CHEMICAL LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS FOR

EP211 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LAB IV

LABORATORY MANUAL

Lecturer/Instructor: Noor A’shiqin binti Jaafar @ Mustafa

Name:
Student ID:
Course:

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
UCSI UNIVERSITY

MAY - AUG 2019

 TABLE OF CONTENT

General Instructions

Experiment 1 Isentropic Expansion Process

Experiment 2 Brief Depressurization

Experiment 3 Determination of Ratio of Volume

Experiment 4 Determination of Ratio of Heat Capacity

The Fundamental Pressure-Temperature

Experiment 5
Relationship of Saturated Steam in Equilibrium

Experiment 6 Bernouli’s theorem

Experiment 7 Head loss in pipe

Experiment 8 Impact of jets

Experiment 9 To study turbine characteristic at high head and

low head

Experiment 10 Head loss in bends

APPENDIX

A Perfect Gas Expansion Unit

B Marcet Boiler
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

Laboratory experiments are designed with the intention of being completed during
the allotted classroom time. In order to expedite things it is mandatory that you
be prepared prior coming to the lab. This includes reading the lab procedure
handout thoroughly and understanding the experiments illustrations and
techniques. In additional, any applicable calculations (such as solution
preparations) should be made in advance so that work may commence upon
arriving in the lab. A flowchart of the experiment methodology is helpful in
determining what steps should be taken and the order in which things must be
done. In addition, it is important that you familiarize yourself with lab techniques
learned in your chemistry classes. Some experiments may take longer that the
others, but the biggest determinant will be your preparation.

ATTENDANCE IS MANDATORY!

(A) Laboratory logbook

You are required to have a logbook. This must be a bound logbook. It is very
important to get into a habit of writing a logbook. You are required to translate
the procedure of each lab in the lab manual into graphical illustration or flowchart
in your logbook before you begin your experiment. Recording in the logbook
should be written as the experiment is carried out and should be as brief, but
concise, as possible. Record in your logbook everything you do and observe as
you carry out the experiment. Each experiment in the logbook should contain the
following information:
(i) Title of the experiment
(ii) Date of the experiment carried out
(iii) Objective of the experiment
(iv) Hypothesis of the experiment
(v) Procedure outline or brief description of the method
 (vi) Observation (should be recorded throughout the experiment)

A logbook should be neat. Clarification of procedure and results are important.

Always use a pen to write your logbook. For any mistake or changing of the data
written on the logbook, the usage of liquid paper or eraser is not allowed. Always
use a pen to cross out if any errors.

The lab instructor/lecturer will inspect and sign your logbook during the lab
session and possibly grade them at the end of the semester.

(B) Laboratory group

You will be assigned to a lab group (please refer to the student notice board or
outside the lab after the first session of the laboratory meet up). Students are not
allowed to change their team member for lab. You are required to work with you
group members as much as possible in terms of understanding the lab work and
sharing information on the different sections that were performed by different
members.

(C) Laboratory reports

i) Report submission

Report must be submitted one week after the scheduled experiment and
within the 1st 10 minutes of the due lab period. Marks would be deducted
accordingly for late reports or may not be accepted. Students who caught blatantly
copying from other or involved in any plagiarism activities will be required to
resubmit their work, or otherwise zero marks will be given.
 ii) Report style/format

Lab report must be in hand written or typed. Each of the group members
must contribute in the report. Report should contain the following:

Front page (refer the at Appendices A)

Table of content
Objective
Introduction/background of the experiment
Material and Methodology
Results and discussion
Conclusion
Limitation of the Experiment
Reference
Appendix (if any)

Lab reports are to be assembled in a logical and orderly way. Tedious

calculations must be placed in sequential order in the report. The report shall be:

(i) Written in passive tense.

Example: “Five milligram of solid was weighted.”
(ii) Graph must be with title, axis labels with units and legend when
necessary. The scale of the graph should be adjusted to fit the
graph data.
(iii) Plagiarism will not be allowed and tolerated.
(iv) Use suitable analysis method during explanations for the graph
such as R-value, slope of the line, line equations, etc in explaining
the experiment.
(v) Only chemical compound structures can be drawn using
handwriting.
(D) Laboratory Rules

All the laboratory rules already learned will be applicable all the time and the
students are required to comply with all the rules when there are in the lab.

1. Wear closed shoes, lab coat and eye protection (goggles) at all the time while
in the laboratory.
2. DO NOT wear bulky clothes or loose sleeves and long pants. Wear suitable
attire for lab work. Those with long hair do tie it before entering the lab.
(lecturer/instructor preserve the right to not allow student who not follow this
rule from enter the lab)
3. Switch off your hand phones.
4. Always be punctual. Students who come later than 15 minutes will not
allowed to perform the experiment.
5. Eating and drinking in the lab are strictly prohibited in the lab.
6. Students must have a towel (for cleaning purposes), a logbook and their lab
manual during the lab session.
7. Clean your bench and return all the apparatus to their respective places before
you leave the lab.
8. Read the lab manual and understand the lab before you going to the lab.
9. Use only the amount of the reagents required. Avoid wastage.
10. Dispose of excess reagents as instructed, never return excess reagents into the
bottle.
11. Make sure you know where the following safety devices are: eyewash station,
emergency shower, fire extinguisher, fire alarm station.
12. Clean up the broken glass and report to the lab instructor or lecturer
immediately.
13. Always follow the instruction of the lab instructor or lecturer before start the
lab.
14. Do not casually dispose chemicals into the sink. Some chemicals may washed
down the sink, while others may require a different method of disposal. If a
chemical can go in the sink, be sure to wash it away rather than risk an
unexpected reaction between chemical 'leftovers' later.
 EXPERIMENT 1: ISENTROPIC EXPANSION PROCESS

OBJECTIVES

1. To demonstrate the isentropic expansion process.

PROCEDURES

1. Perform the general start up procedures as stated in appendix A. Make

sure all valves are fully closed.
2. Connect the hose from compressive pump to pressurized chamber.
3. Switch on the compressive pump and allow the pressure inside
chamber to increase up to about 160kPa. Then, switch off the pump
and remove the hose from the chamber.
4. Monitor the pressure reading inside the chamber until it stabilizes.
Record the pressure reading PT 1 and temperature TT 1.
5. Then, slightly open valve V 01 and allow the air flow out slowly until
it reaches atmospheric pressure.
6. Record the pressure reading and temperature reading after the
expansion process.
7. Discuss the isentropic expansion process.
 EXPERIMENT 2: BRIEF DEPRESSURIZATION

OBJECTIVES

1. To study the response of the pressurized vessel following a brief

depressurization

PROCEDURES

1. Perform the general start up procedures as stated in appendix A. Make

sure all valves are fully closed.
2. Connect the hose from compressive pump to pressurized chamber.
3. Switch on the compressive pump and allow the pressure inside
chamber to increase up to about 160kPa. Then, switch off the pump
and remove the hose from the chamber.
4. Monitor the pressure reading inside the chamber until it stabilizes.
Record the pressure reading PT 1.
5. Fully open valve V 01 and bring it back to closed position after few
seconds. Monitor and record the pressure reading PT 1 until it
becomes stable.
6. Display the pressure reading on a graph and discuss about it.
 EXPERIMENT 3: DETERMINATION OF RATIO OF VOLUME

OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the ratio of volume and compares it to the

theoretical value.

PROCEDURES

1. Perform the general start up procedures as stated in appendix A. Make

sure all valves are fully closed.
2. Connect the hose from compressive pump to pressurized chamber.
3. Switch on the compressive pump and allow the pressure inside
chamber to increase up to about 160kPa. Then, switch off the pump
and remove the hose from the chamber.
4. Monitor the pressure reading inside the chamber until it stabilizes.
Record the pressure reading for both chambers before expansion.
5. Open valve V 02 and allow the pressurized air flows into the
atmospheric chamber slowly.
6. Record the pressure reading for both chambers after expansion.
7. The experimental procedures can be repeated for the following
conditions:
a) From atmospheric chamber to vacuum chamber
b) From pressurized chamber to vacuum chamber
8. Calculate the ratio of volume and compares it with the theoretical
value.
EXPERIMENT 4: DETERMINATION OF RATIO OF HEAT CAPACITY

OBJECTIVES

1. To determine the ratio of heat capacity and compares it to the

theoretical value.

PROCEDURES

1. Perform the general start up procedures as stated in appendix A. Make

sure all valves are fully closed.
2. Connect the hose from compressive pump to pressurized chamber.
3. Switch on the compressive pump and allow the pressure inside
chamber to increase up to about 150kPa. Then, switch off the pump
and remove the hose from the chamber.
4. Monitor the pressure reading inside the chamber until it stabilizes.
Record the pressure reading PT 1 and temperature TT 1.
5. Fully open valve V 01 and bring it back to closed position after few
seconds. Monitor and record the pressure reading PT 1 and
temperature TT 1 until it becomes stable.
6. Determine the ratio of heat capacity and compare it with theoretical
value.
EXPERIMENT 5: THE FUNDAMENTAL PRESSURE-TEMPERATURE
RELATIONSHIP OF SATURATED STEAM IN EQUILIBRIUM
(OPEN ENDED EXPERIMENT)

OBJECTIVES

1. To obtain a relationship between the pressure and temperature of saturated

steam, in equilibrium with water, at all pressure between atmospheric and
10 bar (150 lb/in2).

2. To compare between calculated values from experiment data to the data

obtained from steam table for vfg and hfg .

3. To demonstrate the vapour pressure curve.

PROCEDURES

1. Perform the general start up procedures as stated in appendix B.

2. If the boiler is initially filled with water, open the valves at the level
side tube to check the water level. Pour in additional distilled water if
necessary. Then, close the valves.
3. Set the temperature controller to 185.0 °C which is slightly above the
expected boiling point of the water at 9.0 bar (abs).
4. Open the valve at feed port and turn on the heater.

Important:
Always make sure that the valves at the level sight tube are closed before
turning on the heater as the sight tube is not designed to withstand high
pressure and temperature.
5. Observe the steam temperature rise as the water boils.
6. Allow steam to come out from the valve for about 30 seconds, and
then close the valve. This step is important to remove air from the
boiler as the accuracy of the experimental results will be significantly
affected when air is present.
7. Record the steam temperature and pressure when the boiler is heated
until the steam pressure reaches 9.0 bar (abs).

Warning:
Never open the valve when the boiler is heated as pressurized steam can
cause severe injury.

8. Then, turn off the heater and the steam temperature and pressure will
begin to drop. Allow the boiler cool down to room temperature.
9. Record the steam temperatures at different pressure readings when the
boiler is heated and cooled.
 RESULTS

Atmosphere pressure: ________bar ; Atmosphere temperature : _______(˚C)

Table 1
Experimental Theory
Data (experiment) Result Data (steam table) Result
Absolute Temperature Pressure Temperature Measured Steam Enthalphy Calculated
Pressure, Reading, difference, difference, slope specific of slope
P T dP dT dT/dP volume,vg evaporation (T. vg) /( hfg)
3 hfg
(bar) (0C) (bar) (0C) (K/bar) (m /kg)
(kJ/kg) (K/bar)
QUESTIONS

1. Complete experiment data sheet (Table 1).

2. Plot a graph of Temperature (0C) v/s Absolute Pressure (bar). Label your
graph.
3. Measure/calculate the slope of the graph using certain points and compare to
your theory result.

 dT  Tv fg
4. Plot   versus P and versus P on a same graph.
 dP SAT hfg

5. Show all your calculation in separate sheets.

Note:
Clausius-Clapeyron relationship:

Therefore,

the value of vg is much larger than vf , then :

where :
Vf = specific volume of water
Vg = specific volume of steam
hf = enthalpy of water
hg = enthalpy of steam
hfg = enthalpy of evaporation
DISCUSSION / EVALUATION & QUESTION

1. Discuss experimental results. You may use below guidelines:

(Include a discussion on the result noting trends in measured data, and comparing
measurements with theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation
of the results and graphs, the reasons on deviations of your findings from expected results,
your recommendations on further experimentation for verifying your results, and your
findings)

2. Why we need to release the air/gas from the equipment before the experiment?

3. Compare the experimental result with theoretical result. Give your comments.

4. Define the relationship between the pressure and temperature.

5. If the pressure increase, what will happen to the temperature?

6. Discuss any discrepancy and sources of error of the experiment.

CONCLUSION
(Based on data and discussion, make your overall conclusion by referring to experiment objective.)
 EXPERIMENT 6: BERNOULI’S THEOREM

Objective:
1. To introduce the basic usage of hydraulic bench.
2. To record the differential pressure drop along a Venturi meter
3. To determine and compare the value of manometric head coefficient Cmh by
theoretical and experimental.

General safety steps for hydraulic work bench

1. The Hydraulics Bench is factory tested before delivery.

2. Place or position the Hydraulics Bench near a 13 amp electrical power point
and water supply point with ample space around for students to perform the
experiments.
3. Connect a water hose to the water supply source and place the other end into
the sump tank underneath the Hydraulics Bench.
4. Open the water supply for water to fill the sump tank up to three-quarter full.
5. Plug in the electrical supply.
6. The hydraulics bench is ready to use.
7. Make sure that the sump tank is filled with at least three quarter full.
8. Make sure that flow control valve and overflow valve is fully open.
9. Plug in the electrical supply and switch on the power.
10. Slowly close the overflow valve until a comfortable flow rate. Then seal the
exit of water with rubber slot.
11. Read on the volumetric meter at the right hand side of the hydraulic bench to
find the water flow rate which you set just now.
12. Set the flow rate to 6 gpm by turning the over flow valve, which is locate
above the water pump.
13. Press the valve which is locate at the top right corner of the Bernoulli’s
Theorem Apparatus to relief the trapped air and allow the water level rise to a
readable level.
14. Make sure no air bubble in the manometer tube and wait until the water is
stabilized.
15. Record these values and tabulate the value. Repeat for 6, 5 and 4 g.p.m.

Details for the venturi pipe are shown in the figure below where the diameters of
each tapping section are shown in the table below.

Tapping Diameter (mm) Cross Section

Number Area (m2)
1 26 0.000531
2 23 0.000415
3 18 0.000254
4 16 0.000201
5 19 0.000284
6 22 0.000380
7 25 0.000491
8 26 0.000531
 EXPERIMENT 7: HEAD LOSS IN PIPE

OBJECTIVE:
1. To determine the head loss in pipe flow for different pipe diameter.
2. To estimate the friction factor for difference pipe diameter.

Learning Outcome:
Upon the completion of experiment, student should be able to determine the head
loss in pipe flow for different pipe diameter. Besides that, students are able to plot
the graph of fiction factor against Reynolds number.

(Head loss in pipes of different diameter)

Procedure:
1. Place the LS-18001-15 Pipe Friction Apparatus on hydraulic bench.
2. Connect the water inlet and outlet nipples with flexible hose.
3. Connect the quick coupling to the copper pipe which has 11mm inner
diameter.
4. Switch on the water pump and close the hydraulic bench over flow valve
slowly.
5. Open the valves at the copper pipe and remove air gap in the manometer by
pressing the relief valve which is located on top of the manometer. Measure
the water flow rate by a measuring beaker and a stopwatch.
6. Record the reading at the manometer.
7. Repeat step 4 to 6 with different flow rate and take the reading of the
manometer.
8. Repeat step 3 to 7 for one other different diameter pipe.
Result:

11mm 8.3mm 5.3mm

Flowrate H(mm Hg) Flowrate H(mm Hg) Flowrate H(mm Hg)
(L/s) (L/s) (L/s)

Note:
The length of the pipe, L=0.425m
Coefficient of kinematic viscosity of the fluid at 25°C, v=9.04×10-7 m2/s

Calculation:
Calculate the flow rate of the pipe:

Table 1: Value of time, volume of water collected and flow rate

t (s) Water collected (L) Flow rate (L/s) Velocity, v (m/s)

Calculate the Reynolds number for the pipe by using the equation of
vD
Re 

Table 2: Value of the flow rate and the Reynolds number
Velocity, v (m/s) Re

Calculate the friction factor for the pipe from the equation
h
f 
L v2

d 2g
Table 3: Value for the flow rate, Reynolds Number, head loss and friction factor

Velocity, v Re Δh (m Hg) Friction factor, f

(m/s)
 EXPERIMENT 8: IMPACT OF JETS

OBJECTIVE:
To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to
various target vanes.

Learning Outcome:
Upon the completion of experiment, student should be able to investigate the
reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to various target vanes
F
and compare the theoretical value of with the experimental value.
Q Vi

Results and Analysis

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet provided.

2. Calculate for each result the flow rate and the nozzle exit velocity. Correct the
nozzle velocity for the height of the target above the nozzle to obtain the
impact velocity.

3. Calculate the impact momentum ρ Q Vi and plot graphs of impact force F
against impact momentum and determine the slope of the graphs for each
target. Compare with the theoretical values of 1, 0.2929, 1.7071 for the
normal plane target, conical target and hemispherical target respectively.
Theory

1. Introduction
Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets Apparatus enables experiments to be carried
out on the reaction force produced on vanes when a jet of water impacts on to the
vane. The study of these reaction forces is an essential step in the subject of
mechanics of fluids which can be applied to hydraulic machinery such as the
Pelton Wheel and the Impulse Turbine.

2. Description
Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets Apparatus, is intended to be used with
Cussons P6100 Hydraulics Bench which provides the water supply and the means
of measuring flow rate. The apparatus consists essentially of a UPVC base
assembly with a vertical nozzle supply pipe inside a transparent acrylic tube
which supports a removable top flange assembly.
A vertical shaft, which passes through a plain bearing in the top flange
assembly, has provision for attaching the target vane at its lower end. The top of
the shaft is screwed to a weight platform and a spring between the top flange and
the weight platform provides vertical support to an equilibrium position. A weight
carrier and a set of brass weights are equipped. (Prior to serial no. 100 a weight
beaker and lead shot were provided instead of a weight carrier and brass weights).
Three interchangeable target vanes are supplied, one flat, one conical and
one semi-spherical, dimensional details of the three target vanes are shown in
figure 1 overleaf. Two interchangeable plain bore nozzles are supplied, one 5mm
diameter and one 8mm diameter. Screwed studs are provided on the base plate of
the apparatus for storage of the nozzle and target vanes which are not in use.
 In operation water from the Hydraulic Bench issues vertically from the
nozzle and impacts onto the target vane. The impulse force produced by the
impact of the jet onto the vane lifts the vane, shaft and weight platform to its
equilibrium position.

a) Flat Target b)Conical Target c)Semi-spherical Target

Figure 1 Interchangeable Target Vanes

3. Theory
General Analysis
When a jet of water flowing with a steady velocity strikes a solid surface
the water is deflected to flow along the surface. Unlike the impact of solid bodies
there is no rebound, and unless the flow is highly turbulent there will be no
splashing. If friction is neglected by assuming an inviscid fluid and it is also
assumed that there are no losses due to shocks then the magnitude of the water
velocity is unchanged. The pressure exerted by the water on the solid surface will
everywhere be at right angles to the surface.
 Consider a jet of water which impacts on to a target surface causing the
direction of the jet to be changed through an angle θ as shown in figure 3 above.
In the absence of friction the magnitude of the velocity across the surface is equal
to the incident velocity Vi. The impulse force exerted on the target will be equal
and opposite to the force which acts on the water to impart the change in direction.
Applying Newton’s Second Law in the direction of the incident jet

Force = Mass x Acceleration

= Mass Flow Rate x Change in Velocity

F  M V

 M(Vi  Vi cosθ)

But M =  Q therefore

F =  Q Vi (1 - cos  )

And dividing through by  Q Vi which is the incident momentum

F
= 1 - cos 
 QVi

Application to Cussons Impact of Jet Apparatus

In each case it is assumed that there is no splashing or rebound of the

water from the surface so that the exit angle is parallel to the exit angle of the
target.
a) Effect of Height
The jet velocity can be calculated from the measured flow rate and nozzle
exit area

Q
Vn =
A
However, as the nozzle is below the target the impact velocity will be less
than the nozzle velocity due to interchanges between potential energy and kinetic
energy so that:
Vi 2 =Vn 2  2gh
where h is the height of target above the nozzle exit.

b) Impact on Normal Plane Target

For the normal plane target  is 90o. Therefore
Cosθ = 0
F

= 1 - Cosθ = 1
ρ Q Vi

c) Impact on Conical Target

The cone semi-angle  is 45o.
cosθ = 0.7071
F

= 1 - Cosθ = 0.2929
ρ Q Vi

d) Impact on Semi-spherical Target

The target exit angle is 135o.
cosθ = -0.7071
F

= 1 - Cosθ = 1.7071
ρ Q Vi
EXPERIMENT 9: TO STUDY TURBINE CHARACTERISTICS AT HIGH
HEAD AND LOW HEAD

OBJECTIVE:
To study the characteristics curves of a Pelton turbine operating at high and low
head

Learning Outcome:
Upon completion of experiment, student should be to understand the
characteristics of Torque, Power output and Efficiency of Turbines at different
rotational speed of turbines at high head and low head by plotting graphs of
Torque, Power Output and Efficiency versus N (rev/s)

Setup
1) Setup the pressure at 0.5 kgf/cm2 for low head
2) Get about 10 sets of readings for m1, m2 which are scale readings in grams
and N1 and N2 which are RPM of pulley.
3) Record the flow rate
4) Repeat the above steps for high head at 1.0kgf/cm2

Power Output
Pb= 2πNT
N= rev/s
N (r. p.m)
=
60
T= Torque

Torque
T=Fb x r
Fb= net force= Fb1-Fb2
m1x9.81 m2x9.81
Fb1= Fb2=
1000 1000

r= radius of pulley
Ph=Useful Fluid Power
= Ρw X g x Hi X Qw

Pw= density of water (kg/m3)

Qw= flow rate of water (m3/s)

Hi =pressure of water (m)

Pr essure( Pascal )
=
Pw  g

Et = Efficiency

Pb
=
Ph

= 2πNT
Ρw X g X Hi X Qw
 EXPERIMENT 10: HEAD LOSS IN BENDS
(OPEN ENDED EXPERIMENT)

Objective:
To determine the head losses in bends

Learning Outcome:
Upon the completion of experiment, student should be able to determine the head
losses in four different bend (90° large radius bend, 90° small radius bend, 90°
V2
elbow and two 45° bend), then, plot the graph of Δh against to obtain K for
2g
all the four bends.

PROCEDURE
Students to outline the procedure involved in the experiment.

RESULTS AND CALCULATION

Students need to identify the data need to be collected to determine the head
losses in four different bend. Given:
7 2
1. Coefficient of kinematics viscosity of the fluid at 25°C, v = 9.04×10- m /s

2. Equation for Reynolds number:

3. Graph 1: Graph of friction factor, f against Reynolds number, Re

From the Reynolds number that obtained, find the friction factor using equation
given in graph 1.

4. Frictional head loss, hf:

5. Total Head Loss = Piezometer Head - Frictional Head Loss

(Piezometer Head is obtained from the manometer)

6. Loss Coefficient, K:

V2
7. Plot the graph of Δh against to obtain K for all the bends
2g
Flowrate ∆h’ (m) ∆hf (m) ∆h (m) K
(differential (frictional head (total head loss) (loss coefficient)
piezometer head) loss)
 APPENDIX A: PERFECT GAS EXPANSION UNIT

General Start-up Procedures

1. Connect the equipment to single phase power supply and then switch
on the unit.
2. Fully open all valves and check the pressure reading on the panel.
This is to make sure that the chambers are under atmospheric
pressure.
3. Then, close all the valves.
4. Connect the pipe from compressive port of the pump to pressurized
chamber or connect the pipe from vacuum port of the pump to
vacuum chamber.
5. Now, the unit is ready for use.

General Shut-down Procedures

1. Switch off the pump and remove both pipes from the chambers.
2. Fully open the valves to release the air inside the chambers.
3. Switch off the main switch and power supply.
 APPENDIX B: MARCET BOILER

General Start-up Procedures

1. Perform a quick inspection to ensure that the unit is in proper

operating condition.
2. Connect the unit to the nearest power supply.
3. Open the valves at the feed port and the level sight tube.
4. Fill the boiler with distilled water through the feed port and make sure
that the water level is at about the half of the boiler’s height. Then,
close the valves at the level sight tube.
5. Turn on the power supply switch.
6. Now you are ready to carry on with the experiment.

General Shut-down Procedures

1. Switch off the heater and allow the boiler temperature to drop.
Note:
Do not open the valve at the water inlet port as it is highly
pressurized at high temperature.
2. Switch off the main switch and the main power supply.
3. Retain the water next use.
FORMAT FOR TABLE OF CONTENT

TABLE OF CONTENT
PAGE
1.0 Objectives
2.0 Introduction
3.0 Material & Methodology
4.0 Results and Calculation
5.0 Discussion
6.0 Limitation of Report
7.0 Conclusion
8.0 References
REFERENCES

Reference Style
The details of the references cited in the text, published or unpublished
should be located in the List of References. The list should be placed at the end of
the thesis, a listing of sources actually cited, compiled either alphabetically
(Harvard System) or numerically (Number System). The style selected must be
used consistently throughout the thesis.

Author and Year System

This system is also known as Harvard System.

Citing in the Text

The references cited in the text should be indicated using the name of the
author and the date of publication. Examples are as follow:

(a) If the name of an author is written as part of a sentence, the year published
should be written in parentheses.
“Works by Yao (1993) have shown that in order to maintain the behavioural link
between the offsprings and their parents, the use of crossover operator should be
avoided.”

(b) If the name of an author is not written as part of a sentence, both the name and
year published should be written in parentheses.
“ANN offers useful properties and capabilities such as non-linearity, input and
output mapping, adaptability and fault tolerance among others (Haykin, 1999).”

(c) If there are two authors for a cited reference, both names should be written.
“In designing the model for non-linear system, the parsimonious principle
(Soderstrom and Stoica, 1989) is critical because a nonlinear model involves an
excessive number of parameters.” “Syu and Chang (1999) successfully used
neural networks to adaptively control Penicillin acylase fermentation.”
(d) If there are more than three authors for a cited reference, use et al. after the
name of the first author.
“The algorithm can be calculated by applying Gram-Schmidt procedures as
described by Korenberg et al. (1988).”

(e) If more than one reference materials by the same author in a same year are
cited, use small letter alphabets (a, b, c, and so on) to distinguish them.
“Some of the basic principles widely used by many researchers are Lagrange-
Euler (LE) equations (Uicker, 1965; Bejczy and Paul, 1981), Newton-Euler (NE)
equations (Luh et al., 1980a) and d’Alembert (GD) equations (Lee et al., 1983).”

“Luh et al. (1980b) presented an example of an acceleration control of robot

arm/manipulator.”

(f) Cross referencing in not allowed in a thesis. Only primary sources should be
used.

Writing Style for Authors’ Names in the List of References

Generally, authors’ names are listed using surname followed by their initials. The
followings are examples of writing style according to the name of the author:

(i) Single and multiple authors

Example (single author) :
Veres, S. M. (1990). Structure Selection of Stochastic Dynamic Systems. New
York:
Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

Example (two or more authors):

Soderstrom, T., and Stoica, P. (1989). System Identification. United Kingdom:
Prentice Hall International Ltd.

Luh, J. Y. S., Walker, M. W., and Paul, R. P. (1980b). Resolved-Acceleration

Control of Mechanical Manipulators. IEEE Trans. Automatic Control. 25(3):
468-474.

(ii) Editor
Example:
Martin, A. M. (Ed.) (1991). Peat as an Agent in Biological Degradation of Waste.
London: Elsevier.
Lees, R. H. and Thomas T. R. (Eds.) (1974). Chemical Nomenclature Usage.
Chichester: Ellis Horwood.
(iii) Corporate author/editor
Example:
Engineers Joint Council (1969). Thesaurus of Engineering and Scientific Terms.
New York: Engineers Joint Council.

Writing Style for Various Types of Publication Materials in the List of

References
Frequently, different types of publication materials are cited in a thesis. The style
of writing details on cited publication should be as follows:

(i) Book
Author (Year). Title. (Edition). Placed published: Publisher.
Example:
Theusen, G. J. and Fabrycky, W. J. (1984). Engineering Economy. (6th ed.)
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall.

(ii) Article in a book

Author of the article (Year). Title of the article. In author or editor of the book.
Title of the book. (page). Place published: Publisher.
Example:
Hussein, S. B., Jamaluddin, H., Mailah, M. and Zalzala, A. M. S. (2000). An
Evolutionary Neural Network Controller for Intelligent Active Force Control. In
Parmee, I. C. (Ed.) Evolutionary Design and Manufacturing (pp. 351 –362).
London: Springer-Verlag.

(iii) Journal articles

Printed format
Author (Year). Title of the article. Title of the Journal. Volume (Issue no.), page.
Example:
Billings. S. A. (1980). Identification of Nonlinear Systems: A survey. Proc. IEE,
Part D. 127(6), 272-284.
Electronic format
Author (Year). Title of the article. Title of the Journal. Volume (Issue no.), page.
Publisher.
Example:
Borman, W. C. (1993). Role of Early Supervisory Experience in Supervisor
Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 443 – 449. American
Psychology Association.

(iv) Conference articles

Author (Year). Title of the article. Name of the conference. Date of the conference.
Place, page.
Example:
Sheta, A. F. and De Jong, K. (1996). Parameter Estimation of Nonlinear Systems
in Noisy Environments Using Genetic Algorithms. Proceedings of the 1996 IEEE
International Symposium on Intelligent Control. 15-18 September. Dearborn,
Michigan: IEEE, 360 - 365.
(v) Thesis
Author (Year). Title of the thesis. Thesis award. Place published.
Example:
Adnan bin Hassan (2002). On-line Recognition of Developing Control Chart
Patterns. Ph.D. Thesis. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai.
(vi) Legislations
Name of the country (year). Title of the legislation. Legislation number.

Example:
Malaysia (1983). Perintah Monumen Lama dan Tapak Tanah Bersejarah.
P.U.(A)41 1983.

(vii) Standards
Name of the institution (Year). Standard number. Place published: Publisher.
Example:
British Standards Institution (1990). B.S. 764. London: British Standards
Institution.

(viii) Patent
Print format
Author (Year). Patent number. Place published: Official source.
Example:
Smith, I. M. (1988). U.S. Patent No. 123, 445. Washington DC: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
Electronic format
Author (Year). Patent number. Retrieved on date, year, from URL address of the
patent database.

Example:
Ulrich, K. (2001). European Patent No. EP1162184. Retrieved on March 7, 2002,
from fttp://ep.espacenet.com/

(ix) Brochure
Name of organization (Year). Title [Brochure]. Place published: Publisher.
Example:
Research and Training Center (1993). Guidelines for Reporting and Writing
About People with Disabilities. [Brochure]. Lawrance, KS: Macmillan.

(x) Measured drawings

Author (Year). Title. [Measured drawing]. Name of organization: Place published.
Example:
Salim Man (1989). Pengisi Sekam ke Dalam Kontena Penyimpan: Pandangan
Isometrik. [Lukisan Teknik]. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia: Skudai.

(xi) Unpublished materials

Author (Year). Title. Unpublished note, Name of organization.

(xii) Newspaper article

Print format
No author
Title of article. (Year, date). Name of newspaper, page.
Example:
Gearing up to meet new challenges. (2000, February 22). The Star. p. 2.

With author
Author. (Year, date). Title of article. Name of newspaper, page.

Example:
Izatun Shari (2000, April 18). K-economy: draft out in October. New Straits
Times. p. 2-4.

Electronic format
Author. (Year, date). Title of article. Name of newspaper, Retrieved date, year,
from URL address of the newspaper.
Example:
Rosmawati Mion (2006, June 17). Sindiket judi haram tumpas. Utusan Malaysia.
Retrieved June 19, 2006, from http://www.utusan.com.my

(xii) Magazine
Author. (Year). Title of article. Name of magazine, Volume/Issue no., page
Example:
Smith, B. L. (1994). Biofeedback. Science, 62, 673 – 675.
(xiii) CD-ROM
Author. (Year). Title of article. [CD-ROM]. Title of Journal,, Volume, page.
Publisher.
Example:
Ivry, R. B. (1995). Perception and production of temporal intervals across a range of
durations. [CD-ROM]. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21, 3-18. American
Psychological Association.