FOUNDATION REVIEW

COMPANION BOOKLET

Verbal Reasoning 1
Though this is called a “Review”, it may or may not include materials you’ve seen before (depending on what
types of standardized tests you’ve taken before); it will introduce the best possible way to tackle VR
passages and questions.

The “building blocks” of our approach are very simple skills, but they shouldn’t be neglected—knowing what
you should do is not the same as applying it consistently on Test Day, and only practice will ensure that you
do that. These skills help determine what to focus on, how to maintain good pacing, what notations to
make, and how to address the questions methodically.

If you’re serious about improving your performance on MCAT VR, you must start now to establish and follow
a practice schedule to internalize methods and strategies—there’s nothing here that you can memorize at
the last minute.

A few guidelines to start with:

Set up a timetable that works for you—be realistic but demanding of yourself.

While 1st learning the Kaplan techniques, don’t do more than 2 passages at a time without taking a
break; sensory overload will cause you to lose focus and you may fall back on old, bad habits instead
of using the new skills you learn here.

Don’t be discouraged by errors made in practice; they give you the opportunity to identify your
strengths and weaknesses and focus on modifying your habits.

Don’t wait too long to review explanations after taking a practice test.

Work on Verbal Reasoning for only about 120 minutes at a time.

Keep working on small groups of passages until the day before your Test Day.

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 Verbal Reasoning 1

Goal: to start our overview of the MCAT passage

THE MCAT® PASSAGE

We’ll start by introducing some basic concepts, and then offer critical reading skills.
Read through this page and the next page.
Overview

Unit 1
MCAT® passages are either descriptive or persuasive.

A descriptive passage tells a story, describes a phenomenon, describes an event, etc.

A persuasive passage puts forth a set of ideas or a point of view, and attempts to support it.
That is, it constructs one or more arguments.
At its simplest level, there are only 2 kinds of passage, and the nature of the passage will determine the types of question
that can be asked. E.g., if a passage is purely descriptive, there isn’t a “main idea” running through the ¶s, and there can be
few questions (if any) about the author’s reasoning. But there aren’t many such passages in VR. Even if the overall purpose
is merely descriptive, there are usually claims made and supported within some paragraphs. A common type of “descriptive”
passage describes 2 conflicting theories without agreeing with either.
Components of an argument

Each argument made in a passage consists of evidence and a conclusion.

This is just the overview; we’ll be discussing all of this in detail on the next pages—run
through quickly now. You can review and practice this material any time using the online
Critical Reading workshops.
Evidence
Examples or other support for the conclusion

Answers the question Why?—Why is this true (according to the author)? Why should this be done
(according to the author)?

Conclusion
The point the author is trying to make—it can be implied (an inference) or it can be explicitly
stated

Answers the question What?—What does the author believe is true? What does the author
believe should be done?

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 Foundation Review

Goal: to introduce ways to separate Fact from Opinion (or Evidence from Conclusion)

Methods of determining evidence vs. conclusions

Using Keywords:
Signals of conclusion: therefore, I conclude, so, as a result, clearly
Unit 1

Signals of evidence: because, since, for, consider

Using the “What” and “Why” of the Matter:

Evidence and conclusion generally answer two different kinds of question. Say you have an
argument composed of three statements, “A,” “B,” and “C.” You can generally determine which
(if any) of the three is the conclusion by plugging them into the following model:

The author believes “A.” WHY? BECAUSE of “B” and “C.”

If the entire model makes sense, then you’ve probably identified the components of the
argument correctly. If not, see whether “B” or “C” works in the first slot.
Video User Note:
content relating to
assumptions and
inferences that As we’ve seen in the preceding exercises, the parts of an argument
appear here in your Fact Versus Opinion are ‘evidence’ and ‘conclusion’ (some stated and some left
video can now be unstated). On this page we’ll refer to them as ‘Fact’ or ‘Opinion’.
found in Section 3 In persuasive passages, the author will be expressing an opinion throughout the passage. To
of this Foundation
support this opinion, the author will rely on evidence which may be either factual information or
Review
the opinions of other individuals.

Therefore, it is vital that you are able to distinguish between factual information and opinions.
Of course, you probably already know this. But under the intense pressure of the MCAT®, some
test takers lose sight of the difference, and their critical reading skills become blunted. What’s
more, the MCAT® writers are crafty. Sometimes they try to make a statement of fact sound like
a personal opinion, or vice versa, just to see which test takers fall into the trap. You’ll want to
recognize the difference instantly on Test Day.
‘Fact’ and ‘Opinion’ sometimes (but not always) have very clear markers
identifying them—like the word ‘therefore’ for a conclusion or opinion, and the
words ‘for example’ for a piece of evidence or fact. We call these ‘keywords’.
The difference between ‘fact’ and ‘opinion’ isn’t that one is ‘true’ and the other
‘false’ or ‘speculative’—it’s a matter of how they are used in constructing the
author’s argument.

Whenever a question involves an argument made in a passage, your 1st step will be to
decide what is the evidence and what is the conclusion. Let’s look at the parts of
arguments in more detail, focusing 1st on assumptions. Let’s look at a few examples,
sorting the facts from the opinions with this in mind and focusing on exactly how we
are able to distinguish them.

4

Goal: to clarify and practice sorting Fact from Opinion
Fact vs. Opinion Exercise 1
1. To assert that the ideal of democratic rule began with
the Magna Carta is to misunderstand that the
document was actually the product of a power struggle
between two factions—the throne and the nobility—
that were completely unconcerned about the rights of
the common man....
2. Frank Lloyd Wright’s designs are still held in very
high regard by both the architectural community and
the general public....
3. Some scientists believe that a layer of iridium in the
earth’s crust proves that a comet struck the planet,
wiping out the dinosaurs; others argue that this layer
was formed as the result of volcanic activity....
4. Literary critics have rightly concluded that the interest
in “ethnic inheritance” displayed by George Eliot in
her novels was sparked by her inability to feel
comfortable in her own surroundings....
5. The history of socialist societies has demonstrated
conclusively that a planned economy is inefficient,
exploitive, and of benefit only to the bureaucrats who
control the system....
6. Much of modern art has aptly been described as
shallow and without cultural merit by many of the
world’s leading critics....
When we recognize the difference between evidence and conclusion, and can
identify implied evidence or conclusions, we’ve taken the 1st step toward
answering any question based on arguments made in the passages. With
these basics in mind, we’re ready to start developing critical reading skills that
will help us with those tasks.
Verbal Reasoning 1
❑ FACT ✔ OPINION
❑
Opinion—this expressly refutes an existing
Unit 1
opinion by calling it a “misunderstanding”.
If it simply said, “people believe this” it
wouldn’t express an opinion, but calling it a
misunderstanding states the author’s
conclusion.
✔ FACT
❑ ❑ OPINION
Fact—the statement repeats a generally acknowledged truth about Wright. It
might be offered as “expert” testimony supporting a conclusion elsewhere in
the passage. ASK the class in what context this could be a conclusion,
instead. Elicit: when all the rest of the ¶ lists examples of those holding high
opinions of Wright, supporting this statement. Sometimes “conclusions” are
identified only by their context. Evidence always supports the conclusion, and
conclusions don’t support the evidence.
✔ FACT
❑ ❑ OPINION
Fact—the author is merely repeating 2 views, not taking a
stand—at least not so far. Again, ASK in what context this
could be conclusion. Elicit: when support is given for one or both
of these views, or when the author gives us an indication of his or
her own opinion by tagging one of these opinions as “correct” and
the other “incorrect”. Many passages will contain more than one
opinion, and keeping them clear is often the principal challenge.
❑ FACT ✔ OPINION
❑
Opinion—the word “rightly”, all by itself,
changes this from a statement of fact to one
of opinion.
❑ FACT ✔ OPINION
❑
Opinion—“demonstrated conclusively” and the
negative adjectives “inefficient, exploitive, and
…” take this out of the realm of fact.
❑ FACT ✔ OPINION
❑
Opinion—again, the single word “aptly” changes
the nature of the statement. The passages
shouldn’t be read so quickly as to overlook
such a signpost.
5
 Foundation Review

Video User Note:

content relating to
READING THE MCAT® PASSAGE
Topic and Scope
now appears 4 To read MCAT® passages quickly, and be ready for the questions:
pages forward 1. paraphrase as you read
Unit 1

2. identify the purpose of each paragraph as you read

3. identify the topic, scope, and purpose of the passage
4. recognize keywords

Paraphrase the text

A good paraphrase captures the important ideas in your own words.

Paraphrase important ideas as you need. Don’t let yourself glaze. If you reach the end of a
paragraph and you have no understanding of what you just read, then you did not stop frequently
enough to paraphrase.

MCAT® answer choices are frequently just paraphrases of the passage. Learn to paraphrase and
you’ll be attuned to correct answer choices.

Critical reading requires you to recognize some sentences as really important (because they
announce major themes or ideas) and some as secondary (in that they present evidence for
larger points).

Read for what the author is primarily trying to say or communicate, and put it in your own words.

Give only a cursory reading to details.

Zero in on the essential grammar of sentences.

(You have to move quickly, too many notes are as bad as too few, you want the gist
in its broadest outlines).

Consider the following block of text:

Most of the developed countries are now agreed on the need to take international measures to
reduce carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Despite this consensus, a wide agreement among
economists as to how much emission reduction will actually cost continues to impede policy making.
Economists who believe that the energy market is efficient predict that countries that reduce carbon
emission by as little as twenty percent will experience significant losses to their gross national
product. Those who hold that the market is inefficient, however, estimate that costs will be
much lower......
A good paraphrase of the gist of this text would be something like: An international policy to reduce
carbon emissions has been held up by arguments about how much it would cost. That’s the basic
idea here; the rest is just detail.

Paraphrasing helps you stay focused on structure, and gives you an overview of the
entire passage. This skill is also relevant to understanding the questions, and often
6 the correct choice is a paraphrase.
 Verbal Reasoning 1

Paraphrase Exercise 1
1. In the process, each enzyme binds to a specific Paraphrase main idea: ________________________
location along the cell. The precise configuration of

these receptor sites is such that each will accept only a
particular enzyme. The process can therefore be
interrupted by any molecule (a virus or a synthetic
amino acid, for example) whose shape fits a given
receptor site well enough to block access by the
correct enzyme.
Unit 1
Enzymes can’t bind with specific receptors if
_____________________________________________
something else binds with them.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________

2. The earliest colonists in America were not very Paraphrase main idea: ________________________
concerned with creating a formal legal system.
Solutions to problems were based on common sense st
rather than abstract principles. Once England America’s 1 legal system was replaced by an
_____________________________________________
consolidated its control over the American colonies,
however, this informal system was gradually displaced
English model.
_____________________________________________
by a formal legal system of laws, courts, and judges.
Even though America eventually rejected English
political domination, its legal system rests heavily on
_____________________________________________
the English model....

3. Literary critics divide many of Shakespeare’s plays Paraphrase main idea: ________________________
into two general categories—tragedies and comedies.
Both deal with metaphysical themes—the tragedies
dwell on topics like suffering and revenge, while the In Shakespeare’s metaphysics, tragedy and
_____________________________________________
comedies concentrate on topics such as love and
happiness. Shakespeare’s plays, in short, probe
comedy take different views.
_____________________________________________
substantive issues. What really distinguishes tragedies
from comedies is the radically different worldview that
lies behind each type of play. The world of
_____________________________________________
Shakespeare’s tragedies is menacing, filled with
brooding and scheming individuals. The world of his NOTE that in ¶s 2 and 3 we extracted the
contrast set up in the ¶—always important in
comedies, in contrast, is bright and cheerful, and the
VR passages.
major characters are consequently benign....

A good paraphrase captures the idea in broad terms and a minimum of words. Now
let’s consider how this helps when you have to select someone else’s paraphrase (as
you will when you must select an answer choice on Test Day).
7
 Foundation Review
Paraphrase Exercise 2
1. Many evolutionary biologists think that intelligent life
exists on other worlds. They base this belief on the
Unit 1
widely-observed phenomenon of “convergence.”
Convergence has occurred when species that are
descended from different ancestors have nevertheless
developed similar traits. Birds and insects, for
example, have a very different evolutionary history,
yet both have evolved wings for flight. Similarly,
according to these biologists, intelligent aliens have
certainly evolved somewhere in the universe, but along
a very different path from that taken by humanity....
B (A) leaves out any reference to the belief.
(C) doesn’t mention convergence. (D) only
relates to one detail in the ¶. NOTE that they
might have to look back at the passage for the
definition of “convergence”—that’s OK.
2. Judicial review, the right of the court system to
scrutinize the behavior of other parts of the
government to ensure that they adhere to the
provisions of a nation’s written constitution, was first
applied in the United States in the famous 1803 case
of Marbury v. Madison. In defying the executive and
legislative branches of the federal government by
ruling on behalf of William Marbury, Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court Marshall firmly established the
legal principle that the Constitution takes precedence
over laws passed by Congress.
D (A) contradicts the ¶. (B) isn’t within the
scope of the ¶: Marshall’s motives aren’t
discussed. (C) addresses a detail—it may be
correct (this might be the right answer to an
inference question, since judicial review is
defined as the application of a written
constitution) but it isn’t the overall thrust
of the ¶.
8
Paraphrase main idea: ________________________
Evolutionists who say intelligence exists
_____________________________________________
elsewhere rely on “convergence”.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
A. The phenomenon of convergence explains why
different species like birds and insects have the ability
to fly.
B. Those biologists who claim that intelligent life exists
elsewhere in the universe base their belief on a
common evolutionary process.
C. Evolutionary biologists believe that intelligent life on
other worlds evolved differently from humans.
D. Intelligent species that exist elsewhere in the universe
are probably unable to fly.
Paraphrase main idea: ________________________
Marbury v. Madison established judicial review.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
A. Marbury v. Madison established the idea that
American laws don’t necessarily have to conform to
the ideals set down in its written constitution.
B. Supreme Court Chief Justice Marshall ruled on behalf
of Marbury in order to weaken the executive and
legislative branches of the federal government.
C. The principle of judicial review can only be applied in
nations that have written constitutions.
D. Marbury v. Madison established the principle of
judicial review in the United States.

3. Marine mammals like seals, sea lions, and whales
would be in danger of freezing to death if not for their
natural defenses against the cold. Their principal
defense consists of several types of insulation. Body
hair traps air, which is then heated by the body,
creating a warm air mass around the animal. More
important than hair is the layer of body fat that lies
between the skin and muscle. Commonly known as
blubber, it has a freezing temperature well below that
of water. Thus, it prevents the body’s heat from
flowing into colder surroundings. Marine mammals
also engage in specialized behavior that is intended to
maintain body warmth.
4. Adoptive immunotherapy, or cell transfer therapy, is a
promising new cancer treatment that enlists the body’s
immune system to combat the virus. Doctors remove
cells from the patient’s immune defenses, and attempt
either to “educate” the cells to react against the cancer,
or to enhance their ability to kill cancer cells. The cells
are then returned to the blood stream, along with
certain DNA-generated molecules that are vital to
immune response.
A (B) ignores the treatment’s purpose.
(C) is a detail in the last sentence. (D)
doesn’t mention the topic.
Verbal Reasoning 1
Paraphrase main idea: ________________________
Marine mammals’ have various defenses
_____________________________________________
Unit 1
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
A. Mammals’ primary defense against the cold is natural
insulation like body hair and body fat.
B. The blubber of marine mammals has a freezing
temperature much lower than that of water.
C. Marine mammals have several defenses against the
cold that prevent them from freezing to death.
D. Mammals huddle together in cold environments to
prevent their bodies from losing heat.
C (A) & (D) relate to mammals
generally—beyond the scope. (B)
focuses on a single detail.
Paraphrase main idea: ________________________
Adoptive immunotherapy (the topic) treats
_____________________________________________
cancer by modifying a patient’s cells.
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
A. Adoptive immunotherapy is an encouraging treatment
for cancer that involves improving a patient’s cells.
B. Adoptive immunotherapy requires the removal and
strengthening of a patient’s cells.
C. A patient’s immune response can be improved by the
introduction of DNA-generated molecules into the
blood stream.
D. A patient’s cells can be taught to resist the spread of a
virus like cancer.
9
 Foundation Review

Read through this page. The skills introduced here will be reinforced
throughout the lessons, as well as in the online Critical Reading workshops,
so you shouldn’t be overly worried about getting it right immediately.
Topic and Scope

On a daily basis we tend to read for content. But anyone who tries to read for content during the MCAT® is missing
the point. There’s just no time! Remembering facts and details is not important. You can’t remember them all and
Unit 1

aren’t supposed to. Read for structure, not detail. Remember, it’s an “open book” test.

Reading for structure means taking note of the topic and scope of each passage.

The topic is the author’s basic subject matter—volcanoes; or World War I; or Charles Dickens’s Bleak House. The
scope is the specific aspect of the topic that the author focuses on—competing theories about predicting volcanic
eruptions; the causes of World War I; or to support Dickens' critique of the English legal system.

The paragraphs of a passage are the fundamental building blocks of the passage. It is important to take away the
important message in each paragraph. We can accomplish this by noting the scope of each paragraph.

Wrong answer choices in VR will often involve the wrong scope, so if you can
identify the scope you’ll be one step ahead. Take 1 minute to read each example,
and fill in responses for each blank.

Topic/Scope Exercise 1
1. Genetic engineering may offer the best hope of
improving yields of Oryza sativa (cultivated rice) and
perhaps, in time, other important U.S. crops. The
insertion of foreign genetic material into the DNA of
cultivars appears to confer an herbicidal protection on
the resultant plants, enabling them to compete
successfully for nutrients with uncultivated grasses.......
Topic: Genetic engineering
______________________________________
2. Media coverage of Alzheimer’s disease, an ultimately
fatal form of dementia that primarily afflicts the
elderly, generally focuses on the disease itself: the
difficulty of establishing a diagnosis and the lack of
any effective treatment. Far less attention is paid to the
tremendous physical, psychological, and financial toll
that the disease takes on family members who live
with and care for Alzheimer’s patients 24 hours a day.
That burden could be eased, however, if. . .

Topic: Alzheimer’s disease

______________________________________
Scope:
How genetic engineering might help improve
______________________________________
rice yields
Scope: Media neglect of its toll on family members
______________________________________

10
 Verbal Reasoning 1

3. Animal behavior was formerly thought to consist of 4. Congress has had numerous opportunities in recent
simple responses, some of them innate and some of years to reconsider the arrangements under which
them learned, to incoming stimuli. Complex behavior, federal forest lands are owned and managed. New
if it was considered at all, was assumed to be the result institutional structures merit development because

Unit 1
of complex stimuli. However, a group of ethologists, federal forest lands cannot be efficiently managed
notably Konrad Lorenz, Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl under the hierarchical structure which now exists.
von Frisch, established a new view of animal behavior. The system is too diversified, too complex to be
They have shown that the animal brain possesses understood by any single authority. The establishment
certain specific competencies, that animals have an of each forest as an independent public corporation
innate capacity for performing complex acts in would simplify the management structure and promote
response to simple stimuli. The discovery that certain greater efficiency, control, and accountability.
behavior patterns were inherited was a vitally
important contribution to the study of evolution.
Topic: Management of federal forestlands
______________________________________
If behavioral responses are genetically inherited, then
they must be subject to the pressures of natural
selection; that is, innate behavior must evolve. The Scope: Fixing problems with current
______________________________________
ethologists were able to show how a motor pattern management system
employed in a noncommunicatory context such as
feeding could evolve into a ritualized form employed
as a signal in, say, courtship. Differentiation in innate
behavior patterns could be traced to selection
pressures arising from the environment. There is some
debate as to the nature of these pressures, however.

Topic: Animal behavior

______________________________________

Scope: Genetic inheritance of behavioral responses

______________________________________

11
 Foundation Review
Unit 1

The Lesson Continues

on the Next Page

12
 Verbal Reasoning 1
Read the 1st sentence. If you had to name the author’s purpose now, what would it be. Answer:
to describe the opinion of a certain group.

Read the next sentence and ASK the same question; Answer: the same. What does “they
Purpose contend” suggest about the author’s opinion: he or she may disagree—this view is offered
without language suggesting author support.
The overall purpose is always a personal interpretation, an authorial view that’s backed by evidence (details). It
includes the major point that the author wants you to take away from the passage (e.g., “so & so’s theory of

Unit 1
volcanic eruptions is the most credible because of such & such”).

Each paragraph has a specific purpose in the broader passage.

Details are in the passage to support the author’s main ideas. Don’t linger over them. Just note their location in
the text. Read the next sentence and ASK whether we can state the author’s overall purpose. You
should be able to fill in the blank now. Where does the author’s “voice” appear: “fails” shows
author opinion and “however” highlights that this opinion contrasts with what came before.
The rest of that sentence introduces the author’s evidence: “crucial” and “distinction” mark
emphasis and contrast. Read the remaining sentences and ASK whether these change the
purpose of the ¶. Answer: no.
Purpose Exercise 1

Astronomers and astrophysicists who believe that Purpose: To rebut a certain opinion about
______________________________________
intelligence exists only on Earth base their claim on an
argument taken from the field of evolutionary biology.
Intelligent life does not exist anywhere else in the galaxy, intelligent life.
_______________________________________________
they contend, because the process that culminated in the
development of life on Earth was so complex and so
dependent on chance events (e.g., the extinction of the There are only a few “purposes” you can
dinosaurs) that it could not have occurred twice. What this expect to find in every VR passage. Name a
argument fails to take into account, however, is a crucial few, based on what you’ve already seen.
distinction made by evolutionary biologists: the distinction Answer: advocate, rebut, analyze, describe,
between the evolution of a specific species and the evolution or contrast (or synonyms for each of
of a specific trait. According to evolutionary biologists, it is these). These purposes affect the author’s
indeed extremely unlikely that a species similar to tone and the structure of the passage.
Homosapiens exists elsewhere; the probability of the same
sequence of events occurring under the same environmental
conditions is so small that it can be discounted. But this does
not imply that intelligent life very different in form from
Homosapiens could not have developed on other planets.

The purpose of a ¶ is related to its gist and the overall purpose of the passage is
related to its scope. Try a full passage now, where we will find the purpose of each ¶.
NOTE that we’ll start to reduce the number of words we actually write to capture
our paraphrases. In your practice, reduce your notations until you find the optimal
amount you have to write to capture the ideas—keeping in mind that this is only an
aid to short-term memory, not something you’re trying to learn for life.

The best critical reader is attentive to purpose and structure at every moment. As a result, the reader is less likely to
get confused by dense detail or to lose sight of the structure as a whole.

13
 Foundation Review

Purpose Exercise 2
The simple theory of plate tectonics recognizes two Purpose: passive margins = slow = continents
______________________________________
ways that continental margins grow. Where two plates (the
Unit 1

African and South American plates) move away from a

moving away.
midocean rift, the continental margins are called passive or _______________________________________________
rifted. Such margins grow slowly from the accumulation of
river-borne sediments and the carbonate skeletons of marine
organisms (deposited as limestone). These accretions,
consisting mostly of flat strata, are called miogeoclinal
deposits. Because most miogeoclinal deposits are
underformed and exhibit an unbroken history, passive
margins are generally not associated with mountain
building.

Along active or convergent margins, like those ringing Purpose: describes “active margin” AND
______________________________________
the Pacific basin, continents grow much faster. At an active
margin, an oceanic plate plunges under a continental plate,
with the continental plate scraping off deep-ocean sediments Western NA = 1st passive, then active
_______________________________________________
and fragments of basaltic crust which adhere to the margin.
The convergence triggers volcanism and mountain building,
a classic example being the Andes Range of South America. Read the 1st half of the 2nd ¶ and consider the
In the original plate-tectonic model, western North America purpose of those lines. Finish the ¶ and fill in
was described as being a passive margin through the late the blank. Read the last ¶, and fill in the blank.
Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras (350 to 210 million years
NOTE that, some ¶s may require more than
one note.
ago), after which it became active. It was assumed that the
margin grew as sedimentary and igneous rocks of oceanic
origin were accreted in areas like the Coast Ranges of
California. The model explained such disparate features as
the Franciscan rocks of the Coast Ranges, formed by local
processes, and the granite rocks of the Sierra Nevada, farther
east, which, like the Andes, had volcanic origins.

While the basic model of the geologic history of
western North America remains unchanged in the light of
recent advances in micro plate tectonics (the process by
which the edge of a continent is modified by the transport of
large crystal blocks called terranes), details are changed. It
is now clear that more crust was added to North America in
the Mesozoic era (248 to 65 million years ago) than can be
explained by volcanism and the simple accretion of ocean
sediments. It is also evident that some adjacent terranes are
unrelated and have traveled great distances from entirely
different parts of the world.
Purpose: Theory OK on Western NA but
______________________________________
details changed
_______________________________________________
Elicit the overall purpose: to describe some
recent refinement of the basic theory. Looking
back over the 3 paraphrases, the theory is the
topic and the scope is some recent
improvements in details.

As you read MCAT passages, look for topic, scope, and purpose to keep you
focused on the structure and broad gist rather than on details. Our final
critical reading tool has already been seen in a number of our exercises—
keywords. Let’s concentrate on them more fully.

14
 Verbal Reasoning 1

Using keywords, even if we can’t understand what’s being said, we know what
each piece is doing there, and how to find it again if needed. Keywords mark
the kinds of information that will appear in questions.

Keywords To get the most

from keywords,
Keywords are the structural signals—words or phrases—that every author uses; many of them
take conscious
control. They
are the words and phrases whose only purpose is to organize and shape the text. focus your

Unit 1
The best critical readers are anticipatory readers. They know that every passage is the sum of attention on the
its parts. To help themselves understand the function of each part within the unified whole, they function of each
keep asking themselves, “Where is this going?” In other words, they try to sense how each piece
statement,
rather than on
of information helps the author set up for what’s coming next. details. In this
The best critical readers think structurally. They do so by finding the clues left by the author, exercise, we’ve
clues that we call Keywords. identified types
of keyword used.
We generally respond to Keywords unconsciously—that’s not good enough on the MCAT®.
Bringing them to your consciousness can save you an enormous amount of time and effort in
your reading and question work. Every MCAT® passage is chock-full of Keywords. Recognizing them
and being aware of their implications will make it much easier for you to analyze the how and why
of every passage.
also, furthermore, moreover, in keeping with this trend, not only…but
Continuation keywords also, similarly, equally
and... NOTE that parallel sentence structures can be used in this way, too.
These announce that more of the same is about to come. The colon performs a similar function.
Illustration keywords consider the case of, exemplifying, demonstrating, illustrates
for example... NOTE that this is a sub-type of evidence keywords
These signal that an example is about to arrive.
Contrast keywords distinction, in contrast, comparatively, ironically, opponents say,
on the other hand... rather than, alternatively, despite, preferable
These signal an opposition or shift. Contrast Keywords are among the most significant in our
Verbal Reasoning work, because so many passages are based on contrast or opposition. Almost
certainly, something important is happening when a contrast Keyword shows up.
Sequence keywords
First of all... next, it is only then that, becomes, emerges, at one time
These are the author’s way of telling you “Hey, there’s some sort of order at work here.” These
are tougher to spot.
Conclusion keywords
conclude, contend, unfortunately, fails, must, perhaps
Therefore... NOTE that rhetorical questions are usually veiled conclusions, as well.
These signal that the author is about to sum up or announce her thesis. Since these Keywords
have to do with the author’s logic, it’s no wonder they’re especially crucial for critical reasoning.
Evidence keywords
because... due to, resulting from, the cause of, several reasons
They tell you that the author is providing support for a point.
Emphasis keywords
most of all... important, pivotal, only, never, especially
If we’re supposed to read for author point of view—and we are—what better way than to stumble
across words and phrases whose sole purpose is to announce “I, the author, find this important?”

By consciously focusing on keywords, we focus on what will earn points on the

test: purpose and structure. Let’s look at the types of keyword, to increase
your sensitivity to them.
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 Foundation Review
“attempts” postpones judgment about whether it succeeds, but
“win…acceptance” and “particularly successful” answer the question it
raises (note that this is an unusual case that occurs most often in
science passages; most often, if we read that someone “tries” to do
something, the author is strongly suggesting that they don’t succeed);
Keyword Exercise 1 “only” is emphasis, “comparing … against” is contrast.

The big bang model attempts to reconstruct the Introduces big bang theory
Paragraph 1: _________________________________
behavior of the early universe using only the rules of general and predictions.
Unit 1

relativity, elementary particle physics, and basic

thermodynamics. Testing the model’s validity by comparing
its predictions against actual observations of the universe
has helped win the model general acceptance in the
scientific community. It is particularly successful in
predicting the relative quantities of the universe’s most
abundant elements—hydrogen and helium.

The big bang model posits that the universe was created Describes formation of elementary particles.
Paragraph 2: _________________________________
in an primordial fireball between 10 and 20 billion years
ago. For the first few seconds of the universe’s existence, its
temperature was so high (over 10 billion degrees) and
energetic electrons, neutrinos, and positrons so abundant “posits” is conclusion; “first” is sequence, “so
that subatomic particles such as neutrons and protons were high” and “so abundant” are emphasis;
constantly transmuted into one another. As the universe
“transmuted” is contrast or sequence—one
thing changing to another is often key in
cooled, these transmutations ceased. Most of the matter took science passages. “As” is sequence, “most” is
the form of the most stable particle, protons, leaving a emphasis.
universe where the ratio of protons to neutrons was about 7
to 1.

After a few minutes, the temperature of the universe fell
to about 1 billion degrees, cool enough for these protons and
neutrons to bond and form nuclei. (Because of electrical
repulsion, protons can only form nuclei if neutrons bind
them together.) Deuterons were formed as each neutron
found a proton partner. Most deuterons then joined another
deuteron, to form a helium nuclei. As the universe continued
to expand, and so cool, its density became too low to allow
further fusion into heavier elements, and so almost all the
neutrons were incorporated into helium. Only 0.01% of the
deuterons formed remained unpaired, and an even smaller
percentage had fused into nuclei heavier than helium, such
as lithium. (All the heavier elements were produced much
later, inside stars.)
Since only one neutron was formed for every seven
protons, six sevenths of all protons remained isolated, to
form hydrogen nuclei with one proton each. So the big bang
model predicts that about three quarters of the total mass
of the universe will be hydrogen and the remaining quarter
helium. This simple prediction matches observations very
well—hydrogen is the most abundant element in the
universe (it is the principal fuel of stars, including our
own sun)—thus helping to affirm the legitimacy of the big
bang model.
Shows these formed deuterons, then
Paragraph 3: _________________________________
helium. Then heavier elements.
“After” is sequence, “Because” is evidence,
“only” and “most” are emphasis, “continued” is
continuation, “so” is conclusion, “too” is
emphasis, as is “only” “even” and “all”.
“since” is evidence, “only” is emphasis, “so” in
this case is conclusion, “very well” is
conclusion, “most” is emphasis, “thus” and
“legitimacy” are conclusion.
Shows big bang predicts a verified
Paragraph 4: _________________________________
hydrogen/helium ratio.
Topic: The big bang theory
______________________________________
Scope: A successful prediction of the big
______________________________________
bang theory.
Purpose: To describe and show some support for
______________________________________
the big bang theory.

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