading of ^djdd+ ?
(14) f f e r f a ' ^ WTpT-— a vulture with a bill like the trunk of an
It has already been stated that the larger terms ^fiter and SR? compre-
elephant—Pali Dictionary (P.T.S.)
hend the Storks and Herons, and the Open-bill has naturally been
(15) —•TfSTf^m in f ^ ^ ^ l + X
referred to by these names in Rd type of poetry :—
(15)a fasT^:—^.aT.
ff^^cRT aiM+HH'M
gwrfTO, 41.70 (16 ) W — mutilated body

arPr jtfa- ^ d ^ k i W f t f t p n r
Ibid. 221, 30.
Pali RtftiHti (having the lower mandible loose or relaxed) is mention-
ed as one of the birds the quills of which could be used to feather an
arrow :
i^T TO; 3lf5RT, Tfe 3T f r p ^ m r . . .
nf? wr f ^ w f a a Y f a — : q ^ s n r P r ^ w , ^ 63
I need hardly add that ftrfer^ is a most fitting name and a
redering of the English name Open-bill for the bird.
Examination of the above extracts shows that and its variants refer
to (i) a so called two-faced bird, (ii) a human-faced (moustached and
bearded ?) bird, and (iii) bird with a powerful vioce and carrion-eating
habits of a Vulture—all of great size and formidable or fearful appearance.
First, the two-faced bird: T h e giant, flightless and now extinct Pigeon,
the Dodo, of Mauritius was known to European navigators by names like
'Dodaarsen', 'Dodaars' and ' D u o d o ' . The etymology of these names has
not been satisfactorily solved even though all thte facts about the bird and
these names do not go beyond the sixteenth century. T h e Indian voyagers
correct
too must have known or at least heard about the bird which had a huge
366 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

body—larger than the Turkey-Cock and standing near about two
feet six inches high—rudimentary stumps in place of wings, head with a
large massive bill in front and a short curly tail at the rear. It is probable,
therefore, that, looked at from a distance, the bird appeared as a large
egg-shaped object (»ITT-faros1) or having two heads, as it were, one at
either end of its body, and from this last feature the Indian sea-men
probably called i t f e # r (cf. few in No.6 and'fiwsf srjft in No.10 above).
Thisfi^sfa was probably taken up by the Dutch and others as 'Dodaarsen'
which later got corrupted to Dodaars, Dodaers, and finally to Duodo
(See 'Dodo' in Enc. Brit. 11th ed.). T h a t one of the srrcos1 birds had its
origin across the seas is amply proved by the story of the adventures sftr
related in Book X of the Jain work s r a ^ r r ^ k H of sttot;, a poet at the
court of fiMifcci), king of ^pra (the Kathiawar peninsula on the west
coast of India) who ruled over the country about 1100 A. C. sailing
overseas in a merchant vessel runs aground in mid-ocean on a coral reef.
T h e name WTW may thus refer either to the large egg-shaped body of
he can swallow at a gulpjcf. the story inTOWtro, 300 where this Stork is
said to be ready t o attack a lamb or kid, and if he can have a chance he
would certainly not fail to make a meal of a small human baby as well.
The reference in^Ht'cKWlTO may also be to the Bearded Vuture formerly
reputed to carry off little children. The name (No.14), however,
significantly points to the Adjutant as the ^ f a f f bird.
T h a t ^ W , prohibited as food in No.7, was a real bird hardly admits
of a doubt as the passage expressly mentions both kinds ofsmrr:, the
Bearded and the Neophron Vultures, and the probability o f w r e as a
fearful (-ffm) bird is definitely in favour of the Adjutant Stork (Nos.
5,7&8). It is also to be noted that Hemachandra's equation, "w3twi¥reFift"
—note t h e duals— clearly refers to two different birds of that name and
it is suggested that the two birds are the Bearded Vulture and the
Adjutant Stork.
W e , therefore, have three different kinds of*TRos or 'flW birds—(i)the
terror or finra srrcos1, the Dodo; (ii) the STROS,, the Bearded V u l t u r e ;

the bird or the large egg laid by it. This would furnish a basis for the and (iii) the ^fcdfa^ or urros, the Adjutant Stork.
mythical mros o f 1 f o y g 1 ofi^rjTPT and srrcos1 as ^ t t e r (a coastal bird),
also=rn?os as a water-bird (>?*r ^fefrr) of Hemchandra, No. 8 above.
Second, the so-called human-faced m^sr: said to carry dead bodies to
a deep valley would seem to refer to an old practice of exposing the dead.
After the flesh had been picked out by other Vultures the Bearded
Vultures would then work upon the bones, pick up and drop them from
a great height on the rocks below to break them into bits for their own
food. This would explain w as the son of srera who is no other than th
Bearded Vulture (Art. 51), and also srrcos as a bird of omen with Vultures
and Owls—Nos. 3,4,9& 11 above. The mention of the synonyoms 9T|pT
and *[S[ in these is Very significant. T h e thick black rictal bristles over-
hanging the bill and the tuft of bristly hair hanging down from the chin
against the white face of this Vulture combined with his large and
intelligent looking eyes are comparable with the moustache and beard on
the h u m a n face—No.4 above. It may also be recalled how ^repr of the
R a m a y a n a has been very nearly anthropomarphised; Cf. also 'ZRTOTSJOT:act
i£Wrt TO' said o f a bearded goat in dRtO^ 2.1.1.9.
Third, as a fearful bird with a powerful voice *rre"S or s r w may well be
the awful looking Adjutant Stork with a bellowing or roaring call
attributed to him. The «rrw *rnr 'far (No.2) should therefore be a charm
sung so loudly as to strike terror in the heart of the enemy. This Stork
would also seem to be the ffarfTpr (No. 13) bird of Buddhist literature, the
twelve to fifteen inch pendent pouch of the bird being supposed to
resemble the trunk-characteristic mark (fir^) of an elephant. I n the
^nro the commentator explaining the expression UJHM ^ afpr^ft in
verse 2249 refers to jrt^rfwwfror as a bird capable of taking away small
children. It is well known that this Stork readily swallows a leg of
mutton or a dead cat entire, and he would also strike at any living thing
 I t is r a t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e b i r d is known in Hindi as
( c o l l y r i u m ) w h i c h is a l s o t h e c o l o u r o f t h e c l o u d i n t h e a b o v e v e r s e . T h i s
H e r o n was a great favourite with falconers both in E u r o p e and India and
h a s b e e n m e n t i o n e d b y t h e n a m e of in wfroOTSr : —

srw % aFrq^r^cf TOT; II—6.37.

82 4. T h e Grey Heron is not a skulker like its cousin, the Purple Heron,
HERONS, EGRETS AND BITTERNS and has been the subject of popular observation so that its ways have
been well described as a TO in poetry :—

1. Birds comprised within the Heron group are easily distinguished ferarr t^lTF-iT: OT^PsKI« wFd*fgd I
from the storks by their thin, dagger-shaped and pointed bills. The epithet fxT: tf^TtficflrC ^ f d P ^ P l ff^TclTSfsT: I
or adnoun p r ^ r for a H e r o n is really descriptive of the whole group as mretftaf TORT c^Pld'"!fd <TT TTSWRF^T d^dl
f n f f ^ j r o r : as against for the Storks ( f f s r ^ — q f e f ^ r t , tforert, i.e. ^ g r ^ E s h r o : W T f a sniff m R d l s f t d+UPrl II
a Stork— sissref^rrefor;- a long-legged heron—M. W.) Barring a —q^rfad, 208.24.
couple of exceptionally large Herons, like Great White-bellied Heron of
Again,
Bhutan, the majority o f t h e birds in this group are of medium and small
?T W F ^ r q q- ^ T T S R fff d P - f + l + m
size which "also helps to separate them from the much heavier and long
legged Storks. ^ w n r f r T ^sr^teFniriT i
2. The typical Herons, with the exception of the Pond-Heron, are
fairly large birds, over a yard long, and their plumage is a mixture of grey, ^iidPd'^Pd T f h r f W r w ^ m n ^ toot: II
white and black or these with some rufous-buff and chestnut. The com- —Ibid. 229.232.
monest are the Grey Heron and the so-called Purple Heron which has no Reference to the birds' habits and the crest in these examples helps to
purple in its plumage. identify the TO as the Grey Heron.
3. The Grey Heron (39"), who e prototype in Europe is known as the 5. as a sporting bird is also mentioned in the T^jmr : -
Blue Heron, is a tall grey bird marked with black and white, often seen
brooding "almost motionless by the side of water." It has a long droop-
ing black crest and white long feathers falling over the breast. It is a —SfTWS, 51.25.
solitary bird and sometimes "wades in shallow water with slow deliberate
paces, the neck outstreched" (Whistler), watching for fish or frog to •rtfo* distinguishes the cautious and slow-stepping Grey Heron as ^TfTOfj
come within striking distance. It is one of the five different birds bearing from the long-paced Adjutant, f t w r o ^ f , in describing the different
the common basic n a m e of w.^ mentioned in the lexicons and is the styles of the movements of a horse trained for purposes of war.
1
PT^i (having a thin pointed bill), and simple or ^TTfonj. for Slow and cautious steps are d I ("<+! $,'I Id and high-stepping long-paced
short. <t>eHs<t>"hi has w i ^ in the list of names for Herons, Egrets, etc., and motion the ^rgrfa (smrT^r, 3rfsmw2, ch. 30). T h e renderings o f t h e different
as the term also means a cloud (cf. for 'a cloud' in M.W., and note gaits or foot-movements of a horse have gone wrong at least in some cases
that the black and white colour-pattern of the Grey Heron is also in the translation by R. Samasastry. is not a crow as in M. Williams
it should be another name for this bird. The complexion of lord K r s n a but the (Grey Heron) with its thin and sharp-pointed bill with which
has been compared with the colour of a dark cloud and the plumage of it spears fish in water. and fawM+l#l both equate it with and not
the bird :
6. T h e Eastern Purple Heron (38") is a bird of about the same size
d t f r f + i ^ t d f ^ n r s r ^ P c r f ^ T — f P w i , 1.24.
as the Grey Heron whose prevailing colour is grey o n the wings and back,
black on the belly and chestnut in the remaining parts. It is a great skulked and
1. forceps of and of <m|i)u| (Gal. Edn.) 6.79.69
spends most of its time amongst reeds in marshes, tanks, etc. It is intensely
q u o t e d in *|®<;<t> CM ^Jf, refer to t h e s h a p e of the thin, p o i n t e d bill of this H e r o n or the next,
curious and its long neck may often be seen stretched u p above the reeds
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature 367
Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe
to watch passers-by. In other respects it does not differ from the Grey descriptive epithet of a full-grown white heifer, nevertheless it is clear
Heron. The definition of given in would seem to refer to
t h a t the term, independently of the context, has that meaning, and as the
this bird : simile relates to a full-sized cow the particular Egret meant by the com-
mentator, Nilakantha, must be the Large Egret :—
i l ^ W t i f d J l H K : ffchffaig dN-iT^:,
i^f^T ^ STTcTT f^PTWt I
where sufiram refers to the wariness of the bird and HHI^ to the dark
•jmPd^d qTWt m f ^ ^ W i l — M.Bh. 4.17.11.
grey colour of the wings and back. The epithet for a Heron is
most appropriate for it as it is descriptive of its long neck, small head and This Egret grows three sets of long plumes from the region of the shoulder
pointed yellow bill held perpendicularly amongst reeds like a new lotus and they extend some inches beyond the tail during the breeding season.
shoot. It is also the as defined in : P-WHI-jj-; PTRT ' — w h e r e This particular feature accounts for the Pali nam(?%*TT^ for it in
the adjective describes its attitude when " f r o z e n " . The Grey the 536; cf. Pali for the Paradise Flycatcher which too
Heron being its cousin, the Purple Heron, is appropriately named carries two white ribbons in its tail (Art. 11). T h e ^ r m of V S 24.22-33
1
^ f ^ and the f^rr^WT would seem to be in error when it equates should be the Large Egret.
with the Adjutant (cf. below). The mistake is due to the ( b ) & (c) The Smaller (28") and the Little (20") Egrets are M
fact that the Adjutant is also a In the same way, ^ipi is wrongly a n d ^ T T f ^ r respectively, ^ t w t , again a diminutive o f ^ for the Large
equated with a Grow because the Grow i s i j ^ r ^ and the latter has been Egret, is a synonym for s r a i f w ^rrfwr" and ^rmf^"
mistaken by some for a (see W J W T . and M . W . ) . Here the error arises — a n d Pnr*ww).
from a confusion between a n d ' i ^ f a f f r (the House Grow and the T h e equation, 'WPT f t r O T f W ' 2 — a n d arfiwPT ferr* applies to both
House Sparrow). T h e Little Egret (Ardea nivea in M.W.) or any other these Egrets of small size after their thin white necks, and the following
Egret or Heron in nature is never a - or snsrfcPjP. examples refer to one or the other:
7. No individual Sanskrit name is available for the rare but the
largest of Indian Herons, the Great White-bellied Heron (55") of the
Bhutan Terai, but who can say if it was not known as ir^i^f on the an^jrcrafir PIRMI: r^+fwi n
analogy of names like ipr, etc.? The fact that one of the
smallest Herons, the Pond Heron, goes by the name lends
considerable support to the above suggestion. — S a n s k . of W I T O l t , 1.4.
8. Three kinds of the True or White Egrets are common in India.
They are pure white at all times and of a slenderer build than the Herons. T h e story of a ^ r m perched upon a tree and 'dropping' into the face of
T h e Large Egret occurs in two sizes: the Western form is a little larger a Brahman who was sleeping under it, and who reduced the bird to
than the Eastern but both are similar in all other respects. They are all ashes with the fire emanating from his angry eyes, told in the M a h a b h a -
S R F P T in Sanskrit but each kind has also been separately named, principal- rata, relates to one of these very common small Egrets:
ly according to size and certain other characters.
(a) T h e Lage Egret (35"-36") is the zfcs si^rm2 o f ^ ^ r on tot; of ^SfTWsMI+l HTsfaRT I
the lexicons and ^ i ^ d l of the Mahabharata. We have seen that the ijqT j ^ i j c g c j WTflwr II—3.206.3.
related terms and ^ f s refer to the allied birds, the Grey and the
The story is retold in the W J W , 5 — q f w 4 7 , with ^ (White Ibis)
Purple Heron respectively. Similarly, when SRT is the all-white White Ibis,
substituted for the srarar.
(resembling the SR>) should be the Large Egret, all white and of a
T h e Little Egret wears " a crest composed of two very long attenuated
comparable size with it. i^l^di in the following verse has perhaps been
but not decomposed feathers" as part of the breeding plumage and is the
doubtfully rendered as a w m or Egret, for it appears to be merely a
M&fr (ftrftnft ^mrr) of the s f t m m ; , 274, while the homonymous

1. T h e equation RTRT—3JTR, m a y well be h o m o n y m o u s a n d in-

1. «nfT t h a t wears, as it were, a or skirt a b o u t its waist.
cludes this H e r o n which has a chestunt back like the B r a h m i n y Kite. This is supported by
2 f ^ a n d tpiTFT are different in gsRT 6.46.17 a n d m e a n thin a n d thick lotys roots
its H i n d i name, cTR" 3T3PT, the Grey H e r o n being simply af^FT.
or stalks; cf. H " I M * » < 5 for the F l a m i n g o ( A r t . 8 3 ) . T h e n a m e s «HlEM>l a n d f t w f w
2. Incorrectly e q u a t e d with a wrong reading for ^ • • U " ! , one of the h a v e been inadvertently used for the flamingo (st^Ffr, V T T W 5 ) in
water-birds in M , W . gives only the latter (Art, 6 5 ) . 4.43,46, T h i s illustrates the d a n g e r of mixed synonymies in our lexicons,
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
equation " f w t ^ n ^ ' - f r o ^ , refers to it as ftrar (crested) and
mfjpT (shining like the moon and hence, white).
Prakrit M for a kind of bird in arfr. TR^ is the same as ^ r r for
cf. ^ferr-swfror, wtor (Ibid ), i.e. chalk. For ™ as the female of the
Flamingo see Art. 83.
(d) The Cattle Egret (20') is also a ^ n f e r r but as it undergoes a
change of colour from white into a beautiful golden-buff on the head,
n e c k a n d back during the breeding season it has been named ftp or
^ f f t o r and ^ f r o r in Sanskrit though the last name appears to be a
Prakrit form. This Egret is a constant companion of cattle as it feeds on
their insect parasites and chiefly on grass-hoppers and other insects distur-
bed by them while grazing, and this habit accounts for yet another name
<rtro for it corresponding to ^ or m n v m ( ^ - c a t t l e ) in Hindi
9 T h e Pond Heron or Paddy-bird (18") is the commonest o f ' t h e
family and seen sitting hunched up on the mud, standing knee-deep in the
water along the edges of tanks, streams, etc., or on water plants among
the hhes and lotuses." "Its dull colours assimilate with the mud and the
herbage, and the bird is tame and confiding, with the result that it is
l r h e S Cl0Se t 0 t h e passer b
I s t T T l Tt \ - y> into life with
a sudden flash of the white wings. T o this invisibility is due the name of
bhnd-heron that it bears in several dialects (Whistler). It is known in
Hindi as s r m (Sanskrit ^ or a ^ r ) . The lexicons do not give the
f h a a 7 l n t ? T ? ! C t d Wlthin braGketS' b u t therC SCems to b e
that the bird had them for its names. The commentator
however, gives in the sense of W as a synonym
means both ' d l t c h water* and 'a blind person'. „ is also
type ot MkflM=b or wandering mendicant:—
fawt 5nr?fT STSFT q r s ^TTJT I
—Apte's Practical Sansk. Eng. Diet., 1890
The point about this definition is that the mendicant is not supposed to
look beyond a space of four paces or feet about him. Next, there is the
special meaning of aps* in the frwr:—
^ m * fW^—12.14.1.
Here the sun, not visible until it rises above the horizon, is called
and the special meaning of a ^ i s explained as under:—
Tffm sqpf ^ H ^ d T c f 3FW:
f b S r ^ T . f 1 T ? j e C t W h i d l C S C a P C S observation is known as ^
( b h n d ) ; T h e idea of absence of movement or movement upwards
^ T ^ a l s ^ m v o l v e d . The invisibility of the Pond Heron as it S s
hence ,pudd,e on
w Z
367
Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe
hunched up, camouflaged in its surroundings and intently watching a
few feet of m u d or water about it for prey, and the sudden white flash
with which it rises are thus fully comprehended in the name a ^ g ^ and
also probably in AR^P?ro. SFETWMT, the popular Hindi name for it, is just a
rendering of these names and in the sense discussed above. Names like
a m and JTWTTfr for Herons and Storks (TO) humorously refer to their
habit of standing on one leg and apparently innocuous contemplation
until an unwary frog or fish appears on the scene. The term ^
for a very small Heron should belong to this, the most common member
of the group.
T h e Pond Heron, like the Little Egret, grows a long»white occipital
crest in the breeding season and for this reason shares the name of ^ f e
with the Egret, the Night Heron and the Little Green Heron (See Art.71
for the different meanings o f ^ t a f e ) . In the verse below affecting a
Pond (during the day) is this Heron or the Little Egret :—
HFW fcT: I
—pTlw, 221.7.
10. Bitterns and Night Herons, with the exception of the Bittern, are
birds of a shorter and stouter build. They also differ from Herons and
Egrets in that they are all night-birds and generally solitary at all times
(Finn). They are designated as •HswVi (Night-Herons) by 4N+M in
^ i w , 2.20, falter or fafr? in the mixed synonymy of fd+iwlq, and
in faOTppffor, 1.151. 48 where is a wrong reading of ^pfironr.
Ht t lo doubt
of (a) The Night Heron (23") is truly nocturnal in its habits. Not until
for after the sun has set for half an hour or so do the birds leave the trees
a pabular where they remain all day in the deepest shade they can get. During
flight they utter every few minutes a loud, though not unmusical, squak.
It has several names in Hindi after its voice, TO, *fTO and $+<l|(+=ll=t><lfa't ?)
corresponding to Sanskrit TO? ( " T O ? * F S l % | r f p r : " — i s thus the
same as This equation corresponds to "fwfa^sfa^H:" both for
the Little Egret which is crested and white and for TO, the Night-Heron
which is also crested, and the expression ^sftrff^T as a homonym means
( i ) a white bird, as well as (ii) a night-bird or one that feeds during
moon-light. Like the Little Egret the Night Heron also wears a crest of
long, thin, black and white feathers and shares the name of ^ r f e or
with it and also with the crested Little Green Heron, another night-
bird. on 3Tirc explains the name ^ K f e as "arWt ^T^rfa ^rfrfe" which
^r
fits in admirably with the habit of these night-birds resting all day in
heavily foliaged trees. This fact has been beautifully brought out in the
following verses :—•
¥ rM + W r ^ W T TT7TFT 4WllP?M: I
^STOTT M i H K — II —Ramayana, 5.1.44.
^rrwrf: frcTm-wwcKvi
—HMcfl'HIER", 9.7-
:
^ —
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
and it is incorrect to render T f a f s r ^ or -mPu^ in the above contexts as (iff—water, and •T?—to call aloud) which has been wrongly equated
a Lapwing ( f e f b r ) , for the latter, not having an effective hind toe, with the Sarus due to confusion between and (cf. fow? and
never perches on a tree. T h e terms jrfepT and for different birds fqw). is the female Sarus and ffm^ should, therefore, be her mate.
have been considered in Art. 71 and the latter as the Water Cock in Art. ^ a s a homonym is (i) a game bird, the Great Bustard, which has a
58. bellowing call (from iff— a c o w ) and (ii) the Bittern (fr. ifr—water)
( b ) The Little Green Heron is a greenish grey bird (18") with a long <see Arts. 62 and 63). Similarly the equation "snf?: TTf:" of ^ (% ^ ^ =

black pendant crest glossed with green. It is a forest bird found singly Tfa 31% T ^ r ) should apply to (i) the White Ibis and (ii) the Bittern both
along forest streams. During the heat of the day it sits hunched u p on the of which have a booming call and belong to the ^ group in the wider
lower branches of some thick water-side bush, refusing to move until sense.
the bush is almost hit, when, with a squak (*nr), it flaps lazily away to
another dark and shady bush (S. Baker), TRT being the Night Heron,
^ n (making the 'wak' sound, or having a call similar to that of the
the Night Heron) should be this bird. Resembling the Night Heron in
habits and possessing an erectile crest it can also claim the name ^ f e
with it. The following excellent verse mentions the booming White Ibises
(sm: in the first line), the Cormorants ( w ? » r , loosely or for brevity called
T f t ) taking a j u m p into the air before diving, the Storks frequenting a
tank during the day and the Night Herons and Bitterns resorting to it
at night (bothcalled ^ r : in the third line), and finally, the Swan, the
high-brow' amongst aquatic birds, who very properly quits the Lotus-
tank which shelters such a mean assortment:—

*rr i?PT JFrfeRT ^ r f t n f t f e s 11

— f ^ l f a d M f t f , 714.

(c) The Chestnut Bittern (15") of noctural habits belongs of course

^ °r ^ ^ S r o u P of Herons and one of the Hindi for it is
^ T w r which is from Sanskrit WlcFfT 'moon-light' is ^ r f in
Hindi, and this last has been shortened to f r in the compound name
^ R t which thus fully corresponds to ^ s t ^ p (cf. s ^ r f i P T for t h e * * k ) .
This Heron spends the day in dense reeds or feeds in deep shade along
streams. It has no crest and is not, therefore, awfafe.
(d) The Bittern (30") is of a golden brown colour mottled with black.
It is a winter visitor only and has been found breeding at Quetta within
(pre-partition) Indian limits. Its ordinary note is a hoarse low croak but it
booms loudly in the breeding season. It has the habit, when danger threatens
of standing with the head and neck extended sky-wards—the whole
attitude and colouration being protective amongst the varied lights and
shade of a reed-bed (Smythies). This behaviour of the Bittern is quite
similar to that of the Purple Heron so that the equation f^mwrf:
applies to it as much as to the other. T h e Hindi name for
n is IWIM (jfk-water, and T j f j - t o shout) corresponding exactly to
 Flamingos 400
V

within Indian limits, while the nearest breeding grounds of the latter are
on the shores of the Red Sea, but so far as the mainland of India is
concerned both the species are winter visitors, arriving about September
and leaving for their breeding homes in May-June and some time as late
as July. Both move in parties or large flocks though the Lesser Flamingo
s an erratic v i s i t o r , occurring plentifully in the North-West up to the
Sambhur Lake in Rajasthan in certain years and scarce or altogether
83 absent in others. 1
3. T h e Common Flamingo (50") is a tall, white bird with rosy upper
FLAMINGOS parts, black flight-quills, a flame-red patch on the wing and scarlet
axillaries and underwing coverts. The eyes are yellow, the orbital skin pink
to bright red, bill flesh-coloured and legs pinkish-red. With very long legs
and neck it stands about four feet high but its body is no bigger than
1. Flamingos, with very long necks and legs and thick bills, 'broken'or
that of a common Goose. The heavy'goosy' bill with an obtuse bend in
bent in the middle, are quite unlike other birds and appear to stand in a
the middle, the upper mandible freely moveable as if on a hinge (unlike
class by themselves, but from anatomical and other features they would
the Goose whose lower mandible is moveable) and adapted for feeding
seem to occupy a position intermediate between the Storks (TO) on one
in an inverted position is characteristic. Its webbed feet, anserine voice
side and the Geese and Ducks (iff) on the other. They combine the look of
and the fact that young chicks are active as soon as hatched link it up
a Stork and the ways, and voice of a Goose. They have indeed been
more closely with the Swans and Geese than its long legs with the Storks.
placed by scientists sometimes with the Ciconiiformes (Stork-like birds)
Nevertheless this apparently dual, character of the Flamingo is reflected
and at others with Chenomorphae (Swans, Geese, and Ducks) , and
both in its Sanskrit and vernacular names:
although Stuart Baker has "for the present" separated them under Order
Phoenicopteri (Phoenicopterus, 'red-winged'—a Flamingo—the 'flame- Sanskrit f 3 ^ (fr. 'to curve or become small' after the long,
coloured') he is strongly inclined to the opinion that they will have to be flexible neck which when coiled round the body and with head
finally classed with the Swans and Geese under one common Order. It tucked into the back makes the bird look very much smaller
is interesting to note in this connection that, except for its original Vedic than at other times)
n a m e o f ^ o r ^ t , so named after its extraordinarily long and very
sp-to, TO after its superficial resemblance to a Stork ( t o ) ;
flexible neck, the later Sanskrit names for the Flamingo, viz., ^ p r ,
srciff ( k , f l f j T , ^ s ; c f . TO turmeric; and hence either 'a superior
SRTFP, and even TO, seem to recognise its affinity to the Swan or Goose on
the one hand and to the Storks on the other. Again, names like f n w s type of Goose' or 'the Red-Goose' as it is actually called in
or JfiMifN (having a thin, long neck like a lotus stalk) are merely a Persian.
paraphrase of the original w® or ^p?.
4. The effect that the Flamingo, seen singly or in the mass, whether
2. India claims two out of the five known species of Flamingo, viz.,
on its feeding grounds or high u p in the air, produces upon a cultured
the Common Flamingo (50") and its smaller cousin, the Lesser Flamingo
mind cannot be described better than in the words of Stuart Baker—
(33"). T h e former has one of its breeding sites in the R a n n of Kutch 1
"Although so ungainly in shape when viewd individually, the Flamingo
when seen in the vast herds in which they so often collect is one of the
1. st'fr'W (TOfafW: TOWrft ^T ^ s s : as a n a n c i e n t p l a c e - n a m e pro- most beautiful of Avian sights. In the distance they look like a field of
bably b e l o n g e d t o w h a t is t o d a y t h e R a n n of K u t c h i n W e s t e r n I n d i a w h e r e F l a m i n g o s a r e
k n o w n to breed in their thousands. A c c o r d i n g to the St. Petersberg a n d M . Williams' D i c - work, snsrfcr, 3.52. We will see i n later p a r a g r a p h s t h a t TO, ^ T O , a n d t h e f e m i -
t i o n a r i e s t h e n a m e is m e n t i o n e d i n OTlfffoffFK, 6. 76 & 166 but the fauk+IHK edition n i n e W r ^ T , a r e n a m e s o f t h e F l a m i n g o i n S a n s k r i t , so t h a t if TO^ within A r y a n limits
of t h e w o r k r e a d s i n s t e a d a n d it is p l a c e d o n t h e Narmada. is P r a k r i t f o r is t h e Rann of K u t c h , may well refer to t h e territory n e a r t h e R e d S e a where
i p p r s g which has b e e n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e p r e s e n t B r o a c h or S f f f a . E v i d e n t l y t h e Lesser F l a m i n g o s b r e e d . I t is, t h e r e f o r e , h i g h l y p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e ancient Indians knew
is a d i f f e r e n t p l a c e a n d is p r o b a b l y t h e R a n n of K u t c h or t h e i s l a n d of K u t c h t o t h e t w o n e a r e s t b r e e d i n g g r o u n d s of b o t h k i n d s of F l a m i n g o .
t h e s o u t h of i t . T h e n a m e is a n a l o g o u s t o o t h e r p l a c e - n a m e s like c^i-jf^FT, ^V-qii, 1. T h e Lesser F l a m i n g o is m o r e r i c h l y c o l o u r e d t h a n t h e C o m m o n F l a m i n g o a n d there
ffSTfre, etc., named a f t e r t h e p a r t i c u l a r b i r d s t h a t a b o u n d e d a t e a c h of these p l a c e s . M y is s o m e crimson o n t h e tail f e a t h e r s as well. T h e eyes, bill a n d legs a r e d i f f e r e n t s h a d e s of
f r i e n d , D r . R a g h u V i r a , b r o u g h t t o m y n o t i c e t h e n a m e of a n o t h e r c o u n t r y viz. 9WTT Wfa
r e d . I n its h a b i t s it closely r e s e m b l e s t h e c o m m o n Flamingo.
(°THHH~H) mentioned as a c o u n t r y of t h e M l e c h h a s or N o n - A r y a n s in t h e a n c i e n t J a m a
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Flamingos 411
snow with a rosy sunset glow u p o n it, then as one approaches, the snow
6. I n the following lexical synonymies, which are mostly of
suddenly melts into a flaming scarlet as the birds unfold their wings and
a mixed character, the terms TPR, ST^P, 3RR and ^ I M * ^ r e f e r to the male
sail away. When just moving from one feeding g r o u n d to another they
Flamingo, a n d sn-lTO, ^TR^T and -ftwsjrr to the female. irsrm in a special
adopt n o particular formation b u t when in full flight form into either a
sense means also 'a flight of Flamingos in formation', described also as
wide V or a long waving r i b b o n . " 1 Their food consists chiefly
or «I+HRM :
of m i n u t e vegetable m a t t e r a n d to some extent of tiny a n i m a l organisms,
crustacea, mullusca, etc. found in the m u d of fresh and salt water lakes
^tf: 3TTR,
and lagoons. W h e n feeding, the bird wades in a regular line with others ( 0
( * )
of its kind, and bending down its long neck and head between the legs, snrrsq^T: ^ Tfa^TC JT: I
uses its inverted bill like a shovel in which to catch and collect its food.
This it obtains by moving the head backwards and forwards or from side WTR: J ^ f r ^ i F T : — + < - 4 4 + 1 i)|,
to side and gently stirring u p the m u d which is sifted through the seive-
—p. 329, verses 107-108
like bill. T h e n it erects its long neck to swallow the selected food.
(iii) f l M W (?^J5) —Ibid,
5. T o the bird's peculiar m e t h o d of feeding the Prakrit and Hindi
(iv) ^rw fawst ^ i - ' ^ c H jfr i
languages owe the picturesque terms sNn and for the country-gardener's
shadoof or simple water-lever commonly seen working at a water-hole or ^Ka^H^i sffiT i)m<f<p ^rarsrin' n — < N P f W do
crude well. I t consists of two posts supporting a cross beam at the top (v) «HI+I ^ r ^ r e f o : fticp ^ m n - fwfrfa^i' i
with a bucket suspended f r o m the longer end and a counterpoise at the <*<1I=M t i l l t l SPtrBT ^'r+sar w : II* — f a w p a c f t
other. N o t much of imagination is required to see t h a t the contrivance
works exactly like a Flamingo as it-feeds. Prakrit means sram, a female Reserving the terms and for discussion a little later let us take up
Flamingo (fem. of a n d s^T a 'water-lift' defined as in ^flHlUMMl the other names and adnouns for the Flamingo. Except for a r r o r sp^r the
of Now this sRcpTT ('a pair of scales at a well') is none other remaining terms in (ii) above refer to our bird as a bird of the a u t u m n
t h a n the water-lever described above. 2 Prakrit are the same as ( W T ? f t ) , flying in formation (wT<kH<), having red in the p l u m a g e a n d a
Sanskrit ETr^f equated with viz., the White Ibis and a Stork (Arts. 80, bent bill ( w r r , living on m i n u t e water-plants ( w r r c ) and wary
8 1 ) . swre?, as we shall see, is the Flamingo defined loosely as 'a sort of or wakeful at night (XI^MMK). This last trait of the bird has been brought
or Stork'. T h e feminine o f ^ is T^t a n d of W F , « H I * I . s Closely associated out by Salim Ali in his Article on the Flamingo in J.B. JV. H. S., X L V ,
with the picture described here a n d lending considerable support to it is page 589, and S. Baker also describes it as "extremely wary a n d c u t e " ,
the H i n d i name ( w w r in the P u j n a b , fr. Sansk. pendent, b u t fircr a n d f r w are different parts of the lotus plant b o t h in and g ^ r (rr^,
'long sr^rc' in Hindi with m—RT^T, 'the tall or long Stork-like bird') for 6.21.78 & 82; g ^ r , 1.21.23 a n d 6.46.17), the former is the white root,
the Flamingo. the same as H i n d i faw or ftrcr a n d the latter the TOM or the long stalk of
the lotus flower. T h e JTwrarro i.e. water-bird) in (iii)
equated with sr?TFti is the long-necked Flamingo, while ' ^ r m ' of the equa-
1. W r i t i n g earlier S. Baker m a d e the following r e m a r k s a b o u t these r e m a r k a b l e tion "«MI<M F ^ W of S P H ? . , S R T and other lexicons is the pure white Egret
b i r d s : " F l y i n g or w a d i n g they a r e a lovely sight, a n d , often as t h e y h a v e b e e n described, n o
which too has a comparatively long a n d white neck. 2 SIMI^-^ like TO?
one h a s yet been able to d o justice to their b e a u t y . " A g a i n , " T y p i c a l l y their flight is dis-
tinctly anserine, not p e r h a p s exactly V-shape, b u t m o r e in t h e f o r m of a c u r v e d r i b b o n , the
1- Q u o t e d i n t h e c o m m e n t a r y on -dullR JJ5T 462, at p a g e 5 2 4 of
ends fluttering backwards a n d f o r w a r d s as t h e birds, m o r e especially those a t t h e t w o extre-
f W ^ V i with s q i W , N i r n a y a s a g a r edition, 1908, - a n d a t t r i b u t e d to
m e s , alter their position." O n shorter flights the birds rise in o n e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e mass a n d
W T O t t h o u g h the editions of these t w o lexicons issued by t h e C h o w k h a m b a Office,
c o n t i n u e as they h a v e risen. {Indian Ducks and Their Allies, 1 9 0 8 ) .
B a n a r a s a n d t h e O r i e n t a l Book Agency, P o o n a , respectively d o n o t h a v e this verse. T h e
" T o witness the simultaneous u n f o l d i n g of a t h o u s a n d lovely crimson a n d black p i n i o n s 3fWlfo> T T F k of T ^ f x , M a d r a s , 1939, h o w e v e r , gives the following : ?
u n d e r brilliant sunlight is a sight t h e recollection of which will n o t r e a d i l y be effaced from fewfN T ^ r i w p p r r t r s p r y t n srwnrt srprfsrfor II 4.69-70.
o u r m e m o r i e s " (Eagle Clarke, q u o t e d , ibid, p a g e 5 ) . 2- I f ^ R T a n d < j " i M are i d e n t i c a l it is possible t o take a n d t f l M ' W for
T h e s e extracts fully b e a r out t h e appreciative references t o F l a m i n g o s (flying en masse t h e taller bird, t h e F l a m i n g o w i t h a n e x t r e m e l y long neck a n d a n d R*H>["6'tir for
or in f o r m a t i o n ) in Sanskrit l i t e r a t u r e of a t h o u s a n d to two t h o u s a n d years ago. the smaller b i r d , t h e E g r e t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e rule ir^lctiluil'g-MIHif^tHIM^t^ Iff?"
2. C o m p a r e ' c r a n e ' as a m a c h i n e , so n a m e d after t h e b i r d w i t h t h e long neck. a m . , 3.5.7.
t
3. T h e t e r m q i m for t h e Egrets is a « n ( d i n + H3T a n d is a l w a y s in the feminine I t is also highly p r o b a b l e t h a t with TWRT for the F l a m i n g o the e q u a l l y w h i t e b u t smaller
g e n d e r , b u t TOfT for t h e f e m a l e flamingo is the feminine of «MI+ for t h e m a l e . E g r e t w i t h c o m p a r a t i v e l y long necks h a v e b e e n n a m e d as TOfT irrespective of sex, u n d e r
this rule.
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Flamingos 413
412 \

has the correct reading of a n d f l M * 1 ^ in is an obvious error,
qrwrw has iprrwl^ instead (p. 198). In synonymy (iv) ^tTOT is probably a
homonym and stands for both the Egret and the female of the Flamingo ^ as
they s h a r e the majority of the epithets in common. Both are
waders and not swimmers, though they can swim), ^ k l + W + t (having their
breeding season in North India at the end of summer or beginning of the
rains), and s i w n (associated with water, the Flamingos more than the
Egrets). Adnoun far- or f«rawl is specific for the Egret while
ing the feminine of Cm^tR equated with ^ in s m + ^ H is clearly more
appropriate for the female of the long-necked Flamingo. (the white),
again, is common to both. T h a t leaves i^i-Ml 1 which, if treated as a
homonym, would apply (i) in the sense of s r o f c r ^ A to both, and (ii)
with ^ T ^ qXdH^l fauiM^iWl 5fT ZTFJT:, to the female Flamingo in particular
(See para. 13 where this topic is discussed in greater detail). The last
s y n o n y m y also is mainly homonymous, for means (i) a flight of
Flamingos in formation, (ii) an Egret, and (iii) fTWT i.e. a passionate
woman metaphorically called smraT on the analogy of the female Flamingo
supposed to fly up eagerly to meet the rain-cloud for fertility, and finally
SRTCT, the Flamingo, is defined as a sort of ^ or Stork. M.Williams' render-
ing of TlWTt as a kind of Crane is incorrect.
7. T h e Kalmuks and the Russians call the Flamingo as 'the Red
Goose' (per Jerdon in Birds of India) from the red colour in the wings,
also the Persians (Qaz-i-surkh). Hindi fWHT for it corresponds to Sansk.
which may well m e a n ' t h e superior' or 'the red Goose' (TC ^ s , ^
^ • ^ — I j T ^ T j r ; c f. c(TT, TUlft turmeric, and «H+l*6+l the plant Clerodendron
siphonanthus, the blue drupe of which rests upon an enlarged and spread-
ing red calyx—Brandis, p. 508). ^ r in the following verse should there-
fore be the Flamingo or the Red Goose:
TPRAT 'THT TT <D>L JFT T ^ M P S T
II—i!W|i<l«l, 1.217.5.
particularly significant that; «(<idU<H. in his commentary on the verse from
the l^dI quoted at the end of this article renders as a kind of
"iffftfrr:".
(i.e. 8. The red colour in the plumage of the Flamingo has been recognized
in the name s r ^ r ^ q - by which it has been mentioned in the M a h a b h a -
rata. A particular array of an army has been named (metri causa) "=zff:
jflo-^Hjui:"1 which in plain prose should be read as sfWTt^RTf. This
be- arrangement is evidently different from the and was set up like a
(see f. n. to para. 1, Art. 62) but with a difference, viz., that the
front or head part of the array was like a representing the out-
stretched long neck of the Flamingo on the wing and a similar arrange-
ment at the back of the main body corresponding to the long out-stretched
legs behind, the body and the flanks of the formation being after the body
and broad wings of the bird. This ^ " l ^ V ^ ^ is fully described in the
Epic beginning with the verse:
sjf: f t W t "TTT g f W ^ T ^ r : I
4 ^wPdfVjirii crcr ^ r g ^ n f a r n —6.50.40ff.
O n shorter flights, i. e. when moving from one feeding ground to another
the Flamingos rise indiscriminately in a huge mass and fly very much
lower than during migration. I n such a position the red in the plumage
is distinctly visible from below and this particular type" of flight en masse
has been utilised with considerable effect for a beautiful simile which,
based as it is on actual observation, combines wonderful poetic imagery
with typical Indian exaggeration. A great mass of arrows feathered with
the chestnut-red wing and tail-feathers of the Brahminy Kites dis-
charged by warriors at the enemy has been compared with a ceiling ("TO)
of Flamingos ( w i ^ V ^ ) rendering the sun and the sky invisible to people
I
in the field:

This verse refers to the personification of the early morning prayer (nrwT)
when the sun rises with a red glow while in the next two verses the mid- xr^iifw^Rr H I U I M TKm n
day prayer is conceived of as clad in white and described as "s^gwrfRT" •o srssK^mrm WW^FT i r r s f e i
and "wgytftwtftrar" because then the sun is at its brightest. The evening * « *

r m t is "qtewmi" and " a t w r ^ r w n " representing the orange-yellow of the

setting sun and the advancing darkness, the linseed-flower, being g^HTT TTSR !T fcc srftWSfT II —MBh. 8.51.60-66
of a sky-blue colour. Taking all the three representations of and her
c o l o u r associations it is highly probable that JRpr in the above quotation 9. We have just seen in the preceding paragraph that the srw ^ ^ ^
is the white Flamingo with a rosy tinge on the upper parts and red on the was the invention of sage i^t-nta. Another invention of his, based upon a
wings. T h e Hindi ^ K t lends special support to this view. It is also natural formation of Flamingos in the sky againsj a back-ground ®f dark
rain clouds, has been called the great sU^-Mct :
1. Cf. inTTfWTJTT s a i d of a flight of F l a m i n g o s i n t h e verse from the Ramayana
q u o t e d in p a r a . 13 b e l o w ; also f o r t h e f e m a l e S a r u s w h o c o n s u m m a t e s h e r love o n the 1. b y itself t h e r e f o r e d o e s n o t m e a n a s j ^ as a s s u m e d b y M . W .
g r o u n d , Art. 62 p a r a . 10.
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

sTfF^r: R'-rfkdi i to some extent but the greater portion of their food consists of coarse stuff
nfpar^: T^rt ^ r w r ^ r a ; if like green grass, water-weeds, crops, the larger mollusca, fish, etc. The
and p (i.e. the sun pictured as the heavenly Swan) have been regard-
•o o ed as different birds in the following passages with reference to their power
f^pgwrr^r: s r m f a srar^FT: II MBh. 8.46.27-28 of separating sftr (liquid food) and fffff (pure water) respectively from the
In this impure natural waters:
connection I would invite the reader's attention to Stuart Baker's
description o f t h e flight quoted in the foot-note to para 4 above. It is " i n fffft sqfr^T ^ i f ^ X ^ f t faRTT1— VS 19.73.
the form of a curved ribbon, the ends fluttering backwards and forwards y'lH^'an o^fiw-o&r^'i ^ r : ^R'-ld^— VS 19.74.
as the birds, more specially those at the two extremes, alter their position."
In the first verse ^ is described as anffTff which may possibly mean two
A comparison of this with the passage from the M a h a b h a r a t a clearly shows
things: (i) ®f%Tff being an epithet of arfiff the reference may be to the red
that (i) refers to the fluttering movement; (ii) ftnsrafer wsi?: to the
or flame colour in the plumage of the bird the Flamingo; and (ii)
change of places by the birds at the ends of the formation ( i w r s r ) ; and
resembling arf^Tff and possessed of magical power (cf. at 'art, science,
(iii) the heavier elements of the army consisting of p c W T T W ^ r r : at the
intelligence', in the text) enabling the to separate sfh: from arr. Perhaps
rear and flanks look like the dark rain-clouds ( s m f a swisfw)". 1 We thus
both the ideas are involved. Similarly the term s^ffT ( s ^ desire, will) in
have two kinds of just as we have two types of ^ l ^ 5 ^ formed
the second verse should refer to the wonderful power of the sun (the pure
after the flying formation and the body of the the Common Crane
white Swan of the clear blue sky) who by his own free will or innate power
(Art. 62 para. 2, f. n . ) . Both forms bigger than the
sucks u p fftff (pure water) out of impure waters of the earth. A special
as the Flamingo (50") is larger than the Common Crane (45") and
capacity to extract some essential element out of the impure waters of the
also occurs in larger masses.
earth is t h u s c o m m o n to both, viz., the earthly and the heavenly p ,
10. W e have seen in paragraph 6 that in later Sanskrit the Flamingo
one taking out sftr and the other fftff. Now if we examine some of the
was known as TOFP and regarded as a kind of TO ( " S P T R ^ T TOT tier:") and the
numerous Vedic equations or statements reflecting the diverse mental
following half verse from the T S J K T T recognizes its power of sifting out 7T
processes o f t h e highly imaginative Indo-Aryans we will find that the term
(i. e. srk which by vTSTTT means 'food' in the context) or minute semi-liquid
saft stands for what to the ^ is the essential part of the impure waters, viz.,
food from water exactly as the iff is supposed to d o :
its food. The following equations are particularly interesting from the
srkm: wt ^ ?2
prc ^ ^nr
above viewpoint:
— C h . 247. 160
T h e same Purana refers again to the Flamingo as living upon small water- (1 tftir: Tq-:— W W srr^JT, 12.7.3.13.
organisms and rejecting other living things like frogs, fish, etc.: (2 73ft * W . — Ibid. 4.4.4.8.
(3 3T tr^T? Jjcqpr:— 3"fi|PT, 9.9.3.
snrrt -sfwRTPT ^ r f i JTOf^FRfej I — I b i d . 129.151
, J
(4 3rrrt t 5fU < Hi s t r r ; — ibid. 13.4.8.
This naturally leads to a consideration of the bird sp; or f ^ r of the ^M<H<ft (5 srrrt # ar«f — srt. sr. 8.7.3.21
*T%TT where it is said to separate milk from water, and as explained in
(6 *ftifr # c T R T f c r : — 1 . 3 . 2 . 3 .
Art. 62, it is a bird with a long and flexible neck and the Flamingo as
(7 # *ft*T:—STW. 3TT. 3.9.1.8.
we have seen has the best claim to these names. If the faculty of separat-
ing the whole of its minute food from water is li terally true of any bird (8 *KMd<W JT^PTtfTcPT— Ibid. 9.2.1.11.
it is true of the Flamingo alone. The Swans, Geese and Ducks also do so The first three of the above statements place milk and Soma juice on a
par as the two are drawn from the cow or the plant; regard them as the
1. A similar p i c t u r e is d e p i c t e d in M b h . 7.20.35, q u o t e d in p a r a . 14 below w h e r e
white flags fluttering in the air a n d t h e chariots, elephants, horses, etc. c a r r y i n g t h e m h a v e 1. Cf. " faiTT T3TfTf% TTTO ^ N f t <T ftvPTff l " — v i i i , 7. T h e ipfa of
been c o m p a r e d with Flamingos a n d clouds. T h i s close parallelism b e t w e e n the two passages this Pali passage is e v i d e n t l y t h e q p q - — ' T h e wise m a n leaves t h e evil as t h e m i l k -
helps to identitify the q i ^ w t also as m o d e l l e d on a f o r m a t i o n of F l a m i n g o s . d r i n k i n g F l a m i n g o t h e w a t e r ' . C . R . L a n m a n ' s r e n d e r i n g of ^ r f a as ' C u r l e w ' is i n c o r r e c t .
2. ' D o e s n o t a L a k e give m i l k to t h e F l a m i n g o as it does to a S w a n ? (i.e. it See his a r t i c l e , " T h e m i l k - d r i n k i n g Hariisas of S a n s k r i t P o e t r y " in J.A.O.S. Vol 19.,
c e r t a i n l y does give milk tp t h e F l a m i n g o as well, p a g e 151,
 366
'essence' and as hidden (sr^rffaTr) i.e. within the body of the cow
or the pla,nt. ThcsftT and tfta for the and (the sun) are equally
essences hidden in the muddy waters and are drawn, as it were, by both
for their respective purposes. Nos. (4) & (5) connect the waters with milk
(sfk) and food (srsr) while Nos. (6) &(7)regard Soma and milk with which
it is always mixed as a drink or food for strength, sfk, again, in the sense
of 'milk', occurs in the Rgveda and Atharvaveda as an item of food both
for gods and men. 1 It is also used metaphorically for all kinds of wealth
which in Vedic times consisted principally of cattle and food stuffs (RV,
1. 104.3). It is therefore submitted that sftr in VS 19. 73 quoted above
stands metaphorically for the almost liquid food extracted by the
Flamingo from the water with its bill which works like a seive and
separates the unwanted water and retains what is srft: or food for itself. T h e
same is true of the sun, pictured as a Swan, for it takes u p with its rays
a different essence, viz., the Soma or clean water out of the impure waters.
This pure water, though named as is also efk but in a different sense,
for it is sept back in the form of rain-water, which, dropping from above
in thin streams like milk from the cow's udder, is truly a kind of sftx
S T T ^ : — 2 . 5. 4).
11. The above passages from VS 19. 73-74 and their parallels in K S
38.1; M S 3.11.6; and TB 2 . 6 . 2 contain to my knowledge the oldest
version of the attributed to the p - or Swan in later literature
and which has served as a beautiful argument in the Vedanta and Nyaya
Philosophies or as a motif in story. Bloomfield in his Foreword to Vol.
V I I of Penzer's edition of The Ocean of Story, 1926, pp. xviii-xix, has
opined that attempts to explain the drinking apart of milk from water
"as a feature of the natural history of the hamsa are, in my opinion,
fatuous" and he cites the example of qp^ mentioned in the texts cited
above. He however makes the mistake, in common with the authors of
the ' Vedic Index of Names and Subjects', of rendering as the Curlew.
The CUrJew feeds on "insects, reptiles, coleoptera, slugs, worms, and at
times, berries, seeds and seaweed" (S. Baker) and the Snipe, suggested
as an alternative in the V e d i c Index, also feeds on worms, grubs, tiny
snails, etc. for much of which it. bores into soft ground with its sensitive
bill. I t is thus impossible to consider these birds as separating their food
from the water. T h e Flamingo alone as we have seen does it to perfection
and is the "m, of the above texts which also clearly indicate the next step
1- STK is described as food (3T5T) in the following
STTfaat ssffc^re STfore:, cTFT ? 3TRT, <T ffa:
" C o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m the J a i m i n i y a B r a h m a n a to t h e H i s t o r y of B r a h m a n a l i t e r a t u r e " b y
P r o f . H . G e r t e l , JAOS, vol 19, p p . 97 ff. F o r a n e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e s t o r y see A r t . 52. 3T5T
a n d (ffn; a r e closely associated in A V 10,10.8 where
cow b o t h .
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
which led the people to substitute the more beautiful Swan for the
Flamingo in later literature. Colebrook certainly understood the phrase,
3Rwr: sftt szrfwr, in the correct sense when he said—"Because the bird
seems, as the Hindus apprehend, to extract his food by suction from solu-
tion in w a t e r " (quoted by Bloomfield in a foot-note to his Foreword,
referred to above, at p. xviii). 1 I would only modify his statement to this
extent, viz., that the bird is not the ftf b u t the that it did not merely
seem to extract food 'by suction from solution in water' but actually did
so in the manner explained in para, 4 above, and that the ancient Indians
had a correct knowledge of it based upon observation. The following verse
not only clinches the issue but also shows a clear consciousness on the part
of the author that sfrr in the context means simply food and nothing else
and that it is definitely incorrect to assume that tak-apr or STTC-HtT is intended
to mean literally a mixture of milk and water. No doubt the -idea is very
beautiful and tempting and has been used with great effect in didactic and
other poetry but the true basis of it must be understood:
^rHiKmsf? ^rrrF^T i
v i s r f t r f e f ^ S5T: ' i ^ m i u M II—^STTfacT, p. 155, verse 116.
This statement is perfectly correct of the Carp family of fishes which feed
exclusively on micro-organisms like the zoo-planktons and phyto-planktons,
and in this respect they resemble the Flamingos. The Vedic Indians killed
and ate the Flamingo and had ample opportunities to examine the
contents of its stomach as well. This is clear frorA the following
aphorism which permits the eating of Flamingo, the Common Crane
and the Hornbill:
^ ^ f f c ^ wKtHS-HUM'sdHN
-o
— s m w s a r ^ g - , 1.5.17.36.
For a discussion of this aphorism see Art. 62, para. 10.
12. i n the following passages is the Flamingo:
(i) ^ ^ ^ T ' f ^ — V S 24.22; M S 3.14.3.
(ii) ^"tR-«rrfT2—- VS 25.6.
T h e reason for selecting the Flamingo for the dual deity in (i) would seem
to be the white and red colour of the bird, the flame colour being parti-
cularly representative of the god of fire, arffa; and the bird's association,
during its homeward flight, with the rain clouds high up In the sky goes well
passage : "q^T rfMHIdlit with the rain-god Indra. In the second passage a pair of Flamingos are the
^ srf^niR^cW 3T5PT"— deities to whom cuts from the sfpjft or the waist-region of the sacrificial
horse are offered. The propriety of this assignment does not seem to jiave
1 . D r . Elliott C o n e s of W a s h i n g t o n q u o t e d b y Prof. L a n m a n in t h e a r i t c l e rcfered
WW, 'ft stands for e a r t h and t o o n the f.n. to p a r a 6. is also of t h e s a m e opinion as Bloomfield.
2. "gflf"imi ^ r e r n w ^ f c r ^ w r t ip^ft ^ft sftwrfir i"—ifter n m ,
 366 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe

been understood so far (see the Vedic Index sub voce ^ r ) , but, as it seems _ I
to me, refers to the 'fold of the flank' situated in the region of the WTT^W II — l b . 7.20.35.
waist o f t h e horse. The cutaneous muscle, 'Musculus cutaneus trunci', of
SM'I RMT TlwffcTTsft f T JTlPiHktfld s ^ d I
the horse covered by skin constitutes 'the fold of the flank' which ends on
the fascia above the stifle. It has been illustrated in Fig. 276 at page 289 — f ^ T O m , 7.39.
of The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals by Septimus Sisson (W. B. dla+l W ' W F T f ^ ^ T P-f+d fafaST SHIPM*) I
Saunders Company). This 'fold of the flank' keeps constantly expanding — T f P T , 11.15.
and contracting as the horse runs, gallops, or even walks in the ordinary
way and this action of the muscle is typical of the long and flexible neck 'Mfp^: H ' a f ^ ^ r m r a ^ t : tot ii
of the Flamingo in its various activities. This would, therefore, seem to — H ' w f i ' t ) , 5, verse 18.
offer a very probable explanation of the passage.
m-y^yf'T «MI+H'TW:—fforsr, 2.95.4.
13. in the following appears to be a mistake for ^ r ^ which is the
Clouds are said to be responsible for making the females of the Flamingo
reading in the parallel passages in T S 5 . 5 . 1 2 ; MS 3. 14. 12" and K S
5.7.2 fertile:

— V S 24.31. ^iwr^m^r dviwHiwrfrw: ( w r : ) i

i f c ^ is the loudly .trumpeting Common Crane (Art. 62) and suits the —41^4, <1% 51.53; slfTF? J., 1.22.36.
context best, for the anserine voice of the Flamingo would be a poor f^r w m ^ T i r ^ q f d ^FTRTT w r i T fsrwRrffd"
substitute; 1 cf. also *nt 11.10.1. T h a t ^ r and ^ are two —Tnrm, 4.20.25.
different birds has already been made clear by the passage quoted from T h e exiled reminds the Cloud of flights of Flamingos :
the 3TH. OTp in para. 11 above.
14. T h e descriptive epithet, " t w , for the female Flamingo has already
been mentioned at the end of para. 6. Its importance lies in the especial dPd'^H ^nFT^rif ' t W^RT ^rr-TiT: 11 —^r^r, 10.
relationship established by tradition and poetic convention between the
Rain god m and clouds on the one hand and the Flamingos or a flight The expression "irnfeRSTiFTf^T"1 used by the poet definitely points to his
of them on the other. Knowledge of the fact that these birds leave the knowledge of the birds' annual migration to repeat their 'happy experience
country, flying in large formations, just as the rains are approaching of love and parental instinct.' T h e courtship of Flamingos was naturally
undoubtedly helped in establishing the connection. Thus in the qirPmrfm a most rare thing in North India, for they go to breed elsewhere, and
1-2 (moving with a vanguard of Flamingos) is an epithet of god popular or poetic fiction attributed a sort of parthenogenesis to them under
T ^ r . It is however not clear why in spite of numerous references to the the influence of rain-clouds. This is reflected in the passages given above
constant association of ^ r o and (Flamingo and cloud) in literature and also in a quotation from given by ffferffPT in his commentary
beginning with the R a m a y a n a and M a h a b h a r a t a interprets on the :
J f t ^ r as yfrmft i m ^T..." and a few illustrative examples are
therefore given below to elucidate the point:
According to the Buddhist tradition also the female Flamingo becomes
I fad IddiH I gravid on hearing the thunder of rain-clouds :
. . —TFTPTir, 5.20.27. sPrrm ^ T R JNtf^f n^T T ^ T I — 2 7 4 .
W T O «Ml+|rfj faw I2

^ — f o M i ^ m r , 5.6.41. We can now see that just as the female Sarus, who consummates her
sn^f w W m ^ T T f ^ r f ^ r : i—jt. «rr. 1.138.23. nuptials on the ground, is called (Art. 62) the female Fla-
mingo, the sn-lWT, is iNM^l i.e. happy in the fulfilment of her life's mission
only by association with the cloud (cf. *HipH=t>i»ii in the verse from the
1. I t b n o t h o w e v e r i m p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e a u t h o r of t h e # % r r d e l i b e r a t e l y chose the
low voiced ^ for t h e g o d d e s s of s p e e c h . R a m a y a n a in the next p a r a ) .

o n . , 2 ' . T h i S i n d i c , a t e s t h e S r c a t height at which Flamingos travel w h e n m i g r a t i n g f r o m

1. L i t e r a l l y — ' T h e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p l e a s u r e of f e c u n d a t i o n or c o n s u m m a t i o n
o n e c o u n t r y t o a n o t h e r . T h e b r i g h t r e d u n d e r w i n g coverts b e c a m e invisible, Z d t h e b l a c k
(in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e fertilising r a i n - c l o u d s ) .
w i n g - q u i l l s m e r g i n g w i t h t h e c l o u d s t h e b i r d s s i m p l y look w h i t e a t a g r e a t h e i g h t .
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367 421
\
Artistic use of this association between bird and clouds was made in This striking association between these white birds and the dark rain-
summer-houses of royal palaces where.a row of Flamingos sculptured in clouds became so very fixed that a convention grew up among the poets
marble, set against a ceiling painted with dark clouds, showered water not to refer to the return flights, quite impressive enough though they
from their rose-fitted beaks : must have been, in their descriptions o f t h e s r e r o r autumn season. Even
Kalidasa could not resist this tradition and is forced to sing :
P*t ^ i t. 1 ^ "fl r\ I '-'I i f e f^ifaci ST^aT*
TOT sc^rm: i
1
^WHITI iTRT^W^rr: —+ p. 323. < m f % HlH'd^T: WTT : II
— ^ T f K , 3.12.
15. The Flamingo is undoubtedly one of the "^rsqfsm:" or auspicious
T h e ^Pu'm has the following :—
birds of India and has naturally won for itself a place of honour with the
f ^ r r fawr sflffer P a w m fafaera: i—2.16.13-15.
Rain-god, T^T, as we have seen, just like the Golden Eagle (gq*r) of
Not that the poet's eye is blind to the Flamingos' return in autumn but it
Lord the Peacock of and the Swan of and «<wJl. We
is naturally more sympathetic to the newer and more varied arrivals, the
have also noticed the Flamingo as the TTp- of the morning i n # and as
the wise t p r of f-TFrt. It now remains to cite a few examples from litera- Cranes, Geese and Ducks that are quite conspicuous both in the air and
ture just to show how well the ancients had observed the bird and its at all waters throughout North India :
ways in nature. Hume, struck with the beauty of these birds massed near
the water or flying above it exclaims: "How shall I describe the countless sRcST'Tfarm^Rr—iTfmrccr, 3.923.90.
myriads of Flamingos that are seen either massed upon the water, huge Nevertheless, the Flamingos are not forgotten altogether, for the unconven-
rosy islands, or floating above it like a sun-set cloud, in all the larger tional author of the Tftrtr#pFT has actually defied the poetic tradition :
lakes of Sind ?" 2 But the great poet TTrJftgp anticipated this description,
though in a different setting, a couple of thousand years ago :
st'frq&rerT T«TTssTTT5f m x ^ f g f W m n"—4.21.41.
aur ssrfa-R; ^ r r I Needless to say that to translate expressions like <HI=MMI, d+iT^d or «MI=M as
'a flight of Cranes' or of Egrets is entirely incorrect. Cranes, with the
I ' M W «HI+H'i s r a ^ r mJK: II exception of the resident Sarus which flies low and in small numbers, are
—TPTTTW, 4.12.41. not to be seen in India during the rains while the Egrets are always with
H e r e a garland of white Tsrysft3 flowers set against the dark reddish body us and though they too often fly in V-form like the Sarus they do so at a
of gate is compared with a flight of Flamingos seen against a dark cloud very low level. It is only the Flamingos, Cranes and the Geese that fly
in the glow of sun-set. very high, almost at the level of the clouds. In the following verse TTiftefft,
Their aerial westward migration to their breeding grounds during describing the beauty of the skies (aimsm) at the beginning of the rainy
June-July when the rain clouds are advancing from the East is more often season pictures the dark clouds as huge elephants with Flamingos in V-form
described than their return in autumn : for their white tusks :
dp^+sqW-TTT^R^T: SPTSTpW KfcltfcMl-d £fd: I
q f w R r ^ gwtferr wrfa w i r o f e : i
ARQWRTERT, INWR II

— 4 . 2 8 . 2 3 .
rqsKHcii^i: .. . ^ T T :
—Ibid. 4.28.20.
fa^T^RFTST: *M<f|+T — Ibid. 4.42.36.

1. T h e expression ^r^nfjmrr shows t h a t some sort of moveable

screen p a i n t e d with clouds in different shades was fitted to the ceiling above t h e sculptured
r o w of Flamingos.
2. Stray Feathers, Vol. 1.257.
3. T T j e q t according to ^ t W R js t h e ^ ^ plant> Staphylea Emodi
which bears white flowers in panicles. See Brandis, p . 181, a n d Forest Flora by B. L . G u p t a
v
(1928), p . 138,
 Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers x
423
R a t h e r awkward on land, they are very graceful oil Water. T h e Whooper
and the Mute Swan are known to visit the extreme North-West of the sub-
continent including Sind in small 'herds' during the non-breeding season i.e.
from about December-January to June-July. When the winter is very severe
in Northern and Central Asia the numbers visiting this country are larger
than usual. The present position according to Hume is that Swans do not
84 occur anywhere within Indian limits outside the Himalayas except in the
extreme North-West. 1 It is, however, more than probable that in the hoary
past when the so-called sportsman of the present day with his rifle and
SWANS, GEESE, DUCKS AND MERGANSERS
gun was not known, they travelled further east and, were, therefore, met
with at least, on the upper reaches of the J u m n a and the Ganges. Being
large and conspicuous birds and visiting the country in small numbers they
Sanskrit nomenclature corresponding to the common names in the
now rarely escape slaughter and have no chance to renew their acquain-
title of this Article is ^T or iTfTT^fT, or taster or and
tance with the country. T h a t the ancient Indians were quite familiar with
respectively, and the epitomised expression ^ T O W I : 1 approximates in
them admits of no doubt. Not only did they know the two species named
meaning to the scientific name of the family, viz., Anatidae. Indian
above but also the smaller but rarer and more striking Chinese Swan,
mythology recognizes the unity pervading the family when it regards the Cygnus davidii, pure white like the others but with red bill, legs and feet.
Swans, Grey Geese and Ducks as the progeny of the first Swan-Mother T h e possibility of Cygnus davidii visiting India has been admitted by
J^UI^I :— noted ornithologists like Hume and Le Messurier. 2 In any case these three
yd tit | pi?* ^rpra- i varieties of Swan could at times be seen on the Himalayan rivers and
% f ^ s r t ^rrsfq-^TMIT II lakes, and the ancient I n d i a n princes must have had them, at least occa-
—Tmraw 3.14.19.; *rr. 1.66.60. sionally as ornamental birds on their private lakes like the Mute Swan in
Europe during recent times. T h e pair of Swans on a • Lotus tank in the
In this verse ^ t f f r (the Grey Lag noted for its mellow call note) stands for pleasure grounds of a temple of Siva in Banaras mentioned in the Hn^TFT3
all grey Geese and (the beautiful Brahminy Duck) for all Indian could only be tame birds :—
Ducks. In the same way (note the plural in each case) denotes the
all-white Swans as is clear from references to them in the Rg Veda,
literature and the Lexicons. Amarasimha and others n a m e the Grey Geese
like the Grey Lag and the Bar-headed Goose as ^t^H and +KM, and define Frequent references to pet Cranes, Geese and Ducks also occur in litera-
as an entirely white bird with white wings (ftcPrerf) and distinguish ture.
three different varieties of it as we shall see presently. All the northern 2. According to a story related in the 7.18 god ^ r avoided
breeding grounds of the Swans and Geese are conventionally placed at or W I by transforming himself into a and later granted a boon to the
near the lake in the Himalayas. These birds do not breed within bird for his help and made him permanently white :—
Indian limits, nevertheless poetical convention treats them as being under
the influence of love during the cold season. T h e reson is that they are in
a good condition and keep calling to one another, and hence expressions ^ Rwj Id' rRfctf: ^ f e R n m r : II—7.18.29.
like Tafff or JTrRRftf, for according to TRP7R quoted by 'Hiiic-M in fipr%rc,
85, 28, the *K+M for etc. is the i^PTT ff "JTT TFT ?T ^ f : I
TSTT ffMmuWl'd'l: ^ST: Pd'*WI: II—7.18.31.

A. SWANS OT^S also describes this favourite bird ( p - ) of as wholly white :

1. The Swans with which this section is concerned are Goose-like
birds, pure white when adult but with heavier bodies and longer necks. 1- Stray Feathres, IV.33.
2. Game, Shore and Water-birds of India, 4 t h E d n . , p. 252.
1. T h e expression, however, includes also the ' g j J ^ W ^ s q ' or t h e ' f i ^ m v W or 3 . • w k I W s , c p M 32.99. T h e verse m e a n s t h a t out of affection the m a l e S w a n is
the C o m m o n or Black C o o t — A r t . 58. keen on s h a r i n g the soft lotus stalk w h i c h is b e i n g e a t e n b y the female.
 434
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
ggtsfq- f^ k HCN+ M ^OH d i s d I
^ bill reddish horny. The legs and feet are dull black. The colour-
<1 ii^idwwswtfcTHirtKr II—TTTrirjrjfsrft, 7.339.1
The p - of the story is clearly a Swan and the change of colour from
Juvenile to adult plumage has been explained mythically. The mount of
sr^TT is also a Swan so that the epithet grfsnr for a f'tf denotes a
Swan—see para. 11 of this and para. 6 of section B.
(1) The young Whooper is pale grey-brown throughout but the adult
is pure white; the bill black with a yellow base, legs and feet black. T h e
male bird is nearly five feet long, has a wing span of about eight feet and
weighs up to 19 lbs. General Osbourne, who shot one out of four Whoo-
pers on the Beas (fw9TT) in the Hoshiarpur district of the P u n j a b in
1900, says about the wounded bird, "as long as its companions
remained in sight it continued to utter its long, loud, musical trumpet
call" (Stuart Baker). According to Hume and Marshall also this Swan
has a loud and musical call which much resembles 'hoop' 'hoop' but
when uttered by a large flock of different sexes and ages and mellowed
by the winds and waves has " a really fine effect". 2 Flocks fly in V-f'orma-
tion and smaller numbers in a line (Edmund Sandars).
It breeds on the northern shores of the Caspian, Asiatic tundras and
probably as far as South Seistan so that "breeding so near India as this
we may hope to have many more records of its visiting our borders" (S.
Baker). This Swan has frequently occurred in the Punjab and Sind, and
has been observed in Nepal and even in Rajasthan. 3
The breeding and the other habits of all Swans are alike. When nests
placed in shallow water or on the borders of a marsh or swamp are
threatened by flood they raise the level of the nests by introducing new
materials under the eggs to protect them from danger. " T h e y are very
good parents and look after their young with the greatest care, the duck-
bird often carrying her young ones about on her back whenever they want
a rest." 4 No wonder the Swan is a wise bird in Epic and story-literature.
Bewick's Swan is very similar and subequal in size to the Whooper.
It has occurred in the Punjab and Sind aud must have passed for a
Whooper in the past.
(2) The Mute Swan is also wholly white when adult with the base
of the bill, the knob and the nail black, and the remainder of the
I . aW^T the JTRflffaT lake, t h e m y t h i c a l h o m e of all S w a n s a n d G e e s e ; hence
also t h e n a m e ^rcfirzr for S w a n s as v.l. for grftriT.
2- Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon 1881.
3. Poet it will be seen, rightly places a flight of S w a n s in the a u t u m n a l sky at
in the K a t h i a w a r p e n i n s u l a , not far f r o m the S m d c o a s t : —
TOW ^fenfw tf ^ro^feTOTJT II
T h e iRT^ J O T p t . 4, c h . 30.56 places the SJMTTSf or W h o o p e r S w a n
in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of the A r a v a l i Hills in R a j a s t h a n , a n d this is correct.
4. F.B.I. & S. Baker.
» 424
Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers
pattern of the young is different from the young of the Whooper. The head
is brown with white tips of the feathers; sides of the head and neck are
mixed grey and white; upper parts pale grey-brown and underparts white
suffused with grey-brown.
Its nearest breeding place is in Western Turkestan and Siberia and it
is a regular winter visitor to the Northwest straggling up to Rawalpindi
and Sind. They often keep in pairs and when one of a pair is wounded
the other keeps company and often pays dearly for his fidelity. Parties of
eight to ten birds have been observed in the Punjab. They are as large as
the Whooper but have a very weak voice and for this reason are known
as the Mute Swans. Both parents vigorously defend their nest and young.
The female when disturbed hisses angrily and the male utters a defiant
grunt. The Whooper and the Mute sometimes hybridise with each other.
(3) Cygnus davidii is a much smaller species. It is entirely white like
other two but has the bill vermilion-red with the nail black, and legs and
feet orange. It is apparently a very rare bird but an instance of its occur-
rence in Dera Ghazi K h a n (Punjab) in the year 1892 is given by Le
Messurier in his book.
3. The Rg Veda contains references to jjtf as (i) a solitary bird (ii)
going in pairs, and (iii) flying and calling together in a line. There is also
mention of the fffrrps the Bar-head Goose (Section B, para 5). The
following references are evidently to the Swan :
The sfw plant when crushed exudes the juice with a hissing sound due
to air bubbles coming out and bursting. This is compared to the hissing
of a Swan when disturbed on the water :—
^ f r ^ g ^ T — R V 1.65.5.
We have seen that the female of the Mute Swan hisses angrily when
disturbed. Writing about the voice of Swans, B. Vesey Fitzgerald also
says : " T h e Mute Swan very rarely does more than hiss severely at un-
welcome visitors." 1 It is, therefore, incorrect to translate ^ffffa as " p a n t s "
as Griffith does, for there is no reason for the bird of powerful flight to
'pant' and the comparison is between the effects produced on the fffT and
when they are teased (crushed being the proper word for corres-
ponding to 'teased' or 'annoyed' for the ^tf).
T h e Sun is called "^T : wf^r?" in R V 4.40.5, and the reference can
only be to a solitary Swan floating upon a wide expanse of deep blue
water, Cf:
M^IIH H ' s r a ^ ffarfa^te^rr i —-TrRTsror, 5.17.1.
The Asvins invited to the Soma sacrifice like a pair of Swans hastening
to the water:—
^ 1 1 Pre TCTCHTT P T — R V 5.78.1-3.
Birds, Trees and Flowers, P- 57.

426 Birds m Sanskrit Literature
p r f W Tor«rr s T s w r f ^ r — R V 8.35.8.
T h e Swan is monogamous and a pair, being greatly attached to each
other, keep together. This is particularly the case with the Mute Swans
(see above). The last two references are, therefore, to these birds. None
of the Geese can be intended as they live and move in flocks of some size
when away from their breeding grounds.
White horses (fezrrcf: 'shining' and therefore 'white') running, in a race
or otherwise, in a line are compared to Swans flying in a line :
feszrrcft 3fcJTT: £fijp?ft i^Rf — R V 1.163.10-
Freshly cut to size and barked (and therefore white) wooden sacrificial
posts carried on their shoulders by men walking in a single file along a
forest foot-path look like long-necked Swans flying in a line
p T f=T #fopjft ^TcTRT: W W ^ M : — R V 3.8.9
The Whoopers, when in small parties, fly in a line. T h e Geese, on the
other hand, always occur in large flocks and fly in " b u n c h e s " on shorter
and in wedge-formation or very long lines on longer flights.
A party of Whoopers answering the sonorous call of their leader :
i?rr ^ r f w s w ^ n r — R V 3.53.10.
STRt f t f t T^TT iff r ^ ^ r f t W ^ R — R V 9.32.3.
The fff with a beautiful voice (TOW) in the verse below is
the same as the p of the ^sfTTO, and the f f r w r p of (see
paragraphs 7 & 8 below) and, therefore, a young Whooper with a grey-
ish brown plumage :—
pmr t 3T JTtjiRfr srf^-sfr f p w m f s p swr:
— R V 4.45.4 1
The fffT: dedicated to the Moon-god (VS 24.22) and the Wind-god
(lb.24.35) are clearly Swans. The Sun and Moon have often been pictured
as a Swan, and its powerful flight and migratory instinct are fully in
keeping with the spirit of the Wind.
4. It would appear that in the post-Vedic period when the common-
est Geese of India, the Bar-head and the Grey Lag were named p
and sp^rp- respectively, the Swans, known simply as iff came occasionally
to be distinguished as Trap. An echo of this last fact is preserved in the
following equation, probably taken over from some old lexicon :—
1. Cp. in p a r a g r a p h 10 below.
Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 4 427
i.e. ffferar and fffereror1 are two names for a kind of < n p . In other words,
the Whooper and the Mute Swan, the and ffferer of later times, were
regarded as varieties of <Mp. This finds support from SMrdPiprmud' whose
skeleton at least is very much older than srtR^r. It does not refer to the
Swan with red bill and feet but only to the Whooper (srmr^) and the
more graceful Mute Swan (ffffhff <Mp) and the Grey Lag Goose ( ^ ^ p )
which probably shows that En^xrfx lived in the North-West of India :
T
4(fi srrarr^T, Trafffr j r Y o t :
<: 5ftTR>...
Later on both the Swans came to be known as THiff as indicated above.
The Whooper (ErraTF^ or i r r ) which is the vehicle of ?rp has also been
called W H ^ o (See para 11 below). Similarly in and fffrarer,
where + k h and ^ s r p are also mentioned, is a Swan :—
5P1WT TT^ri^T T^Totq; fa^TW: I
IT FTW^TPT ^ JffipT ^ R W T II—TITOT, 3.56.20.
cr,Vi||«rd'N: WfTT TI^ST:—TfT^TRd, 6.3.68. 2
relates in fpFTT-ff^ft 9. 140-142, how one srff&ff and his wife intently
watched a pair of Swans flying high in the sky before their death and were
re-born as a pair of T r a p and verse 143, ibid, describes the Swan with its
long and curved neck as j f c r ^src.
T h e later names, viz., ETM<|t>£ and # W M as also m p do not
occur in very early works like the R a m a y a n a and the M a h a b h a r a t a and
seem to have been borrowed from Pali literature of the Buddhists. They
had travelled widely in Central Asia, China, Tibet, etc. and having
observed the differences in Cygnus Davidii, the Whooper and the Mute
Swan, named them afresh; and in doing so they appropriated the name
<Mp to the beautiful Chinese Swan (Cygnus davidii) with red bill and
feet and renamed the Whooper, the next best, as yickiw3 and the M u t e
1. ' ^ t a i U K w ' is the r e a d i n g in t h e HltHPsi+l edition ( B o m b a y ) ; cfrpT,
I n d e x I I I (Special w o r d s ) , O r i e n t a l Book A g e n c y , P o o n a , 1941; TlffTSTHT sfol", Bombay
1944; D e v a d a t t a T i w a r e e ' s edition, Bareilly College, 1875 a n d as v. 1. in ffoT,
B o m b a y 1907;—all editions of 3tH<+l?T.
2. T h e s e T r a p T : a r e the W h o o p e r s with their beautiful t r u m p e t i n g calls.
T h e < M p ffTp[ in M a h a b h a r a t a 12.327.6 o n t h e other h a n d should b e the B a r - h e a d
Geese as the passage a p p e a r s to be a later a d d i t i o n by a n inexpert h a n d w h o has p l a c e d the
f i T T T W (the K o e l ) w i t h the G o l d e n Eagle in the C e n t r a l H i m a l a y a s — a n impossi-
ble thing, for the I n d i a n K o e l is " n o t f o u n d i n the H i m a l a y a s a n d is scarce in the foot-hills
a t their b a s e " (Whistler). I t is however possible t h a t the scribe h a s c h a n g e d into
fOTT n o t k n o w i n g t h a t there is such a thing as a as well. If so T r a p
could well b e a p a r t y of Swans, a n d n o t necessarily the B a r - h e a d Geese.
3. C o i n e d f r o m STd 'J , t h e first S w a n - m o t h e r , or 'Jcfrjtp: as e x p l a i n e d in the next
para.
366 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper,Rujf&Reeve,Woodcock,&Snipe

Swan as J r f a r o r or m+^t. This being a very rare bird even in the and (M. Williams)—refer to the circular or spiral flight of
Himalayas has naturally been left severely alone and does not figure in the birds as they survey their landing ground or water, and also to the
the J a t a k a stories. The title of the JTfTftf arRT^, which deals principally with vigorous rotary motion of their wings preparatory to settling down.
an
the two varieties of Swan, the a w ? and the d their young, shows TFtffkw—All the Swans and Geese come across the Himalayas and as
i
that these Swans went by the common name of T^n^T. TT5TPTW, ch. 26, the Bar-headed Geese were known to have their breeding grounds at the
1
however, mentions and Tfl^T in juxtaposition, and if one reads the Himalayan lakes including the W t k t : the Swans also have been placed
two words as a single name it would mean 'the type of Swan' but there and the name merely signifies their northern home across the
as two different names they would refer to the Whooper and the M u t e Himalayas; cf. ^tfl+ksK 1 andgrftpr as epithets for a Swan.
Swan respectively. T h a t they are not the Geese is clear from the fact that TT5T—is a Swan according to fsppxft and srfVr. f^prrr. but with a grey-
the latter are named in the same passage as + k h (Bar-head) and SRp' brown plumage as defined in
(Grey Lag). The presence of J i f i p on the T^T^s lake in the Himalayas As for the anT^t (one that is not beautiful, i.e., is not white) T R t o ' i
is mentioned in the T^T^TM •'— makes it clear that the EMTTM' (the Whooper) when in the brown phase is
?r#cff ?rscrr s i w t i — ^ f i r a ^ , 101.27.2 known by that name. It follows, therefore, that jtcrt and s r ^ r p denote
young Swans that have not yet assumed the white plumage • of the adult,
It must be noted that n^r^r does not include the much smaller Cygnus supports this when it says, "sms^r: tf ^ ^ r
davidii which is the of smwWr whose author was a Buddhist. jffaTST—'having black or dark-brown eyes' should be the Mute Swan
5. Apart from the Geese, ^r^'w and ^fTT^, the lexicons give ftf (in the which has the darkest eyes of all.
original sense of an all-white Swan), ^ d ' l w (white-winged, a Swan alone sftrrcr—'whose food is milk' after the supposed power of a Swan to
has white wing quills), fecf^ (white plumaged), etc. as common names separate milk from water, sffa: also means 'clean or pure water' and the
for a Swan and mention three different kinds of it, viz., TFsr^T, ETia^i^ and name may well have been transferred back to it after the Sun had been
:— pictured as a Swan in the blue sky. The Sun sucks u p pure water out of
f^mg ^cnr^cra^r^T m^rlw, the impure waters of the earth and this power of the heavenly Swan
came later to be attributed to the earthly Swan. It is more probable,
T T ^ T T ^ tT facIT:, however, that the power of the ^ ^ bird (the Flamingo, and not the Curlew)
sn^TTT^JT faffaf:—; fWT. of separating milk (very fine food) from the water came later to be
transferred to the jjT— see Art. 83, and Prof. C.R. Lanman's article,
fsft cTPTTT^jt, JTTPOT:—fcMVdft.
" T h e Milk-drinking Hansas of Sanskrit Poetry" in the Journal of the
TRFft ^rV^lT^T: fefsw?: American Oriental Society, vol. 19, p. 15Iff. ( 1898).
jmrafor: q f ^ R t ^r^r ^MMK^.:—f^wt. "i+i-ft (Pali and ( t ^ r f t ' ) are after the long flexible neck
^ 5 IRFIT: —3Tf¥T. f^cTT. of a Swan.
qfwrfl—refers to the permanent association of a Swan with the water
c\
. . . 301^: ¥ pT:
>
FTIW—fr^TS"^
-o and its swimming habit as against a Goose which is more of land than a
M>
(i.e.
\
)
NO /
f^r ^ranc?: water-bird.
sjfcs, srtft«rc> and «fkw(in f s i w t ) — ' t h e largest', 'the migratory' and 'flying
in formation' respectively, corresponds to
^^fiTff: Hroft ^ — c i t e d by JTf^PTPT on fsr. ^ST, 12.44. —has red bill and feet according to STIR but the colour is bright red
f f t : , ffTT: —ST^F^ir (3rfd«ifr#l) according tosrfa. ferr. It is particularly to be noted that SM-tfR,
older than aiK+lsi, makes no mention of red bill and feet.
1 (WHIST in some editions of and in srfa. f^rTT. is a mistake for Tfer^WT, irfcnT— 'soiled, tarnished, or of a dark colour.'
for is both according to and fem^m. jrf^TOproper is the
Duck known as the White-eyed Pochard and this explains the error. Brief
notes on some names and epithets in the above quotations are added 1. 5q?fl=ti is e v i d e n t l y t h e ^ S ^ W o r t h e v a g u e l y k n o w n or c o n j e c t u r -
e d a r e a s i n c l u d i n g c e n t r a l Asia, T i b e t , i.e. l y i n g b e y o n d a n d t o t h e N o r t h of t h e H i m a l a y a s
below : (tpT^T 3Tl<«(<ti, 8 . 2 3 ) . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n of S w a n s as c o m i n g f r o m i ^ f f t i is t h u s
fairly c o r r e c t t h o u g h l a t e r t h e y c a m e t o b e p l a c e d w i t h t h e G e e s e a t , a n d in t h e n e i g h b o u r -
1. Cf. T i n f t f as ( M . W . ) , the Sun, can only be a Swan.
h o o d of, t h e *tMtt L a k e in t h e H i m a l a y a s .
2. T h e +<H H^I^H of JXFT 1.11 is t h e W h o o p e r S w a n ,
430 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
nfTTOT^T—white like the Jasmine flower.
—patronymic from (i) ydxiwl, the mythological Swan-Mother of
all Swans, Geese, etc., and (ii) y d ' a king'. — son o f a king and
therefore next to him in status. The real significance of the name, despite
its last place in the above verses, must be determined, as shown by
&fkwi«fl on 3TRT, with reference to TT^T a s ' t h e king or best of Swans':—
"srarrsf m w cf. also :—
quoted by Hd^H-i, 5.3.57. yid<i^is thus the next best Swan after the <Mp x .
sp^rft defines <Mp as beautiful and as a white trw.
g r o r — s r a f r , i.e., one that takes out the essence from the water—after
the ^fksftrftt^ conventionally attributed to a Swan. It is in this etymo-
logical sense that uses the phrase "fV-im^K't:" for a Swan
in a metaphor in 9. 359 and tfroft for at 9.145. HTCff is
again a Swan inTRRm 3. 19.8; cf. the following :—
iRtfrwci fm ^fw^irsq-ra;
_g-^nfsRT, 173. 878-
TTX has used the term rather loosely for the Geese in fwqMWET, 12.44
where it may well refer to water-side birds in general. See also
8.9 & 31, and Art. 62.
f f t and adnouns for a fH or Goose must refer to (i) a juvenile
Swan or (ii) the Grey Lag Goose as the terms denote a tawny or brown
colour (M. W . ) . If frftr also means white (TOR^T—srsTO^npr), p to the king. The S R H Z S king holds a learned discourse on religion with
would also be an adult Swan.
6. Now looking back to the physical characters and habits of
the three different Swans set out above, it should not be difficult to
fix their identity in Sanskrit. The rare Chinese Swan, Cygnus davidii,
is the x w p proper of the later lexicons, a mere memory of the
past which readily led to the transference of the name to the
familiar Bar-head. <Mp, as Cygnus davidii, is not mentioned in the
R a m a y a n a or M a h a b h a r a t a but the much later Harivamsa certainly
mentions it at 3.41, 61-62 (quoted in para. 5 of Section B). The Whooper
with its black (partly yellow) bill and feet is the yjd<i<>£ p , celebrated
alike in the J a t a k a , the Indian Epics, and European literature from the
time of Homer. It is the wise and talking Swan described as 'gxfiPT' or
'beloved of the gods', for did not ^fn, the Creator, assume its beautiful and
spotlessly white form as related in the Epics ? Its far northern home
is The M u t e Swan's bill is mainly reddish-horny and the feet dull-
black so that the description of is fully applicable to it and
the name T f e t w ^ r p is descriptive of its spotless white plumage. It has a
weak voice and is generally silent and this is the reason why it does not
figure as a talking Swan in Puranic stories. Nevertheless it finds its proper
1. T h e simplest w a y to i n t e r p r e t the n a m e is to e q u a t e with 'King'
a i d a s the k i n g ' s son, a n d h e n c e n e x t in status t o t h e K i n g , i.e.
Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 431
V
place in the p - (533) and the i r ^ p snro (534) under the names of
l ^ a n d top respectively. As ^ w ^ s it is the Army-chief of the srtcss
prraT,, the king of the Swans, and the name refers to the black knob or
'berry' worn like an ornament at the base of its bill; compare the
name for the Comb Duck after a similar but larger knob on the
bill, and for (i) the Black Vulture with red face and ear-lappets, and
(ii) the Common Coot with a white bill and shield against a dark body.
7. Juvenile Whoopers are clothed in a uniform grey-brown and take
from eighteen months to two yeais to assume the white plumage of the
adult. They are the ^ n r w p o r g ^ p ( p w ^ c f. STRICT f sr below) of ^nro,
534 where the queen dreams of one discoursing upon religion to the king
and feels an irresistible longing to see it. The s r r s s and TOfff type of
Swans, both with their kings, come into the story at a later stage, and
while both types are said to have the same body-colour (white) the young
daughter of the king of the TOpT: is also said to be of a golden colour
"qwpr^rf sfktT and she is married to the a r o s king. 1
T h e TOp, therefore, is evidently the Mute Swan, the name being true
of it in a double sense : (i) to as indicating a change of colour from
brown of the young to white of the adult through lapse of time or advanc-
ing age ( t o , 'ripening'— "^TOIT k w iiiWw" jtf^ft; c f. for chalk, i.e.
lime in reference to the change undergone by dark coloured lime-stone on
baking) , a n d ( ii) TO, 'a child or ignorant person' in view of the bird not having
the full voice of the the Whooper. 2 In the -t-hoiid<ti (533) the King
of the ERPZ3 Swans and his Army-chief, the p , are trapped and taken
the king but when the latter requests for his views as well, he excuses
himself by saying that he is not so cultured or educated and is, there-
fore, unable to discourse seriously in the presence of the great :
^ TfTCPT ffHKMlfa?' STcR
TfiRTT' ^ g w r f a ^ it Jft f ^ p f t %qT— verse 75.
Evidently is the M u t e Swan with a weak voice. Thus g w and q r o p
are one and the same.
8. Parties of golden-plumaged Swans on a Himalayan lake mentioned
as feK^pitfa and in 13. 27 and.39 are the same as
gsproj p of the ^rrro. This accords well with the statement of S. Baker
that the great majority of Swans visiting India are young birds in brown
plumage.
1. D o e s this s t a t e m e n t n o t s h o w t h a t t h e a n c i e n t s k n e w t h a t t h e t w o species occa-
sionally i n t e r b r e e d , a f a c t n o w a c k n o w l e d g e d b y . orinthologists ?.
2. I n t h e first sense b o t h t h e W h o o p e r a n d t h e M u t e S w a n w o u l d b e TOftf. I t is in t h i s
sense t h a t ^T^r ( 1 . 2 3 . 3 7 ) uses t h e n a m e TOfET for a n a d u l t S w a n and renders
and it c o r r e c t l y as
366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 36

9. The Whooper and the White Ibis have an entirely white plumage clcfr f^TPT ^ f l + P H l f t W : — f f ^ r e r , 2.91,36.
and black bill and legs, and these form the slender basis of comparison % # iTft — l b . 2.92.3.
between the'two in several gflTfara verses where the Ibis is always taunted 3TP?TW fTWT STRTTPSJT — l b 2.92.5.
for not being able to match the Swan either in its graceful movement or
^rfsm:—lb.2.41.61.
the power of separating out milk from water. In verse 229 at page 229
of the gsjTfef (1935 E d n . ) a pure white body, a pleasant voice (the boom- It may be added that the Swans have also been described asterfsm: (Ibid.
ing call of this Ibis is well known) and even a slow-stepping gait (during 2.91 37) ; 'best of their kind' (Ibid.2.91.39).
fishing) are conceded to the Ibis, while in verse 230 it is despised for its The occurrence of adult Swans in Kashmir is mentioned in the q^TjrrT
animal diet and for not enjoying the honour of serving as a mount for god where JjiiMy^l and JT<Jnw9*ft fflT: are referred to—-VI. ^rrcr?, 176.70,
st^rr. 4t may be added that the comparison is hardly fair to the Swan b u t and the Whoopers are placed on the Himalayan waters :
it is allowable in sMffw which chiefly involves a satire upon a person of
false perfections. ftfi'^WTrarfq" era TTT^: I
10. The large size and strength ofqT3>ffr are clearly stated in the — q f r o r e r , 13.54.14.
J a t a k a story, 534— "QR^FFLT.. . I ^ S ^ R " , the ^ K T T WRTS (547)— " T T ^ T T s r f a W
The normal change from the juvenile grey-brown to the all-white plumage
verse, 2106, and also in srra^trrar, 22.40—"e^rraxsft twI" and we can now
of the adult has been utilized, though not quite artistically, to
see that the I^TT: described as wr or simply as TRTT in the
glorify the purifying effects of a certain holy place on the Narmada in
following verses are no other than Swans :—
the Padma Purana, II. vrfw?, ch. 92 and the adult birds are described a
little earlier as entirely white but with the bill and feet black :
^'TfT'ffT'T^Tnt I
facldON^IMK^d:
-o STT^rf^IfT:—
o ^ lb. 90.43.
cprr j^rpri, ITT II-XTTTTW, 4.58. 28. *TJddKl<JU| has used tlld<l<^l: with a double meaning in the following,
m % fFT frqTfcFTJT—8.41.23. as (i) the +k=ll:, the sons of and (ii) the Whooper Swans :—
grfJFT ^TX a p R : SffrpTt t faxifw:—'•fTFFTcT, 11.9.2. scTfar ^TcRfrR: w r f s r a m r T ^ ^ r n ^ r r : i
^ I P i T f ^ I.
11. The golden-coloured caught by love-distracted Nala was no — t ^ f t f l f R , 1.6.
other than a young Whooper :
Again the visiting (srwii'id) H'fy'A and TTKfVsTWisr are Swans and
1
zzfi cfcTT im^nwrqfT^aH—3.54-19. the Geese in the following :

The bird promised to plead Nala's cause with Damayanti and was there-
upon released. He flew with his party to her place and allowed himself to Hci'K^HT j f s p f f a w : 11 pT: ^
be caught by her and then performed his mission. 2 T h e circular flight of —TTRTTT, 4.30.31.
the bird before it settled down is described in the verse below :— Nothing brings out the true significance of the name fa MM ST better than
a comparison of the size and wing-expanse of a Swan with that of a
•y H <!r<w fa+V^mrraT w r Goose. T h e former is sixty inches long and has an expanse of ninety to
T^^T tRPPfN 1 ^ m f ^ w r s r : 1 nintyfive inches as against only thirtytwo and sixty inches respectively
of the latter, grfsni are the Swans, the Geese, and the Ruddy
\3 VO O
Sheldrakes, and the verse gives a picture of a great river with these birds,
^rfWWraW JT^^'f ^ — 2 . 1 0 8 .
sporting on the sands (and presumably some on the waters as is their
The talking birds with a beautiful voice engaged upon a mission h a b i t ) . T h e Swan of god TTOT is described in <mii|u|, 7.18.28 as "'l^ldll-
similar to the above are again the Whooper Swans :— r=MiPw" and this supports the above identification offrsiWTCT.3
1. TTTi-ra h e r e r e f e r s t o t h e M u t e S w a n .
1. It is t o be n o t e d t h a t a m a j o r i t y of S w a n s v i s i t i n g I n d i a a r e y o u n g b i r d s w h o h a v e 2. The expression refers t o ( i ) t h e severity of w i n t e r which forces the
not yet attained the a d u l t white p l u m a g e . S w a n s t o m o v e f r o m t h e h i g h e r l a t i t u d e s t o t h e l o w e r a n d w a r m e r o n e i n I n d i a , a n d (ii) t h e
a d v e r s e f a t e a w a i t i n g t h e <t>°k=(i:.
2. Damayanti found t h e b i r d to be i.e., q u i t e u n l i k e t h e G e e s e s h e had
3. fT9IWT3T q u a l i f y i n g m a y also m e a n ' a l a r g e p a r t y ' o f S w a n s .
b e e n a c c u s t o m e d t o see. I t will b e seen t h a t 3T1WT is t h e s a m e as gTT of t h e strRT.
 434 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers » 435
In the following pen-picture the full moon in a clear blue and starry sky
is compared with a single or on a large lake studded with T h e last three items in the synonymies quoted in paragraph 5 above
lilies. Both are obviously Swans :— relate to tTFFT or a r ^ p as a grey-brown bird and as belonging to the
p group which includes the three pure white Swans. Evidently, therefore,
cnrrPTc?mf
•o
imrenrr sp^rfir
c
tft serf i j t w signifies a juvenile Swan.wrra" is often associated with god w^rr whose
2T«TT ^ncftr HcW^I"!, 139.16. mount is said to be a p , the adult Whooper. In 6..3OT!,
180,41 ff. 31H assumes the form of a talking Swan who was once
^dJ^PddMi Tl^R^dldi' pure white ( q w r o f w i x ) but underwent a sudden change of colour
TOmfrorr d i O r i 'jftdidw i and is contemptuously called a ^ r p r because of its resemblance with the
ftpmf^iwrt E^ftortmspTHr grey-brown of the Grey Lag ):
3ff?T OldllM d'sfdKM+WlH II <, 3.21. 1 ttsr fafe *rf u t t s t ^ w r° : i
Cv
* * *

The sun and the spiritually elevated man are compared with the wise Tcftsftr TIT fe^sq- ftnriw i
Swan in the following :—
T h e Swan story, based on WT^T 4, related in w^ras,
^ r ^ m ^ Tfinkfr ftvm i ch.29.48ff. would seem to confirm the above interpretation of TTM.
a r d l d t d r d d ^ s f e r ^ ^ y f d ' H H M d 2 11 Here certain sages have assumed the form of talking Swans which can
—fsra^TPT, fT. 2, Ch. 15, 10. only be Whoopers, and one of them jocularly addresses the leading bird
as an inexperienced young Swan (*KM+) having a poor eye-sight :—
The Mute Swans (^fcH+iwi p ) are known often to go about in pairs and
they are greatly devoted to each other. These, therefore, should be the ^ srsftsq- ^ r a w f
p f i w in the examples below.
Swans in pairs add to the charm of a river :— *ft sft 'flFTfar vf^trt <fftr^T H<m+
^ H f a w h r : (*TTfer) —TTiTTfad, 188-1042 . . . . . ^ ^ II1
Swans resting on the sand-bank of a river were a favourite theme for the T h e statement 3 JRMT: w:" seems to show that there are more than
painter's brush :— one kind o f f f W and they are all Swans, and as the >TCF=r of today is the
pure white Swan of tomorrow the name came to be used for the adult
sjTTCf tf+dHld^tffJTSRT sfldld^l m f e f T I
bird as well, and it is in this sense that is the mount of^^TT and called
—WiJ'dtf, 6.17.
TT-Trsrp as a t t or vehicle) in ibid. 16.31. (Compare also ibid. 9,
ewflq was certainly aware of the affection between a pair of Swans and gmfcr, 222, 31.) The name JTCM, having lost its
the following appeal to Prince Siddhartha to return to his wife based identity, has been used indiscriminately by the poets for a p r (Swan) in
upon the behaviour of these birds is particularly forceful : general or even for a

f f f t f i R f^SPTrRt cTtfit WW I
arral OTmrTpr ^pqiffaT srra; tOTfftr II B. GEESE
—d4-dp(.d, 9.27.
1. T h e Geese stand midway between the larger and heavier Swans at one
1. E v e n w i t h t h e r e a d i n g " T r a f f f T f e r p T f ' i n t h e first line it is i n c o r r e c t to s e p a r a t e t h e end and the smaller Ducks at the other. If the Swans are almost entirely
c o m p o u n d w i t h t h e p l u r a l < N p | : as t h e c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e M o o n p o s t u l a t e s only
aquatic and the Ducks chiefly so, the Geese may be said to be almost
one Swan
terrestrial in their habits. The legs being placed forward they walk easily
2 . T h e c h a n g e of a t t i t u d e i n t h e rising a n d setting s u n is r e a d i l y n o t i c e a b l e b u t its
m o v e m e n t o r c h a n g e of p o s i t i o n n e a r t h e z e n i t h is n o t easily p e r c e p t i b l e . I t is t h e n t h a t t h e and well and have none of the waddling gait of the domestic Goose. They
s u n is a t its b r i g h t e s t a n d h o t t e s t a n d its p o w e r of s u c k i n g u p p u r e f r o m i m p u r e g r o u n d w a t e r feed on grass and green crops, causing considerable damage to winter
is a t its best. T h e c r i t i c a l f a c u l t y of a p e r s o n w h o h a s a t t a i n e d p e r f e c t w i s d o m a n d b a l a n c e
of m i n d does n o t f a l t e r a n d h e instinctively, as it w e r e , a n d w i t h c e r t a i n t y d i s c r i m i n a t e s
1. H5?IT¥r means 'bear-eyed', i.e. h a v i n g w e a k eyes. I t m a y also m e a n 'having
b e t w e e n g o o d a n d evil.
excellent eyes' u s e d i n a n i r o n i c a l sense.
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper,Rujf&Reeve,Woodcock,&Snipe 367

rice and wheat in India. Occasionally, however, they also feed in shallow an adaptation from for the Whooper Swan. Both p-^si and
water. Except on shorter flights when they " b u n c h " , they normally fly in r<WM*l«l give yd<1^ for 'a kind of bird' in close proximity with :
V-formation or in long lines. Out of the breeding season, i.e., when they
visit India in the cold weather, they are thoroughly gregarious and are srRkrKr: ^ V t s f f fTOTnFrmfsr fad^—f^F?
always seen in small parties or flocks of several hundred birds at a time. spra*?: jjTjfsr ^srfwzr^T:—f^j.
Ordinarily they feed in the morning and in the evening and return for rest
and sleep to sand-banks or sandy churs (islands) of large rivers, jheels Evidently, therefore, stands for a bird other than the Swan, and
or lakes with some bird on the watch and some always on the water. They when we find the Grey Lag actually going under the name of fsrarra its
differ from the Ducks in that the sexes are alike and the male assists the identity with of the lexicons becomes fairly certain. In other words
female in the duties of rearing the young. the Grey Lag would seem to have been regarded as a smaller edition
2. They are commonly divided into two groups, the Grey and the of the young Whooper after the former's brown plumage and sonorous
Black Geese. Of these latter only the Red-breasted Goose is occasionally call. It is also called <Mp from its size. The Bar-head, on the other hand,
found in India at the present day, though it may have been more common is known in Hindi as ^ p (fr. under in m^rM^t and
a thousand years ago. It is black above, including the head and neck, and f^TFTfw), faw p (fr. f r o f ^ r after its harsher call?), and Trap. This last
chestnut and black below. It is probably the + M p of f^^fta 1 in from, name is again by way of substitution for the original < H p , viz., the
277. The Grey. Geese, on the other hand, are much more common in Chinese Swan with deep red bill and orange legs as the Bar-head is of a
India and of these the most important and numerous are the Grey Lag much lighter colour and a more graceful build than the Grey Lag and has
and the Bar-headed Goose. As regards numbers, however, five Bar-heads yellow or orange bill and legs. The name fnr^- for a p in mKcOmm^MT
visit India to every Grey Lag and "taking upper India as a whole this and equated with <Mp in srsTOFtspr and M. Williams can only refer to the
(the Bar-head) enormously outnumbers all the other species of Geese put Bar-head Goose with a conspicuously i.e. body.
together," and "as for all the rest of the Geese, they are apparently so 4. The adult Grey Lag (32"), heavier than the Bar-head, is, generally
rare that when one comes to consider numbers they are not worth speaking, a grey-brown bird with fleshy-pink bill and feet. Its breeding
speaking a b o u t " (Hume & Marshall in The Game Birds of India, Burma grounds are in Europe, Persia and Eastern and Northern Afghanistan. It is,
and Ceylon). According to the same authorities the loud trumpet calls of therefore, very common in the North-West of India but working East it
a flight of Grey Lags high up in the air are very sonorous and musical occurs in smaller numbers. A majority of those visiting India are, how-
while the notes of the Bar-heads are distinct from those of the other and ever, the young of the year and .these are far less marked underneath and
are sharper, harder, less sonorous and more strident. The voices of the are nearly white on the lower parts as compared with the adults. This fact
two are thus easy to differentiate. Moreover the two species never mingle is well worth noting as it not only explains the description o f ^ r p , during
companies, and always keep at some distance—flying, feeding, resting or flight high up in the air, as white, e.g. in :—
swimming, always a little apart. The Bar-head is a lighter built, more *rrat SRfzp;: ftrf^ro ! i
graceful and more active bird than the other. It is also of a much lighter
:rsrt faq-nr: II ^PT^T, 4.3.12.
colour and has more white in its body plumage. The ancient Indians
could certainly not have been unaware of these striking differences and but to a certain extent also the confusion of <t)<Hp with in the lexicons
must have named the two species differently. It is necessary to stress this The other Grey Geese like the Bean Goose, the Pink-footed and the White-
point because according to a majority of the lexicons sF?rp and ^rrcisr mean fronted Goose that occur in very small numbers resemble the Grey Lag
one and the same thing although the two species are differentiated in so very closely that they are very hard to tell apart in the field. The name
Sanskrit literature and also in Hindi nomenclature. and description o f ^ ^ r p would, therefore, apply to them all :
3. Hindi names for the Grey Lag (much browner than the Bar-head)
are ^n^r (Skt. ), Jfrrra ( t o w ) , fffarp (cf. Pali g ^ w p for a young Swan
The adjective STTfar (arc ffR^T:) means 'mainly brown all over'
in brown plumage), <Mp and fEmra (Skt. s f t w ) . The first name is after
the bird's sonorous call-note and the second its brown colour. The last is which is perfectly true of the Grey Geese except the Bar-head which is
generally of a pale grey colour and has more of white in its plumage than
the others. The name for the Grey Lag is particularly appropriate
1. e n u m e r a t s six varieties of Ducks, Geese a n d S w a n s : ^ f t a , STW, ' S k , =PT5T, TR? as, of all the Grey Geese, its call-note is the most sonorous TariTje:-
a n d g W T after t h e colour of t h e p l u m a g e . T h e first t w o are for Ducks, t h e next scrfcTT H w p : " —ST^WRTT,. It is therefore the w ^ s p of M . W . and
t w o for Geese a n d the last t w o for Swans.
366 Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper,Rujf&Reeve,Woodcock,&Snipe 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
6. In the following examples the occurrence of the Bar-heads in flocks
proper of Sanskrit literature. In accordance with the old belief that is clearly indicated :—
all S w a n s & Geese coming from the North had their breeding grounds
about the lake the latter is expressly said to be the birth-place of the ^WKH: (dd'l+'K)— T m m , 3.11.6.
+ — ^ ^ f T C , 3.8.
TPlfcPT^ SB^PTOT. . • J H ^ "TTT f ^ T ST:
^ K T ^ R T ^ f c T ' T — bank of a river in 2.8. ch. 9.
— 1 0 . 3 4 .
(qrqTOT:)
If ^r^T is understood in the wider sense of 'Grey Geese' as in the Maha-
bharata genealogy, the above statement would include the Trewr or Bar- —+I<M(I p. 44.
head Geese as well. + — ^fTf^raTH 3. 11
5. The Bar-headed Goose (30") is pale grey above with two black ( T ^ T ) — ^ T s f t ^ i ^ , 29.70
bars on a white head, brown on the neck with a white streak on each side, — on the Himalayas, TfT*rR?T, 12.327.6.
brown on the flanks and pale grey and white below. The bill and feet
are yellow or orange. " I t is a far more graceful bird both on land and 7. T h e original distinction between the Grey Lag Goose and the Bar-
water, than the Gray, our only other common Goose, walking more headed Goose as and respectively is fully borne out by the
easily and sitting higher in the water" (F.Finn). It breeds nearer India, following evidence: ^WT^ET for instance names both of them separately :—
on the lakes of Leh, Ladakh- and Tibet, which accounts for its occurrence
» * *
throughout North India in flocks of various sizes and these, when on a
sand bank or during flight, have a pretty grey-white effect. From its
occurrence and movement in flocks it is the of the Epics and the WWKWTraT: qf«T3ITcPTt #3TT:
Puranas ( " ^ r ^ T ^-HIPMM"—SRFTR. f^rrrfw) and TT^R- of classical
MK+'i^i mentions Jj^rp- (Swan), °i>srpr and as different in pczrm^, ch.
literature. The term pr in its original sense means a Swan but the Geese 13, while the following from *rrr^=r and <ri1faH<M distinguish between TM^t
also because of their size, are ordinarily designated by that name, and, it is (Bar-head) and :—
only when there is reason to specify a particular variety, e.g., from the
point of voice, colour or numbers, that the distinctive names, ^ ^ r and
iPRisr are used. Thus the T l w s p - of the Rgveda is probably the Bar- — 5 4 7 . 1 3 !
head with its grey-brown upper parts which would certainly appear ^HHc^ TnrfTT: TTrOTT
fairly dark as compared with the bright white of an adult Swan : —-ffrfwrar, 3.9.
g^ferfe srrsmHT an p n SFTRR i In his discription of (autumn) t r w t refers to ^ i p and other
— R V 7.59.7. birds arriving in the country in large numbers :
Here the expression jfopjs should have the same sense as in R V 3.7.3 cf,KM+KUH:cHSTRirraT I
where it is descriptive of the mantle of smoke o f a grey-brown colour through t
3TPfiRfr ^ r ^ f ^ w r ^ r e ^ r j ^ f r <Pri% 11
which the fire is shooting forth. In the above verse the wind-gods, TO,
+ Ch. 18 (Baroda Edn. p. 101)
are supposed to have bedecked themselves in secret and seated round the
soma offering like a flock of Bar-head Geese (ornamented with orange- Simlarly and are mentioned separately in a single passage at
yellow bills and feet, black bars on their white heads, white stripes on their pages 45, 144 and 145, of Kale's edition of (^t^rnr). The passage
grey neck, etc.) on the sands, and like finely dressed young men sitting below from the f f t r o , again, makes the position very clear. It names
round a vedic sacrifice. I t is perhaps after this Vedic name of -fi<jiH®o fW for m f n ^ (the Whooper), ^ (the M u t e Swan), ^FTCR, ^ i p and other birds
the later ftf that t f e w r o n w f , 13.55, and srfT on f N f e r , p.12, have occurring on the Himalayan lakes :—
explained ^ n w as ^ f f f r and respectively. The author of
also has pictured ^ T ^ as a dark bird, an embodiment o f ^ f a , in the * * * f ^ f r*f t r 11
garden of ^ r which, from a profusion of white flowers, competed
in beauty with the full moon. The is a dark spot in the garden ^ p f M k r r f r tfiR+Tfawrfr ^ — 3.41.61-62.
comparable with the m ^ T in the moon—rather hard on the beautiful The JT^rft^MHw, on the other hand, defines ^tt^r as a kind of
Goose which most certainly adds to the charm of the inevitable lotus with yellow legs and bill :—
pool in a garden (See ^far, 17.220).
366 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper,Rujf&Reeve,Woodcock,&Snipe

to the Grey Lag Goose and this is recognized by the T r a f a w in the

This statement goes to show that, applying probably a too literal and following :—
narrow interpretation to the genealogy of the Grey Geese from WCFft,
+KH: <kwc: I
quoted in the opening paragraph in Section A of this Article, both the
Geese have been regarded as Nevertheless it is clear that the Grey- and rendering *KM+ as gives the following derivation :
Lag with fleshy-pink bill and feet is just a but not a in which qrpr sffdirfMrRr, qTTW+TR;
these parts are yellow. T h e TR^ft of a whitish colour and with yellow bill
i.e., the Grey Lag is a »KM+ because it resembles a TTM (in the colour of
and legs in the following verse is no other than the as defined in
its body-plumage). This agrees with the statement, "t^tf 5 *rwr: w: in the
arfa. f ^ i n h which shows that more than one bird went by the name of
W^T.
f f r s T f q ^ r t : TR f « N c i n q w t f M i t f , 2.175. We have already seen in Section A that a young Swan in grey-brown
plumage is the TO proper and now we see that the name has been
There is thus hardly any doubt that +KH is the Bar-head and the Grey
applied to the Grey Lag as well.
Lag Goose and, it may be noted, that these names are so used in the TTRWT,
7. It is perhaps clear by now that if one wants to know with a fair
H ^ K d , ^fxrw, etc. But as the centre of Sanskrit culture moved eastwards
degree of certainty the particular kind of Swan or Goose meant in a given
people and poets rarely saw a Swan, and since the Bar-head with its
context one cannot always go by the dictionary meanings of the names
grey and white plumage, orange-yellow bill and legs and slimmer and
used or the published commentaries and translations but must try to examine
smarter body-lines stood Out prominently amongst the Grey Geese
the overall context in each case roughly with reference to the period of the
including the Grey Lag they readily transferred the name to it. It
composition (Vedic, epic or classical), the geographical setting, the picture
also became the conventional White Goose, the fer^ or H^wiST-ftf of the
an author wants to present and the object he has in view. This is however
classical poets in comparison with the darker and heavier Grey Lag
easier said than done, for many an instance in the Puranas and
exactly as the light-grey Ring Dove is the EP^T WRT amongst the Doves.
classics would be found to be extremely vague and it is perhaps true to
None of the two is pure white but each is the lightest coloured member
say that poets, with of course some exceptions, have striven in their
within its own group; cf:—
compostions more after general effect and word symphony than faithful-
g^r FTsrrnfrw ^rrt fer:—-q-a^rfa 5.3.57. ness to Nature. At the same time it cannot be denied that there is a
a ^ T : srrarc:— Proverb considerable volume of high class poetry which is quite as close to Nature
as poetry can be, and the above considerations should help if the alter-
i.e., 'even a grey building looks white as compared with the Crow perched native meanings illustrated below are borne in mind :—
upon it'. And once the Bar-head came to be known as the name (i) ^r and both used for Swans in the older sense, the latter
lost its specific character with some of the poets and became synony- for the more graceful M u t e Swan for preference :
mous with sRWftf for the Grey Lag Goose. This change must naturally have
come about before SRK+IKI was written. At the same time the increasing g^fTfj J^K^d faTTfd' I
artificiality of classical poetry aided by a freer exercise of poetic license twfcHth dI <HI«ri+>il<rlr<!3TT"lI—TPTT. 4.30,48.
and the stress of metre led to a further confusion resulting in the oblitera-
J11 *dI l H-O fjrcTKHAfl*H
\D O 'O TT53RT: I
tion of the originally sharp distinctions. This is reflected in the not
always true equations like the following and its permutations elsewhere:— 5fTwr=#rt ^im'V^" n — 1 0 . 1 7 4 .

^TTtrrt'—^/H^-si1 described later as p f W T in Act.4 are a pair of tame

|4HH follows 3F17: in his definitions of and in arfa. f^trrcfrr but (wing-clipped?) Mute Swans on an artificial lake in the palace grounds.
falls into line with fawH+iDi in the smrprasf, and iffcfr follows suit. I n the (ii) for (a) any of the common Geese in the Epics, and (b) all
same way the namesTOT and *KM+ for a young Swan came to be applied members of the Goose family (Anatidae) in FTfo and literature .:

( a ) iffPT^fat ^NPTI fTT: +: I

1• TRjJtft =TTif55 — f a i J ^ i l + tK! implies a difference between —TTRWT, 4 30.31.
t h e t w o . N e v e r t h e l e s s o t h e r s y n o n y m i e s for + K H a n d
t h e d i f f e r e n c e . T h e f^T t y p e of K i n g , TTSTO is d e s c r i b e d i n
in t h e s a m e lexicon o b l i t e r a t e
68.24-26.
WIXcSmfkdTSWT—*T. "*TT. 3.183.10.
 434 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers » 443
(vi) for ( a ) the Grey Lag, and (b) the Bar-head:
frnsrr: w r a r a grcmsr T f f ^ u T. ^T. 5.83.25.
(a) fa^wrfd+'ixffa U^ess^ff^t: I
(b) See w f i r , 5.12, msr^m Pjfir, 1.172, etc. where p in the
^ r t w f T T f t - y n r n f ^ w P r ^MI—*r.¥nr. 3.158,72.
singular or plural signifies all Swans, Geese and Ducks
prohibited as food. For the separate mention of ^ T O ^ t i ^ l f e m f a f o - i < * i h d i H ( T ^ n r ^ m ) — i b i d . 3.159,99
everywhere see Section C, para. 7 & 8 ^r: yti+y wiffdm^diTirnr 1
(iii) T r a p for ( a ) the Chinese Swan very occasionally, and (b) mostly — P b ^ i d N•oV k ,' 4.1.
the Bar-head Goose which is more graceful on land and water than the See also para. 6.
Grey Lag Goose : (b) The pale grey Bar-heads, having a white head and a good bit of
(a) See passage from fforw, 3.41.61-62 quoted in para 7 above. white in the neck, and not the brown grey Lags, assimilate with
white lotuses where their existence is known only from their
(b) fwTFJTFffa frrfipffat q w i w f r w f c r conversational notes :
4.28. •o C> \o «C

W ^ R P T f . STcftfiR ^ " M ^ f ^ R K : II
*TT =TT=rrft ^ r - T r f w f r w - r — f ^ r r e m ? , 1.34. —^fprroq-, 2 . 1 8 .
tsfq- +1r^ld^'W Terr:
— 2.39 (qh'MHNl, p t - 2 ) . T h e Moon moving through dark clouds looks like a Bar-head
floating in the midest of the Dark waves of t h e J a m n a :
(iv) *Rra for ( a ) a young Swan; (b) an adult Swan; and (c) the Grey
Lag Goose, as a Swan, with legs placed farther back, is very awkward P^"^'+'J: ^ r p - tfrfaft wnfofc i
on the land: — i n f f r T f g ^ , 1.27.
(a) See Section A. para. 11. (vii) fecrew, sjcrafap, etc., literally a Swan, have often been used for
the Bar-head Geese. " w f c r f a p " and " ^ r s r w f a p " (sfhfra ^rfor, 9.16 & 3 8)
(b)
on the banks of the Mansarovara Lake can only be the Bar-heads which
w r ^ r TT i R P ? r r : — 1 6 . 3 0 . breed in the neighbouring territory and are plentiful there. Poet TFT,
who knew full well that farfap had come to mean the Bar-head, has
Note—these *rcra birds are called TT-Trap in the next verse, and deliberately used the descriptive " s r f i r f w ^ f r ^ (the extremely white
Swans serving as vehicles of the gods are described as embrac- bird) for a Swan :
ing the sky with the wide expanse of their wings in Pt.<idHdX
18.19. 3vfdfadI ^ P ^ ^ - t ^ c H I
arw^TrfeTTfTR *r sre? ^ n ^ r f e ^ r F r u—6.54.
(c) foftO<HiM^lPddmt: (feferg^T:)
(viii) T h e compound " p + i w * " Q r p and named separately in
- — 9 . 3 7 . the same verse refer to a mixed assemblage of Geese, Ducks and Coots.
The w " in Ibid. 11.37 are a party of tame Grey The phrase is the commonest epithet for rivers, lakes and
Lag Geese, while the wording of the following line clearly tanks where some of these birds are often present, and the picture is some-
shows that the poet is referring to the same Geese (viz., times made richer by naming other common water-side birds along with
as on the Ganges: p and :
•=11+53' i p r t s f ^ r i p f ^ : 1
^rfwf^Tkra - : m ^r ^ r f ^ ^ t : — 1 0 . 3 3 . + " ^ ^ t r f c r f ^ =sr' II—q-.^TT. 3.158.56.
(v) W ? is the Bar-head Goose in the Epics and Puranas but the name
h a s b e e n very sparingly used in classical literature as it was replaced by ^Wi^rrqT ^ p t : I I — T m w r , 4.13.8.
T r a p and to a certain extent by the euphonious ^ r p . For examples see 1. T h e first line refers to w h i t e birds like white Ibises, Egrets, etc. a n d n o t to Swans
para. 6 and (viii) below. as it w o u l d a m o u n t to circumlocution a n d poetic p e d a n t r y w h i c h is q u i t e foreign to Epic
poetry. T h e hi^mi Geese are m e n t i o n e d a little earlier in the s a m e c h a p t e r , verse 56.
 Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 445
444 Birds in Sanskrit Literature V
This has been poetically associated with the beginning of the rainy
season, unless the Geese stayed on much longer or the rains set in much
—ir.rn. 3.164.5. earlier some two thousand years ago than they do now. T h e convention
has been followed by all poets as srfwffHRm or poetic fiction.
— W J T r T , a f c j s , 43.178.
9. T h e ancients also knew from their visits to the northern Himalayas
that the Geese, like almost all members of the family, lose their wing-
(ix) In 3i"Mir+i poetry p , Trap, pj^rraffff, ¥TP?r, <M*KM and
quills after the breeding season and are helpless for some time. This is
are all used for a Swan as representing the highest standard of personal
clear from the following verse where the female (who is now busy attending
grace, dignity and ethical behaviour for an honourable person.
to her young) is said to be happy in the thought that her mate must be
8. A pilgrimage to the TFTff Lake, south or south-east of the w u feeding amongst the lilies somewhere, little knowing that the poor fellow
range in the inner Himalayas, has been dear to the religious-minded and deprived of his power of flight, is almost starving in tne muddy reeds :
enterprising Indians from very ancient times and they thus became familiar t f t r qXPlfT^5RcH: JefTft" T ^
not only with the breeding grounds of myriads of Bar-headed Geese and
o > - c
Cranes but also the valley or valleys by which they crossed the Himalayas
=ff •Jll-flPd CT#=pft iKpfyi' vjIMNHmI^H
to and back from India. This association of the or T r a p with the
great Lake and the valley recurs quite often in Sanskrit literature. 9TWTf W r c f t ^ ^HT^ f f f t f w r i f ^ J ? : 11
— g w r f w , 222.34.
Incidentally, it also helps to solve the equation, p : FTRT"—few-
where "TT" stands for and either for a bird in general or 10. Some additional appreciative references to the Geese and a
a Crow. The reference is thus to the Bar-head as the bird of the *TFT*T couple of examples of striking poetic imagery showing in what high regard
Lake or to its being as common a bird there as the Crow is elsewhere. A they have been held in India may now be given:
few relevant references to T r a p for the Bar-head are given below: (i) T h e sonorous 'honking' calls of the Grey Lag high up in the
sky, or their conversational notes when feeding in the fields have been
(i) frgTT •ifrqfowfacJT ^ ^wsnr i greatly admired:
— i t a p , 59. #T frcn^STTFT W ^ H K I H — J K H M I , 2.4.
9T JTT WSHRT ^rpT ^ ' i n f w t — T P T m , 4.30,9.
(ii) sraifq- fej drqTT ^ N F T T f w d i
m? f^RRtsr g^rfcr TPW — f i n r e f w , 1.15.
^T p r a f N r r a ^Ktflif MdlPd ? II
— ^ r n f w r a ^ , 33.181. (ii) The distant 'gaggle' of long lines of the Bar-head Geese, flying
high in different directions and each flock answering the call of another,
(iii) ^nrftr sncerf CK^TI: tffrar: i
in the cloud-free autumnal sky has inspired a truly picturesque image.
— ^ r , ll. ' T h e goddesses presiding over the Cardinal Points are, as it were, carrying
(iv) i m q w r fort ? E^IT ^ i d ^ l ^ ^ d t f i H i on a lively conversation accross the skies':
^Rf TRf^TRT ^Ms^PT II fad^MiHMR^ m w t-dxtf'qt ^rfacrr: T^ITT'T I
— f ^ W t t s f f a , 4.14. srf#cr ^ r f o r r y f ^ d T : q x m r ^ r r T f w w r fesn n
— f ^ F ^ ^ f f t o , 4.30.
(v) TFT f T O T TO TT: ^ W H f ^ m I
+1 ^'sidWI+W II (iii) Flights of Geese in lines or V-formation have served as excellent
similes. Thus arrows feathered with the brown wing-quills of Eagles
—=rnTfT 5TTWT, 85-16.
resemble Grey Lags on the wing:
(vi) STTfRt f W R F W : ^f^RWfmW^RTiFqt
<Mrd fST: ^rtfTcfT —T.^rr. 6.137.7.
st^TT: 11
— 5 . 7 1 . Warriors (dressed in light grey) marching in single file to battle
likened to a flight of the Bar-heads :
The first four examples refer to the last homeward flights o f t h e Bar-heads
gp^MdfolSIT — ' T R M , 6.69.36.
late in spring or in early summer when a few spring-showers are common.
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper,Rujf&Reeve,Woodcock,&Snipe 367
A necklace of large white pearls with a deep blue sapphire in the has naturally a less graceful gait on land than the latter, and the
centre, lying on the breast in a V-shape:
expressions and T R M W T T should properly describe the rather
heavy though dignified step of the "sffrrhtK^KHm" or "afl<in*lKl<g|*Hl<Hl"
^fefiT p m ^ a f t f c r c r r c a r t r m w H i i — s r r f ^ c r i r , 5.6.
type of beauty cast in an ampler mould:
Comparing Geese, returning in autumn to a hazardous life in their
old haunts, with ascetics, half-way through their spiritual evolution and,
R d h P j w ^ f k w f s f M f f «RMr«H.KH ii —'fttpflPre, 11.20.2
therefore, beset with difficulties, the following verse strikes a sympathetic
but melancholy note as the dear birds would now often have to face 3TWlWfk*r STfTcqT P » t d H ^ J-t I d I
heartless bow-men or the secretly laid trap-nets of prowling fowlers: ^ferTfrsprf^ffi^w m n

cJTrtf: STCtertfa-: p r TFT "ppfa: I —pKldM^fWl,

•o '
10.60.

fTtfirTfswT?fnTir^rr ^ r 11—faror jrr^r, 5.10.9.

—Ibid. 8.29.
All. arts and sciences, acquired. in, her previous births, return to Comparisons with the TRpr (Bar-head on the ground or Swan on the
Parvati like Geese descending in quick succession on the old familiar water) on the other hand suggest a slim and elegant figure of
sands of the Ganges: the — t y p e of womanhood. In the first quotation below
Kalidasa compares the graceful movement of the young FjpTcft at the
<rr p-frraT: wrfrw q-^t I from one royal suitor to another, with a Swan's on the water and
in the second her heavier gait, when she had grown into a stately looking
queen with that of a Grey Lag :
(iv) Kalidasa compares the clear (supposed to be of a dark colour
according to poetic convention) and the slightly turbid (poetically white) arc^rarr T ^ I ^ r I 6.26.
waters of the J a m n a and the Ganges at their confluence with lines of ^m^Twarg wrfw ^ ^ i^nr i ibid. 8.29.
the Bar-head ( w w ) and Swans swimming as it were side by side: Finally, Swans and Geese had an important place in the ai ts of
ancient India, for we find the Goose motif in the printing industry, wood-
carving, and metal work. Their soft feathers were used to stuff quilts
—TWH", 13.55. and cushions for the rich, and their quills for making royal umbrellas or
canopies for thrones.
Again, neck-laces of large t f T 2 gems (the cat's eye variety of beryl)
resting on the breasts of the tipsy ladies of the h a r e m of Ravana have
been compared with a row of Geese:
C DUCKS
sPTTRTt ? t f t f : "+KMI ^T qf&Tir:—TPTPPT, 5.9.49. Ducks, as a rule, are smaller and much more aquatic than the
Geese, and with legs placed less forward they cannot walk as well.
It is suggested that the original basis of comparison for the dignified
Altogether about thirty different species of Duck including four members
gait of a shapely young lady of noble birth was the gentle gliding move-
of the Subfamily, Merginae (characterised by a tapering, narrow and
ment of the beautiful Mute Swan, the T R p of s r ^ r f t carrying its sub-cylindrical bill quite unlike the broad, flat bill of the Ducks proper)
long neck in a graceful curve on the water, but with the shifting of the
centre of Indo-Aryan culture from the Punjab to the JTS-T^T the Geese Cf. ^ r p v i w m ; — 5 . 6 7 .
replaced the Swan in this as in other respects. T h e quotation from the WRpfTO^ wfici) p^nwtwffw: I
* * * *
W^w given below would seem to support the idea. T h e Grey Lag, being
a larger and heavier bird than the slimmer and more beautiful Bar-head, •<Kul i ^fd+l^+r^lfd: I
* * * *

'TFT ^IfakcifiHIDMH II 4f<td+<rtd<!, p . 52.

1. STcq^, Black Ibis.
S P T T — J o 3|4iV|H«f ITT°, 19.9.
2. is fesmeTW in ftr^TTIrRt 3.45. I t is defined as a gem resembling the
TIsT: JHHWcl I p w f ^ x f w — J o , 245, 1-2.
eye of a cat or civat a n d h a v i n g a m o v e a b l e white line in it.
Swan-shaped receptacle of gold in ^TET^fcr, 6.72.
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
occur in India but of these only eight are permanent residents and the
others are with us for a period of about six months—Sept.-Oct. to April.
Of these latter again some seven or eight species are rare and a few are
only casual visitors or are found in the extreme Eastern part of Assam. Some
species confine themselves exclusively to tanks and lakes while others
prefer rivers and lakes. A rough list of these two groups is appended at
the end of this section which would help in forming some idea of the sort
of birds that are referred to when the stock phrase i ^ K ^ i i ^ i is used
to describe Lake or River scenery. Some Ducks possess a multi-
coloured bright wing-patch, called a 'speculum' which may be rendered
as <T«r-3JTtffT in Sanskrit. Ducks as a group go by sp^f or (Pah ^ r ^r)
but quite a number of them have also specific names in Sanskrit and
these are considered below.
(1) The Comb-Duck, Nukhta, or 'the Black-backed Goose' of Jerdon,
is 30 inches long and as large as the Bar-head Goose. It is black above
and white below with a white head and neck spotted with black but the
most characteristic feature of this Duck is a black, fleshy knob on the
base of the bill of the male which becomes greatly swollen during the
breeding season and "shrinks up almost to nothing" in winter.
This Duck is met within family parties of four to ten birds but flocks of
25 or 30 are also seen. They are strong and rapid fliers, walk and dive
well and freely perch on the thicker branches of trees. Their voice is
like that of the Goose and when an intruder approaches the nest they
utter loud trumpet calls. It occurs in the P u n j a b but is at present of
rare occurrence west of the Sutlej and is found throughout the rest of
India except the North and West Sind.
The Hindi name for it is T^rT, i.e. 'having the nose cut off' in refer-
ence to the great reduction in size of the comb or knob during the non-
breeding season, and the name is just a translation of araTf^TT, the first
name in the synonymy—"ararf^T g ^ m " — f w r ^ K Here the second
name, <jfw, clearly implies the fuller phase of the comb during the
breeding season (cf. araidt^d and y w f T for a young and full-grown bull
respectively). T h e breeding period lasts from J u n e to September and it
is therefore perfectly correct of poet ^ w f a to mention the bird by the
name o f ^ f w in his description of a mid-day scene at the height of the
summer season:
rft<1f*<H H d f
— m ^ f f r m r w , 9.7.
TOT calls it and leaves no doubt whatever about the name
and its owner:
?«n>rr ^trr ^TT ^ jmn^^qfcf^raT i
C\ c yellow eyes a n d belonging to t h e s a m e genus. T h e C o t t o n T e a l also h a s crimson-red eyes
irfefrr o c
t r r a ^ t w r f c T ?rr u
0 b u t it is too small a bird in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h others.
Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 3
explaining the Prakrit "rfep, gives a cryptic and apparently
nonsensical definition:—
•o 'lo
i.e., a particular bird with a body measuring only two fingures. The
sfsNTTHt 3TT9I also repeats the above. Evidently an earlier and fuller
statement regarding the nature of the bird's bill has been inexpertly
condensed by a person who did not know the bird, and the mutilated
version has been thoughtlessly repeated by later lexicographers. Now if
we bend our middle finger and place its tip on the back of the fore-
finger we have quite an accurate shape of the bill of this Duck—the
curved middle-finger representing the swollen knob. This is the idea
behind the absurd descrption " s ^ f
has a pair of surgical forceps, named - t « f l s h a p e d after the
bird's bill and consisting of an upper jaw the fore-end of which rests
flat upon the straight lower jaw, forming the gripping part of the instru-
ment, while the remaining part of the upper jaw turns up and comes
down in a loop (like the shape of the bent middlefinger) near the pin
holding the two together. Such a pair of forceps was very useful in
extracting or pulling out arrowheads and other missiles from the body
of a warrior which were flat or thin at the lower but thicker at the
upper and exposed end. T h e loop of the forceps would accommodate
the thicker part and the tip would grip fast the thinner part and help
pulling it out.
2. T h e White-winged Wood Duck (32") has a spotted white head
and neck, a white wing-patch and a bluish-grey speculum. It is known
as ^ET (fr. fer shining), a purely Sanskrit name, in Assam. The eyes of
old birds are blood-red and the name ^ r a ^ f 1 corresponding to TrT^t
for a kind off*! in should belong to it. The Geese have brown
or dark brown eyes and no Ducks have such blood-red eyes except the
Goosander which, however, is not looked upon as a as it does not
possess the typical flat bill of one and is entirely carnivorous. It therefore
goes by the name of»rfa<j<nr (see Nos. 24-25 below). T h e White-
winged Wood Duck, comparable in size to a Goose, is therefore T W l ^ r
ortrffT.
3. The Pink-headed Duck (23") is resident throughout North
India and is known as T U H R K in Hindi corresponding to TTTSMTT mentioned
byTOTin the list of water-birds. It shares this name with some of the
Pochards as varieties of srs while the Indian Sarus also claims the term
as a descriptive epithet to distinguish it from other Cranes (sror).
1. If the n a m e is in contra-distinction to *tftr<H<t>l«T for t h e W h i t e - e y e d Pocha.-d, it
m a y well b e for the P o c h a r d or R e d - c r e s t e d P o c h a r d b o t h h a v i n g r e d d i s h - b r o w n or reddish-
 Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers » 451
434 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
'a-oung' call resembling the sound of a badly greased wheel mounted on
4. The Cotton Teal (13") is the smallest Indian Duck which a wooden axle ( ^ ?? tot srs^tspr; c f . ^ l ^ - j ^ i ^ T 'calling like a wheel' used
nests in hollows or holes in trees near water. It is or <K<KI for the bird in ff*39r, 2. 95. 14; see also ^ in M. Williams). The Ruddy-
in Hindi, the same as Sansk. for a kind of Duck in M . Williams. Sheldrake 1 has much of rich orange-brown in its plumage while the
These names are clearly after the bird's voice. M. Williams gives also Sheldrake has a black head and neck and much white on the-lower parts
^TTO for a kind of Goose (i.e., p in the wider sense) and the name, with a chestnut band accross the breast. Resembling as it does the former
derived from ^ ' a little bit', clearly implies a little or tiny Duck (cf. it has very appropriately been termed is also
*rpJT ^ f m for the Red Turtle Dove, the smallest of all Doves—Art. 53). The the See-see Partridge resembling the TOK (Art. 55-C) .
brown upper parts in the male are glossed with metallic green or purple The noblest of associations surround the i w i t and practically date
and the names f T p r of the TfTp 534) and frfer p of sr^ta on ffftr frow, back to the beginnings of Indian civilization. The attachment of a pair to
277 would again seem to point to it. f t means 'green grass' and is also each other, their constant company during the day, conversational contact
indicative of the minute size of a thing, and ffcr is the 'green colour', maintained by both at night as they graze or feed apart on land or water,
and both the names are fully descriptive of this tiny 'goslet'. T h e Cotton and their re-union at sun-rise have invested them in popular imagination
Teal, the commonest of Indian Ducks, frequenting even ponds and with the halo of the highest conjugal virtues. No wonder, they are sacred
ditches, is thus the T^"* o r birds not only with the Hindus of India but also the Mongolians and the
5 & 6. The Whistling Teal occurs in two forms, the Lesser (17") and the Kalmucks. They are equally sacred to the Chinese through Mongolian or
Large (20"). T h e former is resident throughout India and the latter Indian influences. All through Indian history they have afforded a rich
chiefly in Bengal and sparsely in North India. Both frequent swamps, theme to the poets, and a high compliment is paid to them in the Rgveda
lakes and tanks, a r d being good walkers, graze on the land as well. where they are regarded like the inseparable Asvins :
They are very tame and confiding birds and can be easily domesticated.
The Common Whistling Teal, plentiful all over, is known as f w f t in 4Ml3"! srfdWTWT—2.39.3.
Hindi and as *r%, Trfir, and fRlfr in Bengal and Assam. All these and in the Sukta dealing with the marriage of ^pf and WtT the Atharva-
names are local variants from Sansk. wrrfa or srrrat but most Sanskrit veda holds them up as the ideal of conjugal love and fidelity:
lexicons have confused the last two names (sKTfo-, srcF=ft) with srafr or sirrft
which are specific for the Skimmer, on the strength of the rule, '7<™l"<tW' flm^FS" d'Ml^d ^PRft 2 —14.2.64.
though the two are quite different. T h e following verse from T f S I 7 with
alternative readings of wirrft and wrrfcr in the second line has been consi- The habit of a pair of these birds of calling to each other at night has
dered in Art. 70 : been recognised in TOT. fffpT where one is named for the deity presiding
over the Echoes:
STf?^^ttllfflcfTpT —4.9.
srfd s 5lrm —24.32.
and as the tank in question is said to be covered with lotuses and the
The fidelity of a pair to each other, the rich orange-brown of their
witter-weed ?NrFr, the probability is in favour ofwrtftr as the correct read-
plumage, and their habit of keeping together during the day fully justify
ing, for the Whistling Teal would readily take to such a tank but not the
their selection for god who is the chief upholder of the moral law,
Skimmer. T h e Large whistling Teal bears a good deal of resemblance to
wears a golden mantle, and is the lord of the celestial light of day :—
the Lesser and naturally shares the name srtrfr with it; Brown above and
chestnut below, they are the (5TTU red) of sre^fte (ibid.), prT 3 W T ^ ^ T ^ R — V S , 24.22.
mineral red-arsenic) of fffipr STTTO, sr<fr (srew reddish) o f t h e Fifth Sanskrit literature is, of course, full of warm and tender references to them
Pillar Edict of Asoka, and TfafETT (TfaffTO arsnr and therefore the same as and just a few examples should suffice:
of ^TTcPfr, verse 2107.
1. The simile of b i r d s for full, r o u n d b r e a s t s is a p p r o p r i a t e o n l y w h e r e
7 & 8. T h e Sheldrake(24") and the Ruddy Sheldrake or the Brahminy t h e l a t t e r a r e closely d r a p e d in s a f f r o n or o r a n g e , a n d , if e x p o s e d , h a v e received a fragrant
Duck ( 2 6 " ) are closely related and though they have been separated w a s h of s a f f r o n or t h e like; cf. J^HlWllfcl<<fk—few. 9.23; d'<«J+: <.i«i«flt:
under two different genera by S. Baker in F.B.I., other authorities keep sregfal^ W H ^ l f a — < , 6.4.
them together as sub-species of a common genus. T h e Indians too have 2. T h e ' r e d G e e s e ' a p a i r of w h i c h is g i v e n t o a n e w l y m a r r i e d c o u p l e in C h i n a m a y
b e these b i r d s t h o u g h t h e S n o w G o o s e of t h e A r c t i c r e g i o n is c o m m o n l y known as t h e
regarded them as closely allied birds. The two are respectively known as w e l l

R e d G o o s e — S e e Ency. of Religion and Ethics, 1.518.

'Safed Surkhab' and 'Surkhab' in Persian or Hindustani, and and
^ or ^ f t f f in Sanskrit. T h e names ^ f n ^ , and ^TOf? are after the bird's
 Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 453
452 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
against it that it feeds on dead human bodies. If there were any truth I n
Herself undergoing severe penance in ice-cold water to secure union
the allegation the observant Indians would not have missed the fact. O n
with her beloved Siva, Parvat! pities quite naturally the ^PTO couple
the contrary there is evidence that it is mainly a vegetable feeder and does
separated for the night: not eat fruit or flesh. The w n ^ of the am-pp named after it, No. 434, makes
M <*q ^ r r ^ T t : g y t f a T ^ fire? f r q i w t i the following reply to a Crow who envied the former's golden plumage:
— 5 . 2 6
h srwirt ^-t'lPf s^fi ! to f^ft n f e f i
The poetic conventions regarding the painful separation of the w i *
couples and the closing of the lotus flowers at night have been utilized
with considerable effect in the following verse: What, however, seems probable is that, the bird being held sacred in India,
some shrewed Brahman assistant of a sporting Sahib of the old J o h n Com-
pany told his boss a deliberate lie to protect the bird and the lie is still
^ n i r r f e c rfiferra; ^ M i t i persisting.
f ^ ^ n f f l ^ f w : WimPTHiM- 9. T h e Mallard or Wild Duck (24") breeds in the Himalayas as else-
where in Europe and Asia, . is resident in Kashmir, and descends to the
— 5 . 7 5 plains of North India from the Punjab to Assam and South to Rajasthan
See also ^ M W P T ^ T , 9.11 and through Madhya Pradesh to Bombay. It prefers large open sheets of
water but does not disdain small rivulets, ponds and even ditches. The
People living in the TTTO country, somewhere in or beyond the Hima- drake is greyish-white with the head and upper neck glossy emerald-green
layas, are truly happy since they are free from marital jealousy: separated by a white collar from the chestnut breast. It possesses a beauti-
ful violet-purple speculum bordered both above and below with black
and white bands. The four central tail feathers are black glossed blue-
3RTFPN ^ N + I W FTC^R 'TFEFTPTOT: II
green and curled up backwards. It is a most handsome Duck and "one
— 1 1 3 . 7 6 of the greatest dandies of the bird-world". It is known in Hindi as
and P=!^Flffr (fr. ^fmrm or ^ n f t r o ) after the drake's bright green
The desolate condition of Sita in the garden of R a v a n a : head and neck. TTTOM mentions ^ W t e as a water-bird in pirn^R, ch. 13,
p. 198 and the name clearly refers to the Mallard.
— 5 . 1 6 . 3 0
T h e name ^KW, in a wider sense, serves as a common base with
All Swans, Geese and Ducks pair for life but as the Geese are seen moving appropriate epithets to denote quite a number of water-birds including
in flocks as against the ^ W P , always seen in pairs, the indirectly the Mallard (Art. 58). The Mallard with a yellow bill is the q t c f ^
attributes promiscuity to the Grey Lags in a conversation between a see in Apte and g i ^ W . As the most beautiful Duck it is the ^trc
p t and a ^ T O t . The former, seeing a number of pretty women sporting (Goose-like or beautiful) ^ n w r and *T^r=r (charming Duck or water-
amorously with a prince on a hill overlooking a lake, praises the good bird) of a«Mf<:
luck of the women and the latter criticising their behaviour as unworthy
of good women makes the following reply: in the following example is the Mallard as an ornamental bird on
a garden-tank:
^ f a ! qfasfcrt to y ^ i M ^ i
wktqi f^r farf n —62.18 1. T h e s y n o n y m y — * j, with an a l t e r n a t i v e r e a d i n g of'-fidH"S

The TOTO, it will be seen, occupies a status of its own in Hindu cul- for Hldd,"-^ in has b e e n misunderstood b y t h e c o m m e n t a t o r s in t h e mTFHfepT

ture and this explains why it is particularly named in scenic descriptions a n d d l t H f a * ! editions ( B o m b a y ) a n d as i f l d ^ i * is a kind of D u c k or *>K«s=t the

of river and lake or in the protective clauses of all works on EWW. It is first t w o names, w h i c h really belong to t h e W e a v e r Bird, h a v e b e e n incorrectly a p p r o p r i a t e d

quite useless as a table bird, nevertheless sportsmen abuse and defame it to t h e M . Williams also r e n d e r s all the three incorrectly b u t as 'Sylvia sutoria',

for its alertness and the timely warning of approaching danger it gives to t h e T a i l o r Bird, t h o u g h his r e n d e r i n g of qtcTJJ"® as the W e a v e r Bird (Loxia philippensis)
refers
its cousins. There is not a single eye-witness or other authentic evidence, is correct. T h e entire s y n o n y m y w i t h t h e correct r e a d i n g of q f a t p s exclusively to

e.g., examination of stomach contents, in support of the vile charge made the W e a v e r B i r d — A r t . 22.

366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
— f ^ ^ f r ^ J T , 2.23.
The period of courtship in the Mallard is a prolonged one and it pairs
very early in the year. During courtship a female may be frequently seen
at a considerable height pursued by one or more drakes and performing
many coy evolutions, flying in circles with extreme rapidity and keeping
up the chase for a considerable time (see Birds of Great Britain and Ireland,
Naturalists' Library, Ornithology, Vol. X I V , Part IV, Natatores, under
'Common Wild Duck, the Mallard'). The ancients had certainly observed
the behaviour of the bird at its breeding haunts on the lakes in Kashmir
and the Himalayas and they very appropriately named it ^ifa-ft
('the amorous Duck'—srs^pwiTT and M. Will.; cf. also frrrft as an epithet
for the Ruddy Sheldrake, the Indian Sarus and the House Sparrow).
The drakes of a few other species also have characteristic ways of court-
ing the female but they do not breed within Indian limits. The playful
circling flight and gaggling high up in the air of the Geese, Mallards,
Ruddy Sheldrakes, etc., is called dKN-d :—
f W W W m ^ aftfcr ^ d l H M d f STRICT: I
— < N r j f under 'sfPTj'
10. The Spot-bill or Grey Duck (24") may be readily distinguished
by the orange-yellow of the terminal third of its bill and two red spots,
one on each side of the forehead, at the base of the bill. It is JTTOT in Hindi,
^Tfft p (prob. a phonetic error for ^rcirat pr fr. g r - f ^ r , saffron, and TO
face, in reference to the partly orange-yellow bill and the red spots) in
Assam, and g ^ (fr. f ^ j s r vermillion?) in Sind. The Hindi name points
to Sansk. T T O T f ° r a Duck so that both the Cotton Teal and this Duck
share it, while the name T W f t p - (cf. fpsfwt) though lost to the lexicons
has been preserved by the people of Assam. It is one of the resident and
common Duck of India.
11. The Gad wall (20")
is a brown Duck of medium size. " I n India
the Gadwall is perhaps the most numerous of our non-diving Ducks, occurr-
ing in immense flocks from Sind to Assam...." (S. Baker). It is known in
Hindi as which is the same as (PrakritTpr for dirty) Sansk. for
a kind o f p in f p f r The Ryud<cHi=t>< also has tf^FT for a s f R p which,
however, is a little incorrect as no other lexicon supports it. The Gadwall,
being of a dark colour (tf^FRTW), is the fRr-Tp proper.
12. T h e Wigeon (19") is a Duck of shallow swamps and marshes
and "loves feeding in a few inches of water or in water where the weeds
come close to the t o p " and they also graze on young crops, and instead
of resting during the day like other Ducks it continues to feed " i n jheels
throughout the day near the edges where they remain among reeds and
vegetation" (S. Baker). This Duck is known a s f r o in Hindi, fr. Sansk.
367
Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper,Rujf&Reeve,Woodcock,&Snipe
fipmFT1 (fond of eating) which however is not found in any Sanskrit
lexicon as a bird-name, but there is reason to believe that fspmnr p must
have been its Sanskrit name, for it is so very apt.
13. The Common Teal (15") is easily identified from the male's
painted face and chestnut-red head and upper neck. A broad . shining
green band runs through the eye and is bordered both above and below
by a white edging. It is this colour pattern on the face contrasting with
the surrounding chestnut which accounts for its Sanskrit name of Ttl^Tt
defined as g mTtf^ft w r a — « ; cf. ?ft%r, T%T for a form of incom-
plete rainbow; Ttf^Pwr, a woman with face red coloured with pigments.
Its name in Hindi corresponds to ^fifiprr of the lexicon, while
as a water-bird in 4H+M, ch.13, is this beautiful Duck.
Hindi TORt for Ducks like this and the Blue-winged Teal with a
conspicuous white eye-brow against a pink-brown head is probably
derived from Sansk. Tsnwt for 'face-decoration with various scented
pigments'.
14. The principal feature of the graceful Pintail Duck (22") are
its long, pointed pin-like central tail feathers which project at an angle
well beyond the tail. It is known as (snfjar) in Hindi: m (wipr,
same a s s r f p below) in Bengali; and fe^ ( ^ p ® ) in Cutch. Its proper
Sanskrit name i s w h i c h occurs w i t h e r (a needle?) in fspRft in a
mixed list of names for p . T h e occurrence of this Duck on the Himalayan
lakes is mentioned in the fwjTPT :—
sfrfacT ^rffsTJTf 2.22.59.
" F o r the table they (Pintails) are among the best of all the D u c k " and
they were certainly eatenin India. The medical treatise, STRS^TW, prohibits
the ^Tfjtf to a patient suffering from piles in the chapter, anrffsferenT.
15. The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal is a brown and black Duck
streaked white in parts, with blue and grey on the wings and a b r o a d white
supercilium. It is common all over India from September onwards and
visits large swamps, village tanks and even ponds. Being a nightfeeder it
rests by day and causes a good deal of damage to winter rice and wheat
crops. One of the peculiarities of its flight noticed by Stuart Baker is that
like the White-eyed Pochard, the Scaup and the Goosander it rises
obliquely from the water.
The describes p as a w f i o r Duck, and the descriptive
epithet STfa in the name ( "fwr-f *rrf%:"—3RT, going or moving side-ways)
would seem to refer to its oblique flight. T h e word has perhaps some such
significance in the following passage :
OTSfta # 5W: T¥ff fTc^T qcfw; TcTfcT
— T ^ P ^ N I ^ ! , 5.1.12.
1. T h i s n a m e is o n a p a r w i t h ' T f J ^ (constantly e a t i n g ) for a horse w h o , n o t being
a r u m i n a n t , need n o t stop like cattle to chew t h e c u d .
456 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Say ana explains the above as follows :
W. <TSft f fmfk? TSft fTc^T qcftq": Tafa, 3rf?TWT TcFT
TTfrfa
In a ffrfa or oblique flight the bird's wings must assume a different attitude
from that in a straight and forward flight. Now the question is which of
the above four birds is the HTfVfW. The Scaup is a very rare visitor to
India and must b e left out of account. The Goosander, being entirely
carnivorous and having a thin, toothed and pointed bill designed for
catching fish, is not regarded as a but a special kind of (See
Nos.24-25 below). 5.13 almost certainly includes it with birds like the
Cormorant and Darter in the comprehensive expression— "pTT-^ta^
TcFTTTFr"—'all birds that catch fish by diving'. T h a t leaves us with the
White-eyed Pochard and the Garganey. The former is the HIH+IST t^, which
is a very old name since it occurs as an alternative reading, though
incorrect, for ttR-^+isr in STRT, f^rwt, itself, and other lexicons. What is
more, t^PT^ft does not identify ^renfe: with it. Further, the Pochard "gets
off (the water) badly, fluttering about and rising very obliquely" but the
Garganey "rises quicker off the water, getting up obliquely" and is
really a fast flier. This last, therefore, seems to answer best the description
of a fast tfTfr flight given by Sayana. The only mention oi' the i j ^ l R : is
to be found in the aftrcfa : 17. The Marbled Teal (18.5") is a resident Duck wherever found
—5.5.20.
where srfefa is the Sky-goddess and the Garganey or the Blue winged
Teal having a fast flight and some blue on the wings would seem to have
commended itself to the author of the Samhita as a bird having some
esoteric connection with the sky.
16. The Shoveller (20") is a beautiful Duck, the male having a
shining dark-green head and neck. It occurs singly or in small parties on
dirty ditches, village ponds and weedy jheels. The peculiarly spatulate or
shovel-like bill, very much broader towards the tip than at the base, is
specific. It is known as ^ftprnpr in Hindi and <stld$« in Sanskrit from its
habit of frequenting ditches a!nd pools (gT?r):—
fesprer: ^mftw^ ST^RT^T: ^ ^ ^ i to birds like the Cormorants, Darter, Goosanders, etc. all of which dive
STTP: Hn s s ^ f N ' fo=3f-^ pi r ^ i mwrFiwr n
—*IM,+l'f<|J|, 1.5.
The reference to ^V^vsr has misled the annotator to translate yid^t as a
Swan but the poet certainly knew better than to place the nobler Swan
or Goose in a ditch or moat. He knew not only the habits of the Shoveller
but also the fact that, being one of our winter visitors, it came accross the
Himalayas and therefore through the traditional grfSR and would return
Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers 457
home the same way. It is this memory of the familiar passage
which the poet has attributed to the bird and made it think of the arrow
of Parashuram to cut a hole through the high city-wall.
Newton describes in his Dictionary of Birds the peculiar habit of
the Shoveller, a surface-feeder, "as swinging round in circles with its bill in
the water above the spot where Pochards are diving and feeding beneath,
and sifting out the substances that float up when disturbed by the
operation of the diving Ducks." This peculiar habit and the shape of its
bill would justify the Sanskrit name of <=MI+ ('TWT^, churning) for 'a kind
of bird' as specific for it:
I^TFF: *iTTc<Tfa- ^ f t f W T t fofTFrR
—T^gfT, 3-onfe, 4. 68 & ms^'^riH
iJsrTTr also means 'a ladle or spoon' so that the Duck answers to the name
in both senses, the 'churning rod' typifies its feeding habit and the 'spoon'
its bill broad at the tip. Even at other times it feeds by moving its bill in
the water from side to side like the Spoon-bill Stork to which also the name
would apply, and the two would be w^T^ F&R and SPP respectively
(see Art. 81). The Bengali name WmwT (^ciT a spade; q s w i t in F.B.I seems
to be an error) for the Duck is the same as g^rr^.
but is most common in Sind and less so in the Punjab, Gujarat, and Uttar
Pradesh. It seldom shows itself in open water and keeps to and feeds in
reeds, swampy vegetation, lily-beds, etc. It is known in Sind as and
is obviously the srfa^r defined by f s i w r as a bird of the lily-beds: "erfafg
|i=Mir<t+:". wtsfhrrfvf, Pt. 2 gives this name but M . Williams has
perhaps omitted it as a corrupt reading. The name is from fsr-2, to live in
an undisturbed or secret place ( M . W . ) .
18 & 19. The Nyrocinae subfamily of Ducks, which includes the
Pochards, consists of diving Ducks many of which feed on deep-water
plants, roots,etc. and are often known as (divers) in Hindi. Sansk. qlW*!
(fr. I R - H ^ T to dive or sink under water), perhaps rendered incorrectly as
the'female Sarus' (which never dives) by M. Williams, should be a
common name for these diving Ducks just as w r , from the same root, de-
notes the Darter; cf. also the phrase "fwJSRTTT in 5.13 referring
for their fish-food. These Ducks as a class are also the q x r ^ K (lily-root
eaters) of +pH^<tT|<ii.
T h e Red-crested Pochard with a red bill (21") is <Hi<-H~k and
olMftu or wjferr ( w M , WT5T) while the Pochard or Dun-bird with a
blackish bill (18") is simply mwfex in Hindi and both would therefore
share the name of TfOTt^ with the Pink-headed Duck in Sanskrit with
probably T^RTTOT as an additional epithet for the former, the Red-crested
Pochard. The Dun-bird may also be TWT5T.
366 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew,Godwit,Sandpiper,Rujf&Reeve,Woodcock,&Snipe

20 & 21. The White-eyed Pochard (16") and the Eastern White Eye being the bird's Sanskrit name. Its thin and dark slaty-coloured
(18") are closely allied forms and are the fffw^rer fH (white-eyed) bill accounts for the name TT^r-^^ (crow-billed) in ror where the name
of literature: has been correctly rendered as ^d+i by being the Coot.
The Smew is thus the or +i+^=t>-t>KW. It m a y be noted that the
members of this group are not regarded as varieties of f r o or Duck,
—JTTeTcftTm, 9.14; ^ M U M d ^ , 1-31. probably because they are fish eaters.
2 4 & 2 5 . The Goosander and the Eastern Goosander (25" & 22"
It is one of the water-birds in cl. The call-note of this Pochard is a respectively) are allied birds. The first is a winter visitor from
'•koor-ker-ker", uttered both when feeding in a lake and when rising Northern Europe and Asia, to Sind and the second breeds in the
from the water. This agrees very well with the description o f t h e bird as Himalayas and visits North India in winter. Both are black above
JR^T. The alternative reading of Tf^FiWr (the Mute Swan) is incorrect as and white below, the white underparts being suffused with a
the epithet is inapplicable to it, for it is a silent bird and utters its soft beautiful rosy-salmon colour. The bill and legs are red in both, and
low call chiefly when pairing (Sanders). Moreover the Swan on the from the colour of the bill they are the Jrfui^+ (<t<i w<f) of ; cf.
Pampa lake placed in the extreme south of India in WTKmwfor is an Tfwnar for the Sarus with red eyes. Both arc voracious fish-eaters: " T h e
impossibility.fffcTOTSTis, therefore, the correct reading and it means the gorging ended, the birds sit on some sand-bank so full that when
White-eyed Pochard. The last paragraph of the third ^ r o of ^<1*11411 disturbed they have to disgorge before moving" (S. Baker), and they
also places the fffemsr on the Pampa lake. probably owe their name w w or to this habit of gorging them-

22. The Tufted Pochard (17") has a black head and wears a long selves to the neck and thus resembling, so to say, a TRW or fish-
pendant occipital crest glossed with purple. It goes by the name basket.
of TITO in Nepal and ^ f W r fff (fr. WT^PT) in Assam. (v.l. TTTO, one The word ^ra; means or a sort of Duck, and. the sun according
to wsTOcTCff and M. Williams. Evidently it is meant as a descriptive epithet
wearing a wreath) is a kind of bird in irfcft and evidently refers to this
or adnoun for ww^r as a particular bird, viz., the Goosander. This is
Duck. 1
supported by a striking simile in the R a m a y a n a where the clear blue sky
The Assamese name clearly refers to the bird's long crest resembling is pictured as a large placid lake looking beautiful with lilies and birds
a Brahman's FTRAT or top-knot which is often allowed to hang behind the dotted here and there. The moon (presumably less than full and there-
head. MM4iim has w^rjsr as a water-bird in p ^ r r j f t . The f w r of a fore above the horizon at s u n r i s e or sun-set, and not very bright either)
Brahman is also known as ("s^rpft fstwrm"—ws^rffWffk) a n d . sage is a white lily, the sun, a Goosander, the constellations of Aquila and
Narada, famous for his f w r is also s^rpr. The w^rpr o f q m w is iherefore Cancer, the Bar-head Geese, the star Arcturus, a Swan, the Gemini
no other than the Tufted Pochard whicli is found from Sind to Assam. constellation, a whale; the Mars, an alligator; the mythological Airavata
23. The Smew and the Goosanders are members of the subfamily elephant, a large island; and stray clouds, the Saivala weed in the
Merginae consisting of fish-eating Ducks of great diving powers. Their heavenly lake:—
legs are placed far back on the body which makes it very difficult for
them to walk. The bill is armed with hard tooth-like serrations which tf^fpT? T^T tfl'+^l W 4 WOT I
11
enable the birds to catch and hold fish under water. The male Smew ftw^wr^tm^^msOT —5.57.2-4.
(17") is a beautiful black and white bird with a black patch on either
The of this picture can only be the Goosander with white under-
side of the white head and face and the underparts pure white. It
parts suffused with pink, red bill and red legs, described elsewhere as the
often goes under the name of the White Nun in England. It is very
'golden' +i<u<ic|. No other member of the TTWW group would be appropriate.
common in Sind and fairly so in North India. In Sind it is called ^n^fr (a
We thus have two names for the Goosanders, J t f w g ^ - and ^raqMiK^. 1
basket) and (Skt. front a receptacle) in the Uttar Pradesh.
Similarly epithet cTCT for a in r<tn<mi!!i refers to these birds after
Both the names are analogous to Skt. znyw for 'a basket' and point to their quick movements on water when fishing or sporting as described

1. T h e G o o s a n d e r s c a n b e STCRT + in a d i f f e r e n t sense as well if t h e t e r m STfRT

1. T T f c m for a k i n d of b i r d i n M . W i l l i a m s w o u l d s e e m t o be a m i s t a k e as t h e t e r m
is d e r i v e d f r o m r o o t SRT t o c h e w w i t h t h e j a w s or t e e t h as t h e bills of these b i r d s
m e a n s a n o p e n semi-circular l o o p w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l b a r a t t h e b a s e serving as a p e r c h f o r a
a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y well a r m e d w i t h t o o t h e d serrations t o e n a b l e them, t o c a t c h fish. T h e
p e t b i r d tied t o it w i t h a r i n g (on t h e b i r d ' s leg) and c h a i n — ^ HlR-lfl"—fa^ n a m e w o u l d t h e n m e a n t h e ' g o r g i n g or g l u t t o n D u c k ' b u t t h e q u o t a t i o n f r o m t h e R a m a y a n a
a n d ij^M'sC. T f i f P T ^ m e a n s ' a t h i n g i.e. a c a g e t h a t h o l d s a b i r d ' . s e e m s t o n e g a t i v e this suggestion.
462 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
by S. Baker: " T h e y seem to be equally at home in the deep slowly-moving
pools or in the wildest torrents and it is a most beautiful sight to see a
party of these birds playing in either kind of water." They fish forming
a wide semi-ring and although " t h e birds dash hither and thither, both
on and under water, with almost incredible speed, the formation is never
broken...". Exactly such a scene is described as 'a beautiful dance' o f a
party of 'golden birds' upon a certain river:
^T^TTirI fj-P=l<Hyd'WW4NdI=tHHi1^
.—•sfr?rfVldl^dH<cHK, 84; Pt. 10.
refers to their vermilion bill and feet.
Finally, the following two lists of Ducks showing their preference for(i)
tanks and lakes, or (ii) rivers and lakes should help a student of Sanskrit
literature in forming a rough idea of the sort of birds a poet has in mind
when using the phrase, to describe a lake, tank or river. It
must, however, be .remembered that p in this phrase includes the Geese
and Ducks, and 4.IW4, the Mallard, the Smew, the Goosander and the
Coot.
85
GREBES
Grebes constitute a group of water-birds easily distinguished from
others by their being practically tailless and the peculiar structure of
their feet, which are placed far behind and have toes furnished with
broad lobes and flat blunt nails.
1. T h e Little Grebe or Dab-chick is common on tanks and reedy margins
of slower rivers. It is a small bird about 9 inches long, and feeds on
insects, vegetable matter and small fish for which last it is an expert
diver. It is mentioned in as ws^pr (qrof^rcr in Rajasthan correspond-
ing to Hindi q ^ r f t or mf»4)) as a bird of omen in ch. 4, 21. It has a
curious tittering note, a shrill rippling whinny audible for some distance,
and its alarm note is a sharp 'tui, tui'. As the bird is common on all
way-side tanks and even ponds of some size its inclusion in the list of
birds of augury is easily understood. It is mentioned twice in the
R a m a y a n a both as a river and tank bird:
^K"!: o f ) H ^ M j f r - - f : |2
Poet q w f r ' s appreciation of the soft notes is to be seen in the following
verse :
^ C T H l Hfa-HtfI fa flPwdlPf I I — d r l U i m P l d . 8
Scribes who knew TO^r merely as a kind of reed or cane and could not
therefore make sense of the words " ^ ^ H w i f t " introduced their own
emendations like "TO^WcrrPr" or " ^ c H d l f o " for them, forgetting for the
moment that the poet would not refer twice to vegetation on the river
bank in the same verse. O n the other hand the dense reedy growth is
indeed the place for the g ^ p r birds who actually derive their name from
the reeds they live in.
1. 111.61.16.
2. IV.13.8.
3. 2.23.
462 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
2. The Black-necked Grebe is a larger bird, about 12 inches long,
found in India as a winter visitor. T h e place nearest to India where
it breeds is Baluchistan. In the breeding plumage the birds have a line
of long, silky, hair like feathers of a golden colour commencing behind
the eye and running down the neck, and the synonyms
in m ^ r ^ m f t r would seem to belong to it. The name or epithet is
clearly indicative of the tufts of hair-like feathers growing from behind
the eye which is the region of the ear in a bird. T h e Black-necked Grebe
is also known as the Eared Grebe and is ^ k m i n Sanskrit. Its call
note is a soft 'pee-ep' and alarm note is a shaxp 'whit, whit'.
The largest bird of the group occurring in India is the Great
Crested Grebe (18" to 22"). It is distinguished by a short bifid black
crest and a ruff of long black feathers round the neck and falling over
the breast. It breeds in the Himalayas, occasionally in Kashmir and locally
in North India. It is the ^TOTT^r ^sr^r of the equation in f ^ c f t " ^ s q r ^ g
^ s ^ r : " the epithet TOtra referring to the protective sort of ruff round
the neck
The call note of this Grebe is a harsh 'krek, krek' as against
the softer notes of the Little Grebe and it is more probably the of
augury in ^ f f c T T 1 and ^cTTM.2 It is defined in the former as
(having a brown-bill) which agrees with the dark brown bill of this bird
as againt the black bill of the other Grebes. It has been regarded as a
bird of good omen under the name of (v.l. ^ J t t ) m the
Ramayana : 3
trcr
i qo^guTt\o qsft T W I W I
srmrf^spT srerfcrf farefo 11
The fasre? (NS. Press Edn.) renders W ^ f t t as ^ ^ r bird, clearly the
same as W W . For as a possible name for the diver see the next
Article.
The Great Crested Grebe "carries the long neck upright and from a
distance looks somewhat like a cygnet" (Dewar). This fact coupled with
its black crest is responsible for the name ftrafcr by which it is known in
Assam.
1. 87.5.
2. 4.21.
3. 3.69.23.
86
DIVERS
T h e Divers seem to stand midway between the Auks, Puffins, etc., on
the one hand and the Grebes on the other. Like the Grebes their legs
are placed far back on the body, and like them again they are unable
to walk more than a few paces on the ground. They have great powers
of submergence and dive and swim under water in pursuit of their fish-
food just as the Grebes do. They have been separated from the latter on
certain anatomical grounds including their fully webbed feet like the
ducks
T h e Black-throated Diver, the only one of the family, was once found
in the Ambala district in the year 1922. It is much bigger than the
largest Grebe and its call is a loud prolonged wail, audible at an immense
d is ta.nce
T h e Divers are essentially sea-birds but they resort to fresh water for
breeding purposes. Even otherwise they " a r e not unfrequently found far
from the sea. being either driven inland by stress of weather, or exhausted
in their migrations."* It is, therefore, quite likely that, though the bird
is a very rare winter visitor to India at the present time, m the different
conditions obtaining in the country nearly two thousand years ago, the
bird visited India with some regularity and in larger numbers It so it
would certainly be regarded as a larger variety of the G r e b e which it so
closely resembles in habits, and the name ®aY w e l 1 r e f e r t 0 f j
T h e description of with reference to its loud call, as would
seem to support this suggestion. T h e voice of the Great Crested Grebe
identified with in the preceding article (q.v.) is no doubt a harsh
'krek krek' but it is doubtful how far the bird may be characterised as
q - ^ T . Moreover, the different spelling also m a y imply a distinction
between the Grebe and Diver ( ^ w ) .
1. Ency. Brit., 11th e d i t i o n .
 Index
A Bar-tailed Cuckoo Dove
257, 260
Adjutant 401 B a r u a , B. M . , 77
Adjutant Stork [= HIW, ftw?, Basha S p a r r o w H a w k , 221
^M't^H, ^ferf^rr mw], Bay O w l [=cTTi7fa=fr ], 176
184, 209, 213, 231, 243, 392, 398, 3 9 9 B e a n Goose, 437
A e t h o p y g a , 114 B e a r d e d & N e o p h r o n V u l t u r e s [=tfTPer 199
African Plover ], 362 B e a r d e d Bee-eater 147, 148
Aitchinson, E . T . , 327 Bearded Vulture [=3T^f5T, sn^PPET, i f t e -
Aitken, E . H . , 162 IP^F, fftWrNT, jft^T,
Albinism, 8
Alfred N e w t o n (British Zoologist), 338 5TJp5Tj, 181, 188, 191, 192, 193, 195 196,
Anupah ( a n i m a l s a n d birds o c c u p y i n g wet 197, 199, 207, 228, 3 9 9
z o n e s ) , 286 Bee-eater [ = ( h | u i + , fc&l, JRFT, 5rnf,
ArunakrauHcavyuha (a p a r t i c u l a r a r r a y of WFf, 147 flf.
a r m y ) , 413, 4 1 4 Bee-eater, as a b i r d of a u g u r y , 150
A s h y - c r o w n e d F i n c h L a r k , 111 Bengal F l o r i c a n [ = f n r f f , T T ^ f i r ],
Ashy S w a l l o w S h r i k e [ = d l ? H d ' t » ] , 61 329-330
Ashy W r e n W a r b l e r jfw-ff, B e n g a l J u n g l e B a b b l e r , 29
69 B e n g a l R e d - v e n t e d Bulbuls, 35
Asiatic C u c k o o J S T O t f e r ] , 129 Bengal R e d - w h i s k e r e d B u l b u l [ ^ q . f t i n t . H ] , 3 5
A s i a t i c / I n d i a n S p a r r o w H a w k [ = «TTOT ], 221 Bengal Sirkeer C u c k o o , 140
Asiatic S p a r r o w H a w k , 238 Besra H a w k [ = I * T ] , 220, 221, 237
Assam L a r g e R a c k e t - t a i l e d D r o n g o , 64 Bewick's S w a n , 4 2 4
A s v a g h o s a , 32, 114, 120, 166 B h a n d a r k a r , R . G . , 77
A u g u r y , 6, 12, 31, 35 B h a r a v i , 204
Avocet [ = j f t r a r s f T ^ r , ^frfwr, j r f t r o , H4MHK, B h a r t r h a r i , 136
rf'-Ti^'sj ], 361 B h a t t o t p a l a , 150, 252, 257, 2 5 8
B h a v a b h u t i 8, 27, 461
B B h u t a n P e a c o c k - P h e a s a n t [ = jfM^MH'fr ], 273
Bird of A u g u r y [ = s n j % ] , 4 9 , 177
Babbler [ = 28, 30, 87, 127 'Birds of n i n e colours' [ = ^ T T ] , 117
Bailey, H . W . , 52 Birds of P r e y [ = 5 m ^ ] , 211, 341
Bakasadhu, 3 8 8 Bittern, 405, 4 0 6
Bakavrtti, 388 Black & W h i t e - b i l l e d Crow
B a n a b h a f t a , 2 0 9 , 211 kK1l"l?M=-<1=M=t> ], 2
B a n d e d B a y C u c k o o [ = ^TTO ], 130, 131 B l a c k - b a c k e d Goose, 4 4 8
B a n d e d C r a k e / R a i l [=JffWFCt, fastf^], 292 B l a c k - b a c k e d K a l i j P h e a s a n t , 275
B a n k M y n a [ = i r f T W , T T ^ r f f o r ] , 85 Black Bee, 134
Bar b e t V^ftTO, Black-bellied T e r n , 347
fajftfft, ^ r " ] , 26, 1*23, 124 ° Blackbird
Barhaspatya Vyuha, 413 t't^J, 'If^f-HI, m*Hd<fr,
B a r - h e a d e d Geese, V-flight of, 386 fffw^ w m r , STTTTl, 4 -4,
B a r - h e a d e d Goose [ = + K H p - ] , 4 2 6 , 436, 4 9 , 50, 52, 9 3
438 Blak-breasted K a l i j P h e a s a n t , 275, 2 7 6
Barn Owl J^q", jrfa, Black-breasted/Rain Quail
S ^ T O ^ r , X S W f W , v M r o ] , 173, 176 5 R T ] , 285
366 Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature

Black Bulbul [ = + [ u m . , i f N w v , ffo, Blood P h e a s a n t <fl<HI<], 281 B r o w n Fish O w l [ = q ? > 3 , ^ t e s ] 157, 180 C a t a k a , 131, 133, 134 136, 137
l 4 f ' i + T , M4f'<*r, «(+<!], 38, 39 Bloomfield, 153 Brown Hawk 211 C a t e c h u , 27
Black-crested B a z a , 211, 242 Blossom-headed Paroquet [=$t>i|j4| Brown Hawk Owl, [=$t>u|tH+, +M<H+]> Catde Egret [=1PI9fWr, i l K I ! WT1,
Black-crested K a l i j [ > + > I M < P , JpffT], 302 143, 144 179 M l F M . 1 ] , 404
Black-crested Y e l l o w B u l b u l , 37 Blue-bearded Bee-eater [ = m R d i P < ] , 148, B r o w n - h e a d e d G u l l , 339, 340 C e n t r a l I n d i a n Bulbuls, 3 5
Black C r o w [ - + I + H , ^ < 4 1 + , *TfI5mr],3,8 152 Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher Changeable Hawk-Eagle [=5K5T], 210,
Black D r o n g o [ = = + h + I , «T'JTj W ^ f X M ] , 40, Blue-breasted Banded Rail [ = [= ], 156, 157 211
49, 62, 65, 67, 72, 132 ' B r o w n , J a m e s M o r a y , 76 Chanting Falcon [=3(4jd^l+l,
R d l ^ ] . 292
Black E a g l e «t55R!], 211, Brown-necked Raven <<tdSlu|, 226
Blue-breasted Quail «Td"C], 2 8 5
212, 231 '<*MS>I+I+ ], 1, 3, 5, 20 C h a t , 44, 45, 50, 127
Blue H a w k 218, 219,
Black-faced C r o w [ = ], 2 B r o w n R o c k C h a t [ = J T f e n W I T ] , 4 4 , 47 C h e e r P h e a s a n t s [ = <4d«k4, 275
221, 222
Black G o o s e ], 4 3 6 B r o w n R o c k T h r u s h [ = l f e T T WFTI],. 47 Cherrug Falcon [ = T O P , TO?, TOI,
Blue-headed Rock Thrush [ = fWT5Ti',
B l a c k - h e a d e d a n d Black-crested Bulbuls B r o w n W o o d O w l , 178 ^T, TOI^, TOJ, 221, 228, 231
R l d l f e P f t ] , 46, 4 8
[ = 3 H l f < W = h ] , 34 Brown Wren, 42 C h e s t n u t - b e l l i e d (or C i n n a m o n - b e l l i e d ) N u t -
Blue H e r o n [ = % r i T ] , 18
Black-headed Buntings, 95 Bulbuls [ = +iu|M+, ifNc^, TOf^T, T5IT, hatch ], 2 6
Blue J a y [ = qPfsmr], 16, 22, 146, 187
3 4 ff. C h e s t n u t Bittern . WlcHM*,
Black-headed Gull ], 339, 343 Blue M a g p i e s , [ = ^ t f ] , 13
B l a c k - h e a d e d O r i o l e , 51, 72, 77, 79, 80 Bulbuls w i t h b l a c k h e a d or crest [ = 3P1K- ^ W ] , 406
B l u e - n a p e d P i t t a , 117
B l a c k - h e a d e d Sibia, 31 ^ F ] , 39 C h e s t n u t - h e a d e d B e e - e a t e r , 148, 152
Blue N u t h a t c h , 24
Black I b i s f = STlfe, Stiff, SfTfe, HTSt, ^ f T T W ^ B u l b u l s w i t h w h i t e or w h i t e & r e d p a t c h in Chinese Swan, 423
Blue P i t t a (of B h u t a n ) , 117
the ear-region 39 Chloropsis
Blue R o c k P i g e o n [=<nTraW], 27, 250,
33, 122, 144
W R i , w s r t e ] , 81, 224,,294, 352, 353, 381, 261 Bull-Finches TOT], 95
383, 3 8 5 Bunting 3TOTTOF, Chough piwiw], 10,20
Blue R o c k P i g e o n , as a n auspicious b i r d , 250
Black Ibis, as a f a v o u r i t e q u a r r y , 385 Blue R o c k T h r u s h IFsflRn', ff^ni, wfwft^. n f e , '(rrft?, wrs, iftfe, Chukar 282
Black-necked C r a n e cldTjd*, <WI*Wd+, siftR], 92, 93, 95, C i c a d a Fly, 39
J T f j , 13, 47, 48, 50
" # T ] , 3 1 9 , 321 96, 141 Cinereous Vulture tWlH,
Blue-tailed Bee-eater, 147, 148, 152
B l a c k - n e c k e d C r o w [=wr*FP?T 6 Bush-Chat, 44 W W t ] , 188, 189, 190
Blue-throated B a r b e t 124
Black-necked G r e b e , 4 6 2 Bush-Lark [ = f + < l d , W7JS, TORT], 53, Cinnamon-bellied Nuthatch ], 25,
Blue-throated Flycatcher Td^TT,
Black-necked S a r u s tfKU ], 311 ^ f e ^ T ] , 56, 68 110 26, 27
Black-necked S t o r k fTSWfa, Bush-Quail 5TW3rhH], 285, C l a m a t o r J a c o b i n u s , 131
B l u e - t h r o a t e d J a y [ = c m i « | ] , 16
286 Cliff S w a l l o w 99
vft^rTTT], 391, 392 Blue-winged Teal [=13T5ft], 455
B u s t a r d s , 3 2 5 ff. C o c k [ = : P J H : ] , 18, 138
Black P a r t r i d g e f^TTST, firf?TT], Blyth's R e e d - W a r b l e r [ = 69
283 Bustard Quail <rllMlRj+l, <rim«J«l, Cock-bird [ = # T C T , 46,302
B o m b a y c i l l a , 97
Black-plumaged Crow [ = SFT'^rTTST STTf.WtoT], 2 8 5 , 2 8 6 , 2 8 7 , 2 9 1 C o c k - f i g h t i n g , 271
Bonelli's E a g l e i f f a f t , a^TTSi
B u s t a r d Q u a i l , skulking h a b i t s of, 288 C o c k N i g h t i n g a l e , 51
WWW ], 6 i f f a ] , 74, 210, 211
Button-Quail 5 T R ] , 287 C o c k r o a c h , 85, 8 9
Black r e d - b i l l e d C h o u g h [ = 6 Booby [ = ]. 376
B u z z a r d [ = f * l f o l M , -<j^lHK<4M ], 242 ff. C o l e b r o o k , 417
Black R e d s t a r t [ = g o ^ j f f , W P r s g ^ r ], B r a h m a d a t t a (a k i n g ) , 77, 101
49 Buzzard Eagle 212 Collared Pigmy Owlet ],
B r a h m i n y D u c k , 219, 450
178
B l a c k - r u m p e d M a g p i e [ = + l ( H + d ], 12, 14 Brahminy Kite [ ^ I V d 1 * ^ , qn^WTcTTRpr,
Black S p a r r o w [ 49 ^JR^T, STT^fr, y+|[*H"l, C Columbidae, 250
Black S t o r k 390 Comb-Duck ^ R T r f ^ f T ] , 448
Black-tailed Godwit [=3rRT, 31liiq<si), C a k r a d a t t a (a c o m m e n t a t o r o n C a r a k a ) 36, C o m m o n B a b b l e r s [=5<i«ti§=ti ], 28, 29
W f T O l ] , 29, 164, 213, 234, 242, 243, 244,
139 C o m m o n Bee-eater O^-TMI mjPi+r],
^TT, TTfT, i M W r ] , 3 6 6 246
Brahminy M y n a jflf^T, 1HJU], C a k r a p a n i d a t t a (a c o m m e n t a t o r ) , 99, 167, 147, 148, 150
Black-tailed S p a r r o w , [ = < t , M £ « g TOF], 94
259 C o m m o n Black D r o n g o ], 49,
Black-throated Diver, 463 85, 86
Black-throated J a y [ = ^ T O T f ] , 16 B r a v e H a w k [ - ^TS^TFT, I f H R ] , 241 C a l e n d r e l l a , 109 62
B r h a s p a t i , 65, 4 1 3 Camel Crane 281 Common Cock ? ] , 281
Black-throated Weaver-bird [ —WXTNt*,
B r o a d - b i l l e d R o l l e r [ = FrJTTOrPT, C a n a r i e s , 142 Common Crane W l t O T ] , 312
TOill], 89
Black V u l t u r e s f T W TO, 16, 20 C a r a k a , 28, 92, 93, 124, 129, 132, 137, 140, Common C r a n e , as a p e t b i r d of R o y a l t y ,
164, 171, 210, 211, 259, 260, 274, 275, 282, 324
fira^.'Tsrosr, M f , otMW'imijfa, g r o ] , B r o a d - b i l l s [ = Trf^TSpr ], 118
285, 292 Common Flamingo [ = ^ 5 , ^ p ? ,
10, 188, 196, 197 B r o n z e d D r o n g o , 38
C a r i t r a v a r d h a n a c a r y a , 134 TO^I], 4 0 8 , 40'9
Black W a g t a i l , 105 Bronze-winged Jacana [ —5FWIkT, 3TW-
C a r r i o n & J u n g l e Crows [=3TOT-=FT<?r, C o m m o n G r e y H o r n b i l l [ = i r d J - ) ^ SR7T, "T5T
Black-winged Kite WHt. Mli.NcT], 304
S 1 ? ] , 246 ' B r o w n - e y e d ' F a l c o n [=|EOTrrar # 1 ,
+1+1 <H, ETOT, H4d+1+, ^"l+r-l, =rrer>Rr, ^ r f ^ w f ] , 159, 161
1, 6 , 7 C o m m o n H a w k C u c k o o [=-Mld+"] ; 130
B l a n f o r d a n d O a t e s , 159, 182
Brown Dipper d =t> 5TvTTX], 43 Caspian Tern ], 347 C o m m o n (or G r e y ) H e r o n 23, 243
'Blind H e r o n ' «HMI ], 4 0 4
 Index 469
468 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
D o d o [ = f ? T p r »TT7^, l O T T ] , 398, 3 9 9 F
C o m m o n H i l l P a r t r i d g e [ = f a 3 7 T ] , 282 C r e s t e d C u c k o o , 136
Domestic Cock fawfar,
C o m m o n H o u s e - S w a l l o w s & Swifts [ = pq P«<rfl, Crested Goshawk [=WFP sraTOfaTOl, F a i r y B l u e b i r d [ - - ^ H t j f t , H l ^ ^ i * " ] , 71,
18
^ T p T W T O ] , 167 220, 2 3 6 , 238, 241 138
D o m e s t i c P i g e o n [ = ^ + 4 ~ l d ] , 250
C o m m o n House Swift [ = 3 r f e f , 4tPs<r<i, Crested H a w k Eagle [ = 210 F a l c o n [ = W T ] , 199, 210, 222, 223, 225
D o n a l d , 198, 204, 205, 207, 210, 231
3lf5T^r, ^ J ^ H d + j STFTO], 99, 165, C r e s t e d L a r k [ = W M , ^?rfTO, ^fST, F a l c o n e r [ = ? t f T O ] , 217, 2 2 6 -
Dove s p r t , ttW, T^TO, 4TOf, I f f ,
166, 167 fepFF'TO], 5 0 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 108, 110, 111 F a l c o n i d a e , 199
q i w f f c r ] , 24^ 2 7 , 3 8 , 250, 257 ff.
C o m m o n Indian Bee-eater lld'll, C t e s t e d S e r p e n t - E a g l e [=HTTT5ft, Falconry, a practitioner of
D o v e , as a messenger of evil, 250
^ T O T l , 147, 150 211
Doves, d i f f e r e n t species of, 257 216
C o m m o n Indian Kingfisher [ = ^ T T ferfelT, C r e s t e d S k y - L a r k , 108 F a l c o n r y , a r t of [=WTRTcTT], 204, 205,
Drongo [=3TTTTO, TfTOTT, WrfaT, j f t f T ,
J f f t T O , g f ^ T O ] , 155 C r e s t e d S w i f t [ = t T = F j r o ] , 168, 169 206, 2 2 5
+ M + I , +l<fHd<t>, <fiik+, ST^TO, snrg;,
C o m m o n Kingfisher 117, 155 C r e s t e d Swift, as a b i r d of a u g u r y , 168
srrw: W ' T l , 4 1 , 62, 63, 99, 131, F a l c o n s , 221 ff.
Common Kite [=5Ts?refr, TO, w"t], C r i m s o n H o r n e d P h e a s a n t , 281
132 F a l c o n s & H a w k s , 2 0 6 , 215 ff.
189 Crimson-throated Barbet [=fef*?iTFITO,
D r o n g o C u c k o o [ = f t T O ] , 130, 131, 132 Fantail Flycatcher 35, 53, 5 4 , 9 0
Common Myna ^ t ^ f w *I|P<+I, D r o n g o s , 62 ff. female Bee-eater PTFTOT,
^fUldl, PttHdl, f T J T O ] , 124, 125 ^
D r o n g o Shrikes, 62 Vlir^+I, T T f f ] , 149, 151
4 l d 4 K I , TiHJuiHl, U l f t + I ], 30, 81, 8 2 , 85, Crow 3TOt?r, fwT^fWT,
'Drop-craving' Bird 134 Female Bustard Quail 291
87 EWtSSr, Jftpfw, WFRT,
Duck [=STsTp i T O 1 , 4 2 2 F e m a l e F l a m i n g o [ = « M I + I , ILMD^L ] , 4 1 1 ,
C o m m o n P a r i a h K i t e [ = 3 t l d l R j H , SJ2TO>, 1 ff.
D u c k s , 9 5 * 2 9 9 , 4 4 7 ff. 418
w t , WJpTL 245 Crow Family , 20
Dunbird [ = 1, 4 5 7 F e m a l e G r e a t H o r n b i l l [=q^TrfiiTOT], 160
C o m m o n (or G r e y ) Quail Wtr, Crow-Pheasant j ^ t M j t j i ],
D u n c a n , F . M a r t i n , 204 Female Grey Partridge [=+f4=->j|<rn,
WTO], 2 8 5 71, 137, 150 9 I f p T O T ] , 58
Dung-Vulture [ = > f m ' f t a ] , 192, 193
C o m m o n R e d - v e n t e d B u l b u l s (of N o r t h C r o w s & T h e i r Allies, 1 If. F e m a l e P e r e g r i n e [ = 3 ) 1 ^ 1 + 1 ] , 225
D u r y o d h a n a , 63
India) TW, T T O , T5ITTO], 39 Cuckoo [=3M«*i4, w w ; , r+r+c, f+r+<ld, Dusky Horned Owl WTTOFTO Female Shikra ], 242
Common Sand-Grouse [ = T O T , +l+< ], qftf^r, »rsNr, 4<y>d, tt^t, wrtr], ^cff], 180, 181, 182 Female Yellow Wagtail
265 23, 33, 60, 110, 1 1 7 , V 2 7 ff. i f t ^ r R m ] , 105
C o m m o n S p a r r o w , 124 Curlew [ = f T C f ] , 342 F i e d - K i t e s , 247
C o m m o n Swallow fwroT- C u t - W a t e r [=tprfwXT, 9 1 7 X ^ 1 , 3 5 1 E F i g h t i n g C o c k , 272
5TTTT], 100 C y g n u s D a v i d i i , 423, 4 2 5 , 4 2 8 F i n c h e s & B u n t i n g s , 92 ff.
Common Teal [=<lP^fi, ^ftfpT, Finch Larks [ = 5 | W i d t i , JS5T, ajqTWS^,
E a g l e [=3PFT3T, W , OT], 175, 176,
455 D
188, 189, 199, 2 0 0 , 2 1 0 ^fWT, < ] , 95, 110, 111
Common Whistling Teal [ = 5 R T f t r , KKIdl, Finley, W . L . , 347
Eagle-Owl [=fH'Kl<), W f t W , W T O , f f ,
f w f r , ^rrsft ], 450 Dab-Chick HHfafl, TOW], 43, F i n n , F . , 310, 314, 320
182, 183
C o m m o n & W i r e - t a i l e d Swallows & H o u s e 461 Finsch's Starlings, 85
E a g l e s a n d F a l c o n s , 198 ff.
M a r t i n s [ = sr^fT, fa^URjjTTT, Dalhana, 29, 36, 49, 93, 94, 144, 159, 185, F i r e - b r e a s t e d F l o w e r - p e c k e r s , 116
Eastern Carrion Crow, 7
"TOT, "TTJW, 4 1 + ^ 1 , ^fTOT], 100 259, 2 6 6 , 282, 285, 286 F i r e - t a i l e d Y e l l o w - b a c k e d S u n b i r d , 114
Eastern Common Crane 314, 321
Coot JTW, TOCTfw], 298, 299, D a m a y a n t i , 432 Fishing, 198
Eastern Fantail Snipe [ = * f r w t 7 ; ], 366
300 D a n d i , 118, 143 Fishing Eagle ^c^rfTT,
Eastern Goosander
C o p p e r s m i t h [ = = c R T W ] , 124, 125 Darila, 76
+ K W ], 4 5 9 qwmr, J ^ W , 155, 185, 186,
C o r a l - b i l l e d S c i m i t a r B a b b l e r [ = J r f o T ^ T O ], D a r t e r [ = w r ] , 371
Eastern Great Bustard, 326 187, 213, 2 1 5 , 342
31, 4 9 Demoiselle C r a n e + <+Pd4l, +<+<1, Fish O w l s [ = f ^ T « T , TOmtf], 175, 180, 181
Eastern Grebe [ = + « N M 462
Cormorant [=5ITOH, 41^4+1^+1, f t f , fTX, ^ft^TFT tfTOT, HT«kH<- Fish O w l s & H o r n e d O w l s [ = M M
Eastern Hooded Grow ^TO], 2
s r r o k T ] , 299, 371 J T T ] , 186, 224, 312, 320, 321, 3 4 2 3TO], 180, 181
E a s t e r n P u r p l e H e r o n [ = h ^ 1 M 1, 4 0 1
Cormorants & Darter, 371 ff. D e n d r o c i t t a , 13 Flamingo ^p^T, TOT, W^TO,
)
E a s t e r n R e d - b r e a s t e d F l y c a t c h e r , 56
C o t t o n T e a l [ = + |uj+, T77rcf, 'TTTW, WTTO, Desert Stork [=JT5TO], 326 «(<rll + l, VHTTOI5, ^PTt^, ^ W ] ,
Eastern Red-legged Falcon, 235
q o j ^ r , ^ R d p ] , 157, 45o" D e v a k u f a , as t h e b r e e d i n g - p l a c e of S u p a r n a , 136, 3 1 1 , ° 4 0 8 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 2 , 4 1 3 , 417
E a s t e r n W h i t e E y e [=»ll?<rl+|(fr], 4 5 8
Coucal jw, f W R gpfiff, J T O K - 203 F l a m i n g o , as a n a u s p i c i o u s b i r d
Eastern W o o d Pigeon, 256
f ^ , 71, 137, 138, D e w a r , D o u g l a s , 68, 78, 170, 345, 4 6 2 420
E d i c t of A s o k a , i 4 0
139 D h a n v a n t a r i , 49, 84, 96, 99, 107, 143, 176, F l a m i n g o s , 4 0 8 ff.
Egret [ = W t , w r f r o r ] , 2
C r a b - P l o v e r [=%?TTEfT, #WTTO], 3 3 6 189, 259, 430 F l a m i n g o s in V - f o r m , 421
E m e r a l d C u k o o [ = f C f T O ] , 130, 131
C r a g M a r t i n , [ = $ F d i i T O , ^Tffe, 99 Dhartaras{ra, 428 F l o r i c a n [=WT72r], 3 2 5
E m e r a l d D o v e [ = < = k i + u 4 , <<+diTlW,
Crane J ^ T T f W, 18, 224, Dhvanksavrati (a seemingly innocent f T f t c r ] , 131, 257, 259, 260, F l o w e r - P e c k e r s , 116
227, 311 person), 388 261, 262, 2 6 3 F l y c a t c h e r [ = 3 T # T O , j f ^ T T ] , 56, 57, 92
Cranes, 309 ff. Dicruridae, 49 E r i g a t e Bird, 3 7 8 F l y c a t c h e r s , 5 3 ff.
C r e s t e d B u n t i n g [=3TTTOWTO, P^<dl, D i p p e r [ = *l<rM<, ], 43 European,/Asiatic Cuckoo 128 F l y c a t c h e r W a r b l e r O^wfTOT], 53, 68
fWto, foftst, ftrrte, fircl^], 93, 96 Diver [ =
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Index
470 471
Greater Spotted Eagle f>mi»<, G r o u n d - P i p i t s , 107
Flying Fox [ = ^ p T T ] , 39
209
TTClt], 108
Fotest Eagle Owl T t f m t t ], Ground-Thrushes, 44 H i m a l a y a n J a y , 15
G r e a t H i m a l a y a n B a r b e t , 123 G r y l l o t a l p a , 38
176, 181, 182 Himalayan Jungle Crow, 7
Great Horabill [=fSW, ffiT, Gull ZWK,
F o r k - t a i l e d Shrikes, 6 2 Himalayan Kestrel [=gx*rfoTT, fTTCsfn
F r a n c i s , H . T . , 52 _____ ttd'M-ft^, f^fTT], 160 OTTO, H^STPT^ J, 186, 232
F r a n c o l i n P a r t r i d g e s [ = j f a f r P ; ] , 283 Great H o r n e d O w l [ = | f ] , 181 341,342,343 H i m a l a y a n N u t c r a c k e r , 11
F r o g - b i r d , 171 Great I n d i a n Bustard, 326 G u l l - b i l l e d T e r n , 347 H i m a l a y a n R e d - l e g g e d F a l c o n e t [=JTE3V 1
F r o g m o u t h s , 172 Great S l a t y W o o d p e c k e r , 119 Gulls, 3 3 8 ff. 234, 235 ^
Great S t o n e P l o v e r , 332 Gyrfalcon =rra, ], 218,
G Himalayan Snow-cock [ = ^ q - l ^ r r c ,
Great White-bellied Heron O ^ l ^ & L 219 ^RT ft^R, ^ST, clR^rdfaft, FV^WW],
402
Gadwall t ^ f ] , 454 139, 283, 2 8 4
Great White Crane [ = J T g X 3TOT, H
G a n n e t (or B o o b y ) , 3 7 6 H i m a l a y a n T r e e p i e , 12
or WT tfTOT, W ^ ] ,
G a r g a n e y (or B l u e - w i n g e d T e a l ) , 4 5 5 Himalayan Whistling Thrush
3 1 2 , 3 1 9 , 321 H a f i z , 35
G a r u d a , 199 48, 52, 102
Grebe 43, 4 6 3 'Haired Cattle-Tom-bird', 64
Geese, 95, 4 2 6 , 4 3 5 ff. H i m a l a y a n Whistling T h r u s h & White Wag-
G r e b e s , 4 6 1 ff. Hamsadeva, 3
G e l o c h e l i d o n N i l o t i c a , 347 tail [ = s f a > ] , 102
G r e e n - b i l l e d M a l k o h a , 137 H a r p y E a g l e (of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s ) , 197
G i g a n t i c (or A d j u t a n t ) S t o r k , 3 9 2 Himalayan Wood Owl [^t'M'ilRn.,
Green Finch, 33 H a r r i e r [ = s f a n ] , 247
Glossy Ibis, 381 ] , 177
G r e e n I m p e r i a l P i g e o n , 254 H a r r i e r s , 242 ff.
Gold-crests ^ f b F T ] , 70 Hobby 221, 232
Greenland Falcon 218, 2 1 9 H a w k [—TK-rfJ, s n f a ^ , # T , f F R , ^TpRT],
G o l d e n - b a c k e d W o o d p e c k e r , 120 H o b b y F a l c o n , 221
Green Magpie 8, 14, 20 4 1 , 199, 216, 2 3 6
Golden Bush-Robin 52 H o d g s o n ' s B r o a d - b i l l , 118
Green Pigeon [ = ^fetPT, ffelR, ^ftm, Hawk Cuckoo H o d g s o n ' s H a w k - E a g l e , 210, 211
G o l d e n C r o w s , 10
Golden Eagle 'TWIT, S W T , 3TOT, ^ f t w , f f f e ^ , frfw, irfra, fncr^P, ^ r r - mm, crnu, Tfr^r, TO, H o d g s o n ' s I m p e r i a l P i g e o n , 254
fem, TfPJfOT, ^WT. - w f c r ] , 131, 252, 253, 255, 257, 260 ^ f i w , ^ T f t f , f T H ^ ] , 93, 127, 130, 131*, Hodgson's Pied Wagtail JfPPTTT,
f^TFrrar, f^wprf, s^Rta, Greenshank 368 132, 133, 136, 137, 140, 168, 169 Twk, WsFTTTT, fasfTT,
w r w t w , ftwwTf, fp>TW, G r e y Geese, 4 3 6 H a w k E a g l e [ = ^ 5 T , TO^fi, KUmid), TOR, »fl7Tra->T, Xaftfa], 106
Grey-headed Fishing Eagle, 2 1 4 , 2 1 5 TOR*], 199, 210, 2 1 1 , 2 2 0 , 221
g r t q j r ] , 72, 73, 74, 192, 195, 198, 199, H o n e y - B i r d , 114
G r e y - h e a d e d M y n a , 87 Hawk-Eagles, Serpent-Eagles & Buzzard-
200, 201, 202, 204, 205, 2 0 6 , 207, 225, Honey-Buzzard 199
Grey Heron *nf!<fP|], 219, 224, E a g l e s , 210 ff.
231, 2 3 3 Honey-Guide, 126
400, 401 H a w k i n g , 204, 216, 217, 218, 221, 232, 247,
Golden-fronted Chloropsis, 33 Hooded Crow spFF, ^Ri],
Grey Lag f^RR t^KST, 330, 385
G o l d e n O r i o l e O f l f t S T ] , 7 2 , 7 5 , 76, 104 4 , 6, 20
Golden Oriole & Golden Eagle [=fM], T R ^ r , H t ^ ] , 426, 436, 437 H a w k i n g birds, 225 H o o d e d C r a n e [ = ! ^ J ! s b T 5TWT, ^dlfd*
72, 73, 74 G r e y L a g Goose, 4 2 7 , 4 3 6 H a w k s , 2 3 5 ff. 318, 3 1 9 , 321
G o l d - f r o n t e d B l a c k Finch,, 9 4 Grey-necked Buntings, 96 ^ H e m a c a n d r a , 8, 22, 24, 25, 30, 4 0 , 4 5 , 47, Hoopoe [ = + d $ d 1 , spstf, f-f^P,
Grey-necked & Ortolan Buntings [ = o l W l s < J , 57, 65, 88, 105, 109, 137, 139, 179, 193,
Gold-headed Roller 17 f - j ^ f f , f s i f , ws'-^ff, qcroife, pfsnr,
' G o o g e l y ' , 13 196, 216 gcTTT, 22, 162
Goosander ftpft, i r f a j ' * <t>K««« ] , 96 „„ Heron g r w , frWRTfr], 95, 223, H o o p o e s , 162 ff.
449, 458, 459 Grey Partridge <fi<.Riki<., 232, 4 0 0 , 4 0 5 H o o t i n g O w l O f p ^ r t ^ , f^TST, H^,
Goose, 136 s r r ^ r ] , 58,93,283 H e r o n s , E g r e t s & Bitterns, 4 0 0 ff; H ^ r ] , 138, 176, 177, 179, 180,261
Goshawk i f o . s r r f W , s^ii-+.i<fr- Grey Quail 28:> H i l l M a i n a [ = t l l R + l ], 141, 142 H o o t i n g O w l s , 179 ff.
Grey Tit WTR^fW], 21 H i l l M y n a , 76 Hornbill fsPTRTST, W W ,
WT3T, 218, 219,
220, 221, 235, 236, 2 3 8
22 H i l l P a r t r i d g e s , 282
STFifhW, 159, 160, 1 6 1 ° 1 6 2
G r e y W a g t a i l , 105 H i m a l a y a n a n d Finsch's Starlings
G o v i n d a r a j a , 214 H o r n b i l l s , 159 ff.
Grey Wagtail, Black-headed & Yellow- T r ^ W ] , 85
Grackle V C T m f t m , <."W"ll<M, H o r n e d O w l s , 180, 181
5 T T f W ] , , 8 1 , 8 2 , 87 headed Wagtails [ = ' f t t r p f , Himalayan and Indian Grey Drongos H o r n e d Pheasants, 279
G r a c k l e s o r H i l l - M y n a s , 81 ff. 105 . [=*Tf w ] , 63 H o r s e Sacrifice, 4 0
G r a s s O w l [=»dSH<!]4> ] , 150, 173, 174 Grey-winged Black-bird [ = M H Himalayan Barred Owlet Houbara 325, 3 2 9
Grass Finch, 69 •tH-^d'ff] 3 1 , 4 9 178 House-Crow iTTifhm^,
G r e y - w i n g e d B l a c k - b i r d or M a g p i e Robm Himalayan B r o w n W o o d O w l , 178, 180
Grass-Quit, 69
G r e a t Black-headed Gull, 339 O g f a i R f ] , 93 Himalayan C u c k o o , 127, 129 i , 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 85, 127
Great Bustard [ = $ « « , or W S , G r e y & Y e l l o w - c h e e k e d T i t s , 21 Himalayan Golden Eagle cTTCT, H o u s e - M a r t i n s , 100
G r i f f i t h , 18, 59, 74, 75, 7 6 , 1 5 3 , 157, 190, 223 g<Pf ] , 198, 199 House-Sparrow
«TRiiT, M h n r ] , 325, 3 2 6 ,
Griffon HHlfiT], 188, 190, Himalayan Grey-headed Fishing Eagle ff^r, 'Tffte, m w i v ,
327, 3 2 8
G r e a t C r e s t e d G r e b e [=+1441*1, W . 4 M , 191, 196 [ —P<1IH>< ], 215 f^ps, ^ f i r w ^ r , ^qnrir], 46,
TOTCST, ftrafST], 369, 4 6 2 Ground-Cuckoos, 137 H i m a l a y a n & I n d i a n Skylarks [=4ll(£f|t|d) t 49, 53, 92, 93, 167
472 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Index
473

House-Swallows, 167 45, 4 6 , 4 7 , 48, 50, 90 K Large Imperial S and Grouse [ = ^ 5 7 : ] , 265
House Swift [=-^fWl, f%fTO, f%fTOT, Indian Roller [=3|<Klfad, f r o t , f r o t f l W , L a r g e I n d i a n P a r o q u e t [ = < 1 ^ 1 * , JTTOSTO'l,
«Tcmff, t'WJdl, ^nftlff], 166, jftroro, -TH'JK, K a l e , M . R . , 136
143 °
168, 169 J^TCSR, fftroro, Tr^TWft,TT^T, t N ^ ^ i , K a l i d a s a , 121, 135; 250, 323, 4 2 1 , 4 4 6
Large Indian Parakeet / Peacock / Wood-
H u m e , 105, 123, 161, 2 4 5 , 285, 288, 299, famftr, wftd*, 17, 18, Kalij Pheasants [=+M?IJ=tJd,
pecker [ = « ] , 119
334, 391, 420, 4 2 3 22 Md=k»i+ ] , 275
L a r g e I n d i a n P a r r o t [ = f ^ r c r f r r ] , 118
H u m m i n g B i r d s (of A m e r i c a ) , 114 Indian Rufous Turtle Dove ] 2.57 K a p o t a , K i n d s , of, 251
L a r g e O w l [ = < T O , ^ T O ] , 157, 183
H u t t o n , 245 Indian Sand Martin OjfcfTO, K a r m a r k a r , R . B., 136
L a r g e O w l s , as b i r d s of b a d o m e n , 173
99 Kashmir and Black-rumped Magpies
L a r g e P i e d C r e s t e d C u c k o o [ = fauff( fortes,
I n d i a n S c a r l e t - b a c k e d F l o w e r - p e c k e i s , 116 20
I K a s h m i r Roller [ = F ^ M , dHMMIN ],
^ K ' M l d + ], 104
I n d i a n S h a g , 371 Large Pied Wagtail [=*tTO^fer3ff,
I n d i a n Stone Plover, 332 16, 17, 20
+M+6, dW<5], 102, 103
I b i s [ = 9 T T T ], 9, 95, 381, 3 8 5 Indian Tawny Eagle nWV, K a u t i l y a , 170, 401
Large R a c k e t - t a i l e d D r o n g o [--•tjWTR',
I c e l a n d e r [ = 4 ^ K l « | U | c | M ] , 218, 219 WltT, TFTTflt, K a y a h (or S w a m p Partridge)
ff'TTRT], 64, 65, 6 6 , 144
I m p e r i a l E a g l e , 73, 201, 206, 207 TfR, WT, 'iftM, w i l l s ], 208 283
Large H i m a l a y a n Green-billed Malkoha
Impeyan Pheasant fec^l, I n d i a n T e r n [ = y + < < I K ], 94 K e s a v a , 142, 144
140
W ^ i , ffhnffr, w w , w x f ^ , ^nw], I n d i a n Whiskered T e r n , 346 Kestrel [=3pr?T, 3TOT?PfrpFfl', ^S^TO,
L a r g e r H o o t i n g O w l s [ = ^ p s f f t p p ] , 176
257, 271, 277, 278 Indian White-eyed Buzzard Eagle fencer, M r , T^T, T ^ w m , sfi^i^, Larger Owls 177
I n a u s p i c i o u s b i r d [ = 3 # p s 2 : f ^ t ] , 342 212 ffffff], 155, 220 232,
L a r g e S p o t t e d N u t c r a c k e r , 11
I n d i a n Black-crested B a z a , 2 4 8 I n d i a n W i r e - t a i l e d Swallow, 9 9 233, 234
Large Sea-birds (Sea-Gulls & Others)
I n d i a n Black E a g l e , 209 I n d i a n Y e l l o w - b a c k e d S u n - b i r d , i 14 King-Crow [ = = f R T J , ft^T], 72, 199
[ = * n j s P ? T O ] , 337
I n d i a n Black-gorgeted L a u g h i n g Thrushes, Indo-Chinese Sparrow Hawks, 239 Kingfisher [=f%#TO, OTRft,
Large Whistling Teal, 450
29 Iora Jt|fa»M, s f a r ? , ] , 31, 50 VfrTO, ffhTT^f, ^f^TTO], Lark [ = 5TOf%fT, i f f , ffRIM,
Indian Brown H a w k Owl 13, 18, 147, 155, 156, 157, 158, 186 W ] , 50, 98, 99, 111
] , 179 K i n g f i s h e r s , 155 ff. Lark Duck, 222
I n d i a n C r a n e [==5TSFiTW, ffTOT], 312 J K i r a t a s , 30 Larks, 108 ff.
Indian Crested H a w k Eagle Kirke Swann, H . , 205 L a u g h i n g G u l l , 339
211 Jacanas 304 ff. K i t e [ = f o 5 5 r ] , 41, 234 L a u g h i n g T h r u s h e s a n d Babblers, 28 f f .
Indian Crested H o n e y Buzzard Jackdaw ^ffeTO, ^tf^TO, K i t e s , 2 4 2 ff. L e i s h r a , 55
W T ] , 248 T^TOTO, ^SfTRTOR> ] , 3, 4, 8, 14, 15, 20 Koel f r o ] , 128 L e o p a r d [ = g t p T T ] , 11
Indian Cuckoo 129 J a c k d a w of K a s h m i r , 2 Koklas Pheasant, 276 Lesser A d j u t a n t S t o r k , 243
I n d i a n G r a c k l e , 25 J a m a l , 60 KrauRca-vyuha, 310 Lesser F l a m i n g o , 4 0 8
I n d i a n G r e a t H o r n e d - O w l , 180 Jangalah (animals a n d birds occupying d r y K r s n a s a k u n i (all b l a c k P u n j a b & T i b e t a n Lesser F l o r i c a n ( o r Likh), [=r<sM[y«l,
Indian Grey Drongos, 63 zones), 286 Ravens), 1 f W ] , 330
Indian Grey Tit [ = U M 0 ¥ H , TTWKT], J a p a n e s e S p a r r o w H a w k , 239 K s e m e n d r a , 25, 59, 77, 79, 123, 427 Lesser W h i s t l i n g T e a l , 450
21 Jayanta, 3 K u s u m a d e v a , 142 Libertine 129
Indian Hair-crested D r o n g o Jays 14, 20 L i k h , 330
L
3>*KM, ^ f i p i T ] , 63, 64 J a y s & R o l l e r s , 15 f f . L i n e a t e d B a r b e t , 124
I n d i a n H o b b y , 231 J e h a n g i r , 300, 3 1 6 L a c Insect, 10 Lion-Sparrow 222
I n d i a n J u n g l e C r o w [ = f T O , f ^ P F P P ], 7 J e r d o n , 4 9 , 55, 59, 64, 129, 205, 213, 234, Laggar Falcon [=7^:, SPff, W U , L i o t h r i x [ ^ f a W ] , 32, 3 3
Indian Koel, 2 235, 2 4 2 , 288 S T f T ] , 227 Little Barbet 129
I n d i a n Lesser R a c k e t - t a i l e d D r o n g o , 64 J i n a s e n a , 129 L a m b - E a g l e , 194 Little B r o w n D o v e ^ftcT, ERTT
Indian Little Brown Dove HS^i ] , J u n g l e a n d / o r C a r r i o n C r o w [ = 3 T O , <M*"!>H, L a m b - V u l t u r e , 207 W t a - ] , 257, 258, 261
257 E ^ I ^ T , ^ T O T T ] , 7, 11, 20 L a m m e r g e y a r (or B e a r d e d V u l t u r e ) [ = 3 T ^ 3 r , Little B u s t a r d [ = f r o n 5 ( # 1 ] , 325, 3 2 8
Indian Loriquet [ — W T O , T9TO, J T O , Jungle Babbler [ = w f T O T , ^ t f T O T ] , 28, 3TT3T, * m r ] , 195, 210 L i t t l e C o r m o r a n t s , 371
jfTOT, ^ T C f t ] , 144 29, 30, 8 4 L a p w i n g (a k i n d of w a t e r - f o w l ) Little D o v e , 24
I n d i a n N e c k l a c e d L a u g h i n g T h r u s h e s , 29 J u n g l e Bush Quails ] , 286, 287 JtffeTO], 3 5 8 Little Egret [ = < H l ( + + l ], 403
I n d i a n Pipits, 107 Jungle-Crow [ = f ^ N T O , S3T5ST, =FRTO], L a r g e - c r e s t e d T e r n , 347 Little G o l d e n E a g l e ( P e r e g r i n e ) [=gcpjf,
Indian Pitta ff^OT], 117 1, 3, 7, 8, 10, 127 L a r g e C u c k o o - S h r i k e , 117 f l T O ] , 225
Indian Red-breasted Paroquet [=f+[+<ld Jungle-Fowl a T U ^ f ^ ] , 271 L a r g e E g r e t [ = % ? n T O , -iii«*J«MI+|, Little G r e b e , 4 6 1
*Pf7, W I T O ] , 144 J u n g l e - F o w l s & P h e a s a n t s , 271 flf. 56, 4 0 2
Little Grey H e r o n , 406
I n d i a n R i v e r T e r n , 347 Jungle Myna ], 86 L a r g e G t e e n - b i l l e d M a l k o h a , 140
Little Peacock [ = J P J T O ] , 2 7 7
I n d i a n R o b i n [ - +4~ld+|, j f a r o , f r N l W , Juvenile Goshawk *<KM>I<SHM], L a r g e G r e y B a b b l e r [ = < f f e f r r a T ] , 29, 30
L i t t l e R i n g e d P l o v e r [=*g= : 3rfTOT ) y ^ l P H f ,
^riTOftm, ^TOvft, ^WTT, 237 Large H a w k Cuckoo ] , 130
TTsmTdd+l, w f t , f l ^ f T O T ] , 334,
jfTOT, tftTOt, T t r o f , TOffT, ¥l$'d«IM+ ], 44, Jyotirisvai a, 6 L a r g e H i m a l a y a n G r e e n - b i l l e d M a l k o h a , 140 357
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe 367

N e p a l Kalij Pheasants, 275 Ostrich ] , 281

Little Stint [=3RTf, srsNtfVT, Ml^lsj ]. M a l k o h a s , 129, 137, 140
N e p a l Y e l l o w - b a c k e d S u n - b i r d [-— Owl WfT, JU4K*<M ], 176, 177
368 M a l k o h a s a n d Sirkeers ^ T R ] , 140
114 Owlet S^r,
Little Sweet-voiced Bird [ -ys^'iRi, M a l l a r d D u c k [ = d l w F l , Hl<rHfl«t+, h I h R k ,
faspi^], 69, 88, 4 5 3 N e r i u m O d o r u m , 3 5 , 37 faTO, 4 6 , 176, 177° ff.
21
Mallinatha, 419 N e w t o n , 457
Lockley, R . M . , 339 P
M a n d a p a l a , s t o r y of, 151 Night Heron d-td^V^,
L o k e s h C h a n d r a , 52
M a n d a p a l a & Sarrigika, S t o r y of, 2 8 9 TSFfWT, ^IFF], 4 0 5 Painted Partridge [ = f ^ T i f r ] , 283
Long-billed R i n g e d Plover
M a n g o - b i r d , 77, 7 8 Nightjar fafel, S^TT, OTlt, Painted Sand Grouse 265
THTHfid+l ], 357
Mango-Cuckoo, 77 Klf^+I, 3ft, TOiT, WW, TOW], Painted Snipe [ = 3 1 ^ ^ T f l ] , 307 ff.
Long-billed V u l t u r e 188, 191
M a n u , 5 4 , 3 4 , 9 6 , 161 170 ff. Painted Stork W W , +NFM«R>,
Long-eared Owl 179
Marbled Teal 457 NilakaiJtha (a c o m m e n t a t o r ) , 101
L o n g - t a i l e d B r o a d - b i l l , 118
M a r o o n - b a c k e d K i t e , 242 Niltava Flycatcher TOWZ^T ], 395
L o r d B u d d h a , 50
M a r o o n O r i o l e , 72, 79 53 P a l a k a p y a , 18, 4 1 2
L o r i q u e t , 143
Marshall, 285 Noisy C o m m o n O w l e t 124 Pale and Montagu's Harriers
L o w t h e r , E . H . N . , 244
Marsh Hairier 247 Noisy Kingfisher [=^TT f + ^ f V - U ] , 157 <RTf], 247
L u d w i g , 74
M a r t i n s a n d Swallows, 9 8 ff. N o n - P a r a s i t i c C u c k o o s , 137 ff. Pale Brown Swift 167
Luggar Falcon [ TO, 5PTC], 2 0 5 , 220,
M a s k e d F i n f o o t , 303 N o r m a n , H . C . , 21 Pallas's Eagles [ - ^ T ] , 229
225
M e d h a t i t h i , 54 Northern Bay Owl fWIST], Pallas's Fishing Eagle [=3ffawr,

M M e r l i n F a l c o n [ = 3 ^ f r , g w f t ] , 221, 332, 178, 179 W K , fsmro, K^ric^r, ^r, ss'+lfi ],

Northern Bionzed Drongo [=#tST ], 195, 209, 213, 214, 229, 243, 244, 2 4 5
235
63 Palm Swift TOT^ i, 167
M a c d o n e l l & K e i t h ( a u t h o r s of Vedic Index), M i c h e l s o n , 77
N o r t h e r n Crested Goshawk 'MT^, P a n d i t , S. P . , 136
76 M i n i v e t s [ --TOtt, TOTT, IIRT TTWf ] . 5 8 ff.
t S T , ^fct+l'jjf, 3PT5nfTOl, ] , 238, Panini, 205
M a c q u e e n ' s B u s t a r d [ - f a ^ R , f W T 9 X ], 329 Molecricket, 38
241 Paradise Flycatcher
Magapodes, 290 M o n a l , 2 0 3 , 271, 279
Northern Green Barbet & Lineated Barbet 14, 53, 55, 122
Magha, 145 M o n i e r - W i l l i a m s , 5, 9, 11, 12, 16, 23, 25, 29,
JTSC], 124 Paranjape, V. G., 136
Magpie, superstition about, 13 3 6 , 4 4 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 49, 52, 5 4 , 5 5 , 5 6 , 57, 62,
Northern Indian Stone-Chat O+Mlfa^l, Parasitic Cuckoos [ = 3 P R F T , TC<fr],
Magpies ] , 11 ff. 65, 67, 6 8 , 6 9 , 7 1 , 8 8 , 9 4 , 9 6 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 4 , 1 1 2 ,
folT], 45 127
M a g p i e R o b i n [=3PRPfr, TOTOT, 119, 120, 131, 135, 138, 144, 149, 150, 152,
Northern Long-billed Vulture ], 191 Paiiah Kite, [ -- Wjf^T, j , 1
3TIWI5 ^Tfa^r, 157, 169, 171, 174, 180, 181, 191, 193, 196,
Nutcrackers [=qwrfspi TOT, TO?], 11, Parra Jacana [ -fefs'ff, fcrfiTO f w d ] ,
13, 44, 46, 47, 49,. 211, 213
20 358
50, 51, 52, 8 6 , 9 3 , 103 M o n i t o r L i z a r d s [ = * f t e T ] , 41 ^
Nuthatches [=+qldl, +4lfd+I, TOWF, Parrot (or Paroquet), W'T,
Magpie Robin & Shama [ = ¥ l t l W •flfa*, Montagu's Harrier f^lXpTcTRTT,
TOsft, TOF, qr^T, feffacft], 2 4 ff. Mro, Mr, am, T^qTS^,
f w r a t e ] , 94 T r T f ] , 247
M a g p i e Robin, S h a m a & Blackbird [=TO- M o o r h e n [=$WTT s r a f p f f s t ] , 2 9 2 , 293
O 14, 23, 118, 140, 141, 142, 143
fofT], 93 Mountain Quail [=ftfVl<5+") ftlftSTT], 282
Parrot-bills [ = <11^+, ], 118
M a h e n d r a , 104 Mouse-bird [= ^STTTOf], 40
Oily Starling [=fa?flfr, t a t ] , 85 Parrot-bills & Suthoras, 23
M a i n a [ = W T ] , 142 M u d (or P o t t e r ) W a s p ], 89 Open-bill Stork [^STT^JH, SFR^, Parrot-Crow 14
Malabar Whistling Thrush
Munal 257 Partridge 157
sfffff, WTOFhH, 5TPJWRT], 395, 396
S l + K H ] , 52 Munias JYRT, j f ^ S T , "ftcF?? ] ,
Orange-bellied Chloropsis [ = i w r a ], Patanjali, 430
Malayagiryacarya, 128 8 9 ff. 33 Peacock OTTO'S, ^'iWT,
Male Asiatic a n d Indian Sparrow-Hawks M u t e Swan [=<m>f5r, i f ^ T * ] , 423. 427,
Orioie a«||+(i|Hlfl+ > ^jpnffa, W R , JWT, TTTOTOT, ftrfrois,
237 431 tRIWtOT, srTOTWT, TrTfft, flKT], 18, 4 9 , 55, 119, 136, 158,
M a l e Bee-eater [=SIFp?], 151
^ti*fl+<, Prssrm, Pnftro, ftcfld+r, WIHT, 206, 229, 2 7 0 , 277, 293, 3 2 5
Male Bengal Florican [=TO], 329 M y n a group 28, 29, 30 SvftvPT, far^, i w t , g t f t e f T O R ] , 77, Peacock, albino variety of ],
M a l e Besra H a w k 237
78, 79, 80 270
Male Bustard Quail [= fJTO?], 291
N Oriole, Red-breasted Paroquet, Hill M y n a P e a c o c k , as v e h i c l e of K a r t i k e y a , 279
Male Cuckoo 129 Peacock & H a w k Cuckoo [ = 3 T c ^ ], 293
[=«ftcrwr 76
Male Goshawk [>3rrf, TO], 221. Peacock, M a g p i e Robin & White Wagtail
O r i o l e s , 72 ff.
237 N a g a n a n d a , 201
N a l a & D a m a y a n t i , 432 O r t o l a n B u n t i n g s [ = ITT^f^TT, WTfte, S l f T O [ = ! f t W 5 ] , 17
N a n d i m u k h a y a n t r a (a pair of Surgical
Male Hawk (or Male Falcon) [ = <fPW,
forceps), 449 TOP], 96 Peacock Pheasant [ = . j f l 4 » » n < l + ], 270,
237
Narada, 5 Osprey M+.fold, TTOIT, 274, 281
Male Red Turtle Dove
Neophron vmntf], 191 MCWHIUMJU, S K P e a f o w l , 270 ff.
264 155, 185 ff. Peafowls, J u n g l e fowls, P h e a s a n t s & Q u a i l s ,
23
Neophron Vulture '
M a l e S h i k r a [ = f f P W , W , ffHT, s t a r ] , 220, O s p r e y Eagles, 199 268 ff.
199
237, 242
 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature Curlew, Godwit, Sandpiper, Rujf & Reeve, Woodcock, & Snipe
366
Purple Heron HI <-H*TJl, i W H ], R e d - b i l l e d Liothrix [ -5TWTT, JfWfWfT, Rook ], 2,
Peahens, 59
390, 402, 406 ^ WTO], 32 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 20
"Peckers" [=5jg5-WT ], 28 _ _ „
Purple Moorhen ^^ftT, W C f , R e d - b r e a s t e d Flycatchers, ^PiUl ], Rose-coloured D o v e [—T^TRT WW 1, 259
Pelican jnrfrfr, T^IW,
j ^ T s n ^ ] , 293, 298, 368 68 R o s e & o t h e r Finches h a v i n g r e d on t h e h e a d
TT^nreft, 5TWJ, 231, 370
Purple Sun-bird [ ^ J ^ T E R , sj'TTfa, R e d - b r e a s t e d P a r o q u e t [='ftcT«T39p'], 76, [=<=k|!(riq ], 94
P e n n a n t , T h o m a s , 102
tTTOT, TSJ7, T a W T , TOWtTT], 99, H 4 , 140, 144 Rose F i n c h [ ^ r f w ^ f ] , 50, 94
Penzer, N . M . , 22
115 R e d - c r e s t e d P o c h a r d [ = < « k H = H , <4dilflM+, Rose-ringed P a r o q u e t TTCTO],
Peregrine SffcPT, STTfaw], 141, 143, 144
•hm-JM, s r r a f t r c ] , 457
210, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 226
R e d Flying Squirrel [ = ^ f l r ] , 25 Rosy Minivets flW ^TPT^ft
Persian Nightingale, 35 Q. R e d Goose [ = W T p ] , 412 i r e t ] , 59
P e i u s u r i , 7, 157, 167, 174
R e d H a w k , 219 Rosy Pastor [ = i | w r f w r , g w ^ m f w ], 86
Petrels [ = 4 1 ^ 1 + 1 + ], 379
Quail TT^T, " r w t ^ t T , ^f^. R e d - h e a d e d Bull F i n c h 94 R u b y - c h e e k , 113
P h a r a o h ' s Chicken, 192
craffor, 58, 109, 226, 285, R e d - h e a d e d Buntings 95, 96 Ruby-throat [=<=td+ui], 48
Phasianus gallus, 138
289 Red-headed Laughing Thrush R u d d y Sheldrake, W^WW,
Pheasant [=ipTT?n-, W ^ R T , f t ^ T ] , 139,
Q u a i l a n d t h e C r o w , Story of, 289 f f n w ] , 29 g ^ k ] , 450
203, 207, 273,*277
Quail-fighting, as a royal sport, 289 R e d - h e a d e d T r o g o n [ = 5 ^ , ^ftfPTO ], 164 R u f f [ = W T 5 T ] , 368
Pheasant-tailed J a c a n a [=WhflX, W:
Quail-like S p a r r o w [=41*1=1 td'^T, *n¥Wf$PST], R e d J u n g l e Fowl [=®=t.=ii=t>, q i j ^ t j e ], Rufous-fronted Wren Warbler
r w r ^ jf^T], s o 4 - 3 0 5 69
110 139, 273
Pica, 14 R u f o u s - n e c k e d a n d S l a t y - h e a d e d Scimitar
Q u a i l s or Bustard-Quails, 284 ff. R e d - L e g g e d Crow, 10
Piculet 120 ^ Babbler [ = f W f ] , 28
" Q u s h q - u l - d a g h " ( J e h a n g i r ' s n a m e for c o o t ) , R e d M u n i a [=<HdWI+l, 'pTTT-
P i e d Crested Cuckoo fwwfartf, «K<I R u f o u s - n e c k e d H o r n b i l l [=WTST>RT], 159,
300 ^^rfw^, sfwrf^Tf, WTO], 50,
^ R T ] , 127, 130, 131, 134, 135 160
53, 54, 69, 90, 91, 93
Pied Harrier T r f f ], 247 ^ Rufous-necked Laughing Thrushes
Redshank *JW],368
Pied Kingfisher spTWTCT, ^ T f f W W , R
R e d - s p o t t e d Blue-throat fer, WTfWT, 4il+K, =ll<t+K], 28
5TTO], 155, 219, 234
fo^T, W W 5 ] , 45, 4 9 R u f o u s Piculet 120
Pied M y n a ' J W R T , J H ^ T , «tPw>>
R a c k e t - t a i l e d D r o n g o [=Tj'TCr3r], 23, 62 R e d Spur-fowl [ = $ < t $ d + ] , 281 Rufous Short-toed Lark [=WWTT, WWTt,
f w ^ f t , f ^ l P w , i f t f T O T ] , 85, 86, 87,
R a d c l i f f , Col. D . , 72 R e d Starling, 86 oiiiyn, «ild+i, wfirwro, WW, W l ,
193
R a d d y , R . B „ 136 R e d S t a r t , 44, 49, 107 W f a f e ] , 109
Pied Wheat-ear, 44
R a g o z i n , Z . A., 169 Red Turtle Dove [=3H>u|+4ld, f ' f d H ^ H , Rufous-throated Partridge [=ftTHlT], 282
'Pig-bird' [=<Tfef3RTT], 30
R a i l s a n d C r a k e s [=3TtW-$4$Pd+r], 292 Rufous Turtle Dove -o 1 257
Pigeon [=JfTOkW, TRR^T, srreKf^],
Rails, Crakes, M o o r h e n s , W a t e r c o c k s a n d 257, 258, 259, 26(h 261, 263, 450
24, 27, 137, 203, 207, 226, 251, 260, 265 S
C o o t , 292 ff. Red-vented Bulbul [=+>HRl
Pigeons, 252. ff.
R a j a R u d r a d e v a (of K u m a o n ) , 217 'fNcTO, ^W, 4wlld+ ], 34, 36, 37, 57
Pigeons & Doves, 250 ff. Saker [==WTO, WTW, WTW, W ^ ] , 221, 228
R a j w a d e , V . K . , 73 Red-wattled Lapwing fefcnT,
Pink-footed Goose 437 Salim Ali, 17, 62, 72, 74, 85, 86, 111, 124,
R a m a , as .punisher of J a y a n t a , 3 W W T ] , 81, 85, 357, 360
Pink-headed Duck 134, 144, 148, 156, 180, 234, 259, 316,
R a m a c a n d r a (a c o m m e n t a t o r ) , 54, 89 Red-whisked Bulbul [=jfNc4H<=b, ^ M d t l * ],
449 332, 346, 348, 391, 392, 411
R a s a n i d h i (a H i n d i P o e t ) , 123 34, 36, 37, 39
Pintail D u c k f s ^ , Sand-Grouse STJcffaT],
Raven Wn^JFTOM, R e d - w i n g e d Crested Cuckoo [ = W % T ] , 130,
3MTW, 9VJW, 41+4 <], 4 5 5
SK i>l+l"P, lI'IW, ], 135, 136 265 ff.
Pin-tailed & W e d g e - t a i l e d G r e e n Pigeons
R e g a n , T . , 173 Sand Martin ], 98, 99
. f r U H ^+<fir, 254 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 20
R i d g w a y , 347 Sandpipers 367, 368
Pipistrelle, 21 R a v e n s , 1 ff.
Ring Dove [=3l4l u -f<+4ld, y=W+4~ld, Sarus ( I n d i a n C r a n e ) [ = <4dt4<rd=t; (WI,
Pippit T ^ t t ; FfitfbflT], 49, R a z o r b i l l C = m R < r , 9 H K t ] , 351
107, 108, 127 Reed Warbler ^"MPd+l, f H T ^ , W W , aW^TO, ], ( f R T ) HTTff], 227, 315, 319, 321
256, 257, 258,* 261 Sarus, as a p e t b i r d of R o y a l t y , 324
P i t t a [ = 4 < y ^ 4 , f W T f ], 117 K K ^ d * ] , 69
R i n g - t a i l e d Sea-eagle [ = T O , + M4G3 fHfr, S a r v a j n a n a r a y a n a (a c o m m e n t a t o r ) , 54, 89
Plain-coloured & Tickell's Flower-peckers R e e d W e a v e i - b i i d [=SK^d«>, STCWWT], 69
fwRTO", HWIT, w w , S a y a n a , 15, 18, 58, 59, 65, 73, 76, 85, 104,
[=<*foST], 116 R e e v e , 368
R e d - b i l l e d & Yellow-billed Blue Magpies f T T j , 213 142, 144, 150, 157, 169, 183, 190, 195, 200,
Plaintive C u c k o o FAW, HMCMI,
R o b i n s , 45 2 1 3 , ' 2 1 4 , 225, 321, 418, 456
<rteiT, wrfire, WITWTBTW], 130, 131 [=<Mw„ yif^], 12, 14
Scapteriscus ( g e n u s ) , 38
P l a y f u l circling f l i g h t [=HI<4l«lti ], 454 R e d - b i l l e d & Yellow-billed C h o u g h , 10 Rock & Jungle Bush Quails [==tdT<,
Scarlet & Rose Finches <4d!in<$,
Plovers, 357 ff. R e d - b i l l e d & Yellow-billed M a g p i e s WcfffTO], 286
WTWTO], 93
P o n d - H e r o n (or P a d d y - b i r d ) TO], 20 R o c k Bush Q u a i l [=4i^<fMM ], 287
12 Scarlet M i n i v e t ], 59
S W S W f ], 321, 402, 404, 4 0 5 R e d - b i l l e d Blue M a g p i e s > R o c k Thrushes, 44
Scavengers of t h e W a t e r s , 338
P r a t i n c o l e s [=fW9TOT, fwwfT, g r j f T O T ] , 335 14
R o l l e r [ = W , ] , 16, 20, 146, 147, 157, 158 Scavenging V u l t u r e [ = W T ] , 246
P r i n c e A y o g r h a , Story of, 212 Red-billed Chough [=<HMd,^+l+W ], 6,
Rollers & J a y s 146 Science of a u g u r y , 9, 38
P u n j a b Sirkeer C u c k o o ], 140 10, 11
 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Index 479
478
Spotted Dove [ = f r o f F l , Rd+<fld, f w - 100,165 ff.
Scimitar Babbler [=fffar§"TO ], 49 sircar*, nn-aiA ^rtwrfror], so, 99, 108,
•TfTOfftff], 257, 258, 261 ^ 263 Swift, as a bird of augury, 166
Scissorbill [=<4dfa<l, WTTtV], 351 109, 110, 155
Slaty-headed Paroquet 143, Spotted M u n i a [=d<HM+, d t f l l R j + l, t w f f , Syenayaga 216
Scops O w l ], 178
"Scrapers" 27 144 m<i6U|, qwwA, TTt^ft, ffftffT], 85, 89
Scieech O w l 124, 173 Slender-billed Gull, 339 Spotted Owlet <sHMI, fWT3J, T
Sea-Eagle [ = ^ I T s f t ] , 185, 186, 198, 200, Smaller Egret [=5raPPT], 403 f q w r fPTfTOT, W o t ] , 177, 178 182
201, 207 Smaller H a w k [=%ffTT, f f f ^ H T ] , 237 Spotted-winged Stare [=3><ltai, j f a , Tailor-bird [=d>id+, ^fd+l, jfe^ft, 4lfdi|+ ],
Seesee P a r t r i d g e 282 Smaller P a r r o t [ = T I H ] , 143 JHt^T, c p t , WTvfi"], 82, 83 68, 69
S e r p e n t - & Sea-Eagles [ = W T T 5 H ] , 207 Smaller S p a r r o w Hawks & Shikras [ = j f H - Spur-winged Plover [ = f c f e f f ] , 357 Talking M y n a (or Grackle) [ = 4 d d « i r < + l ],
Serpent Eagle [ = f f F j n f f ] , 2 0 7 , 2 1 2 , 226 ^ T ] , 236 Sriharsa, 82, 93, 201 81
Seton G o r d o n , 74 Smaller Spotted Eagle frpmiT, sfta^T, Starling Pd?fl<l, tfftpiT ffffT], T a w n y Eagle [ = j f t i n f f , W f f ] , 73, 200,
Seven Brothers, 30 s f c l F T O ] , 209 29, 85, 87 206, 209, 213, 2 3 0 / 2 3 1 °
"Seven Eagles", 200 Smallest P a r i a h K i t e [ = = 1 f^+1 ] (a bird Starlings a n d M y n a s [ = d t m + , d<H4lfa+l, T a w n y Fish-Owl, 175
Seven Gill-friends, 58 of a u g u r y ) , 246 d<Hm4), trwr, m<f<>«i, ffifror], 84 fif. Tern [=yc^>fi f T X t ] , 338, 341,
Seven Sisters, 30, 31, 59 Small Green-billed M a l k o h a [=«u*H+l«fl ], Steppe Eagle 73, 208 342, 345 ff.
Seven Sisters/Brothers, 60 140 Stevens, H e r b e r t , 132 Thieving Crow [=-q*ir<.=M=t> ], 2
Shaheen 210, 218 Small Minivets ffpt, tlWTTW Stints, 367 T h r u s h [ = f ^ r i | s p ] , 29, 44, 141
Shaheen Falcon [ = f f f , :3ITC*T) d<H<fl, SJfffaT], <Tratl, 59 Stone Chat, 44, 45 T i b e t a n T e r n , 347
199, 220, 222, 223, 226 Small P a r r o t [ = # C , ^ U ] , 143 Stone Plover [=n><«<ITO, + ^TTFTfTO, Tickell's Flower-peckers [ = s r f c p T ] , 116
S h a m a [="t>M+"6 W f ^ T f , fprTCT WTTT, f 1 ^ - Small T e r n or T e r n l e t [=$<Pw>l ], 348 ^ h r f f f r , to^to, T F r f r o , s r s f a f r , =I<HMI ], " T i m i d like a C r o w " ], 9
Smew W W , ], 39, 129, 332 Tit ^ T f w ] , 21, 22
q-afr, * r w | + l , WTT, TOT W ^ T f ] , 46,
458, 459 Stork y n w m i l ], 95, 136, 389 ff.
47, 48, 50, 51, 93, 94 T r a g o p a n [^JstTOJTf, TOT, TOT], 156, 279,
Smew & Goosanders Stork-billed bird 157
Shastri, H a r p r a s a d , 231 280
Sheldrake [ = y<H4b, ^ T O , fffe g a f a ] , }, 459 Stork, H e r o n or W h i t e Ibis [ = TO], 95, 136 T r a g o p a n s , Blood Pheasants & Partridges,
Smythies, 42, 68, 88, 102, 108, 120, 129, 165, Streaked Fantail-Warbler [ ^ T l f f ^ JTOt, 279 ff.
450, 451
Sheldrake & R u d d y Sheldrake [=TOTf], 178, 181, 209, 233, 273, 288, 332, 391, 406 dUMTd+l, ffWJTOKt], 69 Tree-creeper ^STTffTrf], 4 0 , 4 1
450 Snake-bird 371, 372 Striated Swallow 99 Tree-Pie [==h<lRl+l, JTTO,
Snipe ^TfT, T ^ s k ] , 366 S t u a r t Baker, 61, 63, 119, 120, 123, 131, 179, ^ft^fr, 12, 13, 20, 41,
Shikra [ = s f t T O , SrtffT, fTOTTT], 220, 236,
Snow-Cock 139, 203, 207, 284 182, 209, 226, 242, 245, 254, 257. 260, 26S,
237, 238 231, 260
Snow P a r t r i d g e [ = m f a » » M , s p r f o n , ^ r - 274, 281, 288, 299, 307, 309, 316, 320, 321,
Shikra H a w k [ = ^ 3 = ^ 1 , fen], 220, 221 Tree-Pipit [ - ^ T S t , -=(-4<l, f f W T , sfTOT,
MfTK, ^ r f f f f m ] , 284 325, 327, 337, 351, 406, 408, 409, 411, 414,
Short-billed Minivet 59 ], 107
424, 450, 454, 460
Short-eared O w l 179 Snow Pigeon MKI«ld ], 256 Tree-Sparrow ^ T f f t T f , SR^TOl,
Sulapaiji. 89
Short-toed Eagle [ = d HI I Mil, TOT, ffTfcf, Snowy O w l [=<TOtTO], 179, 183 92
'Solitary W a s p [ - - ' T ^ K l ], 89 Sultan T i t W h j H , T W f t r e J , 22
ff*rffr, a i W R ] , 211 Trogon [ - - ^TfTfifT, m ^ f S ]. 164
S o m a d a t t a , Story of Prince, 189 Sun-bird [ = s f t f f c i r f w , ^ u ] ^ ], 31, 114, Tropic-bird 377
Short-toed L a r k , [ = ? f ^ T ] , 35
Song-Finches, 142 116, 156 Tufted Pochard i f f , ffTTOJ,
Shoveller [=SF5TO, WTffiff, ^ f w p T ] , 456,
Song-Sparrow 94, Suresvaracarya, 210, 225
457 fflfTO], 458
111, 167 Susruta, 92, 124, 132, 144, 167, 170, 259,
Shrike [=5fHTO], 57 T u r d u s M a c r o u r u s ( S h a m a ) , 47
Sooty Gull, 339 274, 284, 285, 292, 330, 449
Siberian J a y , 15 Turkey-Cock, 139
Southern & Northern Besra S p a r r o w - H a w k s S u t h o r a [ - S l * ^ , TOdYd, H J W I W . W R T ] ,
Sibia 50 T u r t l e Doves, 263
23
Silver-eared Mesia, 32 [ % T T ] , 239 Twilight N i g h t j a r [ = 0 n j T , ®FTt, fefTOT,
Svetaketu Aruneya 56
Singing Bush-Lark [ = srfipT, arfrofarrr, Southern Bersa H a w k [ = s r s t f f T ] , 241 ffHl^], 171
Swallow ^fc^T, ^PtWi,
3JpH+U4, «WlpH, ^TTO], 108, Southern Besra Sparrow Hawks ( M a l e )
[ = g f o ] , 239 b f W l , JSFIV, 92. 99, 100, 101,
110 165. 167, 168
U
Singing H a w k , 226 Southern Besra Sparrow-Hawks (Female)
Swallow & Swift TPPNY], 165, 167
Sirkeer, 137, 140 [= tffTT], 239 U d d a l a k a Aruni, 56
Swallow Shrikes [ = d l < r H d + ] , 61
Sirkeer Cuckoos [ = s p r a t fftffT], 140 S p a r r o w [=3PJTO, 3 W W ? , : 3TO], 40, 45, U j j v a l a d a t t a , 159
S w a m p Partridge 284
Sita, 3 61, 92, 93 Urocissa, 14
Swan fffip, T r a ^ f f ] , 95, 136,
Siva, in the f o r m of a roller, 16 Sparrow Hawk W , WT], U w a t a c a r y a . 40
184, 203, 422 ff.
Skimmer [=3rrfir, SfffT, SRvR^Er, SHr, W % , 199, 220, 236
Swans, Geese & Ducks [ = i f f ], 95
5 t n f c , STTTCt, 352, 353, 450 Speckled Piculet [ = # T O ] , 120 V
Swans, Geese, Ducks & Mergansers
Skimmer or Scissorbill, 351 ff. Spoonbill [=<rf%<?T], 380 t
iff, 422 ff. ^
Skuas [ = f f H S + H i ] , 337 Spot-bill or Grey Duck [ - W W ,
Swift 1T5T, fkfovft, V a i d y a , C. V., 228
Skully's W o o d O w l [ = J ^ W ] , 180 q x w i t i f f ] , 454
sftft-, 1 K S M ], 92, 99, Vaidya, K . M . , 139
Skylark sn^ff Spotted Deer [=*nrcT ], 11
 Index 481
480 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

White-throated Munia ], 45 fSTfOTT, S T f ^ W T s r ] , 26, 27, 40, 41,

Valmiki, 197, 316 Whistling T h r u s h [ = s f c r ? ] , 49, 50
White-throated & White-backed Munias 54, 119, 120, 122
V a r a h a m i h i r a , 2, 6, 12, 13, 98, 106, 150, 260, W h i t e , Gilbert, 102, 171
faftft, fafrfsr, ftfrst, fofeft, W o o d Pigeon ], 256
421 W h i t e & Black Storks w i t h l e d bills [=<<M4K-
c f t ? f f ] , 89, 90 W o r d s w o r t h , 33
V a s a n t a r a j a , 2, 6, 8, 12, 13, 31, 45, 48, 49, 389
White Wagtail sftf^T, W r e n s [ = f % t f T ] , 4 0 , 42
53, 8 5 , 8 9 , 102, 103, 106, 144, 177, 18? W h i t e - b a c k e d V u l t u r e [ ^ f w f c F K T TOT, f w f a -
Velvet-fronted N u t h a t c h [ = < W ? f i ], 25, 26 ^ftTT, g T P f t , f f W ^ T ] , 188, 190, 191 S P I S * ] , 45, 49, 86, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107 Y
V e r y Small H e r o n 405 W h i t e - b e l l i e d D r o n g o [ = s M W T T ] , 38, White-winged Wood Duck
Yiiska, 73
Violet Cuckoo, 130, 131 63 TjRrrapr], 449
Yellow-billed Blue Magpies
V u l t u r e [ = T 5 f , TOT, ?T|pT, TO], 189, 191, White-bellied Sea-Eagle ^tfRTT, Whooper 423, 426, 427, 432
f t W ] , 12, 14
198, 199, 200, 202, 207,. 209, 214, 228 ire?, ^ m ] , 187, 200, 207, W i g e o n [=fqm*H, fiTOIf], 454, 4 5 5 _
Yellow-cheeked T i t S^TT],
V u l t u r e s a n d L a m m e r g e y e r , 188 fT. 212, 213 W i l d birds f r o m d a m p areas 1,
289 22
W h i t e - b r e a s t e d Kingfisher [=Pt>f4»4ir=f)
Wild Cock ^ J ^ H J ^ d J ; 138 Yellow-eyed Hawk TTJWRT
W ^ S ^ T ] , 156, 157
Wild Duck •iUvfi, # T ] , 218
White-breasted Waterhen 124,
Yellow-headed Wagtail [ ], 75,
Wagtail l^^pt^r, y ^ H ] , 293
JfSjcjTer, , 453 76, 105
18, 45, 5 2 , 102, 127, 135 White-browed Fantail Flycatcher [ = | q $ K ] ,
Wilson, 30, 52, 57, 96, 196. 223 Yellow-headed Weaver-bird
W a g t a i l s a n d Pipits, 102 ff. 54
' W i n d h o v e r ' [ = T^JT]. 233 ^PWpTf], 50
W a l l - C r e e p e r [=iftSRr, f=l$<^d=t>, W h i t e - c h e e k e d Bulbul 34, 37,
Wire-tailed Swallow 'JspfcTT, fsrfo- Yellow-legged H e r r i n g Gull [= jUIAPsi],
40 54, 57
<m, ftrfrror, firaTTO], 49, 5 5 , 99, 100, 340
Warbler HfcPT, TcTftm, jftTFT], W h i t e - c h e e k e d , W h i t e - e a r e d , Black-crested
Yellow W a g t a i l [=«'•>( 0'd, ^<ld+,
- 56, 68, 69, 89, 92 Yellow Bulbul 37 101 ' ^
White-crested Kalij Pheasant [=+<^<, Woodcock P«»1J+<I, fWTrfkK, i f i w , 'Mt^r, 'Mtor, 'frtW^nr, 'i^IdH*,
W a t e r - b i r d s in g e n e r a l 299
Water-Crane [ 43 ^Tf<T5T, f 2 7 5 r^RiRi<], 367 «n«HfrH.11, 40, 76, 103,
Wood-Owl 180 104, 105
Water-Cock viMJ=Hid, -JMjitjW, White-crested L a u g h i n g T h r u s h e s
Woodpecker [=3nW, V T O ^ , W55- Yellow-wattled L a p w i n g [=+d"t«)|U|, fefef^T,
T T t e R , z r f e ^ ] , 138, 139, 2 6 9 , 3 0 1 , 358, fTCR, T r f ^ n n i t ] , 28, 29
HldMK, TO^TT], 85, 357, 360
367 W h i t e - e a r e d Bulbul, 34, 37
W a t e r - P i p i t [ = = q R f t , ^iHFft, gfcpPT, W h i t e - e y e [ = ^ d R > + l , ' l f s W , TOT, TOT],
F P t f e r r ] , 107 92, 112, 113
W a t e r Q u a i l (or S n i p e ) [ = + M M + , ], W h i t e - e y e d P o c h a r d [ = > 1 ^ + 1 3 ] , 428, 458
308 White-faced Wagtail ] , 106
W a x w i n g , 97 White Flycatcher 55
Weaver-bird [ = ^ r f t n r , w f i n f , W h i t e - f r o n t e d Goose ], 437
White House-Crow W W ] ,
^^ffe^, T t w ^ ^ T , faPM, 8
^IfrUf, 88, 89, 94, 96 W h i t e Ibis (or W a t e r - C r o w ) [ = t3f?PTrpfr,
W e a v e r - b i r d s & M u n i a s , 88 ff. KTT^ ST, SKlfd+l, VKIdl,
W e b - f o o t e d W a t e r - b i r d (or Goose or D u c k ) , 9, 353, 381, 383, 386, 387, 432
[ = 3n^TTK], 299 W h i t e Ibis Parties [ = « ( + « + < ( : ] , 387
Wedge-tailed Green Pigeons [ = White-naped Pigmy Falcon
+>MI, f f c r a r , f r f f a ] , 254 t r f e f f , J T f e ^ f ], 234
Western H i1 m a l a y a n Barred O w l e t [ = ^3T White-necked and Black-necked Storks
78
t=fiFrf^TO, W T K ] , 389, 390
Western Horned Pheasant [ = fsfTTPT, W h i t e or Screech O w l [=^T, TOI],
^gqfe], 280 173, 176
W e s t e r n P a l m Swift [ = 3IWTO], W h i t e P a r a d i s e Flycatcher 122
168 W h i t e Scavenger V u l t u r e [=TftTOfRr, *ft*5-
W h i m b r e l (or T i t t e r e l ) [ = ftfe],366 J ^ H T , STTCT3T, 91+dK, SI+dH, fPJT],
W h i s k e r e d Bulbuls [ - f W R : ] , 36, 37 138, 191, 192, 193, 194
Whiskered T e r n [ = ^ + < ^ 1 ^ + 1 , W h i t e Stork [=<sH<M, TT3HTP], 389
, 94, 157, 349 W h i t e - t a i l e d Bush C h a t ], 45^
Whistler 8, 13, 32, 40, 44, 53, 66, 78, 84, 91, W h i t e - t a i l e d Sea-eagle fi?T§K
123, 134, i 37, 156, 165, 168, 169, 190, ^ r ] , 212, 213, 214, 215
194, 195, 232, 234, 310, 346, 353, 400, 404 White-throated Fantail Flycatcher [ = f 5 J f -
" W h i s t l i n g S c h o o l b o y " , 52 ^ R T ] , 54
Whistling T e a l [ = WTT%, STWT], 353, 450 W h i t e - t h r o a t e d L a u g h i n g T h r u s h e s , 29
 Sanskrit-Pali-Prakrit I n d e x '
with Scientific Names, English and French Equivalents
by Andre Couture and Elfrun Linke

The following Index was compiled using two earlier reference lists, those
of M r s . E. L i n k e (1997) and Prof. Dr. A n d r e C o u t u r e (1998). T h e p r e s e n t
revision includes the Pali [P] and Prakrit [Pkt] names as well as those Sanskrit
[Skt] terms mentioned by K. N. Dave. In addition to the English names used by
Dave, which are usually the same as those f o u n d in the well-known guides of
Salim Ali (other colloquial names are placed in parentheses), we thought it
u s e f u l to i n c l u d e t h o s e c h a n g e s in n o m e n c l a t u r e w h i c h a p p e a r in the
authoritative guide to the birds of India and related countries, recently published
by R. Grimmett, C. Inskipp, and T. Inskipp. The differences in the Scientific and
E n g l i s h n a m e s o c c u r i n g in this book are the result of the revision of the
taxonomy of the birds of the world published by Sibley and Monroe (1990). T o
facilitate the consultation of this guide, we chose to place the new n a m e s in
brackets. The French names, that follow the English names [Fr., if unclear], are
drawn from the authoritative reference published by the Commission Internatio-
nale des turns frangais des oiseaux in 1993. W o r d s preceded by an asterisk (*)
were not found in any dictionary. This Index is intended to facilitate the use of
D a v e ' s book. It does not indicate, except in a f e w cases, the status of these
identifications which range f r o m being practically certain to being no more than
hypothetical.

A l i , S. The Book of Indian Birds. B o m b a y , ' 1 9 4 1 ; T w e l f t h R e v i s e d and Enlarged

C e n t e n a r y Edition, O x f o r d University Press, 1996.
C o m m i s s i o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e d e s n o m s f r a n ? a i s d e s o i s e a u x , Noms frangais des oiseaux du
monde avec les equivalents latins et anglais, Sainte-Foy (Quebec), Editions
M u l t i M o n d e s ; B a y o n n e (France), E d i t i o n s C h a b a u d , 1993.
C o u t u r e , A. " B i r d s in Sanskrit Literature d e K. N. D a v e : un index sanskrit-latin-anglais-
franfais", Bulletin d'etudes indiennes, n° 16 (1998). p. 179-229.
Grimmett, R„ Inskipp, C., and Inskipp, T. A Guide to the Birds of India, Pakistan. Nepal,
Bangladesh, Bhutan. Sri Lanka and the Maldives, Princeton (N.J.), Princeton
University Press, 1999.
Inskipp, T„ Lindsey, N„ Duckworth, W , An Annotated Checklist ofthe Birds of the
Oriental Region. Oriental Bird Club, S a n d y , 1996.
K a p a d i a , H . R . , " T h e J a i n a R e c o r d s a b o u t B i r d s " . Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute 4 3 (1962), p. 5 9 - 1 0 7 ; 45 (1964), p. 105-141.
LinKe, E . " B i r d s in S a n s k r i t L i t e r a t u r e : S a n s k r i t - E n g l i s h I n d e x " , Annals of the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. LXXVIII (1997), p. 121 -141.
Sibley, C. G., Monroe, B. L. Jr. Distribution and Taxonomy of Birds ofthe World, 1990.

anga-ketuka (P). Phaenicophaeus tristis,

a [Large] G r e e n - b i l l e d M a l k o h a , M a l k o h a
triste; " t h e t w o Sirkeer C u c k o o s , the
ugni-kantha, Mirafra javanica [M. P u n j a b S i r k e e r and the Bengal S i r k e e r
cantillans], Singing Bushlark, Alouette de C u c k o o " (ref. unclear, the only k n o w n
Java, 110 Sirkeer is : Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii,
 Index Sanskrit 485
484 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

asvaka snvada, Copsychus saularis, [Orien- Sterne) tribes, .and N u m e n i u s arquata,

Sirkeer Cuckoo [Sirkeer Malkoha], aranya-kaka, Corvus corone, Carrion Crow. [Eurasian] Curlew, Courlis cendre, 185,
tal] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 50
Malcoha sirkir), 140 Corneille noire; Corvus m a c r o r h y n c h o s . 341-342, cf. kurara
asvSkhya(ka), cf. asakkhaya (P), and asvaka
ahgaraka, Dicrurus adsimilis [D. macro- Jungle Crow [Large-billed Crow], utkrosa-kurara, any of the Laridae, Larini
cercus], ( C o m m o n ) Black D r o n g o (or Corneille a gros bee, 6, 7 and Sternini tribes (Gull, Tern / Goeland,
King-crow), Drongo brillant, 40, 63 aranya-cataka, may r e f e r to certain
a
Mouette, Sterne); also Fishing [Fish] and
ahgara-cudaka, Pycnonotus atriceps. Black- Alaudidae such as : Eremopterix grisea, Sea Eagles (Fr. Pygargues), 342
headed Bulbul, Bulbul cap-negre; Ashy-crowned Finch Lark [Ashy-crowned akasa-yogim, Falco tinnunculus, [Common] utkrosT kurarT, any of the Laridae, Sternini
P y c n o n o t u s melanicterus, Black-crested Sparrow Lark], Moinelette croisee; Kestrel, Faucon crecerelle, 233 tribe (Tern / Sterne) ; also N u m e n i u s
Bulbul, Bulbul a tete noire, 34, 39 A m m o m a n e s phoenicurus. Rufous-tailed aghata, refers to all Woodpeckers (Fr. Pics), arquata, [Eurasian] Curlew, Courlis cendre
adila (or *adilla) (Pkt),~ small bats, cf. Skt Finch Lark [Rufous-tailed Lark], A m m o - 119 (Curlew), 341, 342; cf. kurarT.
alila mane a queue rouge, 110-111 a/a, Gypaetus barbatus, L a m m e r g e y e r (or utpatya-pakala, Hirundo rustica. C o m m o n
atyuha, Cucuius varius [Hierococcyx arista-kahka, Haliastur indus, B r a h m i n y Bearded Vulture), Gypaete barbu, 195 Swallow [Barn S.], Hirondelle rustique;
V a r i u s ] , C o m m o n H a w k C u c k o o (or Kite, Milan sacre, 243 aja-grdhra, idem, 188 Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed S w a l l o w ,
Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra, 132, 140, aruna, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) ataka-cataka, Buntings (Fr. Bruants), 93, 96 Hirondelle a longs brins; Delichon urbica.
293; P a v o cristatus, P e a c o c k [Indian Vulture [Red-headed V.]. Vautour royal, ata, at!? (P), Pseudibis papillosa. Black Ibis, House Martin, Hirondelle de fenetre [now
Peafowl], Paon bleu, 293 196 Ibis noir, 380, 384 subdivided into ; Delichon urbica, Northern
ancda, Falco tinnunculus, [Common] Kestrel, aruna-kapota, Streptopelia t r a n q u e b a r i c a , ati, iitf, idem, 351, 353, 381, 382, 383. 386 H o u s e Martin, Hirondelle de fenetre ;
Faucon crecerelle, 233 Red Turtle Dove [Red Collared Dove], adi (Pkt), idem, 384 Delichon dasypus, Asian House Martin,
andha-kaka, Ardeola grayii, Paddy Bird or Tourterelle a tete grise, 257, 259, 260 atayin, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black H i r o n d e l l e de B o n a p a r t e ; D e l i c h o n
Pond Heron [Indian Pond Heron], Crabier jruna-kraunca, Phoenicopterus ruber, K.], Milan noir, 245 nipalensis, Nepal House Martin, Hiron- '
de Gray, 404-405 F l a m i n g o [Greater F l a m i n g o ] , F l a m a n t ati, Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer, delle du Nepal], 100
anna-dusaka, used for gregarious and crop- rose, 413 Bec-en-ciseaux a collier, 353 utpada-sayana, Vanellus indicus, R e d -
d a m a g i n g Fringillidae of the subfamily arjuna, "may refer to an albino form of the atma-ghosa, a variety of Corvidae, genus wattled Lapwing, Vanneau indien, 360.
E m b e r e z i n a e , esp. E m b e r i z a m e l a n o - white Peacock imported from China," 55, Corvus, 3 n. 4 uddTpaka. may refer t o : Aquila rapax,
cephala, B l a c k - h e a d e d Bunting, Bruant 270 ara, Srii-mukhT, Limosa limosa. Black-tailed Tawny Eagle, Aigle ravisseur, 208
melanocephale; Emberiza bruniceps. Red- arjunaka, Terpsiphone paradisi, [Asian] Godwit, Barge a queue noire, 366 uddTpaka-grdhra, Sarcogyps calvus, Black
headed Bunting, Bruant a tete rousse, 95- Paradise Flycatcher, Tchitrec de paradis, a n , Rynchops albicollis, Indian Skimmer, (or King) V u l t u r e [ R e d - h e a d e d V . ] ,
96, 141 55, 56, 122 Bec-en-ciseaux a collier, 353 Vautour royal, 188
anyabhrta-paksa-kaka, any of the Corvidae, alaja, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or asakkhaya (or *asakkha) (Pkt), cf. asvaka, upacakra, Ammoperdix griseogularis. See-
genus Corvus (Crow / Corbeau, Corneille) Bearded Vulture), Gypaete barbu, 188, asvakhya see Partridge, Perdrix si-si, 282; Tadorna
" b l a c k - p l u m a g e d like the Koel" (anya- 194, 195; regarded as the king of Eagles, Ssura-kakola, Corvus corax, [Commpn] ferruginea. Ruddy Sheldrake [Ruddy
bhrta, cf. parabhrt), 6 200, 201 Raven, Grand Corbeau, 5 , 6 , 11 S h e l d u c k ] , T a d o r n e c a s a r c a , 4 5 0 ; or
anya-vapa, parasitic Cuckoos (family Cucu- aliklava, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, P a l l a s ' s Shelducks (Fr. Tadornes) in general, 450
lidae), in contrast to non-parasitic Mal- Sea Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle], Pygargue i u m a , M o n t i c o l a solitarius, Blue R o c k
kohas andCoucals, 127-128 de Pallas, 214 Thrush, Monticole merle-bleu, 48
aparajita, Coracias benghalensis, Indian alila, Apus affinis, House Swift, Martinet des uragasana, a mythical epithet evoking either
indrabha, Lophophorus impejanus, Impeyan
Roller, Rollier indien, 17 maisons, 166, 167 the Heliaeetus leucogaster, White-bellied
Pheasant [Himalayan Monal], Lophophore
apandura-kapota, Streptopelia decoacto, aluna(-hamsa) (Asoka Pkt), D e n d r o c y g n a Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre, or any bird of
resplendissant, 277, 278
(Indian) Ring Dove [Eurasian Collared D.], bicolor, Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous the Accipitridae family, genus Spilornis
Tourterelle turque, 257, 258 ilkila, any of the Apodidae (Swift / Martinet),
Whistling-Duck], Dendrocygne fauve, 450 (Serpent Eagle / Serpentaire), 207
amrta-vaka, female of the Falco peregrinus, 100
alpa-kapinjala, two small Quails : Perdicula uluka, any of the large typical Strigidae (Owl
Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pelerin, 225, asiatica. Jungle Bush Q u a i l , P e r d i c u l e / Hibou, Chouette), 176, 177
226; called " Singing Hawk " or " Chanting rousse-gorge; Perdicula argoondah, Rock U
uluka-cetT, any of the smali typical Strigidae
Falcon ", 226. Bush Quail, Perdicule argoondah, 286 (Owlet / Chevechette, Cheveche), 176
ambaka-maddarT (P), any of the Coryidae, avabhanjana, Anastomus oscitans, Openbill ukkusa (P), 214, cf. maha ukkusa ustra-ratha, Struthio camelus, Ostrich,
tribe Oriolini, genus Oriolus, esp. Oriolus Stork [Asian Openbill], Bec-ouvert indien, utkrosa, may refer to several noisy Fish or Autruche d'Afrique (imported bird), 281
oriolus, Golden Oriole [Eurasian Golden 396 Sea Eagles (Fr. Pygargues) : Haliaeetus
Oriole], Loriot d'Europe; Oriolus asvaka, small birds h a v i n g a certain leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea Eagle [P. Fish
xanthornus, Black-headed Oriole [Black- similarity of habits with a frisky little c o l t : Eagle], Pygargue de Pallas; Ichthyophaga U
hooded Oriole], Loriot a capuchon noir, 77, Bushchats (Fr. Tariers), W h e a t e a r s and ichthyaetus, Grey-headed Fishing Eagle
78. Chats (Fr. Traquets), the Indian Robin (Fr. [G. Fish Eagle], Pygargue a tete grise,
185ff., 213ff., 342; Haliaeetus leucogaster. urdhva-karnoluka, any of the S t r i g i d a e ,
ambska-pilika, ambaka-pilika, ambski- P s e u d o t r a q u e t i n d i e n , the [ O r i e n t a l ]
White-bellied Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre, genus Otus (Scops Owl / Petit-due), 178
pTlika (Pkt), 77, 78 Magpie Robin (Fr. Shama dayal), also the
ambu-kukkutika, ambu-kukkutT, the smallest White Wagtail (Fr. Bergcronncttc grise), 187, 213; also Laridae, Larini (Gulls /
of the Rails or Crakes (Fr. Rales), 292 44', 45, 47 Goelands, Mouette) and Sternini (Tern / e
asvaka-cataka, 45, idem
 366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w , G o d w i t , S a n d p i p e r , R u j f & R e e367
v e ,W o

eka-putraka; Hemiprocne longipennis kandagalaka, Sitta c a s t a n e a . C h e s t n u t - karkata, karkataka, Pelargopsis capensis, kala-hamsa, stands for all grey Geese 422
[ H e m i p r o c n e c o r o n a t a ] , Crested Swift bellied Nuthatch, Sitelle a ventre marron (Brown-headed) Stork-billed Kingfisher, 4 2 6 f f „ esp. Anser ajiser, Greylag Goose
[Crested Treeswift], Hemiprocne longi- (and subspecies), 26, 27; other varieties of Martin-chasseur gurial, 156 Oie c e n d r e e , 426, 4 3 6 f f . ; also A n s e r
penne, 168 Sittidae (Nuthatch / Sitelle), 26, 27 karkaraksa, karkarahga, Motacilla alba, Pied fabalis, Bean Goose, Oie des moissons; and
ekSriga-varaka, any of the B u c e r o t i d a e kandalaka, Sitta castanea, Chestnut-bellied Wagtail [White W.], Bergeronnette grise, Anser albifrons, [Greater] White-fronted
(Hornbill / Calao), 159 Nuthatch, Sitelle a ventre marron (and 106 Goose, Oie rieuse, 437
k subspecies), 26 karkarT, any of the Picidae (Woodpecker / kalaha-priya (-sarika), Acridotheres tristis,
kandalr. various Sittidae (Nuthatch / Sitelle), Pic), 122 C o m m o n Myna, Martin triste, 82, 85, 87;
2 4 f f . ; Sitta c a s t a n e a , C h e s t n u t - b e l l i e d karkaretu, Pelargopsis capensis, (Brown- S t u r n u s v u l g a r i s , [ C o m m o n ] Starling,
kakara, Pterocles exustus, Indian Sandgrouse
Nuthatch, Sitelle a ventre marron (and headed) Stork-billed Kingfisher, Martin- Etourneau sansonnet, 87
[Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse], Ganga a
subspecies), 25ff.; Sitta frontalis, Velvet- c h a s s e u r g u r i a l , 156; G r u s virgo, kalahakula, Acridotheres tristis, C o m m o n
ventre brun, 265
fronted Nuthatch, Sitelle veloutee, 25, 26 Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, 312, Myna, Martin triste, 85
kakunjala, 137, cf. cataka
kapardika, Ceryle rudis, Pied Kingfisher, 313, 320, 321 kalatlna, M o t a c i l l a alba, Pied W a g t a i l
kcikubha, Tetraogallus himalayensis,
M a r t i n - p e c h e u r pie; or Megaceryle karnayala vaiijula P o d i c e p s nigricollis, [White W.], Bergeronnette grise, 106
H i m a l a y a n S n o w c o c k , T e t r a o g a l l e de
lugubris, Greater Pied Kingfisher [Crested Black-necked Grebe (or Eared G.), Grebe a kalanunadr kalavinka, Turdus merula,
1'Himalaya, 139, 284
K.], Martin-pecheur tachete, which is the cou noir, 462
kakubhskSra, idem, 139 [Eurasian] Blackbird, Merie noir, 93
related species found above 800 m in the karnikara, P y c n o n o t u s j o c o s u s , Red- kali-kara, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus],
kanka. Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's Sea
Himalayas, 155, 219, 234 whiskered Bulbul. Bulbul orphee, 35, 37 ( C o m m o n ) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow),
Eagle [P. Fish Eagle, Pygargue de Pallas,
kspinjala, Francolinus pondicerianus, Grey karniyaka, cf. rala
195, 213, 214, 229, 243; Ardea cinerea, Drongo brillant, 63, 65
Partridge, Francolin gris, 58, 93, 283; karburanga, may refer to the Dinopium kalihga, idem, 65
Grey Heron, Heron cendre, 219, 224, 400,
Cuculus varius, C o m m o n Hawk Cuckoo, benghalense, Golden-backed (three-toed)
401, 402; Haliastur indus, Brahminy Kite, ka van, Sturnus pagodarurn, Brahmany Myna
C o u c o u shikra. 93, 131; N y c t y o r n i s Woodpecker [Common Flameback], Pic du
Milan sacre, 242, 243, 245 [ B r a h m a n y S t a r l i n g ] , E t o u r n e a u des
athertoni. Blue-bearded Bee-eater, Guepier Bengale, 120 pagodes, 85, 86
kahkeru. Ardea purpurea, Purple Heron,
a barbe bleue, 148; Lerwa lerwa, Snow kala-kantba, any of the Cuculidae with
Heron pourpre, 402 kasika, R e c u r v i r o s t r a a v o s e t t a , [Pied]
Partridge, Lerva des neiges, 284 sonorous call: Cuculus canorus, C o m m o n
kacchela, varieties of wild Quails (Fr. Avocet, Avocette elegante, 361
kapinjalT, female of the Francolinus pondi- (European) Cuckoo [Eurasian C.], Coucou
Cailles), or more likely, of Bustard Quails kahakaharava, Garrulax leucolophus, White-
cerianus, Grey Partridge, Francolin gris, 58 gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan
[Buttonquails] (Fr. Turmx), 289 crested Laughingthrush, Garrulaxe a huppe
kapeksuka, P h o e n i c u r u s ochruros, Black (Asiatic) C u c k o o [Oriental C.], Coucou
katapru uluka, Tyto capensis. Grass Owl, blanche, 28
Redstart, Rougequeue noir, 49 oriental, 128
Effraie du cap, 174 kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow,
kapota, any of the C o l u m b i d a e (Pigeon, kalandaka, kalindaka (P), Sitta castanea,
katuka, may refer to the Vanellus gregarius, Corbeau familier, 1, 2; Corvus corone,
Dove / Pigeon, Tourterelle), 24, 27, 250ff„ Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch, Sitelle h ventre
Sociable Lapwing, Vanneau sociable, 360- Carrion C r o w , Corneille noire; C o r v u s
257ff. marron (and subspecies); also the Large
361 macrorhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed
kapotakt, Saxicoloides f u l i c a t a , Indian Indian Squirrel, 26
katu-kvana, Vanellus indicus. Red-wattled C.], Corbeau a gros bee, 1, 2, 7
Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 45 *kala-panavika, any of the Burhinidae
Lapwing, Vanneau indien; Vanellus kaka-cchadi-khanjana, Motacilla madaraspa-
kapotika, any of the Sittidae (Nuthatch / (Stone Plover [Thick-knee] / Oedicneme),
malabaricus, Yellow-wattled Lapwing, tensis, Large Pied Wagtail [White-browed
Sitelle), 24, 27 332, cf. panavika
Vanneau du Malabar; or still Vanellus W.}, Bergeronnette indienne, 103
kalavinka, a generic term for Sparrow-like
kapotr, idem, 24 kaka-tundaka-karandava, Mergellus albel-
spinosus [duvaucelii]. Spur-winged Plover birds, 95, with a sweet voice, 94, 167:
(Lapwing) [River Lapwing], Vanneau a kamanacchada-kahka, Haliastur indus, lus. Smew, Harle piette, 459
Turdus boulboul, Grey-winged Blackbird,
eperons, 360 Brah-many Kite, Milan sacre, 243 kakara, Pterocles exustus, Common (Indian)
Merle a ailes grises, 49; Turdus merula,
ksthaku, katharu, Upupa epox, [Common] kambvatayin, Haliastur indus, B r a h m a n y Sandgrouse [Chesnut-bellied S.], Ganga a
[Eurasian] Blackbird, Merle noir, 49, 50,
Kite, Milan sacre, 244 ventre brun, 265
Hoopoe, Huppe fasciee, 162 93; any of the P a s s e r i d a e , s u b f a m i l y
karaka, any of the Sittidae (Nuthatch / Si- kaka-ruka, Asio flammeus, Short-eared Owl,
kana-bhaksaka, 96, cf. anna-dusaka Ploceinae (Weaver / Tisserin), 88, 94;
telle), 24ff. Galerida cristata, Crested Lark, Cochevis Hibou des marais, 179
kanatina, Motacilla alba. Pied Wagtail
karats, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, huppe, 93; Copsychus saularis, [Oriental] kaka-vamsa, any of the Corvidae, tribe
[White W.], Bergeronnette grise, 106
genus Corvus (Crow / Corneille, Corbeau), Magpie Robin, S h a m a dayal; Copsychus Corvini, genus Corvus (Crow / Corneille,
kantba-mdaka, Falco tinnunculus, [Com-
1,3 malabaricus, [White-rumped] Shama, Corbeau), 20
mon] Kestrel, Faucon crecerelle, 233, 234
karavTka (P), C o p s y c h u s m a l a b a r i c u s , Shama a croupion blanc; Turdus merula, kakola, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini,
kantha-pala, kantha-vala, Podiceps cristatus.
[White-rumped] Shama, Shama a croupion [Eurasian] Blackbird, M e r l e noir, 93; genus Corvus (Crow / Corneille, Corbeau),
Great Crested Grebe, Grebe huppe, 369
b l a n c ; C o p s y c h u s saularis, [ O r i e n t a l ] Pyrrhula erythrocephala, Red-headed Iff.; Corvus corone, Carrion Crow,
462
Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 47, 52 Bullfinch, Bouvreuil a tete rouge, 94; other Corneille noire; Corvus macrorhynchos,
kanthagni, Mirafra javanica [M. cantillans].
Singing Bushlark, Alouette de Java, 110 karayiks, any of the C o r v i d a e , tribe birds of the genus Pyrrhula (Bullfinch / Jungle Crow [Large-billed Crow], Corbeau
kandola, Galerida cristata. Crested Lark. Corvinae, genus Dendrocitta (Treepie / Bouvreuil), 95; Pyrrhoplectes epauletta a gros bee, 1, 6, 7; Corvus corone, Carrion
Cochevis huppe, 111 Temia), 12, 13 C-old-headed Black Finch [Gold-naped F ] Crow, Corneille noire and / or C o r v u s
kandura (Pkt), Leptoptilos javanicus, Lesser karala-phala baka, Ephippiorhynchus asia- Pyrrhoplecte a nuque d'or, 94 macrorhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed
Adjutant Stork, Marabout chevelu, 395 ticus, Black-necked Stork, Jabiru d A s i e , Crow], Corbeau a gros bee, 1, 7, 11, 20;
392
366
Corvus corax, [Common] Raven, Grand
Corbeau, 2, 6; all black Corvidae, 3, 8
kScSksa, Ceryle rudis, Pied K i n g f i s h e r ,
M a r t i n - p e c h e u r p i e ; or M e g a c e r y l e
lugubris, Greater Pied Kingfisher [Crested
K.], Martin-pecheur tachete, which is the
related species found above 800 m in the
Himalayas, 155; Mycteria leucocephala,
Painted Stork, Tantale indien, 395
kacaksa-baka, Mycteria leucocephala.
Painted Stork, Tantale indien, 395
kancana, any of the Corvidae, tribe Oriolini,
genus Oriolus (Oriole / Loriot), 79
kana-kapota, Streptopelia tranquebarica, Red
Turtle Dove [Red Collared D.], Tourterelle
a tete grise, 257, 259, 450
kanuka, Nettapus coromandalianus; Cotton
Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose], Anserelle de
Coromandel, 450
kadamba-hamsa, Aijser indic'us, Bar-headed
Goose, Oie a tete barree, 426, 438
kama-carT, Passer domesticus, House
Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92
kamuka, idem, 92
*kayara (Pkt), 265, cf. Skt kutittira,
karanda, Mergus merganser, Common Merg-
anser (Eastern Goosander), Grand Harle,
459
karandava, Fulica atra, [ C o m m o n ] Coot,
Foulque macroule, 299ff.; a generic term
for Swans / Cygnes, Geese / Oies, Ducks /
Canards, Mergansers / Harles, 422; Anas
platyrhynchos, Mallard (or Wild Duck),
Canard colvert, 453; Mergus merganser,
Common Merganser (Eastern Goosander),
Grand Harle, 459, 460
karpasika, Elanus caeruleus, Black-winged
Kite [Black-shouldered K.], Elanion blac
(or blanc), 246 / 143-144
kalaka baja, Falco rusticolus, Gyrfalcon,
Faucon gerfaut, 219
kala-kantha, Passer domesticus, H o u s e
Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92, 93;
Motacilla madaraspatensis, Large Pied
Wagtail [White-browed W.], Bergeronnette
indienne, 103; Pavo cristatus, [Indian]
Peafowl (or Peacock), Paon bleu, 293
kala-kantha-kalavihka, Copsychus malaba-
ricus, [White-rumped] Shama, Shama a
croupion blanc, 46, 93, 94; Copsychus
saularis, [Oriental] Magpie ^ o b i n , Shama
dayal, 46, 50, 93, 94
kala-kant(h)a(ka) datyuha, Pseudibis
papillosa. Black Ibis, Ibis noir, 224, 294,
385
Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w , G o d w i t , S a n d p i p e r , R u j f & R e e 367
v e ,W o
kalaka, female of the Dicrurus adsimilis [ma- kinkirata, any of the Cuculidae (Cuckoo / kunala (P), Rostratula benghalensis, Painted
crocercusj, (Common) Black D r o n g o (or Coucou), 23, 136; or Psittacidae (Parakeet / Snipe [Greater Painted-snipe], Rhynchee
Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 40, 63 Perruche), 23, 140 peinte; Gallicrex ciherea, Watercock, Rale
kala-kurara, may refer to "dark-plumaged" kitikirata-suka, Psittacula alexandri, (Indian) a crete; or Lophura leucomelanos, Kalij
Fishing [Fish] Eagles or Sea Eagles (Fr. Red-breasted Parakeet (Paroquet), Perruche Pheasant, Faisan leucomele, 308
Pygargues), 186 a moustaches, 144 kundalr, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King)
kala-kuta, Pica pica, [Black-billed] Magpie, kirTtr, Melophus lathami. Crested Bunting, Vulture [Red-headed V.], Vautour royal
Pie bavarde, 12, 14, 20 Bruar.t huppe, 96 188, 190
kala-kokila (P; Ja V 419,13) E u d y n a m y s kTcuka, Sasia o c h r a c e a , R u f o u s Piculet kutittira, Francolinus gularis, (Kayah or)
s c o l a p a c e a , [Asian] Koel, Coucou koel, [White-browed], Picumne a sourcils Swamp Partridge [Swamp Francolin],
129 blancs; Picumnus innominatus, Speckled Francolin multiraie, 283
kalagrdhra, Aegypius m o r a c h u s , Cinereous Piculet, Picumne tachete, 120-121 kunala, idem
Vulture, Vautour moine, 188, 190 kTrsa (kirsa), M e r o p s orientalis, (Small) kubja(-cataka), 111, cf. kuja(-caiaka)
kala-cataka, Turdus boulboul, Grey-winged Green (or C o m m o n Indian) Bee-eater, kumaraka, male of the Turnicidae (Button-
Blackbird, Merle a ailes grises, 49; Turdus Guepier d'Orient, 149f. quail / Turnix), 291, cf. 286-287
merula, [Eurasian] Blackbird, Merle noir, kTva(-sauna) (Pkt), Neophron percnopterus, kumarT syama, Copsychus malabaricus,
52; D i c r u r u s adsimilis ( m a c r o c e r c u s ) , (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.], [White-rumped] Shama, Shama a croupion
(Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow), Vautour percnoptere, 193 blanc, 50
Drongo brillant, 49 kukuttaka, Upupa epox, [Common] Hoopoe,
kumuda, E l a n u s caeruleus, B l a c k - w i n g e d
kalajna-kukkuia, Lophura l e u c o m e l a n o s , Huppe fasciee, 162 Kite [Black-shouldered K.], Elanion blac
Kalij Pheasant, Faisan leucomele, 275 kukkuta, Gallus gallus, Red J u n g l e f o w l (or blanc), 246
kala-puccha-cataka, may refer to any of the ( C o m m o n or Wild Cock), Coq bankiva, kumbha, Centropus sinensis, [Greater]
Fringillidae, genus Pyrrhula (Bullfinch / 138 Coucal, Grand Coucal, 138
Bouvreuil), 94, 95 kukkutaka, G a l l o p e r d i x s p a d i c a e , .Red kumbhakara-kukkula, idem, 138
kala-prstha-kahka, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Spurfowl, Galloperdrix rouge, 281 kumbholuka, large hooting Strigidae (Owl /
Pallas's Sea Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle], kukkutika, small Rails or Crakes (Fr. Rales), Hibou, Chouette), 138, 176, 180, esp.
Pygargue de Pallas, 213 292 Wood Owls, having no ear-tufts, 180
kala-baka, C i c o n i a nigra, Black Stork, kukkubha, C e n t r o p u s sinensis, [Greater] kurahkura-sarasa, Grus leucogeranus, Great
Cigogne noire, 390 Coucal, Grand Coucal, 71, 137ff. W h i t e C r a n e [Siberian C.], G r u e de
kala-hamsa (P; Paramatthajotika II 277,12), kunkuma-cudaka, Garrulax erythrocephalus, Siberie, 320
Branta ruficullis, R e d - b r e a s t e d G o o s e , R e d - h e a d e d L a u g h i n g t h r u s h [Chestnut- kurantaka, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande
Bernache a cou roux, 436 crowned L.j, Garrulaxe a tete rousse, 29 Outarde, 326, 329
kavrka, any of the Passeridae, subfamily Plo- kuhkuma-dhumra-kapota, Streptopelia sene- ku-rabaka, see ku-ravaka
ceinae (Weaver / Tisserin), 89 galensis, Little Brown Dove [Laughing D.], kurara (f. kurari), Pandion haliaetus, Osprey,
kastha-kutta, kastha-kuta, any of the Picidae Tourterelle maillee, 257 Balbuzard pecheur; also Fishing [Fish]
(Woodpecker/Pic), 26, 119 kuhkunmrakta, Haliastur indus. Brahmany Eagles or Sea Eagles / Pygargues, 185ff.,
kastha-suka, Psittakula krameri, Rose-ringed Kite, Milan sacre, 29 341, 348; any Laridae of the Larini tribe
Parakeet (cr Paroquet), Perruche a collier, kuja{-cataka), refers to any of the Alaudidae, (Gull / Goeland, Mouette), 185, 341ff„ and
g e n e r a E r e m o p t r i x and A m m o m a n e s sometimes of the Sternini tribe (Tern /
ka.siha (Pkt), any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican (Finch Lark [ S p a r r o w L a r k ] , Lark / Sterne), 342-343; Numenius arquata,
/ Pelican), 370 Moinelette, Ammomane), 110, cf. aranya- [Eurasian] Curlew, Courlis cendre, 341-
kikidTvi, C o r a c i a s b e n g h a l e n s i s , I n d i a n cataka 342; Grus virgo, Demoiselle Crane, Grue
Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18; Pelargopsis kutaru, M e g a l a i m a z e y l a n i c a . Northern d e m o i s e l l e , 186, 312, 320,' 321, 341;
capensis, (Brown-headed) Stork-billed (Large) Green Barbet [Brown-headed B.], according to Dave, Terns (Fr. Sternes), or
Kingfisher, Maitin-chasseur gurial, 156; Barbu a tete brune; Megalaina lineata, N u m e n i u s arquata, [Eurasian] C u r l e y ,
Halcyon smyrnensis, 'White-breasted Lir.eated Barbet, Barbu raye, 124 Courlis cendre, are the birds whose calls
kuti-dusaka (P), Riparia riparia, Collared may be compared to the sorrowful wail of
Kingfisher [White-throated K.], Martin-
(Indian) Sand Martin [Sand M.], women, 342-343, 364-365
pecheur de Smyrne, 156
Hirondelle de rivage; Hirundo concolor. kuraratighri, Larus cachinnans. Yellow-
kikT, Coracias benghalensis, Indian Roller,
Dusky Crag Martin, Hirondelle concolore legged (Herring) Gull, Goeland leucophee;
Rollier indien, 17
(or Hirundo rupestris, [Eurasian] Crag Larus ichthyaetus, Great B l a c k - h e a d e d
kikTvika, Pelargopsis capensis, (Brown-
Martin, Hirondelle des rochers), 99 Gull [Pallas's G.], Goeland ichthyhete, 340
headed) Stork-billed Kingfisher, Martin-
kuthaku, Upupa epox, [Common] Hoopoe, kurarika, the smallest of the Terns: Sterna
chasseur gurial, 157
a l b i f r o ns. Little T e r n , S t e r n e n a i n e ;
kirikira, Ciamator coromandus. Red-winged Huppe fasciee, 162
C h l i d o n i a s hybridus, W h i s k e r e d T e r n ,
Crested C u c k o o [ C h e s t n u t - w i n g e d C.], kunapT, Sturnus contra, Pied Myna [Asian
Guifette moustac, 348, 350
Coucou a collier, 135-136 Pied Starling], Etourneau pie, 85, 86
 Index Sanskrit 491
490 Birds in Sanskrit Literature
krsna-tittira, Francolinus francolinus, Black P h o e n i c o p t e r u s minor, L e s s e r F l a m i n g o ,
genus Accipiter, including Accipiter Partridge [Black Francolin], Francolin noir, Flamant nain, 415 n.; cf. *kunja
kuran ( f e m i n i n e f o r m of kurara, used for
badius, Shikra, Epervier shikra, 235-236 283 kotuklf, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini,
birds smaller than Gulls), any Laridae of
ku-lihgaka, Accipiter nisus, [Eurasian] krsna-paksT, S a x i c o l o i d e s fulicata, Indian genus Dendrocitta (Treepie / Temia), 13
the Sternini tribe (Tern / Sterne), 341-342,
Sparrowhawk, Epervier d ' E u r o p e , 199 R o b i n , P s e u d o t r a q u e t indien; Monticola kottha (P), hooting or large Owl, may refer
347-348; also Numenius arquata,
kulrkii, Sarogiossa spiloptera, Spotted- cinclorhynchus, Blue-headed Rock Thrush to : Ketupa zeylonensis, B r o w n Fish O w l ,
[Eurasian] C u r l e w , Courlis cendre, 185,
winged Stare [Starling], Etourneau a ailes [Blue-capped R. T.], Monticole a croupion K e t o u p a b r u n , 157
341-342, 348, 364-366
tachetees, 83 roux, 4 6 , 4 8 ; kottha-sataka (P : P E D considers the sataka
ku-ravaka, D e n d r o c i t t a v a g a b u n d a , Indian
kuvaya, T y t o alba, Barn (White, Screech) krsna-patrin, idem, 46 to be another bird), Nettapus c o r o m a n d a -
T r e e p i e [ R u f o u s T ], T e m i a v a g a b o n d e ;
Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173 krsna-pecaka, Ninox scutulata, Brown Hawk lianus, Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose],
Dendrocitta f o r m o s a e , Himal-ayan Treepie
kitvi, idem, 173 Anserelle de Coromandel, 157
[Grey T.], Temia de Swinhoe, 12, 13 Owl, Ninoxe hirsute, 179
kusTtaka, Recurvirostra avosetta, [Pied] konalaka, Gallicrex cinerea, Watercock, Rale
* kurukuncita, idem, 12 krsna-sakuni, Corvus corax, [Common]
Avocet, Avocette elegante, 361 a crete; or L o p h u r a l e u c o m e l a n o s , Kalij
kuru-bahu, P o m a t o r h i n u s ruficollis, R u f o u s - Raven, G r a n d C o r b e a u , 5, 7; Saxicoloides
*kunja (read : kunca or konca\ Pkt), Grus Pheasant, Faisan leucomele, 276, 302, 308
necked Scimitar Babbler [Streak-breasted fulicata, Indian Robin, Pseudotraquet
konalaga (Pkt), idem, 302
S. B.], P o m a t o r h i n a col r o u x ; Poma-. virgo, Demoiselle Crane, Grue demoiselle, indien, 4 6
kontha, large h o o t i n g S t r i g i d a e ( O w l /
torhinus horsfieldii, Slaty-headed Scimitar 320 krsna-samsthana, refers to : Falco rusticolus,
Hibou); may refer to : Ketupa zeylonensis,
B a b b l e r [Indian S. B.], P o m a t o r h i n de kuta-paksT, any of t h e C o r v i d a e , t r i b e Gyrfalcon, Faucon gerfaut, 219
Brown Fish Owl, Ketoupa brun, 157
Horsfield, 28 Corvini, genera Cissa, Urocissa and Pica krsna jalakukkutT, Gallinula chloropus,
konalaka, cf. konTla
kuru-bahuka, esp. Garrulax ruficollis, (Magpie / Pie, Pirolle), 12 [Common] Moorhen, Gallinule poule-
kuni, female of the Turnicidae (Bustard Quail d'eau, 292-293 konTla, Rostratula b e n g h a l e n s i s , [Greater]
R u f o u s - n e c k e d Laughingthrush, Garrulaxe
[Buttonquail] / Turnix), 291 krsnaksa-syena, "Brown-eyed Falcon", a Painted Snipe, Rhynchee peinte, 308
a col roux, 2 8 ; Turdoides caudatus,
krkarata, any of t h e A l a u d i d a e , g e n u s kopT, M e t o p i d i u s indicus, B r o n z e - w i n g e d
C o m m o n Babbler, Craterope indien; term used by Muslim Falconers, 217
M i r a f r a (Bushlark / Alouette), as distinct krsnanga-suka, Psittacula roseata, Blossom- Jacana, Jacana bronze, 304
Tordoides striatus, Jungle' Babbler,
from Mirafra javanica [M. cantiilans]. headed Parakeet (Paroquet), Perruehe a tete *kola-puccha (Pkt), Leptoptilos dubius,
Craterope de brousse, 28, 29
Singing Bushlark, Alouette de Java, 110, rose, 143, 144 [Greater] Adjutant (Stork), Marabout
*kula-varl, small Rails or Crakes (Fr. Rales),
cf. krakarata krsnika, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin, argala, 393
esp. Gallirallus striatus, Blue-breasted
Banded Rail [Slaty-breasted R.], Rale strie; krkala, cf. krakara\ r e f e r s to S y r r h a p t e s P s e u d o t r a q u e t indien, 46; m a y refer to : kaulika, kaulTka, any P a s s e r i d a e of the
Rallina eurizonoides, Banded Crake [Slaty- tibetanus, Tibetan S a n d g r o u s e , Syrrhapte Monticola cinclorhynchus. Blue-headed Ploceinae subfamily (Weaver / Tisserin),
legged C'.], Rale de foret, 292 du T i b e t , 266, 267 R o c k T h r u s h [ B l u e - c a p p e d R. T . ] , 88
kulala, large hooting Strigidae (Owl / Hibou, krkalasaka, Circus pygargus, M o n t a g u ' s Monticole a croupion roux, 48 kausika, large h o o t i n g S t r i g i d a e ( O w l /
Chouette), 138; certain W o o d Owls, esp. Harrier, Busard cendre, 247 kesaraja, Dicrurus hottentottus, Hair-crested Hibou, Chouette), 176, 177, 179
Strix l e p t o g r a m m i e a , B r o w n W o o d O w l , krkavaku, Gallus gallus, R e d J u n g l e f o w l , D r o n g o [Spangled D.], D r o n g o a criniere, krakara, Pterocles orientalis, Imperial
Chouette leptogramme, 180 Coq bankiva, 273 64 S a n d g r o u s e [ B l a c k - b e l l i e d S.], G a n g a
krkalika, Athene brama, Spotted Owlet, unibande, 265
kulala-kukkuta, Centropus sinensis, kesya, idem, 64
Cheveche brame, 177 krakarata, any of the A l a u d i d a e , g e n u s
[Greater] Coucal, Grand Coucal, 137, 138, kesarf, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican / Peli-
krsa, atiy of the Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), M i r a f r a (Bushlark / Alouette), as distinct
150; G a l l u s g a l l u s , R e d J u n g l e f o w l can), 370
99, 165 f r o m M i r a f r a j a v a n i c a [M. c a n t i i l a n s ] ,
( C o m m o n or W i l d C o c k ) , Coq b a n k i v a , kairata, non-parasitic Cuculidae of the genus
krsa-kantha (saraiiga), Tetrax tetrax, Little Singing Bushlark, Alouette de Java, 110,
138 Phaenicophaeus (Malkoha, Sirkeer /
Bustard, Outarde canepetiere, 325, 328 cf. krkarata
kulaia-kukkubha, Centropus sinensis, Malcoha), 140
kratu-yasti, Tragopan satyra, Crimson
[Greater] Coucal, Grand Coucal, 138 krsa-kuta, any of the Corvidae, tribe Corvini, koila ( f o r : A v a s y a k a " ... °giri, r e a d :
Horned Pheasant [Satyr Tragopan],
kulalT sakunika, M e r o p s orientalis, (Small) genus Dendrocitta (Treepie / T e m i a ) , 12, M u l a b h a s y a 113 on A v a s y a k a - N i j j u t t i
T r a g o p a n satyre; or T r a g o p a n m e l a n o -
G r e e n (or C o m m o n Indian) B e e - e a t e r . 13,20 271b; Pkt), 128, cf. kokila
cephalus, Western Horned Pheasant
Guepier d'Orient, 150 krsi-dvista, 96, cf. anna-dusaka kokathu, Treror. apicauda, Pin-tailed Green
[Western Tragopan], Tragopan de
kfsrta-kaka, Corvus m a c r o r h y n c h o s . Jungle Pigeon, C o l o m b a r a longue queue; Treron
ku-liiiga, Dicrurus adsimilis (macrocercus), Hastings, 280
C r o w [Large-billed C.], Corneille a gros sphenura, Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon,
( C o m m o n ) B l a c k D r o n g o (or Kingcrow), k r u h , krunca, Phoenicopterus ruber,
bee, 1, 3, 7; Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, Colombar char.teur, 254
D r o n g o brillant, 63; various small birds C o m m o n [Greater] F l a m i n g o , F l a m a n t
C o r n e i l l e noire a n d / o r C o r v u s m a c r o - koka-deva, idem, 254
m o v i n g about on the ground in search of rose; Phoenicopterus minor, Lesser
f o o d (Sparrow, Finch, Bunting / Moineau, rhynchos, Jungle C r o w [Large-billed C.], kokila, Eudynamys scolopacea, [Asian] Koel, F l a m i n g o , Flamant nain, 312, 408, 4 0 9 ,
R o s t l i n , B r u a n t ) , 92, 95; G r u s g r u s , Corneille a gros bee, 1, 6, 7, 20 Coucou koel; also Cuculus canorus, 4 1 1 , 4 1 4 , 4 1 6 , 4 1 8 , 420
C o m m o n Crane, Grue cendree, 315 krsna-grTva, C o p s y c h u s saularis, [Oriental] E u r o p e a n or G r e y [ E u r a s i a n ] C u c k o o , krura-vak, any black Corvidae, tribe Corvini,
ku-liiigaka, T u r d u s boulboul, G r e y - w i n g e d M a g p i e R o b i n . S h a m a dayal; C o p s y c h u s Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan genus Corvus (Crow / Corbeau, Corneille),
Blackbird, Merle a ailes grises; Copsychus malabaricus, [White-rumped] Shama, or A s i a t i c [ O r i e n t a l ] C u c k o o , C o u c o u except the [ C o m m o n ] Raven (Fr. G r a n d
S h a m a a croupion b l a n c , 94; E p h i p p i o - oriental, 128 Corbeau), 3
saularis, [Oriental] M a g p i e Robin, S h a m a
r h y n c h u s asiaticus, B l a c k - n e c k e d Stork, konca (P) P h o e n i c o p t e r u s ruber, C o m m o n kraunca, Grus grus, C o m m o n C r a n e , G r u e
dayal, 50, 93; Passer domesticus, H o u s e
Jabiru d'Asie, 391 [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose; cendree, 3 1 2 , 3 1 3 , 3 1 5 , 3 2 1
Sparrow, Moineau domestique, and related
species, 167; certain Accipitridae of the krsna-cuda, Pycnonotus cafer, Red-vented
Bulbul, Bulbul a ventre rouge. 35

492
kvayi, Athene brama, Spotted Owlet,
C h e v e c h e brame, 124; Tyto alba, Barn
(Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 124,
173
ksatraka, Ceryle rudis, Pied K i n g f i s h e r ,
M a r t i n - p e c h e u r pie [or M e g a c e r y l e
lugubris, Greater Pied Kingfisher [Crested
K.], Martin-pecheur tachete, which is the
related species a b o v e 800 m in the
Himalayas, 155
ksayi-hamsa, Marmaronetta angustirostris,
Marbled Teal, Marmaronette marbree, 457
ksipra-syena, F a l c o peregrinus, Peregrine
Falcon, Faucon pelerin, 210, 222, 225
ksudra-gldhrt, Milvus migrans, C o m m o n
Pariah Kite [Black K.], Milan noir, 189,
245
ksudra-valguli, cf. khuddaka-valguli
ksudra-hamsa, small and m e d i u m - s i z e d
Anatidae (Duck / Canard), 422
ksudroluka, the smaller Strigidae (Owlet /
Cheveche, Chevechette), 176
ksematikarT., Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite,
Milan sacre, 244
ksvinka, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King)
Vulture [Red-headed V.], Vautour royal,
190, 196
kh
kha-kamim, Haliastur indus, Brahmany Kite,
Milan sacre, 243, 244
khajaka, Anas clypeata, Shoveller [Northern
Shoveler], Canard souchet, 457
khanja-kheta, any of the Passeridae, sub-
f a m i l y M o t a c i l l i n a e , genus M o t a c i l l a
(Wagtail / Bergeronnette), 102
khanja-khela, Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail
[White W.], Bergeronnette grise, 106
khanjana, any of the Passeridae, subfamily
Motacillinae, genus Motacilla (Wagtail /
Bergeronnette), 102; white Wagtails, esp.
Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.],
Bergeronnette grise (and subspecies), 49,
52, 102ff.
khanjanaka, white Wagtails, esp. Motacilla
alba, Pied Wagtail [White W.], Bergeron-
nette grise (and subspecies), 102
khanjanika, Charadrius dubius, Little Ringed
Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 334, 357
kbanjarT, P h o e n i c u r u s o c h r u r o s , B l a c k
Redstart, Rougequeue noir, 49
khanjarTta, khanjarTtaka, yellow Wagtails :
Motacilla flava, Yellow
Index Sanskrit 493
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
galesunda-bharanda, Leptoptilos dubius, gopa, yellow Wagtails, esp. Motacilla flava,
Bergeronnette printaniere (and subspecies); [Greater] A d j u t a n t (Stork), M a r a b o u t Yellow Wagtail, Bergeronnette printaniere,
Motacilla citreola, Yellow-headed Wagtail argala, 399 103
[Citrine W.], Bergeronnette citrine, 103ff.; gahga-sarika, Acridotheres ginginianus, gopa-putra, Motacilla alba. White (or Black-
but may also designate white Wagtails, 105 Bank Myna, Martin des berges, 85 h e a d e d ) Wagtail, B e r g e r o n n e t t e grise;
khanjantr, female of the yellow Wagtails, cf. giri-vartaka, Ophrysia superciliosa, Motacilla citreola, Yellow-headed Wagtail
khanjarTta, 105 Mountain Quail [Himalayan Q.], Ophrysie [Citrine W.], Bergeronnette citrine, 105
khatvanga(ka), Buceros bicornis, Great de 1'Himalaya, 282 gopa-putra, yellow Wagtails, 103, 105; cf.
Hornbill, Calao bicorne, 160 girisa, idem, 282 gopa-putra
khara-kraunca, Grus virgo, D e m o i s e l l e girisSla, any of the Accipitridae, genus Buteo gopTta, idem, 76, 103, 104
Crane, Grue demoiselle, 312, 320, 321 (Buzzard / Buse), 248 gopTtaka, idem, 76
khara-sabda-kurara, any n o i s y L a r i d a e , *gutthanda (Pkt), Neophron percnopterus, gopTta-khanjana, idem, 103, 104
Larini tribe (Gull / Goeland, Mouette), 342 (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.], gopitanaka, idem, 76, 103, 104
khargala, Athene brama, Spotted Owlet, Vautour percnoptere, 193 n. 3 gopTtilaka, idem, 76, 103, 104
Cheveche brame, 177 gurandaka, Otis tarda. Great Bustard. Grande go-putra, idem, 103ff.; Motacilla alba, White
khata-hamsa, Anas clypeata, Shoveller Outarde, 326-327 (or Black-headed) Wagtail, Bergeronnette
[Northern Shoveler], Canard souchet, 456 guru-kantha, idem, 325, 327, 329 grise; Motacilla citreola. Yellow-headed
khfra-harnsa (P; P a r a m a t t h a - j o t i k a II guru-bhiira, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Wagtail [Citrine W.], Bergeronnette
277,12), a kind of Goose, 436 n„ cf. 429 Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 207 citrine, 105
khuddaka-valguli (P; Dhp-a III 223,6), Tit, a guyalakta-salvika, S t u r n u s c o n t r a . Pied go-preraka, Dicrurus adsimilis [macro-
small bird, esp. Parus m a j o r , Grey Tit Myna [Asian Pied Starling], Etourneau pie, cercus], ( C o m m o n ) Black D r o n g o (or
[Great T.], Mesange charbonniere; or Parus 86 Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 62
xanthogenys, Yellow-cheeked Tit [Black- grdhra, all diurnal, birds of prey, including go-baka, Bubulcus ibis, Cattle Egret, Heron
lored T.], Mesange a joues jaunes, 21 Eagles, 176, 188; esp. Vultures / Vautours, garde-boeufs, 404
khe-gamana, Pseudibis papillosa. Black Ibis, Gypaetes, 188, 189, 199, 214; Milvus go-bhandTra, Gallinago gallinago, Fantail
Ibis noir, 385; Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail migrans, Pariah Kite [Black Kite], Milan Snipe [Common S.], Becassine des marais,
[White W.], Bergeronnette grise, 385 noir, 189; various Eagles or Hawk Eagles 366, 367
g (Aigle montagnard, Aigle huppe, Aigle go-mayu, Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, Aigle
botte, etc.), 220, 221 ravisseur, 208, 230, 231
grdhra-raja, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or go-ratT, Acridotheres tristis, Common Myna,
Martin triste; also some other noisy birds,
ganga-cillT ("Ganges's Kite", cf. cilia), Larus
King) Vulture [Red-headed V.J, Vautour
esp. Babblers / Crateropes, 30, 87
royal, 196
ridibundus, Black-headed Gull, Mouette
grdhrT, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black go-lattika, female of the yellow Wagtails, 40,
rieuse, 343; or any Laridae of the Larini
Kite], Milan noir, 189, 245 105
tribe (Gull / Goeland, Mouette), 343
grha-kapota, C o l u m b a livia, D o m e s t i c go-vatsa(ka), Pycnonotus jocosus. Red-
gandharva, may refer to C u c u l i d a e with
(Rock) Pigeon [Rock P.], Pigeon biset, 250 whiskered Bulbul, Bulbul orphee, 34, 36,
melodious voice : Cuculus canorus,
grha-kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, 37, 39; P y c n o n o t u s cafer, R e d - v e n t e d
E u r o p e a n or Grey [Eurasian] C u c k o o ,
Corbeau familier, 4, 6 Bulbul. Bulbul a ventre rouge, 35ff.
Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan
grha-karT, any Passerinae of the Ploceinae gostha-kukkuta, Neophron percnopterus,
or Asiatic [Oriental] C u c k o o , C o u c o u
subfamily (Weaver / Tisserin), 89, 96 (White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.],
oriental, 128
grha-kulihga, Passer domesticus, House Vautour percnoptere, 188, 192, 194
garuda, a mythical bird, 199ff.; may refer to ;
Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92, 93 gostha-gocara, idem, 192
Aquila chrysaetos, ( H i m a l a y a n ) Golden
grha-nTda, idem, 92 gostha-cara, idem, 192
E a g l e , A i g l e r o y a l , 199; H a l i a e e t u s
gelata (Asoka Pkt), non-parasitic Cuculidae, gaura-tittira, Francolinus p o n d i c e r i a n u s ,
leucogaster, W h i t e - b e l l i e d Sea E a g l e ,
Grey Partridge [G! Francolin], Francolin
Pygargue blagre, 200, 207, 212; or even genus Phaenicopheus (Malkoha, Sirkeer /
gris, 283
Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, Aigle Malcoha), 30 n. 2 (read : cilaya ?), 78, 140,
gaurika, Sturnus pagodarum, Brahmany
ravisseur, 200 cf. kairata
M y n a [B. S t a r l i n g ] , E t o u r n e a u des
garutmat, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) gairika-lava, Perdicula asiatica, lungle Bush
Quail, Perdicule rousse-gorge, 287 pagodes, 85
' Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 202-204, cf.
go-ksve'daka, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, grama-cataka, Passer domesticus, H o u s e
garuda
Grande Outarde, 325, 327 Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92, 93
garud-yodhT, Quails (Fr. Cailles) or Bustard
godhaka, Tichodroma muraria, Wallcreeper, gramTna-kaka, Corvus splendens. H o u s e
Quails [Buttonquails] (Fr. Turnix) which
Tichodrome echelette, 40 C r o w , Corbeau familier, 2, 6; C o r v u s
fight with their wings, 285
go-narda, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande cornix, Eastern Hooded Crow, Corneille
* galeganda (Pkt), Leptoptilos dubius,
' Outarde, 325, 327, 329 mantelee, 6
[Greater] A d j u t a n t ( S t o r k ) , M a r a b o u t
Wagtail, argala, 392f.
 366
gh
ghanatola, a synonyme for cataka, 137, cf.
cataka
ghargharaka, T y t o alba, Barn ( W h i t e ,
Screech) O w l , E f f r a i e des clochers, 173;
Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton Teal
[ C o t t o n P y g m y - g o o s e ] , A n s e r e l l e de
C o r o m a n d e l , 4 5 0 ; ' Anas poecilorhyncha,
Spot-billed Duck (Grey Duck), Canard a
bee tachete, 454
ghuka, refers to large hooting Strigidae (Owl
/ Hibou, Chouette), 176, 177, 179
ghughu-kft, Streptopelia tranquebarica, Red
Turtle Dove [Red Collared D.], Tourterelle
a tete grise, 259
ghonka, Anastomus oscitans, Openbill Stork
[Asian Openbill], Bec-ouvert indien, 396
ghonga, ghohgaka, idem, 396
ghosta-kukkuta, Neophron percnopterus,
(White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.]
(or Neophron Vulture), Vautour percno-
ptere, 23, 192
C candra-vihaiigama,
cakora, Alectoris chukar, Chukar (Partridge),
Perdrix choukar, 282
cakra., Tadorna ferruginea, Ruddy Sheldrake
[Common Shelduck], Tadorne casarca, 450
cakra-koka, Treron apicauda, Pin-tailed
Green Pigeon, Colombar a longue queue;
T r e r o n s p h e n u r a , W e d g e - t a i l e d Green
Pigeon, Colombar chanteur, 254
cakravaka, Tadorna ferruginea, Ruddy
Sheldrake [ C o m m o n Shelduck], Tadorne
casarca, 450, 451
cakranga-vaja, Accipiter gentilis, [Northern]
Goshawk, Autour des palombes (juvenile),
219, 237
cakrahva, Tadorna ferruginea, Ruddy
Sheldrake [Common Shelduck], Tadorne
casarca, 450
cancu-sucT, any Passeridae of the Ploceinae
subfamily (Weaver / Tisserin), 88
cataka, birds in general, 92; small birds, esp.
House Sparrow (Fr. Moineau domestique),
F i n c h e s (Fr. Roselins), B u n t i n g s (Fr.
Bruants), etc., 61, 92, 93; Hirundinidae
( S w a l l o w , M a r t i n / H i r o n d e l l e ) and
Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), 92, 99, 101,
165, 167
catakika, diminutive of cataka, small birds,
esp. F l y c a t c h e r s (Fr. G o b e m o u c h e s ) ,
W a r b l e r / Fauvette, G r o u n d Warbler /
Tesie, Bush Warbler / Bouscarle, Wren
Birds in Sanskrit Literature
Warbler / Prinia, Tailorbird / Couturiere,
Flycatcher Warbler / Pouillot, 53, 56, 68,
92; also R e g u l u s r e g u l u s , G o l d c r e s t .
Roitelet huppe, 70; Munia / Munia, 90, 92;
or Zosterops palpebrosa, [Oriental] White-
eye, Zosterops oriental, 92, 112
catika, a diminutive of cataka, small birds,
esp. Flycatcher / Gobemouche, Warbler /
Fauvette, Ground Warbler / Tesie, Bush
W a r b l e r / Bouscarle, W r e n W a r b l e r /
Prinia, Tailorbird / Couturiere, Flycatcher
Warbler / Pouillot, 53, 56, 68, 89, 92; also
Regulus regulus, Goldcrest, Roitelet huppe,
70; Munia / Munia, 89, 92; Flowerpecker /
Dicee, 116
caff, various Hirundinidae (Swallow, Martin
/ Hirondelle), 98-99, 167
candraka, Tyto alba, Barn (White, Screech)
Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173
candra-kanta, Halcyon smyrnensis, White-
breasted Kingfisher [White-throated K ],
Martin-chasseur de Smyrne, 156
candrakoluka, T y t o alba. Barn (White,
Screech) Owl, Effraie des clochers, 173
small Ardeidae (Bittern/
Blongios, esp. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus,
Chestnut Bittern [Cinnamon B.], Blongios
canelle, 406
caraka, Falco jugger, Laggar Falcon, Falcon
laggar; F a l c o c h e r r u g , S a k e r F a l c o n ,
Falcon sacre, 221, 228
carillT, cf. cirillT, 167, 168
carcarT, any of the Passeridae, subfamily
Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit),
107
carcika, Haliastur indus, B r a h m a n y Kite,
Milan sacre, 244
carmacuda, refers to two species of
J u n g l e f o w l / Coq : Gallus gallus, Red
Junglefowl (Common or Wild Cock), Coq
bankiva; Gallus sonneratii, Grey
Junglefowl, Coq de Sonnerat, 271
cala-picchaka, Phoenicurus ochruros, Black
Redstart, Rougequeue noir; or any of the
Passeridae, subfamily Motacillinae, genus
Anthus (Pipit / Pipit), 49
cala-puccha, Coracias benghalensis, Indian
Roller, Rollier indien, 18
cataka, may r e f e r to : C u c u l u s varius,
Common Hawk Cuckoo (Brainfever Bird),
Coucou shikra; Clamator jacobinus, Pied
(Crested) Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 133-
137; also Cuculus [Hierococcyx]
sparverioides. Large Hawk Cuckoo,
Coucou epervier; Cacomantis passerinus.
P l a i n t i v e C u c k o o [ G r e y - b e l l i e d C.],
367
C u r l e w ,G o d w i t ,S a n d p i p e r ,R u j f&R e e v e ,W
Coucou ii tete grise; Cacomantis sonneratii, citrahgT, Sturnus contra, [Asian] Pied Myna,
Banded Bay Cuckoo, Coucou de Sonnerat, Etourneau pie, 86
130, 131, 133 cimi(ka), refers to the Psittacidae (Parakeet /
cataka-pota, a tiny bird, 90 Perruche), 143
cataka-sisu, idem, 90 cira-jTvin, a variety of C o r v i d a e of the
camTkara, any bird of the tribe Oriolini, Corvini tribe, 3
g e n u s O r i o l u s , esp. O r i o l u s o r i o l u s , cirambhana, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite
[Eurasian] Golden Oriole, Loriot d'Europe, [Black K.], Milan noir, 245
Oriolus xanthornus, Black-headed Oriole cirantaka, Falco subbuteo, [Eurasian] Hobby,
[Black-hooded O.], Loriot a capuchon noir, Faucon hobereau, 232
79, 80 ciri, cf. cimi, 14, 143
casa, all C o r a c i i d a e (Roller / Rollier) : ciri-kaka, Cissa chinensis, [Common] Green
C o r a c i a s b e n g h a l e n s i s , Indian Roller, Magpie, Pirolle verte, 8, 14, 15, 20
Rollier indien; Coracias garruius, European ciritTka or cirlti, Melophus lathami, Crested
Roller, R o l l i e r d ' E u r o p e ; E u r y s t o m u s Bunting, Bruant huppe, 93, 96, cf. tirTta
orientalis, Broad-billed Roller [Dollarbird], drill!, Apus affinis, House Swift, Martinet
Rolle oriental, 1620, 146, 157 des maisons; common Hirundinidae such
cikura(cataka), Tichodroma muraria, as H i r u n d o rustica, C o m m o n S w a l l o w
Wallcreeper, T i c h o d r o m e echelette, 40; [Barn S.], Hirondelle rustique, 165, 167ff.
Troglodytes troglodytes, Winter W r e n , cilia, Milvus migrans, Pariah Kite [Black K.],
Troglodyte mignon, 42
Milan noir, 234, 245
ciccika, m a y r e f e r to : H e m i p r o c n e
cTrikaka, cf. caurikaka or cirikaka, 15
longipennis [Hemiprocne coronata],
cudala, Galerida cristata. Crested L a r k ,
Crested Swift [Crested Treeswift],
H e m i p r o c n e l o n g i - p e n n e , 168f. (Pkt
Cochevis huppe, 111
*culahka, Accipiter t r i v i r g a t u s , C r e s t e d
ciccika "a musical instrument" mentioned
Goshawk, Autour huppe, 235, 236
by Dave p. 169 is not found in the Prakrit
*cularika-vesara. idem, Northern subspecies,
Dictionaries)
241
citraka, Pitta brachyura, Indian Pitta, Breve
*culikahka, idem, 238, 241
du Bengale, 117 *ceta, male of the Accipiter nisus, [Eurasian]
citra-kapota, Streptopelia chinensis, Spotted S p a r r o w h a w k , Epervier d ' E u r o p e ; and
Dove, Tourterelle tigrir.e, 257, 258, 263 Accipiter virgatus, Besra (or S p a r r o w -
citra-kokila, Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan hawk), Epervier besra, 237
(Asiatic) C u c k o o [Oriental C.], Coucou cetakedu, celakedu (P), Terpsiphone paradisi,
oriental, 128, 129 [Asian] Paradise Flycatcher, Tchitrec de
citra-netra, Acridotheres tristis, C o m m o n paradis, 56, 403
Myna, Martin triste; Gracula religiosa, Hill celapaka, °vaka (P), C a s m e r o d i u s albus,
Myna (or Grackle), Mainate reiigieux, 85 Large Egret [Great E.], Grande aigrette, 56,
citra-paksa, Francolinus francolinus, Black 403
Partridge [Black Francolin], Francolin noir; cauri-kaka, C o r v u s m o n e d u l a , [Eurasian]
F r a n c o l i n u s pictus, P a i n t e d Partridge, Jackdaw, Corbeau caledonien, 2, 4, 8, 14-
Francolin peint, 283 15, 20
citra-paksa-kapota, Streptopelia chinensis,
Spotted Dove, Tourterelle tigrine, 257, 258
citra-prsta, Passer domesticus, House
ch
Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92
chippika, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar
citra-barhana, citra-barhina, Lophophorus
impejanus, Impeyan Pheasant [Himalayan / Engoulevent), 170, 171
Monal], Lophophore resplendissant. 211, j
278
citra-vaja, cf. casa, 17
citrahgada, Gallirallus striatus, Blue-breasted jatayu, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or
Banded Rail [Slaty-breasted R.], Rale strie; Bearded Vulture), Gypaete barbu, 195ff.
R a l l i n a f a s c i a t a , B a n d e d Crake [Red- jaritari (Jarita), Nyctyornis athertoni, Blue-
legged C.], Rale barre, 292 bearded Bee-eater, Guepier a barbe bleue,
152
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w , G o d w i t , S a n d p i p e r , R u j f & R e e v367
e ,W o

jala-kapota, Metopidius indicus, Bronzed- jaskamada, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, Pallas's

winged Jacana, Jacana bronze, 304 Sea Eagle, Pygargue de Pallas, 214 4 tamba-harnsa (Pf Paramatthajotika II 211,
11), Dendrocygna bicolor, Large Whistling
jala-kaka, Pseudibis papillosa, Black ibis, jihmaksa, f i s h - e a t i n g S t r i g i d a e (Owl / Teal [Fulvous Whistling-duck], Dendro-
Ibis noir, 294, 382, 383-384; Hibou): Fish Owl / Ketoupa, 175 damara, any of the Laridae of the Larini tribe cygne fauve, 436 n., 450
Phalacrocoracidae (Cormorant / jTrvi, any of the Apodidae (Swift / Martinet), (Gull / Goeland, Mouette), 343 taraksa(ka), taraksu, Falco jugger, Laggar
C o r m o r a n t ) , 371, 3 7 2 ; T h r e s k i o r n i s 167, 168 dindi-manava, M e g a l a i m a haemacephala, Falcon, Falcon laggar; Falco c h e r r u g ,
aethiopica [melanocephalus], White Ibis jTvanjTvaka, Polyplectron bicalcaratum, C r i m s o n - b r e a s t e d Barbet [Coppersmith Saker Falcon, Falcon sacre, 228
[Black-headed I.], Ibis sacre, 383 [Grey] P e a c o c k P h e a s a n t , E p e r o n n i e r Barbet], Barbu a plastron rouge, 124 talapaka-khaga, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common]
jala-kukkuta, Gailicrex cinerea, Watercock, chinquis, 270, 273, 274, 281 (called Little Barbet); N.B. : Megalaima Starling, Etourneau sansonnet, 84
Rale a crete, 301, 358- jTvahara, jTvantaka, Aquila pomarina. Lesser rubricapilla, Crimson-throated Barbet talapayika, Sturnus vulgaris, [ C o m m o n ]
jala-kukkubha, idem, 138,-301, 358 Spotted Eagle. Aigle pomarin, 209 [Crimson-fronted Barbet], Barbet a Starling, Etourneau sansonnet, 85
jala-cara, any of the Cinclidae, esp. Cinclus jura, male of the A c c i p i t e r g e n t i l i s , couronne rouge, closely resembling tapasa, any of the Ardeidae (Egrets, Herons,
pailasii. Brown Dipper, Cincle de Pallas, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour des Coppersmith Barbet, but found only in the Bitterns / Aigrettes, Herons, Crabiers,
43 palombes, 221 Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka. Blongios) and Ciconiidae (Stork, A d j u -
jala-paravata, Metopidius indicus, Bronze- jrmbha, Oriolus oriolus, [Eurasian] Golden dindi-manavaka, idem, 124, 129 t a n t s / C i g o g n e s , Jabirus, M a r a b o u t s )
winged Jacana, Jacana bronze, 304 O r i o l e , L o r i o t d ' E u r o p e , 7 8 - 7 9 , cf. dindi-manava, idem, 124 standing on one leg, 405
jala-madgu, any of the Alcedinidae (small pipTlaka dundula, G l a u c i d i u m cucploides, [Asian] tamra-cuda-kukkuta, cf. carma-cuda
Kingfishers), Halcyonidae (large jycstha-balaka, C a s m e r o d i u s albus. Large Barred O w l e t , C h e v e c h e t t e cuculoi'de; tamroluka, Phodilus badius, [Oriental] Bay
Kingfishers), Cerylidae (Pied Kingfishers Egret [Great E.], Grande Aigrette, 403 G l a u c i d i u m brodiei, Collared ( P i g m y ) Owl, Phodile calong, 176, 178179
(Fr. Martin-pecheur), 155 • jyotsna-baka, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. Owlet, Chevechette a collier, 178, cf. 176 tarksya, a mythical bird, 199ff.; esp. Aquila
jala-rahka, C a i i d r i s minuta, Little Stint, Chestnut Bittern [Cinnamon B.], Blongios dulika, any of the Passeridae, subfamily chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle,
Becasseau minute, 368; or generic term for canelle, 406 Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit), Aigle royal, 199, 202, 204; cf. garuda
certain Scolopacidae, subfamily Tringinae 107 tala-cataka, Artamus fuscus, Ashy Swallow-
(esp. Sandpiper / Becasseau), 368
jh shrike [Ashy Woodswallow], Langrayen
jala-rahku, Porphyrio porphyrio. Purple <Jh b r u n , 6 1 ; C y p s i u r u s parvus [C. bala-
Moorhen [P. Swamphen], Taleve sultane, siensis], [Asian] Palm Swift, Martinet des
298, 368 jhampasT, Alcedinidae (small Kingfishers),
dhinka, dhenka (Pkt), u s e d f o r t h e palmes, 168
Halcyonidae (large Kingfishers), Cerylidae
jala-lobhin, Caiidris minuta, Little Stint, tina-hamsa (not PED, but Ja V 356,23),
(Pied Kingfishers (Fr. Martin-pecheur), T h r e s k i o r n i s a e t h i o p i c u s [T. m e l a n o -
Becasseau minute, 368 Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton Teal
155 cephalus], W h i t e Ibis [Black-headed I.],
jala-sikhandin, Hydrophasianus chirurgu, [Cotton Pygmy-goose], Anserelle de
Ibis sacre; all Ciconiidae (Stork / Cigogne);
Pheasant-tailed Jacana, Jacana a longue Coromandel, 450
and the Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater]
queue, 305 t Flamingo, Flamant rose, 389 n.
tittira, certain Phasianidae, esp. Partridges,
*jala-simha, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican Francolins / Perdrix, Francolins, 269
dhenkr (Pkt), f e m a l e of the Phoenicopterus
/ Pelican), 370 tikatikT. Acrocephalus dumetorum, B l y t h ' s tittiri, Francolinus francolinus, Black
ruber, [Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose,
*ja!paka-kala-cataka, Dicrurus adsimilis Reed Warbler, Rousserolle des buissons, Partridge [Biack Francolin], Francolin noir,
410
[macrocercus], (Common) Black Drongo 69 283
(or Kingcrow), Drongo brillant, 63 tittibha, Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled (in(a, tirTtT, may refer to : Melophus lathami,
javala-kantika, Accipiter trivirgatus, Crested L a p w i n g , V a n n e a u indien, 357, 360;
n
Crested Bunting, Bruant huppe, 96, cf.
Goshawk, Autour huppe, 220 Vanellus malabaricus. Yellow-wattled ciritTka
jarigata, F r a n c o l i n u s pondicerianus, Grey L a p w i n g , V a n n e a u du M a l a b a r , 3 5 7 ; nandamanaga (so! Pkt) (also nanda"), tilaka-kantaka, Galerida cristata, Crested
Partridge [G. Francolin], Francolin gris, Vanellus spinosus [V. duvaucelii], Spur- Megalaima haemacephala, Crimson- Lark, Cochevis huppe, 111
283 winged Plover [River Lapwing], Vanneau a breasted Barbet [Coppersmith Barbet], tila-mayura, C h l a m y d o t i s u n d u l a t a [C.
*janta-sarika, Acridotheres fuscus, Jungle eperons, 357 Barbu a plastron r o u g e , 124; [N.B. : macqueeni], Houbara [Macqueen's
Myna, Martin forestier, 86 listi, Numenius phaeopus, Whimbrel, Courlis Megalaima rubricapilla, Crimson-throated Bustard], Outarde houbara, 325, 329
jayanujTvT baka, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, corlieu, 366 Barbet [Crimson-fronted Barbet], Barbet a tuliks, any of the Passeridae, s u b f a m i l y
Black-necked Stork, Jabiru d'Asie, 391; or tuntuka, O r t h o t o m u s sutorius, [ C o m m o n ] couronne rouge, closely resembling Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit),
generic term for any of the Ciconiidae Tailorbird, Couturiere a l o n g u e queue; Coppersmith Barbet, but found only in the 107
family (Stork / Cigogne, Jabiru, etc.), 392 other noisy warblers such as : Prinia Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka. ] tusara-kapota, Macropygia unchall. Bar-
jala-pada, any web-footed waterbird, esp. socialis, Ashy W r e n W a r b l e r [Ashy tailed C u c k o o D o v e [Barred C. D,],
Rails and Crakes (Fr. Rale), Coots (Fr. Prinia], Prinia cendre; Cisticola juncidis, t Phasianelie onchall (sic), 257, 260
Foulque), 299 Streaked Fantail Warbler [Zitting tma-catika, tma-phutkarT, small birds
javala, Falco pelegrinoides (Shaheen Cisticola], Cisticole des joncs, 68-69 takvavT, may refer to : Falco pelegrinoides f r e q u e n t l y found in grassy areas, esp.
Falcon), said to be conspecific with Falco tuna, tona, male of the Accipiter badius, (Shaheen Falcon), said to be conspecific Acrocephalus dumetorum, B l y t h ' s Reed
peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, Faucon Shikra, Epervier shikra, 237, 242 with Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, Warbler, Rousserolle des buissons; Ploceus
pelerin, 220 Faucon pelerin, 222, 223 benghalensis, Black-throated Weaver,
taiijala, 137, a synonym for cataka Tisserin du Bengale; Cisticola juncidis,
 490
Streaked Fantail Warbler [Zitting
Cisticola], Cisticole des joncs; etc., 69
trna-barhin, Eupodotis bengalensis
[Houbaropsis b.], Bengal Florican, Outarde
du Bengale, 330, 331
trna-hatpsa, Nettapus coromandalianus,
Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose],
Anserelle de Coromandel, 450
tejala-tittira, Lerwa lerwa, Snow Partridge,
Lerva des neiges, 284
tailapaka, S t u r n u s vulgaris, [ C o m m o n ]
Starling, Etourneau sansonnet, 84;
Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia
[Scaly-breasted M.], Capucin damier, 89
tailapayika, Sturnus vulgaris, [Common]
Starling, Etourneau sansonnet, 84, 85;
Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia
[Scaly-breasted M.], Capucin damier, '85.
89
tailapayr, S t u r n u s vulgaris, [ C o m m o n ]
Starling, Etourneau- sansonnet,
Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia
[Scaly-breasted M.], Capucin damier, 89
tonaka, male of the Accipiter badius, Shikra,
Epervier shikra, 220, 2.37, 242; refers to all
male diurnal birds of prey, 237
tri*ketu, any of the Psittacidae (Parakeet /
Perruche), 143
tri-varna-raji, Psittacula eupatria. Large
Indian Parakeet [Alexandrine P.], Perruche
alexandre, 118
tri-sahku, Clamator jacobinus, Pied (Crested)
Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 104
tri-sahkha, Cacomantis passerinus, Plaintive
Cuckoo [Grey-bellied C.], Coucou a tete
grise, 131
d bout argala, 392, 40]
daksa, Faico peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon,
Faucon pelerin, 226
dagatunda (Pkt), Falco jugger, Laggar
Falcon, Falcon laggar; Falco cherrug,
Saker F a l c o n , Falcon sacre, 228 (folk
etymology)
dagdha-kaka, Corvus ruficollis, Brown-
necked Raven, Corbeau brun, 1, 5
danda-kaka, Corvus corax, [Common]
Raven, Grand Corbeau, 5
dadhy-ahka, dadhy-ac, dadhy-anc, Copsy-
chus saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin,
Shama dayal, 47
dabbi-mukha (P), Platalea leucorodia,
[Eurasian] Spoonbill, Spatule blanche, 380,
384
Birds in Sanskrit
darbhara-lava, any of the Turnicidae, esp.
Turnix suscitator, Common Bustard Quail
[Barred Buttonquail], Turnix combattant,
287
darvida, Platalea l e u c o r o d i a , [ E u r a s i a n ]
Spoonbill, Spatule blanche, 380
dahiya(ka) (Pkt), C o p s y c h u s s a u l a r i s ,
[Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama dayal, 47
datyuha, Cuculus varius, C o m m o n H a w k
Cuckoo (Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra,
132; Pseudibis papiilosa, Black Ibis, Ibis
noir, 224, 294, 382, 385, 386
datyauha, Amaurornis phoenicurus, White-
breasted Waterhen, Rale a poitrine blanche,
124
daruna, may refer to : Dinopium benghalen-
se, Golden-backed W o o d p e c k e r [Black-
rumped Flameback], Pic du Bengale, 120
darv-aghata, a generic term for any of the
Picidae (Woodpecker / Pic), 119, 122
84;
diahama (Pkt), N e o p h r o n p e r c n o p t e r u s ,
(White) Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.],
Vautour percnoptere, 193
divaukas, Clamator jacobinus, (Large) Pied
(Crested) Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 104,
135
divya, divyaka, Merops orientalis, (Small)
Green (or Small Indian) Bee-eater, Guepier
d'Orient, 150
disa-caksu, Falco tinnunculus, [ C o m m o n ]
Kestrel, Faucon crecerelle, 233
* dTrgha-dala, Urocissa erythrorhyncha, Red-
billed Blue Magpie, Pirolle a bee rouge;
Urocissa flavirostris, Yellow-billed Blue
Magpie, Pirolle a bee jaune, 14
dfrgha-pada(-kahka), Leptoptilos dubius,
Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant], Mara-
dTrgha-sira, Burhinus oedicnemus, Stone
Plover (Curlew) [Eurasian Thick-knee],
O e d i c n e m e criard; Burhinus g i g a n t e u s
[Esacus recurvirostris], Great Stone Plover
[Great Thick-knee), Oedicneme des recifs,
332
dundubhi, Cuculus saturatus, H i m a l a y a n
Cuckoo [Oriental C ], Coucou oriental; or
Cuculus micropterus, Indian Cuckoo (also
called Asiatic C.), Coucou a ailes courtes,
129
durga, Urocissa erythrorhyncha, Red-billed
Blue Magpie, Pirolle a bee rouge; Urocissa
flavirostris, Yellow-billed Blue M a g p i e ,
P i r o l l e a bee j a u n e , 13; M o n t i c o l a
solitarius, Blue Rock Thrush, Monticole
merle-bleu, 1 3 , 4 7 , 4 8
Literature
Index Sanskrit
durdura, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar
/Engoulevent), 171
durdu, idem, 171
durbala (durbalika), any of the Apodidae
(Swift / Martinet), 99, 165, 166
devakula-cataka, any of the Apodidae and
Hirundinidae, esp. A p u s affinis. House
Swift, Martinet des m a i s o n s ; Hirundo
smithii, Wire-tailed Swallow, Hirondelle a
longs brins; Hirundo daurica, (Striated)
Red-rumped Swallow, 99, 167
*deva-cakata, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian
Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 46
devatti, any Laridae of the Larini tribe (Gull
/ Goeland, Mouette), 343
deva-hamsa, Cairina scutulata, White-
winged ( W o o d ) D u c k , C a n a r d a ailes
blanches, 449
devT syama, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian
Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 50
daitya-dvTpa, may r e f e r to : Haliaeetus.
albicilla. White-tailed (Sea) Eagle,
Pygargue a queue blanche, 215
dronaka, Butastur teesa, White-eyed Buzzard
(Eagle), Busautour aux yeux blancs, 212;
Ictinaetus malayensis, Black Eagle, Aigle
noir, 212; male of the Accipiter badius,
Shikra, Epervier shikra, 220, 238, 242; any
male diurnal bird of prey, 237
drona(-kaka), Corvus corax, [Common]
Raven, Grand Corbeau, 2ff., 20
dvimukha-bharanda, Raphus cuculiatus,
Dodo, Dronte de Maurice, 399, cf. 398
dh
dhatarattha (P ; not PED, but Ja V 360,9 ;
Pkt dhattaratthaga, °ritthaga), Cygnus
cygnus, Whooper Swan, Cygne chanteur,
43 If.
dhana-su, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus],
(Common) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow),
DrOngo brillant, 62
dhanakha, Cucjilus varius, C o m m o n Hawk
Cuckoo (Brainfever Bird), Coucou shikra,
131
dhanvana, Merops orientalis, (Small) Green
(or C o m m o n Indian) Bee-eater, Guepier
d'Orient, 150
dharma-cilla, Haliastur indus, Brahmany
Kite, Milan sacre, 244
dhavala-kapota, Streptolia deraocto, Indian
Ring D o v e [Eurasian Collared Dove],
Tourterelle turque, 257, 258
dhavala-pandu, idem, 257, 258
499
dhavala-skandh.a, Pseudibis papiilosa. Black
Ibis, Ibis noir, 352; Rynchops albicollis,
Indian Skimmer, Bec-en-ciseaux a collier,
352
dharata, 137, a synonym for cataka
dhartarastra, C y g n u s cygnus, W h o o p e r
Swan, Cygne chanteur, 427
dhuti, male of the Accipiter virgatus, Besra
(Sparrow-hawk), Epervier besra, 237, 239
dhumTka (or dhumaka, dhumika), Falco
pelegrinoides (Shaheen Falcon), is said to
be c o n s p e c i f i c with Falco p e r e g r i n u s ,
Peregrine Falcon, Faucon pelerin, 199,
222, 226
dhumyata, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus],
( C o m m o n ) Black Drongo (or Kingcrow),
Drongo brillant, 63, 65, 199
dhumra-kapota, Streptopelia tranquebarica,
Red T u r t l e D o v e [Red C o l l a r e d D.],
T o u r t e r e l l e a tete grise; S t r e p t o p e l i a
senegalensis, Little Brown Dove [Laughing
D.], Tourterelle maillee, 257
dhusara-kapota, Streptopelia senegalensis,
Little Brown Dove [Laughing D.],
Tourterelle maillee, 257; or Streptopelia
t r a n q u e b a r i c a , R e d Turtle D o v e [Red
Collared D.], Tourterelle a tete grise, 259
dhusara-cataka, any of the Alaudidae, genera
Eremoptrix and Ammomanes (Finch Lark
[Sparrow Lark], Lark / Moinelette,
Ammomane), 110-111
dhruva, Rynchops albicollis, Indian
Skimmer, Bec-en-ciseaux a collier, 353
dhvahksa, any of the Corvidae, genus Corvus
(Crow / Corbeau, Corneille), 1; as distinct
f r o m the [ C o m m o n ] R a v e n / G r a n d
Corbeau, 2, 6, 7; Tnreskiornis aethiopicus
[T. melanocephalus], White Ibis [Black-
headed I.], Ibis sacre (considered to be a
"water-crow"), 383, 386, 387
n
nakta-kraunca, refers to the more nocturnal
of the Ardeidae : Night Heron, Bittern /
Bihoreaux, Blongios, Butors, 405
nakhasT, any of the Strigidae, genus Ketupa
(Fish Owl / Ketoupa), 175
nandi-cataka, Leiothrix lutea, Red-billed
l.eiothrix.'Leiothrix jaune, 32
naptrka, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar /
Engoulevent), 170
nasaka-kaka, Corvus frugilegus, Rook,
Corbeau freux, 2, 6, 20
 366
nasta-kaka, Corvus frugilegus, Rook,
Corbeau freux, 6n., 20; Corvus monedula,
[Eurasian] Jackdaw, Corbeau caledonien, 6
*nahikuti (nahih kutih), Riparia riparia, Sand
Martin, Hirondelle de rivage: Hirundo
rupestris, [Eurasian] Crag
Hirondelle de rochers, 99
nagasT, cf. garuda\ Haliaeetus leucogaster.
White-bellied Sea Eagle, Pygargue blagre,
201, 207; Circaetus gallicus. Short-toed
[Snake] Eagle, Circaete Jean-le-Blanc, 201;
Spilornis cheela. Crested Serpent Eagle,
Serpentaire bacha, 211
nasa-cchinna (cf. MW
Sarkidiornis melanotos, Comb Duck,
Canard a bosse, 448
nisa-kara, Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, Grey-
headed Fishing Eagle [G. Fish Eagle],
Pygargue a tete grise, 215
nisantaka, cf. nakta-kraunca, 232
nisanna-syama, Hirundo rustica. C o m m o n
Swallow [Barn S.], Hirondelle rustique;
Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed S w a l l o w ,
Hirondelle a longs brins; Delichon urbica.
House Martin, Hirondelle de fenetre [now
subdivided into : Delichon urbica, Northern
H o u s e M a r t i n , H i r o n d e l l e de f e n e t r e ;
Delichon dasypus, Asian House Martin,
H i r o n d e l l e de B o n a p a r t e ; D e l i c h o n
nepalensis, Nepal House
Hirondelle du Nepal], 100
nila-kantha, Coracias benghalensis, Indian
Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18; Copsychus
saularis, [Oriental] Magpie Robin, Shama
dayal, 18, 103; Pavo cristatus. Peacock
[Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu, 18, 49; Passer
domesticus, House Sparrow, Moineau
d o m e s t i q u e , 93; various black-throated
Wagtails (Fr. Bergeronnettes), 18, 103
nila-kantha-sarasa, Ephippiorhynchus
a s i a t i c u s , B l a c k - n e c k e d Stork, Jabiru
d'Asie, 319, 321
nfla-kraunca, Ardea purpurea, Purple Heron,
Heron pourpre, 402, cf. 390
nila-khaga, Corvus corax, [Common] Raven,
Grand Corbeau, 7
nTla-grTva, Coracias benghalensis, Indian
Roller, Rollier indien, 17
mla-grivaka, Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard,
Canard colvert, 453
nTla-cataka, Niltava grandis, Large Niltava
(or Niltava F l y c a t c h e r ) , Grand G o b e -
mouche, 53; Irena puella, [Asian] Fairy
Bluebird, Irene vierge, 71
367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w ,G o d w i t ,S a n d p i p e r ,R u j f&R e e v e ,W o o d
nila-cchada-syena, Falco peregrinus, pati-cancu-suka, Psittacula himalayana, patalaksa-syena, "Yellow-eyed Falcon", a
Peregrine Falcon (or Blue Hawk), Faucon S l a t y - h e a d e d P a r a k e e t , P e r r u c h e de term used by Muslim Falconers, 218
pelerin, 222 I'Himalaya, 144 panavika, 129, 332, cf. kala-panavika
nila-cchavi, Irena puella, [Asian] Fairy patra-vardhrTnasa, Ocyceros birostris. pandara-grdhra. Gyps indicus, (Indian)
Bluebird, Irene vierge, 71, 138 C o m m o n Grey Hornbili [Indian G. H.], Long-billed Vulture (or Indian Griffon),
martin, nTla-latva, Niltava grandis, Large Niltava (or Calao de Gingi, 161 Vautour indien; Gyps himalayensis,
Niltava Flycatcher), Grand Gobemouche, patra-suka, Loriculus vernalis, Indian Himalayan Griffon,% Vautour de
53 Loriquet [Vernal Hanging Parrot], Coryllis I'Himalaya; Gyps fulvus, European Griffon
nTla-skandha-kraufica, Grus nigricollis, vernal, 144 [Eurasian G.], Vautour fauve (now
Black-necked Crane, Grue a cou noir, 319, patralT, Anas crecca, Common Teal, Sarcelle considered to be three different species),
321 d'hiver; Anas q u e r q u e d u l a , G a r g a n e y 191
nTlaiiga, C o r a c i a s b e n g h a l e n s i s , I n d i a n (Teal), Sarcelle d'ete, 455 pandavika, pandavika, Monticola solitarius,
Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 18; A r d e a padeka, A c c i p i t e r g e n t i l i s , [Northern] Blue Rock Thrush, Monticole merle-bleu,
nasa-chinnT), cinerea, Grey Heron (or Blue Heron), Goshawk, Autour des palombes, 238 47, 48, 50
Heron cendre, 18; any of the G r u i d a e padma-puspa, any of the Pittidae (Pitta / pandu(-kapota), Columbidae, genus
(Crane / Grue), 18; Pavo cristatus, Peacock Breve), 117 Streptopelia (Dove / Tourterelle, Colom-
[Indian Peafowl], Paon bleu, 18 panthalaka, 160, cf. khatvanga bine), 257
nilahga-capa, Coracias garrulus, European pampaka (P), 131, a P a l i equivalent for pantfu-syama, M o n t i c o l a solitarius, Blue
(Kashmir) Roller, Rollier d'Europe, 16, 20 cataka Rock Thrush, Monticole merle-bleu, 47, 50
nilanga-sarasa, G r u s virgo, D e m o i s e l l e *pampa is not a Pkt word, 131 *panrya-kakika (= jala-kaka), Phalacrocorax
Crane, Grue demoiselle, 312, 320, 321 para-pusta, parasitic Cuckoos (family niger, Little C o r m o r a n t , C o r m o r a n de
mlasya-kaka, Corvus corone orientalis, Cuculidae). 127, cf. anya-vapa, kokila, Vieillot, 3 7 1 , 3 7 2
Eastern Hooded C r o w [Carrion C r o w , cataka pSravata, esp. Columba livia, (Domestic)
subspecies], Corneille mantelee (?), 2, 4, para-bhrt, idem, 127, 128 Rock Pigeon, Pigeon biset, 27, 250, 251,
20 parosnl, Lonchura punctulata, Spotted Munia 255
[Scaly-breasted M.], Capucin damier, 85, parusna (parusna), Sturnus vulgaris,
P 89
parna-suka, 144, cf. patra-suka
[Common] Starling, Etourneau sansonnet,
84, 85, 89
paryandika (or paryandika), Hypsipetes parosnT, S t u r n u s : v u l g a r i s , [Common]
paksa-kalika, Falco s u b b u t e o , [Eurasian] m a d a g a s c a r i e n s i s [H. l e u c o c e p h a l u s ] , Starling, Etourneau sansonnet, 85
Martin,
Hobby, Faucon hobereau, 221, 231, 232 Black Bulbul, Bulbul de Madagascar, 35, ("Himalayan and Finsch's Starlings" are
paksa-gupta, Chloropsis hardwickei, Orange- 38, 39 terms which may refer to subspecies)
bellied Chloropsis [O. Leafbird], Verdin de parvata-kaka, Corvus corone, Carrion Crow, palahka, may refer to "a pet Hawk trained
Harwicke, 33 C o r n e i l l e n o i r e ; or C o r v u s m a c r o - for catching birds," 216
paksi-pra vara, Gypaetus barbatus, rhynchos, Jungle Crow [Large-billed C.], *pasagada, -gala (Pkt), any of the
L a m m e r g e y e r (or B e a r d e d V u l t u r e ) , Corneille a gros bee, 7 Pelecanidae (Pelican / Pelican), 370
Gypaete barbu, 197 pamsula (Pkt), male of the E u d y n a m y s pika, Eudynamys scolopacea, [Asian] Koel,
panka-kTra, any of the S c o l o p a c i d a e , scolopacea, [Asian] Koel, Coucou koel. C o u c o u koel; also C u c u l u s c a n o r u s ,
subfamily Scolapacinae, genus Gailinago 129 Eurasian (Grey or E u r o p e a n ) C u c k o o ,
(Snipe / Becassine), 366 pamsula, male of the Eudynamys scolopacea, Coucou gris; Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan
pahkti-cara-kurara, Grus virgo, Demoiselle [Asian] Koel, Coucou koel, 129; various (Asiatic) C u c k o o [Oriental C.], Coucou
Crane, Grue demoiselle, 186, 342 species of Quails (Fr. Cailles), or probably oriental, 128
pancama-kaka, Corvus monedula, [Eurasian] any of the T u r n i c i d a e (Bustard Quail pikahga, any of the Pittidae (Pitta / Breve);
Jackdaw, Corbeau caledonien, 2, 20 [Bu'ttonquail] / Turnix), 289 may refer to : Coracina novaehollandiae,
pata-kapota, Dukula aenea, Green Imperial parnsula-lava, Perdicula argoondah, Rock Large Cuckooshrike, Echenilleur a masque
Pigeon, Carpophage pauline, 251, 253, 255 Bush Quail, Perdicule argoondah, 287 noir, 117
patikutt(h)aka (so! Ja VI 538,10), Anastomus paka, cf. pecaka\ also small Strigidae pi rig a, pinga-caksu, pitigala, pingalika,
oscitans, Openbill Stork [Asian Open-bill], (Owlets / Chevechette, Cheveche), 183-184 Athene brama. Spotted Owlet, Cheveche
Bec-ouvert indien, 396 paka-harnsa (P; Paramatthajotika II 277,12), brame, 177
patti-valguli, Parus xarithogenys, Yellow- not found in early Skt literature, may refer pingal'-akkhaga (Pkt), pihgalaksa (Skt),
cheeked Tit [Black-Iored T.], Mesange a to : Cygnus olor, Mute Swan, Cygne tuber- Mycteria* l e u c o c e p h a l a , Painted Stork,
joues jaunes, 22 cule, 427-428, 431, cf. 184, 432 Tantale indien, 395
pandu-hamsa (P; not PED, but Ja V 356,24), paka {putrika) + avali, 100, cf. utpatya- pingeksena, cf. pitiga
cf. seta-harpsa pakala piccha-bana, Aquila rapax, T a w n y Eagle,
patangika, various small birds, esp. the *pakula (Pkt), 100, cf. utpatya-pakala Aigle ravisseur, 208
Sylviidae (Warbler / Fauvette), 68 pakoluka, 184, cf. paka
502 Birds in Sanskrit Literature Index Sanskrit
503
pinjola, Oriolus orioius, [Eurasian] Golden pundarTkaksa, Butastur teesa, White-eyed Red-whiskered Bulbul, Bulbul orphee, 36,
Oriole, Loriot d ' E u r o p e ; may refer to : B u z z a r d (Eagle), B u s a u t o u r aux yeux
Oriolus xanthornus, Black-headed Oriole blancs, 212 P0janr pujamya, H,rundo smithii, Wire- general, 236; esp. A c c i p i t e r gentilis
[Black-hooded O.], Loriot a capuchon noir, puttaka (P), Saxicoloides f u l i c a t a , Indian tailed Swallow, Hirondelle a longs brins, [Northern] Goshawk, Autour dej
80 Robin, Pseudotraquet indien, 90 palombes, 220, 221 235
pindTka, any of the A p o d i d a e ( S w i f t / puttika, a tiny bird, 90 cf. putrika putika, a tiny bird, 90, cf. putrika pravara-karna, any' long-eared* Strig.dae
Martinet), 168 puira-gupta, 33, 144, cf. paksa-gupta genera Bubo (Horned Owl / Grand-due)'
P
pipTlaka, Oriolus oriolus, [Eurasian] Golden putra-priya, Upupa epox, [Common] T u ' t ° l a ; U r 0 C i 8 S a ^ t h r o r n y n c h a , Red- and Ketupa (Fish Owl / Ketoupa), 180 181
Hoopoe, Huppe fasciee, 162 billed Blue Magpie, Pirolle a bee rouge-
Oriole, Loriot d'Europe, 77ff.
Urocissa flavirostris, Yellow-billed Blue T o c f p p' C ° i U m b a llVia' ^oni'estic)
*pipTliya ) ( P k t ; pTpTliya in P a n h a - putra-suka, Loriculus vernalis, Indian Kock Pigeon, Pigeon biset 137
Magpie, Pirolle a bee jaune, 12 14 20
v a g a r a n a i m 1,3 [8a, 3]), idem, 77 (read : Loriquet [Vernal Hanging Parrot], Coryllis pnyaka, Surn,cuius lugubris, Drongo
puir, Saroglossa spiloptera, Spotted-winged
pippiliya, °ya), 79 vernal, 144 Mare [Spot-winged Starling], Etourneau a c u c k o o , Coucou surnicou 131 132

™ri57i^2Bucerot,dae(Hornbi"
pippala, M e g a l a i m a virens, Great (Hill putrika, small birds, esp. the W a r b l e r s ailes tachetees, 82
Himalayan) Barbet, Barbu geant, 123, 124 (Warbler / Fauvette; G r o u n d W a r b l e r / peca Pycnonotus cafer, Red-vented Bulbul
pippika, Merops orientalis, (Small) Green (or Tesie; Bush Warbler / Bouscarle; Wren Bulbul a ventre rouge, 36, 39; or any large' pnyapatykanka, Haliaeetus Ieucoryphus
C o m m o n Indian) Bee-eater, Guepier Warbler / Prinia; Tailorbird / Couturiere; hooting Strigidae (Owl / Hibou, Chouette),
Flycatcher Warbler / Pouillot; etc.), 68; the Pallas s Sea-Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle '
d'Orient; or another Bee-eater, 149ff.
Pygargue de Pallas, 213,-243 244 245
piridr ( H e m a c a n d r a , Desin. 6,47) (Pkt; pirili M u n i a s , 89, 90; Zosterops p a l p e b r o s a , Pecaka, any large hooting Strigidae (Owl /
pnyasana-hamsa, Anas penelope, [Eurasian]
"musical instrument" [PSM]), Lonchura [Oriental] White-eye, Zosterops oriental, Hibou, Chouette), 176 180
malabarica, White-throated Munia [Indian 112; also the H i r u n d i n i d a e ( S w a l l o w , Wigeon, Canard siffleur 454f
poarjPkt), Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian
Silverbill], Capucin bec-de-plomb; Martin / Hirondelle) and the A p o d i d a e Plava, any of the Phalocrocoracidae
Kobin, Pseudotraquet indien 90
L o n c h u r a striata, W h i t e - b a c k e d M u n i a (Swift/Martinet), 100 (Cormorant/Cormorant), 299 3 7 i f f
pokkhara-sataka (P; PED takes sataka to be
[White-rumped M.], Capucin domino, 45 punya-darsana, Coracias benghalensis, pi a vah, " w a t e r - b i r d s " (Fr. " n a g e u r s " ) a
a n o t h e r bird), C h l i d o n i a s hybridus,
(read : piridi), 90 Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17 group of birds .dentified in A y u r v e d i c
Whiskered Tern, Guifette moustac, 157
pirili, pirilf, Lonchura malabarica, White- purallika, purillaka, Prinia socialis, Ashy texts, XV, 299, 341, passim
j4yn 1
throated Munia [Indian Silverbill], Capucin Wren Warbler [Ashy Prinia], Prinia cendre, potiyaka Orthotomus sutorius, [Common]
b e c - d e - p l o m b ; and L o n c h u r a striata, 69
Ph
Ta.lorb.rd, Couturiere a longue queue 69
White-backed Munia [White-rumped M.], purusa-vak-sari, G r a c u l a r e l i g i o s a , Hill popdangaQPkt), any of the P e l e c a m d a e
Capucin domino, 89f. Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 82, P A
r w t i t S l t 3 ' N U C l f r a g a cary°catactes,
(Pelican/Pelican), 370
pilaka, pilaga (Ardhamagadhf), cf. pipTlaka, 87 potaki, cf. podaki [Spotted] Nutcracker, Cassenoix mouchete,
77,79 pulTka, Saroglossa spiloptera, Spotted-
Pha-kara, Garrulax ruficollis, Rufous-necked
pTta-tunda-karandava, Anas platyrhynchos, w i n g e d Stare [ S p o t - w i n g e d S t a r l i n g ] , (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette Lugh,ngthrushjGarTu|axe.co|roux
Mallard (or Wild Duck), Canard colvert, Etourneau a ailes tachetees, 82, 83 pispolette, 1 1 0
Phala-khela, Coturnix coturnix, Grey Quail
453 puskara-sayika, Chlidonias hybridus, podakT Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian Robin [Common Q.], Ca.lle des bles, 285, cf 109
pfta-netra, cf. citra-netra Whiskered Tern, Guifette moustac, 349 Pseudotraquet indien 45 46 Ph'nga, Dicrurus adsimilis [macrocercus]
pTta-pada, pTta-pada, Acridotheres tristis, puskara-sad, puskara-sad, idem, 94, 349 (Common Black Drongo (or Kingcrow
paundraka-lava, Turnix ' tanki, [ Y e l l o w -
C o m m o n M y n a , Martin triste; Gracula puskara-sarasa, Grus leucogeranus, (Great Drongo brillant, 199
legged] Buttonquail, Turnix indien 287
religiosa, Hill Myna (or Grackle), Mainate White) Siberian Crane, Grue de Siberie,
pransfhana, birds of prey not used for Phussa-kokila (P;
v . JJU a V 470 13
religieux, 85; also Vanellus indicus, Red- 312 r„„, , v et passim),
h a w k i n g , 240; Circus m a c r o u r u s , Pale
wattled Lapwing, Vanneau indien; puskarakhya, idem, 311, 320 C u c u l u s c a n o r u s , E u r a s i a n ( G r e y or
H a m e r [Pallid H.], Busard pale; Circ
Vanellus malabaricus, Yellow-wattled puskarahva, 311, 320, 321 European) Cuckoo, Coucou gris- Cuculus
p y g a r g u s M o n t a g u ' s Harrier, B u s a r d
Lapwing, Vanneau du Malabar. 85, cf. 360 puspa-kokila, Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan cendre, 240, 247
[cr.entat C.J, Coucou oriental 128f
pTta-bhadra-suka, Psittacula alexandri, Red- (Asiatic) Cuckoo [Oriental C.], Coucou pratudab "peckers" (Fr. picoreurs), a group
breasted Parakeet, Perruche a moustaches, oriental, 129
76, 140, 144 pusparp-dhaya, Nectarinia asiatica, Purple S Qo ' o C m " , e d i n A > u r v e d i c texts XV BUlbUlaVentre
28 99, 129, 132, 164, 167, passim rot;3?39n dBUlbUl
'
pTta-munda-kalavihka, yellow-headed birds : Sunbird, Souimanga asiatique, 115 P^bhadraka, white Wagta.ls, esp. Motacilla
Ploceus philippinus, Baya Weaver, Tisserin puspa-bhusT, Lonchura punctulata, Spotted alba White Wagtail, Bergeronnette gri e
baya; Ploceus manyar, Streaked Weaver, Munia [Scaly-breasted M.], C a p u c i n (or its subspecies), 104 b
Tisserin manyar, 50, 88, 94 damier, 89 pravala-pada, Recurvirostra avosetta [Piedl
pTia-munda-cataka, idem, 94 puspa-sakuna, any of the Phasianidae, genus Avocet, Avocette elegante 361 baka a generic term for all Ciconiidae (Stork
putinT, O r t h o t o m u s sutorius, [ C o m m o n ] Tragopan; may refer to ; Tragopan satyra, prasyena Aquila chrysaetos, (H.malayan)
C
;g:gTl res
k i o r n i t h i d a e (Ibis Ibis)
Tailorbird, Couturiere a longue queue, 68 Crimson Tragopan (or Horned Pheasant) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal 199 and Ardeidae (Heron / Heron) 95 136
pundarTka, any of the Pelecanidae (Pelican / [Satyr T.], Tragopan satyre, 281 prasahah, "b.rds of prey" (Fr. predateurs) a esp Leptoptilos dub.us, A d j u t a n t Stork
Pelican), 222, 231, 370 puspavatamsaka, various whiskered g r o u p of birds ident.fied in A y u r v e d i c [Greater A d j u t a n t ] , M a r a b o u , argala-
Threskiornis aeth.opicus rT
Pycnonotidae, esp. Pycnonotus j o c o s u s , texts, XV, 341, passim
m e l a n o c e p h a l u s ] , W h i t e Ibis [ B l a c k -
headed I.], Ibis sacre, 383, 386, 387; or
 367
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w ,G o d w i t ,S a n d p i p e r ,R u j f&R e e v e ,W o o

P h o e n i c o p t e r u s ruber, [Greater] F l a m i n g o , bindu-rekhaka, Rhipidura aureola, White- buchanani, Grey-necked Bunting, Bruant a m
browed Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipidure a cou gris; E m b e r i z a hortulana, Ortolan
F l a m a n t r o s e ( d u e t o its s u p e r f i c i a l
grands sourcils; Rhipidura albicollis, Bunting, B r u a n t ortolan, 9 6
r e s e m b l a n c e to a Stork, 4 0 9 manju-pathaka, used to describe various
W h i t e - t h r o a t e d Fantail ( F l y c a t c h e r ) , R h i p i - bhasa, G y p a e t u s b a r b a t u s , L a m m e r g e y e r (or P s i t t a c i d a e ( P a r r o t / Perruche)- w h i c h a r e
baka (Pkt), Leptoptilos dubius, Adjutant
dure a g o r g e b l a n c h e , 5 4 B e a r d e d V u l t u r e ) , G y p a e t e b a r b u , 181, able to talk, 143
S t o r k [Greater A d j u t a n t ] , M a r a b o u t argala,
brhac-cancu-baka, Leptoptilos dubius, 188, 191, 192, 195, 199; a l s o N e o p h r o n mahju-plava, Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard
395
Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant], Mara- percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture (or W i l d D u c k ) , C a n a r d colvert, 4 5 3
bakara, barkara, T r a g o p a n satyra, C r i m s o n
b o u t argala, 3 9 2 [ E g y p t i a n V.], V a u t o u r p e r c n o p t e r e , 191, mafijula-datyuha, Porphyrio porphyrio,
T r a g o p a n (or H o r n e d P h e a s a n t ) [Satyr T.],
brhad-baka, Mycteria leucocephala, Painted 199, 246 Purple Moorhen [Purple S w a m p h e n ] ,
T r a g o p a n s.atyre; or T r a g o p a n m e l a n o -
Stork, Tantale indien, 395 bhasaka, Neophron percnopterus, (White) T a l e v e sultane, 292, 2 9 8
c e p h a l u s , W e s t e r n T r a g o p a n , T r a g o p a n de
brhad-rupa, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle S c a v e n g e r V u l t u r e [ E g y p t i a n V.], V a u t o u r manjulTtaka, mafijulTyaka, Megalaima
Hastings, 2 8 0
Owl [Spot-bellied E. O.], G r a n d - d u e du percnoptere, 188, 191 v i r e n s , G r e a t (Hill H i m a l a y a n ) B a r b e t ,
baka-raja, Ciconia ciconia, White Stork,
Nepal, 181 bhasoluka. B u b o c o r o m a n d u s , D u s k y H o r n e d B a r b u geant, 124
C i g o g n e b l a n c h e , 390
brahmT c a f f , A l a u d a g u l g u l a , I n d i a n S m a l l O w l [ D u s k y E a g l e O ], G r a n d - d u e d e mani-kantha, Coracias benghalensis, Indian
bakeru, C a s m e r o d i u s albus, Large Egret
Skylark [Oriental Skylark], Alouette C o r o m a n d e l , 181 Roller, Rollier indien, 17
[Great E.], G r a n d e aigrette, 4 0 2
g u l g u l e ; or A l a u d a a r v e n s i s , [ E u r a s i a n ] bhinkara, bhinga, bhingara(ka) (Pkt), b i r d s mani-taraka, G r u s antigone, Sarus (or
bandhura-karandava, Anas platyrhynchos,
Skylark, Alouette des c h a m p s , 108 of the s u b f a m i l y D i c r u r i n a e , tribe Dicrunini Indian) C r a n e , G r u e antigone, 3 L 3 1 6
M a l l a r d (or W i l d D u c k ) , C a n a r d c o l v e r t ,
(Drongo / Drongo), 64 mani-tunda(ka), Pomatorhinus ferruginosus,
453
babhru, Cuculus varius, C o m m o n H a w k bh bhilunga ( P k t ; R a y a p a s e n a i j j a 7 0 3 ) , cf. Coral-billed Scimitar Babbler, Pomatorhin
bherunda a b e e c o r a i l ; or T u r d u s b o u l b o u l , G r e y -
C u c k o o (or B r a i n f e v e r Bird), C o u c o u
bhrru, various birds of subfamily w i n g e d B l a c k b i r d , M e r l e a ailes grises, 3 1 ,
shikra, 131 bhata-kukkuta, Pterocles exustus, C o m m o n E m b e r i z i n a e ( B u n t i n g / B r u a n t ) , cf. anna- 49
barkara, cf. bakara S a n d g r o u s e [ C h e s t n u t - b e l l i e d S.], G a n g a a dusaka, bharTta mani-tunda-kalavihka, Turdus merula,
barhin, barhina, Pavo cristatus, Peacock ventre brun, 2 6 5 bhu-kaka, P s e u d i b i s p a p i l l o s a , B l a c k Ibis, [Eurasian] Blackbird, M e r l e noir, 5 0
[Indian P e a f o w l ] , P a o n bleu, 55, 277 bhandu-tittira, S c o l o p a x rusticola, [Eurasian] Ibis noir, 3 8 3 mani-tunda-syama, idem, 5 0
bala, H a l i a e e t u s albicilla. W h i t e - t a i l e d ( S e a ) W o o d c o c k , B e c a s s e des bois, 367 bhumi-saya, any of t h e A l a u d i d a e , g e n e r a mani-tunda-karandava, Mergus merganser.
Eagle, P y g a r g u e a q u e u e b l a n c h e , 213 bhadra-nama, Motacilla alba, Pied Wagtail Eremoptrix and A m m o m a n e s (Finch Lark Common Merganser (or Eastern
balaka, Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater] [White W.], B e r g e r o n n e t t e grise, 106 [Sparrow L a r k ] , L a r k / M o i n e l e t t e , A m m o - G o o s a n d e r ) , G r a n d Harle, 4 4 9 , 4 5 9
F l a m i n g o , F l a m a n t rose, 4 0 9 f f „ 414, 4 1 8 bhadra-paksT, Phoenicopterus ruber, m a n e ) , 110 mamcaka, A l c e d o atthis, C o m m o n (or
balaka, Mesophoyx intermedia, Smaller [ G r e a t e r ] F l a m i n g o , F l a m a n t r o s e , as an bhu-lihga-sakuni, Pluvianus aegyptius, Indian) Kingfisher, Martin-pecheur
Egret [Intermediate E.], Heron auspicious bird, 4 2 0 A f r i c a n Plover, P l u v i a n fluviatile, 362, 363 d ' E u r o p e , 156
i n t e r m e d i a t e ; m a y also r e f e r to : E g r e t t a bhayaiikara, Aquila rapax, Tawny Eagle, bhu-sarika, Turdoides striatus, Jungle matsya-kurara, Haliaeetus leucoryphus,
g a r z e t t a , Little E g r e t , Aigrette garzette, 2, Aigle ravisseur, 2 0 8 Babbler, C r a t e r o p e d e brousse, 30 Pallas's Sea-Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle],
4 0 3 ; f e m a l e of the P h o e n i c o p t e r u s r u b e r , bharadvaja, Alauda gulgula, Indian Small bhrhga, a n y of t h e D i c r u r i d a e ( D r o n g o / P y g a r g u e de Pallas, 213
[Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 411, Skylark [Oriental Skylark], Alouette Drongo), esp. Dicrurus adsimilis matsya-rahka, any of t h e A l c e d i n i d a e
412,419 g u l g u l e ; or A l a u d a a r v e n s i s , [ E u r a s i a n ] [macrocercus], ( C o m m o n ) Black Drongo ( K i n g f i s h e r / M a r t i n - p e c h e u r ) , 155, 158,
balaka ( P ) , M e s o p h o y x i n t e r m e d i a , S m a l l e r Skylark, Alouette des c h a m p s , 50, 108 (or K i n g c r o w ) , D r o n g o brillant, 62, 63, 65, 186;
Egret [Intermediate E.], Heron interme- bhallaka, bhalluka, Ictinaetus malayensis, 131,132
diaire, 4 0 3 matsya-raiika(-syena), Pandion haliaetus,
B l a c k Eagle, Aigle noir, 2 1 1 , 2 3 1 bhrhga-raja, D i c r u r u s p a r a d i s e u s , G r e a t e r (or
balakaksa-vaja, Accipiter gentilis, O s p r e y , B a l b u z a r d p e c h e u r , 155, 185, 186;
bhasa, any of t h e C o r v i d a e , genus Large) Racket-tailed Drongo, Drongo a
o r v a r i o u s F i s h or S e a E a g l e s ( F r .
[ N o r t h e r n ] G o s h a w k , A u t o u r des p a l o m b e s D e n d r o c i t t a (Treepie / T e m i a ) , 12, 13, 2 3 1 raquettes, 49, 6 4 - 6 5 , 144
P y g a r g u e s ) , 155, 185, 186, 2 1 3 ( c f . H :
(juvenile), 237 bhasma-cchavi-kaka, Corvus splendens, bbrhgarola, Nectarinia asiatica, Purple
macchamahga, maccharahgaf, may refer
balakahka-vaja, Accipiter gentilis, [Nor- H o u s e C r o w , C o r b e a u f a m i l i e r , 2, 4 Sunbird, S o u i m a n g a asiatique, 114 to any of t h e Sulidae ( B o o b y / Fou), 3 7 6
thern] G o s h a w k , Autour des palombes, bhandTka, any of the H i r u n d i n i d a e ( S w a l l o w , bhedasT, L o r i c u l u s v e r n a l i s , I n d i a n L o r i q u e t madana-sarika, G r a c u l a religiosa, Hill M y n a
219,237 M a r t i n / Hirondelle), 99, 165 [Vernal Hanging Parrot], Coryllis vernal,
(or G r a c k l e ) , M a i n a t e religieux, 81
balakika, Egretta garzetta, Little Egret, bharanda (Pkt), cf. bherunda 144
madgu, A n h i n g a r u f a , D a r t e r (or S n a k e b i r d ) ,
A i g r e t t e g a r z e t t e , 2, 4 0 3 ; also B u b u l c u s bharatT, bharatT vyoma-lasika, 108, 109, cf. bherunda (Pkt), L e p t o p t i l o s d u b i u s , A d j u t a n t
A n h i n g a d ' A f r i q u e , 272, 2 7 3
ibis, Cattle Egret, Heron garde-bceufs, 4 0 4 bharadvaja S t o r k [Greater A d j u t a n t ] , M a r a b o u t argala,
maddalaka ( P ) , m a y r e f e r to : C u c u l u s
bali-pusta {-kaka or -vSyasa), C o r v u s splen- bharadvaja, 50, 99, cf. bharadvaja 397,399
saturatus, H i m a l a y a n C u c k o o [Oriental C.],
dens, H o u s e C r o w , C o r b e a u familier, 2 bharadvajT, 109, cf. bharadvaja bhorita, 96, cf. bharTta
C o u c o u oriental, 129
bali-bhuk-cataka, Passer domesticus, House bharTta, gregarious and c r o p - d a m a g i n g birds,
madhuka-srTvada, Aegithina tiphia. C o m -
S p a r r o w , M o i n e a u domestique, 93 subfamily Emberizinae (Bunting / Bruant),
m o n Iora, Petit Iora, 31, 5 0
bahula-griva, P a v o cristatus, P e a c o c k [Indian esp. Emberiza m e l a n o c e p h a l a . Black-
madhu-kantha, 110, cf. kala-kantha, madhu-
P e a f o w l ] , P a o n bleu, headed Bunting, Bruant melanocephale;
ghosa
bidala, P h o d i l u s badius, [Oriental] Bay O w l , Emberiza bruniceps, Red-headed Bunting,
P h o d i l e c a l o n g , 179 Bruant a tete rousse; also E m b e r i z a
366 Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w , G o d w i t , S a n d p i p e r , R u j f & R e e v 367
e ,W o o

maha-kausika, B u b o nipalensis, F o r e s t E a g l e
musti, mustika, Microhierax caerulescens, r
madhu-kara, Nectarinia asiatica, Purple
Red-legged Falconet [Collared F.],
Sunbird, S o u i m a n g a asiatique, 114, 115 O w l [ S p o t - b e l l i e d E . O . ] , G r a n d - d u e du
F a u c o n n e t a collier, 2 3 5 rakta-kantha, Erithacus calliope [Luscinia
madhu-ghosa, sweet-voiced Cuculidae : Nepal, 176, 181, 182
mrga, G y p a e t u s b a r b a t u s , L a m m e r g e y e r (or c.], [Siberian] Rubythroat, R o s s i g n o l
C u c u l u s c a n o r u s , [ E u r a s i a n ] (or G r e y ) maha-krauhca, Grus leucogeranus, Great
Bearded Vulture), Gypaete barbu; may calliope, 4 8
C u c k o o , C o u c o u gris; C u c u l u s s a t u r a t u s , W h i t e ( S i b e r i a n ) C r a n e , G r u e de S i b e r i e ,
rather refer to : Haliaeetus leucoryphus, rakta-kantha-kapota, Chalcophaps indica,
H i m a l a y a n C u c k o o [Oriental C.], C o u c o u 319
Pallas's Sea-Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle], Emerald Dove, Colombine turvert, 257,
oriental, 128 maha-cancu-baka, Leptoptilos dubius,
P y g a r g u e de Pallas, 2 2 9 260, 262
madhupa(-khaga), 115, cf. madhu-kara Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant],
mrgendra-cataka, Falco peregrinus, rakta-grTva(-kapota), idem, 2 6 2
madhu-sarika, Sturnus roseus, Rosy Pastor M a r a b o u t argala, 392
Peregrine Falcon, F a u c o n pelerin, 222 rakta-cancu, N e t t a r u f i n a [ R h o d o n e s s a n.],
[Rosy Starling], Etourneau roselin, 86 maha-paksT, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle
mrnala-kantha, Phoenicopterus ruber, R e d - c r e s t e d P o c h a r d , Nette rousse, 4 5 7 ; cf.
madhu-ha, Pernis ptilorhyncus, (Indian Owl [Spot-bellied E. O.], G r a n d - d u e du
[Greater] Flamingo, Flamant rose, 408, rakta-sTrsaka
C r e s t e d ) H o n e y B u z z a r d [Oriental H . B.], N e p a l , 176, 182; any of t h e P e l e c a n i d a e
411,412 rakta-tunda, any of the Psittacidae ( P a r a k e e t
B o n d r e e orientale, 248 (Pelican / Pelican), 3 7 0
megha-cintaka, 137, a s y n o n y m for cataka / Perruche), 143
manahsila -ca taka, Tarsiger chrysaeus, maha-prana, any black C o r v i d a e , tribe
meghananda, f e m a l e of t h e P h o e n i c o p t e r u s rakta-drona(-kaka). Corvus ruficollis,
G o l d e n B u s h R o b i n . Rossignol dore, 52 Corvini, genus Corvus, except the
r u b e r , [ G r e a t e r ] F l a m i n g o , F l a m a n t rose, B r o w n - n e c k e d R a v e n , C o r b e a u b r u n , 1, 5,
manusya-vadana-bharanda, Gypaetus barba- C o m m o n R a v e n (Fr. G r a n d C o r b e a u ) , 3
411,418,419 20
tus, L a m m e r g e y e r (or B e a r d e d V u l t u r e ) , maha-plava, any of the P e l e c a n i d a e (Pelican
mesa-hrt, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer rakta-nasika, m a y r e f e r to : T y t o alba, B a r n
G y p a e t e b a r b u , 399 / Pelican), 3 7 0
(Lamb-vulture) (or Bearded Vulture), ( W h i t e , S c r e e c h ) O w l , E f f r a i e des c l o c h e r s ,
manosila-harpsa ( P ; not P E D , but Ja V maha-muktaka, Aquila chrysaetos,
Gypaete barbu; also Aquila chrysaetos, 173; seems to b e a w r o n g reading of vakra-
356,24), Dendrocygna bicoior, Large (Himalayan) Golden Eagle, Aigle royal,
(Himalayan) G o l d e n Eagle, Aigle royal, nasika: Strix a l u c o , ( H i m a l a y a n ) W o o d
Whistling Teal [Fulvous Whistling-duck], 206
195 O w l [ T a w n y O.], C h o u e t t e h u l o t t e , 173,
Dendrocygne fauve, 450 maha-yogT, Coracias benghalensis, Indian
maukali, maukuli, any b l a c k C o r v i d a e , tribe 177n
mayana (Pkt) ( m a d a n a is likely incorrect), R o l l e r , R o l l i e r i n d i e n , 17, 18; d o m e s t i c
Corvini, g e n u s C o r v u s , esp. C o r v u s c o r o n e . rakta-pada, Ciconia ciconia, White Stork,
G r a c u l a r e l i g i o s a , Hill M y n a (or G r a c k l e ) , C o c k , 18
Carrion C r o w , Corneille noire; Corvus Cigogne blanche; Ciconia nigra. Black
M a i n a t e religieux, 29 n. 2 maha-ravana-vaja, " I c e l a n d e r " , a f o r m of
m a c r o r h y n c h o s , l u n g l e C r o w [Large-billed S t o r k , C i g o g n e noire; C i c o n i a e p i s c o p u s ,
mayura, P a v o cristatus. Peacock [Indian the Falco rusticolus, Gyrfalcon, Faucon
C.], Corneille a gros bee, 3, 5, 6, 8 W h i t e - n e c k e d S t o r k [ W o o l l y - n e c k e d S.],
P e a f o w l ] , P a o n bleu, 55, 270 g e r f a u t , 219 [N. B. A t e r m u s e d to r e f e r to
maudgali, m a y r e f e r to : C o r v u s f r u g i l e g u s . Cigogne episcopale; Ephippiorhynchus
mayuraka, Lophophorus impejanus, Impeyan a f o r m ( F a l c o rusticolus c a n d i c a n s G m e l i n )
R o o k , C o r b e a u f r e u x , or cf. maukali. asiaticus, Black-necked Stork, labiru
Pheasant [Himalayan Monal], Lophophore w h i c h is no longer classified in this w a y . ]
d A s i e , 390
maha-vTra, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan)
resplendissant, 271, 277
mayura-kukkuta, idem, 257, 2 7 7 f f . G o l d e n Eagle, Aigle royal, 2 0 6 y rakta-pada-tunda, Ciconia ciconia, White
Stork, C i g o g n e blanche; Ciconia nigra,
mayura-ghnl, Hieraaetus fasciatus, Bonelli's maha-sveta, C a s m e r o d i u s albus, L a r g e E g r e t
yaksa-kunapT, A c r i d o t h e r e s tristis. C o m m o n B l a c k Stork, C i g o g n e noire, 3 9 0
Eagle, Aigle de Bonelli, 211 [Great E.], G r a n d e aigrette, 4 0 2
M y n a , M a r t i n triste, 85 rakta-mastaka-laksmana, Grus antigone,
maru-baka, any of the O t i d i d a e ( B u s t a r d / maha-suparna, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himal-
yava-gandika, f e m a l e of t h e B u c e r o s S a r u s (Indian) C r a n e , G r u e a n t i g o n e , 2 1 9 ,
Outarde), 326 ayan) G o l d e n Eagle, Aigle royal, 2 0 6
321
marula, Fulica atra, [Common] Coot, maha-hamsa, any of t h e A n a t i d a e , g e n u s bicornis, Great Hornbill, Calao bicorne,
C y g n u s (Swan / C y g n e ) , 4 2 2 , 4 2 8 160 rakta-murdhan. 457, cf. rakta-sTrsaka
F o u l q u e m a c r o u l e , 300
m a / a / a , Coracias b e n g h a l e n s i s , Indian Roller, yavala-kanthika, Accipiter trivirgatus, rakta-vartma(ka), Catreus wallichii, Chir
malina, Anas strepera, Gadwall, Canard
Rollier indien, 17, 18 C r e s t e d G o s h a w k , A u t o u r h u p p e (northern P h e a s a n t [ C h e e r P.], F a i s a n de W a l l i c h ;
chipeau, 454
matr-nindaka, a n y of t h e B u c e r o t i d a e f o r m ) , 238, 241 Lophura leucomelanos, Kalij Pheasant,
mallika, C y g n u s olor, M u t e Swan, Cygne
yava-hara, Emberiza buchanani, Grey- Faisan leucomele, 275
tybercule, 427 (Hornbill / Calao), 159
rakta-sTrsa, v a r i o u s r e d - h e a d e d F r i n g i l l i n a e ,
maUikaksa(-hamsa), Aythya nyroca, White- malaya, Spilornis cheela, Crested Serpent necked Bunting, Bruant a cou gris;
e s p . the R o s e f i n c h e s (Fr. R o s e l i n s ) , 9 4 ;
e y e d P o c h a r d or F e r r u g i n o u s Duck Eagle, Serpentaire b a c h a , 2 1 2 Emberiza hortulana, Ortolan Bunting,
P s e u d i b i s p a p i l l o s a , B l a c k Ibis, Ibis noir,
[Ferruginous Pochard], Fuligule nyroca, malika, A y t h y a f u l i g u l a , T u f t e d D u c k (or B r u a n t ortolan, 9 6
352
428, 458 Pochard), Fuligule morillon, 4 5 8 yavalaka-kukkuta, Lophura leucomelanos,
masa-vartika, Calandrella rufescens, Lesser Kalij Pheasant, F a i s a n l e u c o m e l e , 2 7 5 rakta-sTrsaka, N e t t a r u f i n a [ R h o d o n e s s a n.],
*mahari (Pkt), C o p s y c h u s saularis, [Oriental]
yastika, Gallicrex cinerea, W a t e r c o c k , R a l e a Red-crested Pochard, Nette rousse; Rhodo-
M a g p i e R o b i n , S h a m a dayal, 47 (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette
c r e t e , 3 0 1 , 358;- or H i m a n t o p u s h i m a n - nessa caryophyllacea, Pink-headed Duck,
maha ukkusa (P), 214, cf. f o l l o w i n g entry pispolette, 110
topus, Black-winged Stilt, Echasse N e t t e a c o u rose; A y t h y a f e r i n a , C o m m o n
maha utkrosa, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, mithunin, M o t a c i l l a alba, W h i t e W a g t a i l ,
P o c h a r d , F u l i g u l e milouin, 4 4 9 , 4 5 7
Pallas's Sea-Eagle [Pallas's Fish Eagle], Bergeronnette grise, 106 blanche, 358
mrna-rahka, a n y of t h e A l c e d i n i d a e rakta-sirsa-kalavirika, cf. rakta-sTrsa, 50, 9 3
P y g a r g u e de Pallas, 214 raktaksa-hamsa, Cairina scutulata. White-
( K i n g f i s h e r / M a r t i n - p e c h e u r ) , 155,
maha-kahka, m a y r e f e r to : A r d e a insignis, winged ( W o o d ) Duck, Canard a ailes
minamnna, M o t a c i l l a alba, W h i t e W a g t a i l ,
(Great) White-bellied Heron, Heron blanches, 449
Bergeronnette grise, 106
imperial, 4 0 2
366 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w ,G o d w i t ,S a n d p i p e r ,R u j f&R e e v e ,W o o d c

raktanga, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) " C y g n u s c o l u m b i a n u s davidi S w i n h o e lalaka, Amandava amandava, Red Munia vadabha (Skt, not Pkt!), idem, 124
Vulture, Vautour royal, 188 1870, S w i n h o e ' s Swan, known f r o m the [Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, 91 vana-kaka, 8, 10, 20, cf. aranya-kaka
u n i q u e type f r o m Tientsin, in H o p e y , lava, may have been used to refer to any of vana-kukkuta, Gallus gallus, Red Junglefowl
raghata, F a l c o j u g g e r , L a g g e r F a l c o n ,
China, is p r o b a b l y a young C the Turnicidae (Bustard Quail [Button- ( C o m m o n or Wild Cock), Coq bankiva,
Faucon laggar, 227
(columbianus) bewickii"]; C y g n u s olor, quail] / Turnix); smaller than the Common 273
rahgana(-syena), Falco tinnunculus,
Mute Swan, Cygne tubercule, 433 n. or Grey Quail (Coturnix coturnix, Fr. vana-kulitiga, vana-cataka, tree-sparrows in
[Common] Kestrel, Faucon crecerelle, 155,
raji-suka, Psarisomus dalhousiae, L o n g - C a i l l e des b l e s ) , B u s h Q u a i l s (Fr. general, as distinct from the g&a-kulinga
220, 233
tailed Broadbill, Eurylaime psittacin, 118 P e r d i c u l e s ) , c a m e to be r e g a r d e d as (House Sparrow / Moineau domestique),
rajanT-baka, any nocturnal Ardeidae (Night
rukkha-kottaka (P), any of the P i c i d a e varieties of lava, 285ff., 291 92, 95
H e r o n s and v a r i o u s B i t t e r n s / Fr.
(Woodpecker / Pic), 54n 2, 119 lopa, lopayika, the smaller Quails (Bush vana-casa, one of the C o r v i d a e , tribe
B i h o r e a u x and B l o n g i o s ) , except the
rucaka-paravata, C o l u m b a pulchricollis, Quails / Perdicules) and all Turnicidae Corvini, genus Garrulus (Jay / Geai), 16,
Botaurus stellaris, [Great] Bittern, Butor
Ashy ' Wood Pigeon, Pigeon cendre; (Bustard Quail [Buttonquail] / Fr. Turnix), 20
etoile, 405
Columba palumbus, [Common] Wood 286, 288,291 vara-cataka, probably refers to the various
rajju-dala, rajju-dalaka, Terpsiphone
Pigeon, Pigeon ramier, 256 loha, Harpactes erythrocephalus, Red-headed Rosefinches or to the Scarlet Finch (Fr.
paradisi, Paradise Flycatcher, Tchitrec de
rocisnu, Leiothrix lutea, Red-billed Liothrix, Trogon, Trogon a tete rouge, 164 Roselins), 93
paradis, 14, 54
loha-tunda-kakola (or -vayasa), Pyrrhocorax varanda, Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or
rajju-vala, idem, 54ff. Leiothrix jaune, 32
rana-paksT, A q u i l a r a p a x , T a w n y Eagle, . ropanaka, Gracula religiosa, Hill Myna (or pyrrhocorax, Red-billed Chough, Crave a Grackle), Mainate religieux, 81
Grackle), Mainate religieux, 81 bee rouge, 6, 10, 11 vara-harpsa, Phoenicopterus ruber, [Greater]
Aigle ravisseur, 208
rohinT, rohinika, Anas crecca, C o m m o n Teal, loha-paksT, loha-prstha, 164, cf. loha Flamingo, Flamant rose, 408, 409, 412,
rana-matta, idem, 208
Sarcelle d'hiver, 455 loha^prsta-kahka, Haliastur indus, Brahmany 420
ranalahkarana-kahka, Haliastur indus,
Brahmany Kite, Milan sacre, 243 Kite, Milan sacre, 213, 242, 243 varisa-priya, Cacomantis passerinus,
lohandf sakuni, Falco tinnunculus, Plaintive Cuckoo [Grey-bellied C.],
rata-nidhi, Motacilla alba, White Wagtail, 1
Bergeronnette grise, 106 [Common] Kestrel, Faucon crecerelle, 233 Coucou a tete grise, 131
lohita. Anas crecca, C o m m o n Teal, Sarcelle varistha-tittira, Tetraogallus himalayensis,
rala, certain noisy ground insects, incorrectly
laksmana, Grus antigone, Sarus (Indian) H i m a l a y a n S n o w c o c k , T e t r a o g a l l e de
identified as Bulbuls (family d'hiver, 455
Crane, Grue antigone, 312 I'Himalaya, 284
Pycnonotidae), 35, 38, 39, cf. karniyaka
lagna, f e m a l e of the Falco jugger, Lagger vartaka (with variants vartaka, vartaka,
ravi-hamsa (P; Ja VI 539,15), Dendrocygna V
Falcon, Faucon laggar, 220, 221, 227 etc.), the largest Quail: Coturnix coturnix,
bicolor, Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous
laghu-jahgala, 286, cf. alpa-kapinjala Grey Quail [Common Q.], Caille des bles,
Whistling-duck, Dendrocygne fauve, 450 vakra-tunda, any of the Psittacidae (Parakeet
lahgana, male of the Falco jugger, Lagger 109, 285; Quails in general, 289
raga-paksi, A q u i l a r a p a x , T a w n y Eagle, / Perruche), 143
Falcon, Faucon laggar, 227; cf. rangana(- vartakT, variant of vartika, not to be confused
Aigle ravisseur, 208 vakra-nasa, m a y refer to : Strix aluco,
syena) with : C a l a n d r e l l a r u f e s c e n s , L e s s e r
raja-putrika, C h a r a d r i u s dubius, Little (Himalayan) Wood Owl, Chouette hulotte, (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette
latukika, Amandava amandava, Red M u n i a
Ringed Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 357; 177 pispolette, 109
[Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, 91
Charadrius placidus, Long-billed (Ringed) vaca, may refer to a Parrot (Fr. Perruche), vartika, smaller Quails: Coturnix
latusaka, various Laniidae (Shrike / Pie-
Plover, Pluvier a long bee, 357 142 coromandelica, Black-breasted Quail [Rain
grieche), 57
raja-baka, Ciconia ciconia, White Stork, v a c a , may refer to : Gracula religiosa. Hill Q.], Caille nattee; Coturnix chinensis,
latva, any of the Pycnonotidae (Bulbul /
Cigogne blanche, 390 Myna (or Grackle), Mainate religieux, 142 Blue-breasted Quail, Caille peinte, 285;
Bulbul), 34ff.; Pycnonotus l e u c o g e n y s ,
raja-bhattika, 357, cf. raja-putrika vajra-niskambha, cf. garuda, a mythical any Quails, 289; not to be confused with :
W h i t e - c h e e k e d Bulbul [Himalayan B.],
raja-vihahgama, Coracias benghalensis, bird; or Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Calandrella r u f e s c e n s , Lesser ( R u f o u s )
Bulbul a joues blanches, 34, 37, 54, 57;
Indian Roller, Rollier indien, 17 Golden Eagle, Aigle royal, 207 Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispolette, 109
also P y c n o n o t u s leucotis, W h i t e - e a r e d
raja-suka, Psittacula eupatria, Large Indian vanculaka, may refer to any of the Gaviidae varti-cataka, Calandrella rufescens, Lesser
Bulbul, Bulbul a oreillons blancs;
P a r a k e e t [ A l e x a n d r i n e P.], P e r r u c h e (Diver or Loon / Plongeon), 463 (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette
P y c n o n o t u s melanicterus, B l a c k - h e a d e d
alexandre, 143 vanjula, any of the C i n c l i d a e (Dipper / pispolette, 109
Yellow Bulbul [Black-crested B ], Bulbul a
raja-sarasa, Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian Cincle), esp. C i n c l u s pallasii, B r o w n vartira, Bushquails (Fr. Perdicules), similar
tete noire, 37; C a l a n d r e l l a r u f e s c e n s ,
Peafowl], Paon bleu, 270 Dipper, Cincle de Pallas, 43; Podiceps to small Partridges : Perdicula asiatica,
Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette
raja-harpsa, any of the Anatidae, genus ruficollis [Tachybaptus r.], Little Grebe (or Jungle Bush Quail, Perdicule rousse-gorge,
pispolette, 35; Rhipidura aureola, White-
Cygnus (Cygnus cygnus, Whooper Swan, Babchick), Grebe castagneux, 43, 461 Perdicula argoondah, Rock Bush Quail,
browed Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipidure a
Cygne chanteur; Cygnus olor, Mute Swan, vanjulaka, Podiceps nigricollis, Black- Perdicule argoondah, 286, 287
grands sourcils; and Rhipidura albicollis,
Cygne tubercule), 4 2 6 f f . ; Anser anser, necked Grebe, Grebe a cou noir, 462; vartmka, cf. vartira
White-throated Fantail (Flycatcher),
Greylag Goose, Oie cendree, 436, 437, 440 Podiceps cristatus, Great Crested Grebe,
Rhipidure a gorge blanche, 35, 53, 54, 90 vartulaksa, Hieraaetus fasciatus, B o n e l l i ' s
raja-harpsa (P), Cygnus cygnus, Whooper Grebe huppe, 462, 463
latvaka, Amandava amandava, Red Munia Eagle, Aigle de Bonelli, 211
Swan, Cygne chanteur; Anser indicus, Bar- vafa, Gypaetus barbatus, Lammergeyer (or
[Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, 53, 54, 91 vartulaksa-syena, idem, 211
headed Goose, Oie a tete barree, 427f.; Bearded Vulture), Gypaete barbu, 195
lapa(ka-sakuna) (P), may refer to : Turnix varttaka, varttaka, not to be confused with :
C y g n u s c o l u m b i a n u s davidi, " C h i n e s e vata-ha, M e g a l a i m a virens, G r e a t (Hill
suscitator, Common Bustard-Quail [Barred Calandrella r u f e s c e n s , Lesser ( R u f o u s )
Swan" [Tundra Swan], Cygne siffleur, 430 Himalayan) Barbet, Barbu geant, 124
Buttonquail], Turnix combattant, 289
[N.B. According to Sibley and Monroe,
366 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w ,G o d w i t ,S a n d p i p e r ,R u j f&R e e v e ,W o o d

nipalensis, R u f o u s - n e c k e d Hornbill, C a l a o sara-kaulTka, Ploceus benghalensis, Black-

S h o r t - t o e d L a r k , A l o u e t t e pispolette, 109; vit-sarika, Sturnus contra, [Asian] Pied
a cou roux, 159 throated Weaver [Black-breasted W.],
cf. vartaka M y n a , Etourneau pie, 85, 87
vyahgin kutT, A p u s a f f i n i s , ( C o m m o n ) H o u s e Tisserin du B e n g a l e , 89
vardhamana-kapota, Dukula aenea, Green vidTgaya, Otis tarda, G r e a t B u s t a r d , G r a n d e
S w i f t , Martinet des m a i s o n s , 166 sara-cataka, any of the Silviidae, s u b f a m i l y
I m p e r i a l P i g e o n , C a r p o p h a g e pauline, 2 5 1 , Outarde, 3 2 8
vyaghrata, Calandrella rufescens, Lesser Acrocephalinae, genus Acrocephalus (Reed
253, 2 5 5 visalaksa, cf. garuda, a mythical bird; esp.
(Rufous) Short-toed Lark, Alouette pispo- W a r b l e r / Rousserolle), 69
varsa-priya, Cacomantis passerinus, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden
lette, 109 sarabha, any of t h e P e l e c a n i J a e ( P e l i c a n /
Plaintive Cuckoo [Grey-bellied C.], Eagle, Aigle royal, 207
vyoma-lasika, A l a u d a g u l g u l a , Indian S m a l l Pelican), 2 3 1 , 370
C o u c o u a tete grise, 131 visoka, C o r a c i a s b e n g h a l e n s i s , Indian Roller,
Skylark [Oriental Skylark], Alouette sarabbr, Saroglossa spiloptera, Spotted-
valgula, B u r h i n u s o e d i c n e m u s , S t o n e P l o v e r Rollier indien, 17, 18; d o m e s t i c C o c k , 18
g u l g u l e ; or A l a u d a a r v e n s i s , [ E u r a s i a n ] winged Stare [Spot-winged Starling],
(Curlew) [Eurasian Thick-knee], visvaka, any of t h e G l a r e o l i d a e , s u b f a m i l y
Skylark, Alouette des c h a m p s , 109, 155 E t o u r n e a u a ailes tachetees, 82
O e d i c n e m e criard, 39 Glareolinae, genus Glareola (Pratincole /
saratika (saratT), Threskiornis aethiopicus [T.
vaka, Nycticorax nycticorax, [Black- Glareole), 335
c r o w n e d ] N i g h t Heron, Bihoreau gris, 4 0 5 *visuvi, idem, 335 £ m e l a n o c e p h a l u s ] , W h i t e Ibis [Black-
h e a d e d I.], Ibis sacre, 353, cf. 3 8 2
v a k - ka ra , noisy birds including viskirah, "scratchers" (Fr. "gratteurs"), a
sarati, R y n c h o p s albicollis, Indian S k i m m e r ,
Laughingthrushes (Garrulaxes) and g r o u p of b i r d s i d e n t i f i e d in A y u r v e d i c sakatara, sakatala, Neophron percnopterus,
texts, X V , 28, 92, 137, 170, 268, passim B e c - e n - c i s e a u x a collier, 353
B a b b l e r s (Crateropes), 28 ( W h i t e ) S c a v e n g e r V u l t u r e [ E g y p t i a n V.],
visnu-dharma, 207, cf. visalaksa sarari, i d e m , 352, 353, 4 5 0
vaja, A c c i p i t e r gentilis, [Northern] G o s h a w k , V a u t o u r percnoptere, 193
visnu-lihgaka, Pericrocotus flammeus, sararT, idem, 3 5 1 - 3 5 3 , 4 5 0
A u t o u r des p a l o m b e s , 220, 221, 2 3 5 f f „ 241 sakatavila, Fulica atra, [ C o m m o n ] Coot,
sarali, saralT, D e n d r o c y g n a j a v a n i c a , L e s s e r
vaja-raja, S p i z a e t u s cirrhatus, C r e s t e d H a w k Scarlet Minivet, Grand Minivet; Foulque macroule, 300 Whistling Teal [Lesser Whistling-duck],
E a g l e [ C h a n g e a b l e H. E.], A i g l e h u p p e , Pericrocotus brevirostris, Short-billed sakuna, Gyps indicus, (Indian) Long-billed Dendrocygne siffleur; Dendrocygna
211 Minivet, Minivet a bee court, 58, 59 Vulture (or Indian G r i f f o n ) , V a u t o u r bicolor, Large Whistling Teal [Fulvous
vSji, vajika, A c c i p i t e r gentilis, [ N o r t h e r n ] vihara, Rhipidura aureola, White-browed indien, 191 Whistling-duck, Dendrocygne fauve, 353,
G o s h a w k , A u t o u r des p a l o m b e s , 220, 2 3 6 Fantail (Flycatcher), Rhipidure a grands sakuna-grdhra, idem, 188 450
vajT, A c c i p i t e r gentilis, [Northern] G o s h a w k , sourcils, 54 isakuni, M i l v u s m i g r a n s , P a r i a h Kite [Black
vTcT-kaka, any of the L a r i d a e , g e n u s L a r u s sasa-ghatl, v a r i o u s H a w k E a g l e s (Fr. A i g l e
A u t o u r des p a l o m b e s , 220, 235, 236, 241 K.], M i l a n noir, 1 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 6
montagnard, Aigle huppe, Aigle botte,
vatasin, Apus affinis, (Common) House (Gull / G o e l a n d , M o u e t t e ) , 343 sakunta, a b i r d in g e n e r a l , 5 8 ; N e o p h r o n
etc.), 2 1 0
S w i f t , M a r t i n e t des m a i s o n s , 166 vTjana, a kind of P h a e s a n t (Fr. Faisan), 2 7 3 percnopterus, (White) Scavenger Vulture
saHaghnr, idem, 199, 210, 211
vayasa, any of the C o r v i d a e , tribe C o r v i n i , vrksa-kukkuta(-sakuna), a generic term for [ E g y p t i a n V . ] , V a u t o u r p e r c n o p t e r e , 188,
sasada, idem, 210, 211, 220, 221
g e n u s C o r v u s ( C r o w / C o r b e a u , Corneille), Picidae ( W o o d p e c k e r / Pic), 26, 119 192-192; G y p a e t u s b a r b a t u s , L a m m e r g e y e r
sasada-syena, idem, 210; Spizaetus
I f f . ; esp. C o r v u s s p l e n d e n s . H o u s e C r o w , vrtti-tittiri, Francolinus gularis, S w a m p (or B e a r d e d V u l t u r e ) , G y p a e t e b a r b u , 192,
cirrhatus, Crested Hawk Eagle
C o r b e a u familier, 2 P a r t r i d g e (S. F r a n c o l i n ) , F r a n c o l i n m u l t i - 193
[ C h a n g e a b l e H. E.], Aigle h u p p e , 2 1 0
vayasantaka uluka, Bubo coromandus, raie, 284 sakuntaka, a bird in general, 5 8 sasoluka, A s i o otus, L o n g - e a r e d O w l , H i b o u
Dusky Horned Owl [Dusky Eagle O.], vrddha-kaka, Corvus corax, [Common] sakunta-balaka, a small bird in general, 90
G r a n d - d u e de C o r o m a n d e l , 181 m o y e n - d u c , 179
R a v e n , G r a n d C o r b e a u , 4, 5, 2 0 sakuntika, a s m a l l b i r d , e x p l a i n e d as a
sakuneya, according to Dave, auspicious
varata, E u p o d o t i s b e n g a l e n s i s [ H o u b a r o p s i s vrsayana, Passer domesticus, House kapinjalT: f e m a l e of t h e F r a n c o l i n u s
b.J, B e n g a l F l o r i c a n , O u t a r d e du B e n g a l e , birds in general, 177
Sparrow, Moineau domestique, 92 pondicerianus, Grey Partridge [Grey
325,330 sanvali, E u p o d o t i s b e n g a l e n s i s [ H o u b a r o p s i s
vrsarava, Cuculus varius, C o m m o n H a w k F r a n c o l i n ] , F r a n c o l i n g r i s , 5 8 ; or B u s h
b.], B e n g a l F l o r i c a n , O u t a r d e du B e n g a l e ,
varana, Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande C u c k o o (or B r a i n f e v e r B i r d ) , C o u c o u Quails (Fr. Perdicules), cf. alpa-kapinjala
330
Outarde, 3 2 7 , 3 2 8 shikra, 168, 169 sahkara, Sturnus pagodarum, Brahmany
sara-pada, Ithaginis cruentus, Blood
vari-kahka, Ardea cinerea, Grey Heron, veladhara, Dromas ardeola, Crab-plover, M y n a [B. S t a r l i n g ] , E t o u r n e a u des
p a g o d e s , 86 P h e a s a n t , Ithagine ensanglantee, 2 8 1
H e r o n cendre, 4 0 0 , 4 0 1 D r o m e ardeole, 336; Raphus cuculiatus,
sahku-hamsa, A n a s acuta, [Northern] Pintail, sarika, G r a c u l a r e l i g i o s a . Hill M y n a ( o r
vartTka, not to be c o n f u s e d with : C a l a n d r e l l a D o d o , D r o n t e de Maurice, 3 9 8 f .
G r a c k l e ) , M a i n a t e religieux ( t a l k i n g c a g e -
rufescens, Lesser (Rufous) Short-toed vesara, m a l e of the A c c i p i t e r v i r g a t u s , B e s r a C a n a r d pilet, 4 5 5
bird); A c r i d o t h e r e s tristis, C o m m o n M y n a ,
Lark, A l o u e t t e pispolette, 109; cf. vartaka (Sparrow-hawk), Epervier besra, 220, 221; sata-patra, P s i t t a c u l a e u p a t r i a , L a r g e Indian
M a r t i n triste (noisy bird of ill o m e n ) , 81f.
vardhrinasa, any of the B u c e r o t i d a e A c c i p i t e r nisus, [ E u r a s i a n ] S p a r r o w h a w k , Parakeet [Alexandrine P.], Perruche
sarga, samga(ka), a n y of t h e M e r o p i d a e
( H o r n b i l l / C a l a o ) , 159, 161, i n c l u d i n g the E p e r v i e r d ' E u r o p e , 220, 236 a l e x a n d r e ; P a v o cristatus, P e a c o c k [Indian
(Bee-eater / Guepier), 148, 149, 151, 152
Aceros nipalensis, Rufous-necked vesara, small H a w k s , 2 3 7 Peafowl], Paon bleu; various Picidae
sarnga, sarhgika, f e m a l e of the M e r o p i d a e
Hornbill, C a l a o a cou roux, 159, 160 vainateya, c f . garuda-, esp. Aquila ( W o o d p e c k e r / P i c ) , l 19
chrysaetos, (Himalayan) Golden Eagle,
(supra), 149, 151
vasa, A c c i p i t e r nisus, Indian S p a r r o w h a w k sata-patra-suka, Psittacula eupatria, Large
salamalT-stha, 73, cf. salmala
[Eurasian S.], E p e r v i e r d ' E u r o p e ; Accipiter Aigle royal, 192, 199 Indian P a r a k e e t [ A l e x a n d r i n e P.], P e r r u c h e .
saliva, F a l c o p e r e g r i n u s . P e r e g r i n e F a l c o n ,
gularis, Asiatic Sparrowhawk ]Japanese vailataka, Dromas ardeola, Crab-plover, alexandre, 143
F a u c o n pelerin, 220, 221
S.], E p e r v i e r du J a p o n , 220ff., 236; general D r o m e ardeole, 336 sabalika, Elanus caeruleus, Black-winged
salmala, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan)
term f o r small H a w k s , 237 vyaghinasa (P; *vyagghmasa is l i k e l y Kite [ B l a c k - s h o u l d e r e d K.], E l a n i o n b l a c
G o l d e n Eagle, Aigle royal, 7 3
vikakara, Pterocles indicus, Painted incorrect; not in P E D , but J a VI vs 2 0 9 9 v. (or blanc), 2 4 6
sikara, A c c i p i t e r b a d i u s , S h i k r a , E p e r v i e r
S a n d g r o u s e , G a n g a indien, 265 loha[Slpittha), a n y of t h e B u c e r o t i d a e
shikra, 2 3 6 f f .
( H o r n b i l l / C a l a o ) , i n c l u d i n g the A c e r o s
 366
Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w , G o d w i t , S a n d p i p e r , R u j f & R e e367
v e ,W o

sikharr, Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled syama(-kalavihka), Saxicoloides fulicata, sveta-karandava, M e r g e l l u s albellus, S m e w , fulvus, European Griffon [Eurasian G.],
L a p w i n g , V a n n e a u indien, 3 5 8 Indian R o b i n , P s e u d o t r a q u e t indien, 4 5 f f . ;
Harle piette; M e r g u s m e r g a n s e r , C o m m o n V a u t o u r f a u v e ( n o w c o n s i d e r e d to be three
siti-kaksa-grdhra, siti-kaksin, Gyps Copsychus malabaricus, [White-rumped]
M e r g a n s e r (or E a s t e r n G o o s a n d e r ) , G r a n d d i f f e r e n t species), 196
bengalensis, (Indian), White-backed Shama, S h a m a a croupion blanc, 46, 50,
Harle, 4 5 9 sarahga, Zosterops palpebrosa, [Oriental]
Vulture [White-rumped V.j, Vautour 9 3 ; m a y r e f e r to : P a r u s m a j o r , G r e y Tit,
sveta-kokila, Cuculus canorus, Eurasian W h i t e - e y e , Zosterops oriental, 112
C h a u g o u n , 188, 190 Mesange charbonniere, 22
(Grey or E u r o p e a n ) C u c k o o , C o u c o u gris; sarpanta, Circaetus gallicus, Short-toed
siti-kantha, P a v o cristatus, P e a c o c k [ I n d i a n syama-gala-kaka, any b l a c k C o r v i d a e , tribe
Cuculus saturatus, Himalayan (Asiatic) [Snake] Eagle, Circaete Jean-le-Blanc;
Peafowl], Paon bleu, 229; Ciconia Corvini, genus Corvus, except the
C u c k o o [ O r i e n t a l C ], C o u c o u o r i e n t a l , Spilornis cheela, Crested Serpent Eagle,
episcopus, White-necked Stork [Woolly- C o m m o n R a v e n (Fr. G r a n d C o r b e a u , 6
128f. Serpentaire bacha; Haliaeetus leucogaster,
necked S.], Cigogne episcopale; syama-cataka, Emberiza melanocephala,
sveta-paravata, C o l u m b a leuconota, Snow W h i t e - b e l l i e d S e a Eagle, P y g a r g u e blagre,
E p h i p p i o r h y n c h u s asiaticus, B l a c k - n e c k e d Black-headed Bunting, Bruant
P i g e o n , P i g e o n des neiges, 2 5 6 211-212
S t o r k , Jabiru d ' A s i e , 389, 390 melanocephale; and E m b e r i z a bruniceps,
sveta-mastaka-laksmana, Grus monacha, sarpari, idem, 211-212; Pavo cristatus,
siti-paksa, Hirundo smithii, Wire-tailed R e d - h e a d e d B u n t i n g , B r u a n t a tete r o u s s e ,
95-96 H o o d e d C r a n e , G r u e m o i n e , 319, 321 P e a c o c k [Indian P e a f o w l ] , P a o n bleu, 2 7 0
S w a l l o w , H i r o n d e l l e a longs brins, 101
sveta-vaka, T h r e s k i o r n i s a e t h i o p i c u s [T. sarsapT, Charadrius dubius, Little Ringed
siti-prsta, i d e m , 101 syava-grdhra, Aegypius monachus,
m e l a n o c e p h a l u s ] , W h i t e Ibis [Black- Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 3 3 4 , 357
sitodarT, idem, 101 C i n e r e o u s V u l t u r e , V a u t o u r m o i n e , 188,
h e a d e d I.], Ibis sacre, 386, 387 sataka, s e e kottha-sataka
sila-nTda, Aquila chrysaetos, (Himalayan) 190
svetoluka, T y t o alba, B a r n ( W h i t e , S c r e e c h ) sarahga, Pavo cristatus, Peacock [Indian
G o l d e n Eagle, A i g l e royal, 207 syeta-suka, Psittacula alexandri, (Indian) O w l , E f f r a i e des clochers, 173, 178 Peafowl], Paon bleu, 270; Tetrax tetrax,
silindhrT, a n y o f t h e S i t t i d a e ( N u t h a t c h / R e d - b r e a s t e d P a r a k e e t (or P a r o q u e t ) , Little Bustard, Outarde canepetiere, 325,
Sittelle), 2 4 f f .
siva-harpsa, Podiceps cristatus, Great
P e r r u c h e & m o u s t a c h e s , 144
syena, a g e n e r i c t e r m w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e
S 328
sarahga-kaka, Nucifraga caryocatactes,
Crested Grebe, Grebe huppe, 4 6 2 F a l c o n i d a e ( F a l c o n / F a u c o n ) , a n d certain
[Spotted] N u t c r a c k e r , C a s s e n o i x m o u c h e t e ,
sinjirika, a n y of the N e c t a r i n i d a e ( S u n b i r d / s p e c i e s of t h e A c c i p i t r i d a e f a m i l y , e s p . sakrt-praja, any C o r v i d a e , tribe Corvini,
S o u i m a n g a ) , 114 g e n u s C o r v u s ( C r o w / C o r b e a u , Corneille),
11,20
E a g l e s , H a w k E a g l e s , B u z z a r d s , 199, 236;
sarahga-cataka, Clamator jacobinus, Pied
suka, a n y of t h e P s i t t a c i d a e ( P a r a k e e t / m a y r e f e r s p e c i f i c a l l y to t h e t r u e E a g l e s , 3
( C r e s t e d ) C u c k o o , C o u c o u j a c o b i n , 104,
P e r r u c h e ) , e x c e p t the L o r i c u l u s v e r n a l i s 199, 2 0 0 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 5 , 2 0 8 , 2 1 0 ; a n d to sancana, sancana, sacana, A c c i p i t e r badius,
131, 134, 135
[ V e r n a l H a n g i n g Parrot], Indian L o r i q u e t , d i f f e r e n t f o r m s of the P e r e g r i n e F a l c o n (Fr. Shikra, Epervier shikra, 220, 221, 241ff.;
sarasa, Circus aeruginosus, (Eurasian]
C o r y l l i s vernal, 23, 142, 143 F a u c o n pelerin), 2 1 0 any s m a l l A c c i p i t r i d a e ( H a w k / E p e r v i e r ,
Marsh Harrier, Busard des roseaux, 247;
suka-cchavi(-kapota), Chalcophaps indica, syena-sarasa, Grus leucogeranus, Great etc.), 237; cf. sicanah
Grus grus, C o m m o n Crane, Grue cendree,
E m e r a l d Dove, C o l o m b i n e turvert, 257, White (Siberian) Crane, Grue de Siberie, satva, P a r u s x a n t h o g e n y s , Y e l l o w - c h e e k e d
3 1 1 , 312; G r u s antigone, Sarus (or I n d i a n )
261,262 312 Tit [Black-lored T.], M e s a n g e a j o u e s
Crane, G r u e antigone, 3 1 2
suka-tunda, any of the S y l v i i d a e , s u b f a m i l y jaunes, 22
syenakhya, idem, 320, 3 2 1 , 3 2 3 saradi ( P k t ) , T h r e s k i o r n i s a e t h i o p i c u s [T.
S y l v i i n a e , tribe Timaliini, called Parrotbills syenoluka, Bubo nipalensis, Forest Eagle sattapatta (P; not in P E D ) , any of the Picidae
m e l a n o c e p h a l u s ] , W h i t e Ibis [Black-
or S u t h o r a s (Fr. Paraxodornis), 23 O w l [ S p o t - b e l l i e d E . O . ] , G r a n d - d u e du ( W o o d p e c k e r / P i c ) , 119
h e a d e d I.], Ibis sacre, 3 8 4
suka-nasa, idem, 23 Nepal, 182, 183 sa da-luta, Vanellus indicus, Red-wattled
sarika, 8 1 , c f . sarika, e s p . A c r i d o t h e r e s
suka-pucchaka, i d e m , 118 srTka, M y i o p h o n e u s c a e r u l e u s , ( H i m a l a y a n ) L a p w i n g , V a n n e a u indien, 81, 360;
tristis, C o m m o n M y n a , M a r t i n triste, 3 0 ,
sukanana, idem, 23 [Blue] W h i s t l i n g T h r u s h , A r r e n g a s i f f l e u r ; Vanellus malabaricus. Yellow-wattled
85; any of t h e S t u r n i d a e ( S t a r l i n g , M y n a /
sukika, A e g i t h i n a tiphia, C o m m o n Iora, Petit L a p w i n g , V a n n e a u du M a l a b a r , 360
Motacilla alba, White Wagtail, M a r t i n , E t o u r n e a u , M a i n a t e ) , 84; G r a c u l a
Iora, 31 sapta-rava, cf. garuda, a m y t h i c a l bird; m a y
Bergeronnette grise, 102 r e l i g i o s a , Hill M y n a (or G r a c k l e ) , M a i n a t e
sukla-kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, r e f e r to the H a l i a e e t u s leucogaster, W h i t e -
srT-karna, any of the P y c n o n o t i d a e ( B u l b u l s ) religieux, 142
bellied S e a Eagle, P y g a r g u e blagre, 213
C o r b e a u f a m i l i e r (albino), 8 with a white, or w h i t e a n d red, patch in the salvika, S t u r n u s contra, [Asian] P i e d M y n a ,
sapta svasarah, g r e g a r i o u s and noisy birds :
suddha-vesara, Accipiter virgatus, Besra ear-region, 39
Babbler / P o m a t o r h i n , Craterope, esp. E t o u r n e a u pie, 86
( S p a r r o w - h a w k ) , E p e r v i e r besra, 241 srT-vada, o n e of the v a r i o u s s p e c i e s of Sibia sihgila, a n y P a s s e r i d a e of t h e Ploceinae
Turdoides malcolmi, Large Grey Babbler,
susuluka, B u b o nipalensis, F o r e s t E a g l e O w l (Sylviidae, subfamily Sylviinae, tribe
C r a t e r o p e g r i s ; T u r d o i d e s striatus, l u n g l e s u b f a m i l y ( W e a v e r / Tisserin), 89
[ S p o t - b e l l i e d E. O.], G r a n d - d u e du N e p a l ; Timaliini, genus Heterophasia), 50;
B a b b l e r , C r a t e r o p e de b r o u s s e , 29-31; also sicanah (cf. sancanah), small Accipitridae
or m a y r e f e r to o n e of the small S t r i g i d a e Myiophoneus caeruleus, (Himalayan)
any M i n i v e t / M i n i v e t (tribe Oriolini, g e n u s ( H a w k / Epervier, etc.), 2 3 7 ; also A c c i p i t e r
( O w l e t / C h e v e c h e t t e , C h e v e c h e ) , 183 [Blue] W h i s t l i n g T h r u s h , A r r e n g a siffleur,
Pericrocotus), 5 9 - 6 0 badius, Shikra, Epervier shikra, 2 4 1 - 2 4 2
srgala, A q u i l a r a p a x . T a w n y E a g l e , A i g l e 50, 52
samudra-kaka, a generic term including sita-mla-cancu-kaka, Corvus frugilegus,
ravisseur, 2 0 8 , 230, 231 srl-vada-paksT, Copsychus saularis, R o o k , C o r b e a u f r e u x , 2, 2 0
S k u a s (Fr. L a b b e s ) , 3 3 7 ; G u l l s ( G o e l a n d s ,
saisira(-cataka), d e s c r i b e s all B u n t i n g s [Oriental] M a g p i e R o b i n , S h a m a dayal, 47 sita-paksin, Saxicoloides fulicata, Indian
M o u e t t e s ) , 3 4 3 ; T r o p i c b i r d s (Fr. Phaetons),
( F r i n g i l l i d a e , s u b f a m i l y E m b e r i z i n a e ) as sveta-kaka, Corvus splendens, House Crow, Robin, Pseudotraquet indien (refers to the
377
winter visitors, 9 6 C o r b e a u f a m i l i e r ( a l b i n o ) , 8; T h r e s k i o r n i s m a l e with a white wing-bar), 4 6
sampan. Gyps indicus, (Northern) Long-
syama-kantha, Luscinia svecica, (Red- sithila-hanu (P), A n a s t o m u s oscitans,
a e t h i o p i c u s [T. m e l a n o c e p h a l u s ] , W h i t e billed Vulture (or Indian G r i f f o n ) , V a u t o u r
spotted) Bluethroat, Gorgebleue a miroir Openbill Stork [Asian Openbill], Bec-
Ibis [ B l a c k - h e a d e d I.], Ibis s a c r e , 9, 3 8 6 , indien; Gyps himalayensis, Himalayan
49 ouvert indien, 396
387 Griffon, Vautour de 1'Himalaya; Gyps
366 367
Birds in Sanskrit Literature C u r l e w ,G o d w i t ,S a n d p i p e r ,R u j f&R e e v e ,W o o d

sTcapu, any of the Caprimulgidae (Nightjar / S.], S o u i m a n g a s i p a r a j a ; A e t h o p y g a svarna-cuda-casa, Eurystomus orientalis, harita-hamsa (P; P a r a m a t t h a j o t i k a II
Engoulevent), 171 ignicauda, Fire-tailed Sunbird, S o u i m a n g a B r o a d billed R o l l e r [ D o l l a r b i r d ] , Rolle 277,11), Nettapus coromandalianus, Cotton
sTra-pada, Ithaginis cruentus, Blood queue-de-feu; Aethopyga nipalensis, Nepal oriental, 20 Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose], Anserelle de
Yellow-backed Sunbird [Green-tailed S.], svarna-cula, M e l a n o c h l o r a sultanea, Sultan Coromandel, 436, 450
Pheasant, Ithagine ensanglantee, 281
Souimanga a queue verte, 114, 156 Tit, Mesange sultane, 22 haritala, haridrahga, any G r e e n P i g e o n s of
sugrha, any P a s s e r i d a e of the P l o c e i n a e
svarna-paksa, Aquila chrysaetos, the C o l u m b i d a e family, genus T r e r o n (Fr
subfamily (Weaver / Tissenn), 88, 89 suvarna-vayasa, 10, cf. suvarna-kaka
( H i m a l a y a n ) G o l d e n E a g l e , Aigle royal, Colombars, Carpophages), 2?1, 253
sugrha-karta, idem, 89 suvama-sarika, Sturnus roseus, Rosy Pastor,
206, 231 hariyala, Treron apicauda, Pin-tailed Green
sugrTva-kancana, Oriolus xanthornus. Black- Etourneau roselin, 86
svarna-sikha, Melanochlora sultanea, Sultan Pigeon, C o l o m b a r a longue queue; Treron
headed Oriole [Black-hooded O.], Loriot a suviga, Aegithina tiphia, C o m m o n Iora, Petit
sphenura, Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon,
c a p u c h o n noir; Oriolus traillii. M a r o o n Iora, 31 Tit, Mesange sultane, 22
Colombar chanteur, 254
Oriole, Loriot pourpre, 79 susvara, Falco peregrinus, Peregrine Falcon, svalpa-kahka, Ardeola grayii, [Indian] Pond
hari-locana, any large Strigidae (Owl /
sucitraka, A l c e d o atthis, C o m m o n (Indian) Faucon pelerin, 226 Heron (or P a d d y b i r d ) , C r a b i e r de Gray,
susvara-sarasa, G r u s a n t i g o n e , S a r u s (or 405 Hibou, Chouette), 177
Kingfisher, Martin-pecheur d'Europe, 117,
Indian) Crane, Grue antigone, 321 svalpa-sancara, any of the Alaudidae, genera haritaka, C h r y s o c o c c y x maculatus, [Asian]
156
suT-muha (Pkt), any P a s s e r i d a e of the Eremoptrix and A m m o m a n e s (Finch Lark Emerald Cuckoo, Coucou emeraude, 131
sunara-kalavihka, Amandava amandava,
[Sparrow Lark], Lark / Moinelette, half-mukha, Recurvirostra avosetta, [Pied]
Red M u n i a [Red Avadavat], Bengali rouge, Ploceinae subfamily ( W e a v e r / Tisserin),
88 (sufis likely incorrect) Ammomane), 110 Avocet, Avocette elegante, 361
90, 93
sukarika, A e g i t h i n a tiphia, C o m m o n Iora, svastika, Coracias benghalensis, Indian hasti-lihga-bharanda, Leptoptilos d u b i u s ,
suparna, O r i o l u s oriolus, G o l d e n O r i o l e ,
R o l l e r , R o l l i e r i n d i e n , 17, 18; C o q Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant],
Loriot d ' E u r o p e , 72ff.; the mythical bird Petit Iora, 31
domestique, 18 Marabout argala, 399
G a r u d a , 199, 207, 2 t 2 ; the e x p r e s s i o n suksmasya-kaka, Corvus monedula,
haholika, noisy birds including : S t u r n u s
"sapta suparnah" (seven suparna) may [Eurasian] J a c k d a w , Corbeau caledonien,
vulgaris, [ C o m m o n ] Starling, E t o u r n e a u
refer to the six true Eagles (genus Aquila) 4,8 h sansonnet; Acridotheres tristis, C o m m o n
of I n d i a , e s p . A q u i l a chrysaetos, sucT-mukha, any Passeridae of the Ploceinae
M y n a , Martin triste; Sturnus contra, Pied
( H i m a l a y a n ) G o l d e n Eagle, Aigle royal, subfamily (Weaver / Tisserin), 88, 89 hamsa, a generic term for a large part of the' M y n a [Asian Pied Starling], Etourneau pie;
7 2 f f „ 199, 2 0 I f f . , 205, a l o n g with the sutra-kantha-kapota, Streptopelia decoacto, A n a t i d a e f a m i l y : S w a n s (Fr. C y g n e s ) , Turdoides caudatus, C o m m o n Babbler,
vulture : Gypaetus barbatus, L a m m e r g e y e r Indian Ring Dove [Eurasian Collared D.], Geese (Fr. Oies), D u c k s (Fr. Canards), 95, Craterope indien; Tordoides striatus,
(or Bearded Vulture), Gypaete barbu, 200; Tourterelle turque, 258; Streptopelia 422 Jungle Babbler, Craterope de brousse, 30,
also Neophron percnopterus, (White) tranquebarica, Red Turtle Dove, 87
harnsaka, small harnsas, esp. D u c k s (Fr.
Scavenger Vulture [Egyptian V.], Vautour Tourterelle a tete grise, 258, 264
Canards) and Teals (Fr. Sarcelles), 422
p e r c n o p t e r e , 193; Haliaeetus leucogaster, sedl (Pkt; P a n n a v a n a [Ladnun, 1989] 1,79), hapana, hapita, cf. 216 n.
harnsa-karandava, c o m p o u n d encompassing
White-bellied Sea-eagle, Pygargue blagre, Mesophoyx intermedia, Smaller Egret ha-putrika, Charadrius dubius, Little Ringed
S w a n s (Fr. C y g n e s ) , G e e s e (Fr. Oies), Plover, Pluvier petit-gravelot, 334; any of
212 [Intermediate E.], Heron i n t e r m e d i a t e , 404
Ducks (Fr. Canards), Coots (Fr. Foulques), the G l a r e o l i d a e , s u b f a m i l y G l a r e o l i n a e ,
suparnaka, Falco peregrinus, Peregrine seta-harnsa (P; not P E D , but Ja V 356,25),
422 genus Glareola (Pratincole / Glareole), 335
Falcon, Faucon pelerin, 225 Cygnus columbianus davidi, "Chinese
hamsa-vaja, "Greenland Falcon", a f o r m of haridraka, 251, 253, 260, cf. haritala
suparsva, Gyps bengalensis, (Indian) White- S w a n " [Tundra Swan], C y g n e siffleur, cf.
the F a l c o rusticolus, G y r f a l c o n , F a u c o n baridrava, Motacilla citreola, Yellow-headed
backed Vulture [White-rumped V.], 4 2 7 f . [N.B. A c c o r d i n g to S i b l e y and
gerfaut, 219 [N. B. A term used to refer to Wagtail [Citrine W.], Bergeronnette
Vautour Chaugoun, 190 Monroe, "Cygnus columbianus davidi
a form (Falco rusticolus candicans Gmelin) citrine, 75, 76; Oriolus oriolus, [Eurasian]
*subiga (Pkt), read : suvigY S w i n h o e 1870, S w i n h o e ' s S w a n , k n o w n
which is no longer classified in this way.] G o l d e n Oriole, Loriot d ' E u r o p e , 75, 76,
sumukha, Sarcogyps calvus, Black (or King) f r o m the unique type f r o m Tientsin, in
hatthilinga-sakuna (P), Leptoptilos dubius, 104
Vulture, Vautour royal, 10, 188, 190 H o p e y , China, is p r o b a b l y a y o u n g C.
Adjutant Stork [Greater Adjutant],
sumukha-harpsa (P; not PED, but Ja V (columbianus) bewickii."] harTta, 131, 251, 253, 254, cf. haritala-,
Marabout argala, 397; may also refer to :
339,6), C y g n u s olor, Mute Swan, C y g n e sevya (-kalavinka, -cataka), Amandava Chalcophaps indica, Emerald Dove,
Otis tarda, Great Bustard, Grande Outarde,
a m a n d a v a , Red M u n i a [Red A v a d a v a t ] , C o l o m b i n e turvert, 131, 257, 259, 260,
tubercule, 431 328 n.
Bengali rouge, 50, 6 9 , 9 0 , 9 1 , 9 3 262; esp. Treron apicauda, Pin-tailed Green
suvanna-harnsa (P; Ja V 354,21), Cygnus haya-pondanya (Pkt), any of the Pelecanidae
stokaka, Clamator jacobinus, Pied (Crested) Pigeon, Colombar a longue queue; W e d g e -
cygnus, W h o o p e r Swan, C y g n e chanteur. (Pelican / Pelican), 370
tailed Green Pigeon, C o l o m b a r chanteur,
426,431 Cuckoo, Coucou jacobin, 134 haralT, D e n d r o c y g n a j a v a n i c a . Lesser
254
suvarna-kaka, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax, sthala-kukkubba, Centropus sinensis, Whistling Teal [Lesser Whistling-duck],
hima-kukkuta, Scolopax rusticola, [Eurasian]
R e d - b i l l e d C h o u g h , C r a v e a bee r o u g e ; [Greater] Coucal, Grand Coucal, 139 Dendrocygne siffleur, 450
Woodcock, Becasse des bois, 367
Pyrrhocorax graculus, Yellow-billed sthula-nida, Aquila rapax, T a w n y E a g l e , harita, C h l o r o p s i s h a r d w i c k e i , O r a n g e -
hima-tittira, idem, 367
Chough. Chocard a bee jaune, 20 Aigle ravisseur, 208 bellied Chloropsis [Orange-bellied
hiranya-kaksa, Gyps bengalensis, (Indian)
suvarna-patra, Aquila chrysaetos, sphotika, any of the P a s s e r i d a e , s u b f a m i l y Leafbird], Verdin de Harwicke, 33, 122
White-backed Vulture [White-rumped V.],
( H i m a l a y a n ) G o l d e n Eagle, Aigle royal, Motacillinae, genus Anthus (Pipit / Pipit), harita-hamsa, Nettapus coromandalianus,
Vautour Chaugoun, 190
231 107 Cotton Teal [Cotton Pygmy-goose],
hilla, Rynchops albicollis, Indian S k i m m e r ,
suvarna-puspa, various Nectariniidae svarna-cuda, Coracias b e n g h a l e n s i s , Indian Anserelle de Coromandel, 450
Bec-en-ciseaux a collier, 353
(Sunbird / Souimanga) : Aethopyga Roller, Rollier indien, 17, 22
siparaja, Yellow-backed Sunbird [Crimson
516 Birds in Sanskrit Literature

hutururu, M e g a l a i m a asiatica. Blue-throated

Barbet, Barbu a gorge bleue, 124
hemaka, Megalaima haemacephala,
Crimson-breasted Barbet [Coppersmith
Barbet], Barbu a plastron rouge, 125; N.B :
M e g a l a i m a rubricapilla, Crimson-throated
Barbet [Crimson-fronted Barbet], Barbet a
couronne rouge, closely resembling
Coppersmith Barbet, but f o u n d only in the
Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka.
hema-kartr, idem, 124
hema-tunda, Coracias benghalensis, Indian
Roller, Rollier indien, 17
hema-tunda-casa, Eurystomus orientalis,
Broad-billed Roller [Dollarbird], Rolle
oriental, 20
hairanyaka, 125, cf. hemaka
 mmmmmmm

Exempts from reviews:

"This splendid book is a study of many of the bird names found in

Sanskrit literature, from the ancient books of the Rig Veda, and the
classical epics of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana to the ancient
lore of the Puranas and on through the works of later Sanskrit
literature: didactic fables, ethical poetry and then the literature in
the Prakrits and Pali. K.N. Dave covers considerable ground and he
covers it in a way that will keep the attention of those who enjoy
ornithological studies, as well as those who have a general interest in
Indian and Eastern literature."
— J O H N A . C . GREPPIN, Times Literery Supplement, 27, Dec. 1985

The author clearly scoured the Sanskrit literature for bird references,
and this makes the book an excellent starting point for a real
ornithologist to tackle the issue, with the help of a translator. As it
stands it is useful in understanding how the ancient writers saw and
classified birds, but would have been more helpful if the author had
made some attempt to date the works to which he refers (though
dating texts is a very contentious issue amongst Sanskritists). Too
little attention has been paid to the likelihood of names transferring
from species to species through time, though the author was clearly
aware of the very northern, even outside-Indian, bias of the very
earliest writings (the Vedas). Compared to analyses of other ancient
texts, notably the Bible and ancient Egyptian material, this book,
though substantial, is ornithologically disappointing, but is a mine
of fascinating folklore.
— A N T H O N Y CHEKE, Journals of British Ornithologists Union,
p. 123, Vol. 129, 1987.

MOTILAL BANARSIDASS SBN 81 - 208 - 1842 - 3

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