LoGic—METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTS Statoraent: Statement it generally meant szoup of wards thet have anesmning hucin Logic alstement means group of words that has two torms. first terrm is user! under sebject and the seoond term under predicate. The statements in logic are called propositions or preanives Premises; The premises that hay the major Lerm 18 called major premise and the premise that hue she minor term is coiled ainor prem ‘Term: Pe predieate of major premise is called mjor term and ie denoted by P and its geet zs called rainor term and is denoted by Sand the teens which are commun in both the Dremiscs are called middle term which is docmted by M. for examplo xampl All men are mertal, (Major Promise) Root 29 aun, (Minor Premive} Ram is mortal (Conchision) Here ‘mortal ts major term 2nd ite sul ‘= not minor term her heeause it ie premive also git is middle term. Nj here is ‘Ram’. In logic unit of argui in “Balfed proposition er premise and unit tit called term. A propesiticy exOnt from a sentence thatite predieat ‘moréony the subject, i, if we say'ths taken food, jeate peither sffirma nor if We say thet man is tal affirms the man so and “L have (ken food” i Now the question ishew will we jor and minor premises in a 1up of logical statemer ts}. It is by identifying the majur and munor 1 Cais purpose study the {stand Ind ises anit idencify the predicate which bus vitafand wide concept. ILwill be the major teem and the terms which come in bath the premises In this sentence pr donies tbe subj sural then will be the middle to=me. A.terin may have word ar move tham one worl, Marcover mnttior term will he used us subject of the eoaghusi sand its predicate will be the einjor ‘Types of Syllogiam: 1. Catexorieal: Here all che proposiigt Rie Wurforical in positive or nogatike fofm und no docktfullness ia aoen af Wlheé 2 Alleraduates genes Ooiori All eligi a (inex Some m radiaces. (Cone) 2. Hypot ‘The ey this Lype uses premise of « works hard, he will vi fore the first part 15 called fant band the seconel part is called naeifGent. tr: this type of syllogieun the jor premise is hyncthetical loving sore ing and the cinoy premiea will be catogortcal. eg If he comes. | abull meet him, In this epMlogism, [the comes, Oityor) Tshall meet him. (nw 3. Disjunctive Tm this type of syllogism the major premise ix disjanctive and the ncher two premises are categoria, og. Either be is an honest man ora lee. (Major) He ia an honest mun, (Minor) He as not a thief, (Conclusion) Tn disjunctive statements two terms opposite in meaning ary ured. LE firat is affirmed the seeund must be denied. 4. Relational: Hore relations between various terme are showr orderly, e.g, A>B.B>C,C>D, SoA >D (conelusion}5. Dilemma: lu such type of ayllogismas the major premise is double hypothetical and minor premise i of disjunctive type ond the conelusivu will be cithere disjunctive or cateyorica, e If these books confirm to Quran they are reliableifthey do not they ore superfluous Bidher they eonfirn te Queaa or they do at. Fither they are relisble or zuperfluos. Inthe above example the avoond and third promiees are disjunctive. Copel ‘The verb used in thy promises in logic is called copula. Hor this purpose “is” and "are" arc generulky used and logicians do ‘not use ‘was? and "wee aa copiila because fogicians always talk in terms of the present, w ib tsi 6 ‘Types of Propositions: 1. From the qualitative point af view— rom the quality point of viow itis of two typos: A. Affirmative - de, AM graduates are men B. Negative - ie, No man is hart working . From the quantitative point of vi From the quantaty peint of view itis typos: (@ Universal—in which th universal and refere exeoplion. te, ht moxtal, () Particular - dwubjoct does pat refer to al people ure noun wil Simulsziys one 90% about 60%, etc. will be macular propositions, The words Lines, often, generally, ele, also make rupdeitions particular, ‘The propesitiona wich uwe words lke few, litle, hardly, seareely, ote. sxe cinsidered tn be negative proposition. Similasly if there are double negatives used in a pruprsition chen the proposition will hecone affitmative, Cn the busia of above divisions we can sav that there are four types of eatogomieal propoaitions in lowe. 1. Universal affirmative ~it is ealled “A | propositions, Ee, All lakcurers axe hatd-warking — All childven are true «pean Universal Negative They wr & prepositions, fe, —Nominister is ded —No human being ‘= Particular Affirms *T". propamtions. ic. ~Some men arc Itard eerh Some peoplgae labors . Particular Ne ff y arn called *O preposiguas ~Somg men, Some nin b hard-working 16 not honest, of terms ge of A prepouttions only subject isdistbuted, In ease of E" propns:t.op both eubject and predicate are disteibuted, In case of “I” proposition neither subject nor predicadi: is digstibuted. In case nf "C0" proposition only predicates distributed. Now, the question is how will the term be distributed, Takes the example of°' proposition Man is mortal’. Here the tera: mitt bisa two ‘moaning. The firsts, man reans hain boing sand the necond, 6 nan means eaidmaty. Web term ‘man’ has hean used as denotation, ‘mua meuns human being. the term wan wile distributed. On the other hard uf man means animality, i.. vonnotation of Ue terva, it wall not be distribntnd because (here ave uilier sei mals berides nan and the pzopsition will not cemain universalSimiluzly, in case of 'E’ proposition both aubject and predicate are distributed, i.c., no man is happy. Here no man refers to all human being and heppy also rofors to all without oxcoption, So bel can be distributed for logical conclusions, In the third ease of T proposition rnnithor subject nar predicate can be distributed, En, "some men are hard-working, Here neither the term men refera to ‘nil’ neither the term hard-working” refers to all sa both of them ennnet.bo distmbuted. In che last ease of “O” proposition only predicate is dastributed, i.e., some men are not honest, Hire the teray ‘men’ does not refer to all ‘but the term honest may reer toall soit cau Le distributed. Distribution of the middle or other terms helps us to arrive at logical conclusion. Types of Logical Inforences: ‘A Immediate !wierence B., Mediate Inforenoo A. Immediate Inferences: Sometimes premises are arranged m diffcront forms. Out of thom some are true and, some are false, ie, ‘some students industrious, is @ premise. [fit is considere So trus then ‘some etudents are not indi 18 also true bul if we soy that ‘no at industrious’ its also. All these ai are based on cerium rules. This immediate inference. We only two methods of imme 1. Conversion: Here we derivegonclvsitW@hy taking the following r ‘acgpunt: fa) Breda es the subject and the preposition does not any change, ie,, Afirmative asivion will lead w affirmative jusion nnd negntive proposition il lend to negative conclusion. @P*A" proposition is converted into ‘V pro-position. ‘T! propositiun is converted into T and ‘E into E'itzelE, (2) Proposition 0 can not be converted at all, Examples wil) illustrate those pointa @ All_ministers are politicians” (A Proposition). Its converted form is Some politicians are ministers (I pro-position) Some men are hard-warking. proposition) Its converted form ig Sone: () a) propeaton) Ne immartal prepusition) Some sty (Op wring ray Soe “nklligens Wnt aidents. of inforonce is kased on she les: Subjecr docs nat undergo any change t predicate is changed ante contradictory. Here contradictory dloos not mean the antonym of ste term. [t i¢ not used in louis. For waking contradictnrs of Bis tran tot should be added] before i, F-¢..contri: dictory of kind is not ‘crue? kul “nev Kind” is the real contradictory of “kind. Negative proparitions are changed into affirmative und vige-voran, fA is obverted into F and I is ubvevtes into‘A’ proposition ‘The quantity of the proposition #3 remain the same. Ifthe proposition is universal it will :emain unsversal and if it is parteular it will remain particular in the okverted form of the conclusion. Following examples will illustrate these points clearly. @) All aeligious people people, Peupusition ‘A’) w we) rapt infellisent oo @ me cauntended