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Congenital Disease:
1. Disease due to gene mutation. Eg.- Haemophilia, Color blindness
2. Disease due to chromosomal mutation Eg.- Down’s syndrome,
Klinefelter’s syndrome
Acquired Disease:
1. Communicable or infectious diseases- air, water, food, physical
contact or vectors (Bacteria, Virus, Protozoa, Helminth, Fungus etc.)
2. Non- communicable or non- infectious diseases- Deficiency disease
(Diabetes), Degenerative (Arthritis), Cancerous & Allergic diseases
(Asthma)
COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS
• Any substance which cause a disease by its excess or deficiency or
absence- Disease agents
• Organism belonging to bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans, helminths
etc., which cause disease- Pathogens
• Pathogen acts as parasite by living on/ in host & cause harm i.e.
disease
• Mode of transmission/ epidemiology or entry into host- different
means
• Once entered into host body- it multiply & interfere with normal vital
activities which results morphological & functional damage
• Pathogens after it entry into the host- adapts itself based on the
environment, Eg. Pathogen entering gut should survive at low pH to
resist digestive enzymes
Typhoid
• Causative agent: Salmonella typhi (Bacterium)
• Symptoms:
• Mary Mallon nicknamed Typhoid Mary- typhoid carrier & was cook
by profession, continued to spread typhoid for several years through
food she prepared
Mode of transmission
Common Symptoms
Pneumonia
• Causative agent: Streptococcus pneumoniae & Haemophilus influnenzae
(Bacteria)
• Epidemiology: inhalation of droplets/aerosols released by an infected
person and by sharing glasses and utensils with an infected person
• Symptoms: Disease develop by causing infection in respiratory tract,
Alveoli due to infection gets filled with fluid - severe problems in
respiration, symptoms includes fever, chills, cough and headache, severe
cases the lips and finger nails may turn gray to bluish in color
• The parasite initially multiply within the liver cells and then attack the
red blood cells (RBCs) resulting in their rupture.
• From the infected human the parasite enters into the body of
Anopheles mosquito during biting and sucking blood.
• Epidemiology:
• Symptoms:
• Epidemiology:
• Symptoms:
• Types of Immunity
1. Innate Immunity
2. Acquired Immunity
• Innate Immunity- which is present from the time of birth & is not
pathogen specific
• Acquired Immunity- not from time of birth & is pathogen specific;
Immunity is conferred based on memory that immune system have
for that pathogen
Innate Immunity
1. Physical barrier
2. Physiological barrier
3. Cellular barrier
4. Cytokine barrier
1. Physical Barrier:
• Barrier which prevents entry of microbes into the body which comes
in contact with body
2. Physiological Barrier:
4. Cytokine barriers :
• Proteins (interferons)- protects heathy cells from invasion of pathogens
• Usually secreted from virus infected cells
• Interferons- protect non-infected cells from further viral infection.
Acquired Immunity
• Is pathogen specific & characterized by memory.
• When pathogen encounters body for first time body responds by
producing initial response- primary immune response - low
intensity.
• When same pathogen encounter again body elicits a highly
intensified secondary or anamnestic response.
• Secondary response produced in body is due to memory of first
encounter of pathogen
• For transplantation of human organs like heart, eye, liver, kidney its
very important to find suitable donor
• Grafts for transplantation cannot be obtained from any animal or
primate or any human being- rejected by the acceptor/ patient
sooner or later
• To avoid complications- tissue matching, blood group matching-
suitable donor
• After transplantation patient has to take immune – suppressants
all his/her life.
• Else body will differentiate between ‘self ’ and ‘non- self’ and graft
rejection will take place- cell-mediated immune response
Active & Passive Immunity
• Immunity conferred in body is basically of two types:
1. Active Immunity
2. Passive Immunity
Active Immunity:
• Slow process & takes time to give its full effective response
Reasons of Active Immunity:
• Generated in body due to injection of mild natured microbes during
immunization or when infectious organism enters body during natural
infection- induce active immunity
Mechanism of Active Immunity:
• Microbe enters body & identified by B & T- lymphocytes as antigen &
in response to that body produce antibodies specific to that antigen
• Antibodies then act against pathogen (antigen) & provides immune
response- Active Immunity
Passive Immunity:
• Quick process & does not take time to show immune response
Reasons of Passive Immunity:
• Generated in body when ready- made antibodies of pathogens are
directly injected into body
Mechanism of Passive Immunity:
• When antibodies against specific antigen (pathogen) is directly
injected into blood stream, body develops immune response against
pathogen in the absence of pathogen due to antibodies
• Thus, when pathogen invades body the immune response is quickly
shown (presence of antibody in body)
• Since antibodies are directly injected, the cells (B & T) responsible
to produce antibodies does not involve- quick immune response
• Eg.- Colostrum- yellowish fluid secreted by mother during initial
period of lactation- IgA antibodies which provides immunity to infant
& foetus also gets some antibodies through placenta
Vaccination & Immunisation
• Principle- “property of ‘memory’ of the immune system”
Vaccination
• Antigenic proteins of pathogen or activated/weakened pathogen
(vaccine) are introduced into the body.
• The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would
neutralise the pathogenic agents during actual infection.
• The vaccines also generate memory – B and T-cells that recognize the
pathogen quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders
with a massive production of antibodies.
• Recombinant DNA technology- antigenic polypeptides of pathogen are
produced in bacteria or yeast.
• Vaccines produced using this approach allow large scale production and
hence greater availability for immunisation, e.g., hepatitis B vaccine
produced from yeast
Immunisation
1. lymphoid organs
• Bone marrow- main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including
lymphocytes are produced.
• Thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the
breastbone. Large at the time of birth but keeps reducing in size with
age and by the time puberty is attained it reduces to a very small
size
• Benign tumors:
• Normally remain confined to their original location
• Do not spread to other location.
• Cause little damage
• Malignant tumors:
• Mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumor cells.
• These cells grow very rapidly.
• Invade and damage surrounding tissues.
• These cells actively divide and grow; they also starve the normal
cells.
• Cancerous cells escape from the site of origin and moves to
distant place by blood, wherever they get lodged make the
normal cell cancerous. This property is called metastasis.
Detection of Cancer:
• Biopsy and histopathological study-
a) tissue and blood and bone marrow tests for increased cell counts
(leukemias);
b) Biopsy of a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections is
stained and examined under microscope (histopathological studies)
by a pathologist
• Radiography like X-rays, CT (computerized tomography)
a) used to detect cancers of the internal organs
b) Computed tomography uses X-rays to generate a three-
dimensional image of the internals of an object
• MRI (magnetic resonance Imaging):
a) uses strong magnetic fields and non-ionising radiations to
accurately detect pathological and physiological changes in the
living tissue
• Antibodies against cancer-specific antigen:
a. Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are used for detection
of certain cancers genes- person is advised to prevent exposure
Treatment of Cancer
Treatment:
• Radiation therapy/
Radiotherapy- Tumor
cells are irradiated
lethally, taking proper
care of the normal tissues
• Chemotherapy- Kill cancer
cells, specific for particular
tumors. Majority of drugs have
side effects like hair loss,
anemia, etc.
1. Opioids:
• Drugs binds to opioid receptors in the CNS & gastrointestinal tract
• Eg.- Morphine (smack) & heroin
Morphine –
• obtained from latex of poppy plant (Papaver sominiferum)
• Sedative & pain- killer & used to reduce pain after surgery
Heroin (smack):
• Chemically diacetyl morphine
• Bitter, white , odourless, crystalline compound
• Obtained by acetylation of morphine
• Taken by snorting & injection
• Acts as depressant & slows down body function
2. Cannabinoids
• Chemicals which interact with cannabinoid receptors present in brain
• Natural cannabinoids- obtained from inflorescence of Cannabis
sativa
• Marijuana, hashish, ganja and charas- produced by various
combination of flower tops, leaves & resins of Cannabis plant
• Taken by inhalation & oral ingestion
• Affects cardiovascular system of body
• Sports person- caught abusing in recent
3. Coca Alkaloids/ Cocaine:
• Cocaine also called coke or crack-
Erythroxylon coca
• Interferes with the transport of
neurotransmitter, dopamine
• Taken by smoking
• Stimulates CNS & induce euphoria
& increased energy
• Higher dosage- hallucinations
4. Hallucinogens:
• Products from plants like Atropa
belladona & Datura spp. are
hallucinogenic
• LSD (Lysergic acid Diethylamide)-
obtained from fungus,
barbiturates, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines- treat mental
illnesses like depression and
insomnia- abused
5. Tobacco
• Tobacco is usually chewed or smoked or used as snuff
• It contains nicotine, which is a stimulant and toxin
• Nicotine- stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenaline & nor-
adrenaline which increases blood pressure & heart rate
• Smoking of tobacco increases chances of lung cancer, bronchitis,
emphysema, coronary heart diseases, cancer of throat, gastric ulcer,
cancer of urinary bladder etc.
• Smoking of tobacco also increases carbon monoxide content of
blood & reduces concentration of haem- bound oxygen which cause
oxygen deficiency in the body
• Chewing of tobacco causes oral cancer
6. Alcohol:
• Alcohol is a depressant
• Affects CNS
Adolescence