Hbse3303 Bi

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBSE3303
Characteristics and Development
of Special Needs Children
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBSE3303
CHARACTERISTICS
AND DEVELOPMENT
OF CHILDREN WITH
SPECIAL NEEDS
Julia Jantan
Siti Suhaila Samian

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Julia Jantan

Siti Suhaila Samian
Politeknik Johor Bahru
Moderator: Amir Hamzah Aman
Translator: Shiamala Rasalingam
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
First Edition, August 2013

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2013, HBSE3303
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Copyright © Open
Copyright Open University
University Malaysia
Malaysia (OUM)
(OUM)
Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xv
Topic 1 Understanding Child Development 1

1.1 Definition of Development 2
1.1.1 Development Scope 2
1.1.2 Upbringing and Environmental Influence 6
1.2 Child Development Theories 8
1.2.1 Psychoanalytic Theory 8
1.2.2 Social Behaviour and Learning Theory 9
1.2.3 Biological Theory 10
1.2.4 Cognitive Theory 11
1.3 Child Development Studies 13
1.3.1 Philosophy of Study 13
1.3.2 Methods of Study 15
1.3.3 Forms of Study 17
Summary 19
Key Terms 19
References 20
Topic 2 Genetics and Lineage 21

2.1 How are Genes Inherited? 22
2.1.1 Human Reproduction and Cell Division 23
2.2 Genetic Defects 26
2.2.1 Dominant-Recessive Traits 26
2.2.2 Chromosomal Abnormalities in Down Syndrome,
Klinefelter Syndrome, Turner Syndrome, XXX
Syndrome and XYY Syndrome 27
2.2.3 Pre-natal Screening and Genetic Tests 30
2.3 Gene Interaction and Environment 32
2.3.1 Range of Reactions 32
2.3.2 Changes in Relations between the Environment
and Upbringing 32
Summary 34
Key Terms 35
References 35

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 Mental Retardation 36

3.1 Definition of Mental Retardation 37
3.2 Causes of Mental Retardation 40
3.2.1 Genetic Factor 40
3.2.2 Brain Damage/Injury 41
3.2.3 Infection 41
3.2.4 Environmental Factor 42
3.3 Psychological and Behavioural Criteria 43
3.3.1 Concentration 43
3.3.2 Memory 43
3.3.3 Language Development 44
3.3.4 Academic Achievement 44
3.3.5 Social Development 44
3.4 Teaching Methods 45
3.4.1 Suitable Materials and Curriculum 45
3.4.2 Suitable Activities 46
3.4.3 Interaction with Normal Students 46
3.4.4 Community-Based Learning 47
3.4.5 Parental Involvement 47
Summary 48
Key Terms 48
References 49
Topic 4 Learning Disabilities 50

4.1 Definition 51
4.2 Genetic Defects 52
4.2.1 Autism 52
4.3 Causes of Learning Disabilities 55
4.3.1 Biological Factor 55
4.3.2 Genetic Factor 56
4.3.3 Environmental Factor 56
4.4 Behaviour and Psychology Criteria 57
4.4.1 Academic Achievement Problems 57
4.4.2 Perception and Coordination Problems 61
4.4.3 Memory and Cognitive Problems 62
4.4.4 Social and Emotional Problems 62
4.5 Consideration from the Aspect of Education 64
4.5.1 Methods of Teaching for Academic Problems 64
Summary 67
Key Terms 68
References 68

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Emotional and Behavioural Disorders 69

5.1 Definition of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders 70
5.2 Categories of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders 71
5.2.1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 71
5.2.2 Anxiety Disorder 73
5.3 Causes of Emotional or Behavioural Disorder 75
5.3.1 Biological Factor 76
5.3.2 Family Factor 77
5.3.3 School Factor 77
5.3.4 Cultural Factors 78
5.4.1 Intelligence and Achievement 78
5.4.2 Social and Emotional Achievement 79
5.4.3 Criteria Relating to Brain Injury 80
5.4.4 Criteria Relating to Schizophrenia and Autism 81
5.5.1 Balancing the Control of Behaviour with Academic
and Social Learning 83
5.5.2 Importance of Support Services 84
Summary 84
Key Terms 85
References 85
Topic 6 Communication Problems 87

6.1 Definition Of Communication Problems 88
6.2 Language Development 88
6.2.1 The Continuity of Language Development 88
6.2.2 Theories of Language Development 93
6.3 Language Problems 93
6.3.1 Classification 94
6.3.2 Early Detection and Assessment Strategy 95
6.3.3 Language Problems among Autistic Children 96
6.3.4 Delayed Language Development 96
6.4 Variations of Communication Problems 98
6.4.1 Speech Problem 98
6.4.2 Voice Problem 99
6.4.3 Articulation Problem 100
6.4.4 Speech Problems Due to Nerve Damage 100
6.5 Early Detection 101
6.6 Transition 103
Summary 104
Key Terms 105
References 105

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 7 Hearing Impairments 107

7.1 Definition of Hearing Impairment 108
7.2 Types of Hearing Impairment 109
7.2.1 Conductive 109
7.2.2 Sensory Neural 110
7.2.3 Mixed Hearing Loss (Conductive and Sensory
Neural) 111
7.3 Ear Anatomy 111
7.4 Measurements of Hearing Ability 114
7.4.1 Pure Tone Audiometry 114
7.4.2 Speech Audiometry 115
7.5 Causes of Hearing Problems 115
7.5.1 External Ear Damage 116
7.5.2 Middle Ear Damage 116
7.5.3 Inner Ear Damage 117
7.5.4 Infections 117
7.5.5 Other Factors 117
7.6.1 Development of Language and Speech 118
7.6.2 Intellectual Ability 119
7.6.3 Academic Achievement 120
7.6.4 Social Adaptation 120
7.7.1 Verbal Oral-Auditory Approach 121
7.7.2 Total Communication 121
7.7.3 Lip Reading 121
Summary 122
Key Terms 123
References 124
Topic 8 Gifted Children 125

8.1 Definition of Gifted Children 126
8.2 Theories of Intelligence 127
8.2.1 GardnerÊs Theory of Multiple Intelligences 127
8.2.2 SternbergÊs Triarchic Theory 132
8.2.3 Measuring Intelligence 133
8.3 Physical, Psychological and Behavioural Criteria 136
8.3.1 Who are Gifted Children? 136
8.3.2 Learning Characteristics of Gifted Children 137
8.3.3 Creative Characteristics of Gifted Children 137
8.3.4 Levels of Gifted Children 137
8.3.5 Ten Steps in Expanding the Capability of Gifted
Children 138

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
8.4 Points to Consider in Education 139

8.4.1 Enrichment 140
8.4.2 Acceleration 140
8.4.3 Teachers of Gifted Children 141
8.5 Early Detection 142
Summary 142
Key Terms 143
References 143
Topic 9 Self, Gender and Moral Development 145

9.1 Self Development 146
9.1.1 Development of Self Concept 146
9.1.2 Changes in Self Esteem 150
9.2 Gender-Roles Development 152
9.2.1 Gender-Role Development Theories 153
9.2.2 Gender-Role Development 156
9.2.3 Family and Peers Influence 158
9.3 Moral Development 159
9.3.1 Moral Reasoning 159
9.3.2 Role of Emotions: Guilt and Empathy 161
9.3.3 Moral Behaviour: Altruism and Aggressiveness 162
Summary 163
Key Terms 164
References 164
Topic 10 Emotional Development, Family Relationships and the

Environment 166
10.1 Emotional Development 167
10.1.1 Basic Emotions 167
10.1.2 Development of Temperament 168
10.1.3 Linkage Development 170
10.2 Family Relationships 173
10.2.1 Parenting Styles 174
10.2.2 Ways of Raising Children ă Discipline, Reward
and Punishment 177
10.2.3 Appropriate Ways to Bring Up Children 178
10.3 Environmental Influence 180
10.3.1 Peers and Friendship Influence 180
10.3.2 Children and Media 182
Summary 182
Key Terms 183
References 183

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBSE3303 Characteristics and Development of Children with Special Needs is
one of the courses offered by the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be
covered over a period of 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to students in the Bachelor of Teaching in Special Education
with Honours.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please ensure that you have the right course materials, understand
the course requirements, as well as know how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
Total Study Hours 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describes the development process of children from pre-natal, physical,

cognitive, and language aspects as well as social and personality
development;
2. Differentiate between normal and abnormal development that leads to the

special needs;
3. Discuss education approaches for the category of children with special

needs;
4. Define and list the characteristics of children with special needs; and
5. Link child development with the impact of family, school and culture.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 discusses the development of a child and the scope of child development.
This topic will also touch on theories regarding child development such as
psychoanalytic theory, behaviour and social learning theory, cognitive theory and
biological theory. Several studies on children's development will also be
discussed in this topic.
Topic 2 discusses the defects of genes associated with dominant genes and
recessive genes. In addition, we will focus on chromosome abnormalities that
lead to Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, XXX syndrome and XYY
syndrome.
Topic 3 discusses the topic of mental retardation. We will look at the definition of
mental retardation as well as the causes of mental retardation. In addition, we
will discuss the psychological and behavioural criteria for children with mental
retardation and teaching methods appropriate for mentally retarded children.
Topic 4 focuses on the category of children with learning disabilities. We will

focus on the definition of learning disability, classification of learning disabilities
and discuss the causes of learning disabilities. In addition, we will also discuss
the psychological and behavioural criteria for children with learning disabilities.
Topic 5 focuses on issues of emotional and behavioural disorders of children. We

will discuss the definition and categories of children who have emotional and
behavioural disorders. In addition, this topic will include discussions relating to
the causes of emotional or behavioural disorders.
Topic 6 focuses on children's language development and language problems

faced by children or individuals who have communication problems. This topic
will also discuss various issues of communication problems and early detection
that can be done to detect communication problems among children.
Topic 7 provides the definition of hearing impairment. We will also learn about
the types of hearing impairment and the method of measuring hearing ability.
We will also look at the anatomy of the ear and the causes of hearing impairment.
This topic also covers the psychological and behavioural criteria for children with
hearing impairment as well as consideration of the educational aspect of these
children.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Topic 8 discusses definition and theories related to intelligence and gifted

children. We will also see in-depth the physical, psychological and behavioural
criteria of gifted children. In addition, focus is also given to the educational
aspects of gifted children as well as early detection of gifted children.
Topic 9 focuses on self, gender and moral development of individuals. The

development of gender-roles is also a subtopic to be discussed in this topic. In
addition, we will also discuss the moral development of an individual.
Topic 10 looks at the development of emotions, relationships with family

members and environmental influences that affect human behaviours and
emotions.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations
or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to solve
questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research. It may
even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity,
you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it
to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher order
thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead
of only having to recall and define.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Reference reading materials for this course is given at the end of every topic.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-
journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.
Copyright © Open
Copyright Open University
University Malaysia
Malaysia (OUM)
(OUM)
xvi  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Understanding
1 Child
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define child development;
2. Explain the five main stages of child development;
3. Identify the environmental factors that could influence child
development before and after birth;
4. Describe the four theories of child development; and
5. Discuss the philosophy behind child development studies as well as
the methods and forms of these studies.
 INTRODUCTION
An unborn baby grows in stages. When born, the development process will be
continuous for the infant, from childhood to adulthood. We always wonder, how
are we to know if the baby is hungry? When will our children begin to talk, learn,
walk and crawl? When our children sulk, how do we cajole them? Why do some
children refuse to part from their mothers? How do we, as parents and teachers,
prepare ourselves to answer all the questions children ask when they reach
adolescence?
All these issues are part and parcel of what parents will encounter in their
childrenÊs developmental process. This topic will define child development as
well as identify and explore the five main stages of child development. Then, we
will learn the environmental factors that could influence child development,
before and after birth. Finally, we will look at developmental theories, followed

2  TOPIC 1 UNDERSTANDING CHILD DEVELOPMENT
by the philosophy behind these theories, as well as the methods and forms of
developmental studies. Happy learning!
1.1 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT

For parents with children who are growing up, every child's development surely
brings with it wonderful memories such as the childÊs first smile, first step, and
first word. These are the milestones that clearly show the development of a child.
What is meant by development? Development is a qualitative change that cannot

be measured quantitatively.
Development involves physical, cognitive, social and personality changes in the

individual. The development of an individual is influenced by age and evolution.
Human development can be considered a unique process because each
individual will go through a different process of development. The development
also involves maturation of a person. The development of an individual is a
process that occurs continuously from germination until the end of life. Generally
it can be said that human development occurs as the result of genes and
environmental interaction. When a baby is born, he will take the genetic codes of
the parents, which will determine his natural characteristics.
1.1.1 Development Scope

A child's development up to adolescence as a whole can be divided into five
main stages as shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Five main stages of a childÊs development

TOPIC 1 UNDERSTANDING CHILD DEVELOPMENT  3
In addition, a child's development also includes four main aspects, as shown in

Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Aspects in child development
ACTIVITY 1.1
Discuss the stages of child development from infancy to adolescence with

your coursemates.
Let us now look at the various aspects of child development according to their
stages in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Aspects of Child Development According to Developmental Stages
Developmental Developmental Aspects

Stage/Age Physical Language Cognitive Psychosocial
Baby (0-2 years)  Changes in  The child  Cognitive  Begins to

body shape, uses sounds development distinguish
such as height to get is limited family
and weight. attention. members
Example: body Example:  Develops from other
weight doubles cooing perceptions of people
at four months sounds things
(sounds of through sight  Starts
birds) and hearing showing
frustration
 Able to assess when
if something wishes are
is interesting thwarted
or not
 Feels fear
 Able to upon
articulate hearing
something in unfamiliar
response to sounds
stimulation
from parents
Early childhood  Obtains gross  Language  Able to  Interaction

(2 to 6 years) motor skills. continues to differentiate with peers
Examples: develop good and bad occurs
jumping,
climbing,  Understands  Able to  Begins to
kicking a ball the purpose understand have
or meaning the concept of negative
 Masters fine of words numbers attitudes,
motor skills such as
such as  Understands  Vocabulary
taunting
spoken starts
combing hair, and forcing
instructions increasing
bathing and
dressing up  Acquires
questioning
skills

Late  Masters basic  Demonstrates  Starts  Begins to be

childhood skills and mastery of mastering jealous if given
(7 to 12 behaviours everyday calculations less attention
years) such as language by parents
writing,  Can
reading and  Obtains a remember  Boys tend to be
vocabulary of things in rude with girls
arithmetic
at least 30,000 sequence
 Interacts with words
peers through  Can
activities differentiate
outside the the sizes of
classroom objects
 Small muscles  Shows

increase in the encouraging
hands and feet progress, if
driven by
parents
Early  The most rapid  Masters  Develops  Feelings

Adolescence physical language and thinking and become less
(12 to 15 growth among a variety of problems egocentric
years) young men sentence solving skills
and women structures  Emotions begin
to stabilise and
 Adolescent come under
girls control
experience
body shape
changes after
the first
menstrual
period
Adolescence  Adolescent  Masters  Starts to be  Easily

(15 to 20 males become written and exposed to influenced by
years) taller spoken environmental various
language well factors environmental
 Development factors
of buttocks  Uses correct
and breasts in language to  Starts looking
females communicate for self identity
 The use of  Egocentric

specific codes feelings
in giving the develop
meaning of
words  Sometimes
difficult to
accept criticism
Source: Psychology of children and adolescents (2002)

1.1.2 Upbringing and Environmental Influence

What can you say about the environment? It refers to the surroundings or
conditions in which the individual lives such as the learning facilities, family,
culture, weather, peers, foods/drinks and health. The environment is variable
and may indirectly influence the development and conduct of a person either
before or after birth.
There are several environmental factors that influence the development of

children before and after birth. Let us explore this in detail in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Two Environmental Factors that Influence Child Development
Before Birth After Birth
(a) Maternal Health (a) Nutrition

Maternal health is very important Sources of growth and development of
because this can affect the foetus in the the child after birth is food. Under-
womb. Mothers who smoke, take drugs, nutrition or malnutrition is a threat to
are pregnant, too young and suffer from the health of babies. Signs of
rubella are likely to negatively affect malnutrition are that the children appear
their babyÊs foetal development, making tired, inactive, pale and prone to disease
them vulnerable to heart failure, nerve and stunted growth. Children need to
damage and weakness in the nervous get complete nutrition containing
system. Babies born with a reduced proteins, grains, vegetables and milk.
weight also face the same risk if the
mother's health is not given serious
attention.
(b) Maternal Age (b) Upbringing by Parents

Women pregnant at a very late age are at The mental, emotional and physical
risk of giving birth to a Down syndrome development of children is closely
baby. Based on studies of medical related to the influence of upbringing
experts, one in 600 pregnant women over from their parents. Parents need to
40 gives birth to a baby with Down understand the emotions of children
syndrome or mental retardation. and the most appropriate method to
educate them. The use of inappropriate
words such as stupid and so on should
be avoided because the child will
remember their words. Parents should
avoid their differences for the love of
their children so that they can form
strong self-concepts. Children also need
positive reinforcement for their good
actions so that they may develop into
confident individuals.

(c) Nutrition (c) Diseases and Disabilities of Children

Foetal development in the womb can be A weak immune system may inhibit
affected without a balanced diet and healthy development in children, making
nutritional care. Pregnant women are them susceptible to fevers, coughs, colds
encouraged to take food containing and asthma.
sufficient proteins, carbohydrates,
minerals and vegetables to help foetal Children with physical disabilities such
growth. Lack of proteins for example, as those who are speech or visually
can affect foetal brain development. impaired, the autisic, or with Down
syndrome and cerebral palsy may
require help from family members for
their basic needs. Their conditions may
also inhibit overall development.
(d) X-ray Treatment (d) Peers Influence

X-ray treatment carried out on pregnant Children often play with their peers. At
women less than four months into their the same time, children learn to develop
pregnancy may invite the risk of mental mentally and emotionally, learning
retardation, skull damage, blindness, something new every day. However, not
and so on if excessive treatment is all peers are beneficial in social
received. interaction. Children exposed to the
influence of peers with negative
behaviours such as smoking, stealing
and so forth, may end up with those
habits. Thus, parents should monitor
their childrenÊs mental and emotional
development.
(e) Psychological Stress (e) Influence of Mass Media

Excessive production of the adrenaline Children are easily influenced by
hormone into the bloodstream of the colourful stimuli. Television, magazines,
foetus due to psychological stress newspapers and books can be an
experienced by pregnant mothers can important element of the mental and
affect the growth of the foetus in the intellectual development of children.
womb. Children easily accept new input or
knowledge at certain ages. As parents,
we must be wise to diversify the good
educational and teaching materials to
attract the childrenÊs interest to learn
and acquire knowledge.
(f) Problems during the Birth Process

Lack of oxygen during birth due to a
prolonged period of labour and the use
of forceps and vacuum can also cause
impaired foetal development. For
example, the brain injury that occurs
during birth can result in babies with
cerebral palsy.

ACTIVITY 1.2
1. Describe the environmental factors that can influence a child's

development before and after birth.
2. Discuss the language development stages of children from infancy

to age three.
1.2 CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES

Did you know that the field of psychology today has been influenced by a lot of
views and approaches? Many of todayÊs psychology experts focus their studies
on behaviour and cognition, while incorporating a variety of methods and
theories from various sources. Some of the main approaches in the study of the
psychology of human development include Psychoanalytic Theory, Social
Behaviour and Learning Theory, Biological Theory and Cognitive Theory. Let us
look at these theories one by one.
1.2.1 Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was introduced by a Vienna-born psychologist named
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). What is the main focus of this theory? Refer to
Figure 1.3 for the answer.
Figure 1.3: Main focus of psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud

Source: http://www.holocaustresearchproject.org
Freud describes the development of an individual's personality structure as

containing three mental elements that interact with each other i.e. the id, ego and
superego (refer to Table 1.3).

Table 1.3: Three Mental Elements of Psychoanalytic Theory
Element Description
Id Biological drive or human instinct needs such as food, air, sleep, sex, etc.
Ego  Means „I‰or „me‰.

 Is the driving force of human personality.
 Plays a role in the maturing process of the individual.
 A balance between the needs of the id and superego.
Superego Referring to the moral precepts of the individuals formed or influenced

by the care and upbringing from their parents.
However, the assumption that the subconscious plays an important role in

influencing oneÊs behaviour is in conflict with Islam. From IslamÊs point of view,
unconscious action cannot be used as a yardstick in discussing the conduct of a
person.
1.2.2 Social Behaviour and Learning Theory
Figure 1.4: J. B. Watson

Source: http://bonbonquest.blogspot.com
This theory was pioneered by J.B. Watson (see Figure 1.4), B.F. Skinner and E.L.
Thorndike. Watson stated that human behaviour is influenced by the
environment, not the inner workings of the individual. The environment is
identified as one of the important factors that influences a personÊs learning and
personality formation. Behaviours regarding thinking and emotion are said to be
acquired normally i.e. through experience. Generally, this theory tries to explain
human behaviours based on observation or studies such as problem solving and
learning processes.

E.L. Thorndike introduced the concept of instrumental conditioning to explain

the process of problem solving in the learning process through trial and error.
Repeated attempts in doing something can influence the success of the activities
performed. For example, children as young as three years try to arrange a toy
block. If not successful the first time, the process is repeated many times until the
problem is solved.
Skinner (1953) stated that the success of doing something through repeated
efforts is strengthened when a suitable reward or remuneration is given as
reinforcement. Humans do not have the power to control their lives but they are
the result of cultures regulated by themselves.
However, Skinner's view is not supported by the Islamic perspective. This is

because Islam views that God has bestowed on humans the ability to think and
to determine the good and the bad; he is not subject to the rules made by
humans. Thus, the role of humans in using their best senses is important in
managing every aspect of their lives.
1.2.3 Biological Theory

Most of the statements relating to Biological Development Theory state that the
development and trends of individual behaviour are a part or all of genetic
development. This situation is influenced by physiological processes such as
hormonal changes. Genetic factors inherited from both parents also influence the
development of the individual. Gesell (1925) (see Figure 1.5) stated that children
are unique individuals who are different from other children. Genetic factors are
recognised by most psychology experts as the factors that influence the
development of individuals. In addition to genetic factors, maturation factors
also influence a child's development.
Figure 1.5: Arnold Gesell

Source: http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu

Gesell states that some children who mature earlier than their peers. Gesell also
noted that the development of children varies according to specific stages of
development. Each stage has certain features that distinguish it from other
stages.
Children tend to show unstable behaviour in the transition phase from one stage
to another when there is a problem of coordination. The first five years of child
development are the most important because in this period, a child develops
most rapidly from the physical, mental, social and emotional aspects.
1.2.4 Cognitive Theory

Cognitive theory was pioneered by Jean Piaget (1896-1980) (see Figure 1.6).
Figure 1.6: Jean Piaget

Source: http://bonbonquest.blogspot.com/
According to Piaget, cognitive development and maturation will occur first,

followed by the development of language. Cognitive development can be
divided into several stages as described in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Four Stages of Cognitive Theory Development
Stages Description
Motor sensory (up to 2  The child explores an object using sight and taste senses.
years)
 Identifies objects that are near.
 The ability to form mental-emotional images and
language mastery are still limited.
Pre-operation  Experiences rapid growth from the aspect of language

(2 - 7 years) development (2 - 4 years).
 There is the egocentric nature i.e. refusal to agree with the
views of others.
 Able to name simple objects such as signs, symbols,
objects and words.
 Emotional development is germinated after four years of
age. However, the childÊs thinking is based on a single
angle or simple involvement.
Concrete operation  A child can classify objects according to a specific form

(7 - 11 years) such as round, oval, etc.
 Has a broader outlook.
 The egocentric feelings in a child gradually disappear and
the child begins to accept the views and opinions of
others.
Formal operation  Understands the use of pronouns correctly.

(11 - 15 years)
 Has the spirit of curiosity to learn something.
 Ability to think intellectually about a situation.
 Able to use leisure time doing beneficial activities.
 Understands abstract concepts.
In summary, PiagetÊs thoughts on cognitive development are:
(a) Children's language development is closely linked to human cognitive

development;
(b) Children will always enrich their vocabulary according to the level of
growth and development;

(c) The child develops according to specific processes and stages;

(d) The child's mental development is also influenced by genetic and
environmental factors; and
(e) ChildrenÊs thoughts are more developed after the age of four years.
ACTIVITY 1.3
In your opinion, why is the factor of parental upbringing very important

in the development of children? Discuss.
1.3 CHILD DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

As we know, a child's development will continue until the end of life. Changes in
the child which may occur are often predicted by the developmental
psychologists. We always think of the best methods to educate our children, how
to establish the self-concept and personality of children and how to help them
develop problem-solving skills. Studies that have been carried out can be a guide
for us to find the best method of educating children. Let us look at the
philosophy, methods and forms of research in the next subtopic.
1.3.1 Philosophy of Study

There are a number of philosophies in the study of developmental psychology.
Some of them are described in Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: Some Philosophies in the Study of Developmental Psychology
Philosophy Description
Development is a  The development starts from the foetus in the womb. Some
continuous process aspects of development such as the physical aspects will cease
when they reach adolescence, however, the development of
emotion, language and so on continue to occur throughout life.
Development  Many psychologists emphasise on the development and the

reflecting the growth processes that occur in phases, such as physical and
continuity and language development. Some psychologists are of the opinion
discontinuity that the growth processes experienced by individuals go
according to a series or a few phases. Each individual is said to go
through each of those levels.
 Continuity refers to development that is influenced by
environmental factors and social learning while discontinuity
development refers to the genetic influence and the maturation
that occurs during the process of individual development.
Development  Human development occurs whether we realise it or not. This

influenced by process also occurs as a result of maturation and learning
genes and interactions. For example, the speaking skills of children depend
environment on the maturity factor of the child itself. However, if trained from
an early stage, children who hear the sounds of a language will be
able to repeat the words quickly.
Development is a  The development involves a complex process and can be divided

multidimensional into four main aspects, namely biological development, cognitive
field development, emotional development and social development.
All four of these aspects often overlap one another. Psychological
studies also involve other fields of study such as medicine,
biology, education and so forth.
Development is  Sometimes the level of development experienced at any one stage

cyclical and will be experienced over and over again throughout life.
repetitive Adjustments should be made at each stage of development
undergone either as a teenager, when attaining adulthood or old
age. Each individual will experience different forms of repetition
with other individuals. The development process matures
individuals more from their own experiences or the experiences of
those who are close to them.
Development  Repetition in the development process experienced by us may be

shows differences the same as undergone by other people, however, it still depends
between on individual differences. There are individuals who have a
individuals relatively slow development from the physical aspects such as
height, cognitive (such as intelligence), emotions (problematic
behaviour) and personality (cheerful or depressed). Thus, these
differences will affect the social development such as
communication with others, career choices and so forth.

1.3.2 Methods of Study

We need the scientific method in studying psychological aspects. In the method
used, problems of the studies will be determined followed by the collection of
data, making conclusions and confirming the conclusions obtained regarding the
development studied.
There are several methods frequently used in studying developmental aspects as

shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Several methods in developmental studies
Let us now discuss the methods one by one.
(a) Natural Observation

Through this method, researchers will study respondents in natural
environments by observing the behaviours of intelligent children,
observing children playing in the playground, observing reading traits
among pre-school kids and so forth. For example, a researcher wishes to
study childrenÊs spirit of cooperation in playing activities outside the
classroom. The researcher will take the following actions:
(i) Record the cooperative behaviours shown by children without

disturbing the environment outside the classroom.
(ii) Keep an open mind in data collection to have a clear view of the forms
of behaviours.

(iii) A second observer may be used if the observer did not agree with
what had been observed in order to obtain a reliable observation
through comparisons.
(iv) Record the behaviours that he wishes to study.
(v) The observer is encouraged to interact and communicate with

respondents for a period of time before carrying out the study.
(vi) Children are likely to put up an act in front of people who are
strangers to them. Therefore, observation done would not obtain the
desired cause and effect of the study. For example, we succeeded in
detecting the characteristic/trait of children that tend to get along
better with peers of the same age than older or younger children but
we are not able to determine the real cause of formation of such
behaviour.
(b) Case Study

This method focuses on a person or several individuals in a specific period.
Descriptive data on the respondents will be collected beforehand.
Psychologists usually use this method to study individuals experiencing
mind disturbance. Information collected are family background, social
status, education level, health record and so on.
However, the findings through this method are doubtful because the study
results are solely dependent upon the truth of the respondentsÊ statements.
Data collection is also limited because differences between individuals
result in differing information received.
(c) Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance in the form of interview or survey are two methods of
collecting respondentsÊ information samples that represent a specific group.
For example, a survey to study teachersÊ level of satisfaction regarding their
predetermined working hours.
The interview method is used to coordinate respondentsÊ feedback and to

compare responses and so forth. Interviews can establish good relationship
between researchers and respondents and a high rate of respondentsÊ
participation. Detailed information for the study such as information
regarding emotions, attitudes and feelings are easily obtained because a
direct connection has been established with the respondents.

(d) Correlation Method

This method is used if you want to see the relationship between two
elements or two variables. For example, you want to examine the academic
achievement of deaf children with parents' interaction. You may receive a
positive or negative correlation value. If you receive a positive value, this
means relatively, improvement of one score would lead to higher scores of
others, and vice versa. A zero value correlation means there is no
relationship between two variables under study.
(e) Experiment
Experiments are conducted in order to see the relationship between several
different situations to determine the cause and effect relationship. Groups
of respondents are selected, but only one will be tested experimentally. For
example, you have to make experiments related to the effects of cartoon
programmes on children's personality formation, as the following:
(i) First Group

Allowed to watch cartoons for two weeks.
(ii) Second Group

Forbidden to watch for the same period.
Although this method can show the relationship of „cause and effect‰
desired, but it is not suitable as children do not like to be controlled.
Therefore, you need to think about the best method to conduct a study such
as leaving the child in the normal environment.
1.3.3 Forms of Study

Finally, let us look at some forms of studies in child development. Typically,
there are three forms of development studies that may be conducted as in Table
1.6.

Table 1.6: Forms of Development Studies
Sequences Description
Long-term  Study the same child within a specific period such as three or five
sequences years.
 Examples of study: study childrenÊs language development.
 Look at changes in the childrenÊs development.
 Requires time and high costs.
 The risk of loss of respondents (sick, moving, tired of the study).
 Existence of 'raining' study effects. The performance improved
because student often given the same test.
Cross-section  The respondents are of different ages but take part in the study at
sequences the same time.
 Example: the study of language development of children aged 3, 7
and 12 years.
 Information gathered in a short time.
 It is difficult to determine the growth and decline in development
since the respondents are of different ages (cohort effect).
 Cohort effect – The same group of people should be exposed to the
same environment.
Comparison  Combination of long-term and cross-sectional sequences forms of

sequences studies.
 Respondents who are of different age groups and developments
are studied within a specific period.
 More time saving.
 More information received.
 Able to explain the differences that exist between respondents
caused by the difference in development.
Source: Psychology of children and adolescents (2002)
In the next topic, we will explore how genetics and lineage affect child development.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Compare the strengths and weaknesses of the various methods of

studies on child development.

 Development is a qualitative change that cannot be measured quantitatively.

Children's development is an ongoing process from the foetal stage until the
end of life.
 The five key stages of child development are:
 Baby (0-2 years);
 Early childhood (2-6 years);
 Late childhood (7-12 years);
 Early adolescence (12-15 years); and
 Adolescence (15-20 years).
 There are environmental factors that influence the development of children

before and after birth. Environmental factors before birth are maternal health,
maternal age, nutrition, exposure to X-rays, psychological stress and
problems during the birth process. Environmental factors after birth are
nutrition, upbringing by parents, illness and disability for children, influence
of peers and the mass media.
 The four theories of child development are Psychoanalytic Theory, Social

Behaviour and Learning Theory, Biological Theory and Cognitive Theory.
 In studying child development there are various philosophies, methods and

forms that can be selected and used for research in this field.
Biological theory Physical development

Child development theory Psychoanalytic theory
Cognitive development Psychosocial development
Cognitive theory Social behaviour and learning theory
Environmental factors Study methods
Language development

Bee, H. (1995). The developing child. New York: Harper Collins College
Publishers.
Hallahan, D., & Kauffman, J. (2003). Exceptional children: Introduction to special

education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Pettijohn, T.F. (1998). Psychology: A connectext (4th ed.). Ohio: Dushkin/McGraw-

Hill.
Shahabuddin Hashim, Mahani Razali, & Ramlah Jantan. (2003). Psikologi

pendidikan. Selangor: PTS Publications.

Topic  Genetics and
2 Lineage
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how genetic traits are inherited;
2. Name dominant-recessive traits;
3. Identify chromosomal abnormalities in five syndromes;
4. Describe the tests that can be done to detect any chromosomal
abnormalities; and
5. Discuss the interaction between genetics and the environment.
 INTRODUCTION
Let us look at Figure 2.1. Nur Faizah (left) has a dimple on her right and left
cheeks. She is good at whining without being taught by her parents. Meanwhile
her sister, Nur Shafiqah, has a dimple on her right cheek only. Nur Faizah has a
slightly darker skin tone than Nur Shafiqah. She also has heavy eyebrows like
her father. Both have facial features that are almost identical. How did all these
happen?

22  TOPIC 2 GENETICS AND LINEAGE
Figure 2.1: Facial features of siblings may be identical or different
In your opinion, did these happen by chance? Or are there other factors that
influenced these events? Clearly, every individual has different abilities and
capacities. What happened to the two siblings is influenced by genetic factors
that affect human development and behaviour. As we are aware, most
psychological development cannot be directly attributed to genetics. However,
intelligence, behaviour and personality as well as some mental conditions have
been attributed to interaction between genetics and environmental influences.
In this topic, we will see and understand how genes are inherited and how gene
defects occur due to chromosomal abnormalities in human cells. Finally, we will
discuss genetic and environmental interactions that may influence the
development and formation of children's behaviour. Let us begin!
2.1 HOW ARE GENES INHERITED?

Have you ever wondered why every individual you have met is different from
you whether in attitude, physical appearance, character or personality? All
differences that exist between individuals make each individual unique. What
needs to be recognised is that no two individuals are equal and identical from
every angle. The differences are caused by genes inherited from our parents.

TOPIC 2 GENETICS AND LINEAGE  23
What is a gene?
A gene is a part of a chromosome that chemically contains DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid).
What is the role and function of genes?

Genes control or influence a person's physical characteristics and direction
code such as eye and hair colour, nervous system, ability and intelligence.
2.1.1 Human Reproduction and Cell Division

The formation process of human beings is a very unique process. A fine single
cell called zygote is formed from the process of life formation marking the
beginning of a new life. Sperm produced by males will swim and unite with the
ovum of females. When a sperm successfully penetrates an ovum membrane,
nearly twenty million other sperms will fail to penetrate the protective layer that
is formed naturally.
The resulting zygote has a nucleus and in this zygote nucleus, all information
relating to the new genetic organism either biologically or psychologically will be
formed. The breeds or types of genes of new organisms formed are based on the
genes produced that will determine the attitudes, traits and behaviour.
Did you know humans have 46 chromosomes consisting of approximately

100,000 genes? Genes are produced by 23 chromosomes from the ovum and
another 23 chromosomes from the sperm. These chromosomes appear in pairs
and are known as homologous chromosome (see Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: Humans have 22 pairs of chromosomes (autosomes)

and a pair of sex chromosomes in the 23rd chromosome
Source: Child development, A thematic approach (1998)
Women have a pair of sex chromosomes that consist of a pair of XX

chromosomes. MenÊs sex chromosomes consist of one X and one Y chromosome.
The gender of an organism is determined by the Y chromosome found only in
sperm. Therefore, gender can only be determined by the male sperm containing
the X or Y chromosomes.
A single zygote cell formed will start to grow into a complex organism that
contains millions of cells with different specific functions. Formation of the
organism occurs through the process of cell division called mitosis. In this
process, a single cell is divided into two and then divided again into two sets of
chromosomes similar to the original set of chromosomes. The process of
multiplication and division of these cells will occur over and over again to form
the cells of the body that will have the same set of genes (see Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: The process of mitosis
Determination of the sex occurs in the process of meiosis (refer to Figure 2.4). In
this process, the number of chromosomes in the cell will be divided into two.
Each new cell receives only one of the pair of chromosomes generated which is
only 23 chromosomes.
Figure 2.4: The process of meiosis

There is the possibility of each chromosome in the pair merging with a specific
gender cell. When this occurs, there will be variations in the gender cell that
contains a different genetic combination. Genetic variation will normally be
increased when fertilisation occurs. The combination of gender cells during the
process of fertilisation will result in genetic variation even among siblings in a
family.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Explain how the formation of a new organism cell occurs.
2. Through discussions with classmates, state the factors for the

existence of genetic variation in a family.
2.2 GENETIC DEFECTS

Now, let us learn about genetic defects. First of all, what is meant by a genetic
defect? A genetic defect refers to a situation where the chromosomes are not
properly developed.
Genetic defects may also be called chromosomal defects or chromosomal

abnormalities. Chromosomal defects that occur can lead to the risk of several
types of diseases, syndromes, mental disorders and so on.
2.2.1 Dominant-Recessive Traits

A pair of genes from parents often influences individual traits. A gene from a
parent which is stronger will be more dominant, causing us to be more like our
father or mother. Gregor Mendel introduced the principle of inheritance that
stated there are two types of traits in humans and plants, namely, a dominant
trait and a recessive trait.
The dominant trait is definitely stronger than the recessive trait. Genetic patterns
in humans are very complex. Only a small number of traits are controlled by a
single pair of genes. Most human traits are determined by more than one pair of
genes (polygenic trait) and are also influenced by environmental factors (multi-
factorial inheritance). Table 2.1 provides examples of dominant and recessive
traits in humans.

Table 2.1: Dominant and Recessive Traits
Dominant Traits Recessive Traits

Curly hair Straight hair
Brown eyes Grey eyes, blue eyes
Black hair Blond hair
Thick hair Thin hair
A blood type O blood type
B blood type O blood type
Normal blood cell Sickle cell disease
Thick lips Thin lips
Huntington disease Normal brain
Source: Bukatko & Daehler (1998)
2.2.2 Chromosomal Abnormalities in Down Syndrome,

Klinefelter Syndrome, Turner Syndrome, XXX
Syndrome and XYY Syndrome
Did you know that chromosomal defects can occur due to two important factors?
First, this phenomenon can occur because of physical inheritance and some
happen by chance during the development process of the chromosome.
Chromosomal defects occur in two categories as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Two Categories of Chromosomal Defects
Defect Category Description

Abnormalities in  Occurs during the early stages of fertilisation.
chromosome numbers
 Chromosome pair is not separated, causing a surplus or
shortage of chromosomes in a particular cell.
Abnormalities in  Caused by chromosomes breaking up or combining in

chromosome structure other forms than normal.

Both of these abnormalities will have a major impact on the development of an

individual. There are several ways a defective gene can be inherited from one
generation to the next, that is:
(a) Defective genes inherited by the dominant gene in autosome;

(b) Defective genes inherited by the recessive gene in autosome; and
(c) Defective genes inherited by gender gene (recessive gene in chromosome
x).
There are several syndromes that exist because of abnormalities in the number of
chromosomes either having a surplus or shortage of a specific chromosome.
Some of these syndromes are described in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Syndromes Caused by Chromosomes Abnormalities
Syndrome Characteristics
Down  Experiencing chromosomal abnormalities in the 21st set of
Syndrome chromosomes.
(Trisomy 21)
 The symptoms are folded skin at edge of eyes, flat nose, small
head, thick tongue and a mild mental disability.
 Frequency ratio of occurrence is 1:800 child births.
 It is more likely if the mother is above 35 years old.
 Increasing age heightens the risk of a Down's Syndrome child
birth.
Klinefelter  Also known as XXY syndrome.

Syndrome
(XXY  A surplus of one X chromosome and sometimes two X
Syndrome) chromosomes.
 Have physique of a man, but cannot produce sperm.
 Has a body shape like a woman with a high-pitched voice.
 Has problems with reading and remembering.
 The ratio of syndrome occurrence is 1:500-1000 male.

Turner  Have only one sex chromosome.

Syndrome
 Most have only one X chromosome.
 Normal psychomotor development but sexual development is
limited.
 Lack of ability to produce ovarian tissue.
 Have a short neck.
 Sometimes some have cognitive problems such as counting skills,
visual perception and observation.
 Can be resolved by taking estrogen and other hormones to help
boost female secondary sex characteristics.
 Ratio of occurrence in 1: 1,200 to 2,500 women.
XXX  Also known as TripleăX syndrome or „super female‰.

Syndrome
(„Super  Occurs in 1:500 to 1,200 women.
female‰)  90% females receive two sets of X chromosomes.
 Experience delay in development of language and speech, poor
coordination, poor academic performance and immature
behaviour.
 Sexual development is usually normal.
 Normal overall development but some face language, cognitive
and socio-emotional problems.
XYY  Occurs in males.

Syndrome
(„Super male‰)  Have a surplus of Y chromosomes.
 Have an average height with average intellectual abilities.
 Most of them lead a normal life.
 A bit rough compared to ordinary men.
 The ratio of occurrence is 1: 700 to 1,000 men.
Source: Bukatko & Daehler (1998)

2.2.3 Pre-natal Screening and Genetic Tests

Tests before birth (pre-natal screenings) are tests done to ensure good
development and health of unborn babies. These tests are usually done as early
as 20 weeks of pregnancy. The tests can help to detect early signs if a baby has a
problem. When tests show positive results, follow-up treatment is usually
recommended.
There are many reasons why pre-natal tests are done, such as identifying the
inheritance of a defective gene. For example, pre-natal testing is usually done if
there is a previous child born with chromosomal variation or genetic defects.
Genetic tests are also conducted to detect if the mother has difficulties during
pregnancy. It also helps to detect if the foetus develops at an abnormal rate
during pregnancy.
Most of the initial examinations are performed to detect chromosomal

abnormalities such as Down syndrome. Parents can also carry out tests to detect
problems related to spinal bifida of the bone that can cause paralysis.
Table 2.4 shows some examples of pre-natal screening tests.
Table 2.4: Some Examples of Pre-Natal Screening Tests
Test Description
Maternal Serum  Using blood samples from the women's arm to measure the
Screen (MSS) amount of certain substances that are found in the blood of all
pregnant women.
 Suitable to be performed on all pregnant women.
 If a foetus is diagnosed with Down syndrome or spinal bifida,
the amount of certain substances in the blood is different from
the usual.
Ultrasound  Encouraged to be performed at 18 to 20 weeks of pregnancy.
Questionnaires  Conducted to find out the medical history of family members.
In addition to tests performed on the mother, foetal blood samples are taken
directly from the foetus in the mother's uterus to detect for any abnormalities in
the foetus. Among the tests performed are amniocentesis, chorionic villous
sampling and ultrasonography (refer to Table 2.5).

Table 2.5: Foetal Blood Sample Test
Test Description
Amniocentesis  Method of liquid samples taken from around the developing
foetus using a needle.
 This method is used to detect foetal genes and any delay in the
development of the foetus.
 Conducted between week 14 to week 16 of pregnancy.
Chorionic  Using embryo cells to detect chromosomal abnormalities and

villous sampling embryo development.
 Performed as early as fifth week of pregnancy.
Ultrasonography  Better known as ultrasound.

 Helps detect foetal development whether normally or
otherwise.
 Detection of pregnancy gestation.
 Able to detect if foetus has microcephaly problems (small head
size), harelip and nasal or other physical deformities.
All tests carried out can help parents to detect early any abnormalities of the
foetus in the womb. Therefore, prevention efforts or the best method of treatment
can be planned if there was any abnormality detected by the tests conducted.
Parents can also plan the environmental preparation and suitable method of
instruction for the baby to be born.
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. There are two categories of chromosomal defects: The number of

chromosomes defect and chromosome structural defects. Discuss
what you understand about these two defects.
2. Explain the importance of pre-natal screening.

2.3 GENE INTERACTION AND ENVIRONMENT

Is individual behaviour influenced by genetic or environmental factors? Do you
know how genes can be affected by the environment? How the environment
typically affects behaviour depends on the genetic factors. This situation is the
basis to the complex interaction between genes and the environment.
2.3.1 Range of Reactions

What is the range of reactions? The interactive relationship between genetics and
environment can be formulated in terms of the range of reactions. The range of
reactions is an interactive relation between the environment and genetic factors.
This interaction can be detected in a wide range. For example, children with Down
syndrome who are initially placed in a confined environment will experience a
change from the aspects of intellectual development when placed in a favourable
environment. A suitable environment with a variety of learning activities to
stimulate children's cognitive development will be able to help children to achieve
higher cognitive functions. Children with other genetic problems may also get the
same effects depending on the environment and the stimuli given to them.
As members of society, we must be sensitive in thinking about the concept of this

range of reactions. This is in response to what we understand in relation to how
the genetic connection is acknowledged in the normal environment by us. For
example, after knowing how Trisomy 21 affects the enzymes and proteins that
act on the nerves, a suitable environment could be established to help improve
intellectual performance of children with Down syndrome.
Knowledge of biological processes and other so-called environmental effects can

help the process of modification in the method of how genes can influence
certain behaviour.
2.3.2 Changes in Relations between the Environment

and Upbringing
There is a correlation between genetic factors and the experiences faced by
parents in providing a harmonious environment in accordance with the interests
and tendencies of children. This is called a passive relation because it is created
or provided by parents of the children. Parents who are sociable are likely to
transfer the same genetic trait to their children through the social environment,
which is formed at home. However, the relationship between genetics and the

environment can be positive when the environment provided contains the

elements that can support and complement the genetic potential of the children.
For example, when parents detect the childÊs attitude to be too shy, they can take
the initiative to educate the child through group games and other activities that
may help the child socialise with peers.
Children's behaviour is often associated with genetics, which is inherited from

both parents. Children who are active often try to get attention as opposed to
peers who are more timid. Parents should provide support and encouragement
to timid children so that they become more confident of their potential.
Children need to be encouraged to choose activities based on their interests.

Their genetic effects will influence the process of preparing a suitable
environment for them besides providing opportunities for them to control the
situation and have new experiences. Differences between individuals need to be
given attention in preparing the childrenÊs environment.
Children who are given the space to choose activities that interest them will be
able to familiarise themselves with the environment that has been provided for
them until they mature. This will help children to better develop existing talents
and interests with appropriate support and upbringing by their parents.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. State the types of tests that can be performed throughout

pregnancy.
2. Amir is a reclusive child and has difficulty getting along with his
peers. In your opinion, what is the appropriate environment
which should be provided to Amir so that his attitude can be
changed?

 The differences between individuals are caused by genes or genetic

inheritance.
 Formation of an organism occurs through the process of mitosis and the

formation of the sex occurs through the process of meiosis.
 There are two types of traits in humans and plants i.e. the dominant trait and
the recessive trait that can influence an individual trait.
 Genes defects or chromosomal abnormality refer to a situation where the

development of chromosomes do not occur properly.
 Chromosomal defects can occur due to two factors i.e. inheritance from their
parents and some happen by chance during the development process of the
chromosome. Chromosomal defect can lead to Down syndrome, Klinefelter
syndrome, Turner syndrome, XXX syndrome and XYY syndrome.
 A lot of initial inspections and tests may be performed to detect chromosomal

abnormality. Among the initial examinations that may be done are the
maternal serum screen (MSS), ultrasound and questionnaires. Amniocentesis,
chorionic villous sampling and ultrasonography tests can be performed on
foetal blood samples.
 Children's behaviours are often associated with genetics inherited from both
parents.
 A suitable environment coupled with various learning activities to stimulate

children's cognitive development can help them to achieve higher cognitive
functions.

Chromosomal defects Mitosis process

Dominant-recessive trait Pre-natal screening
Down syndrome (Trisomy 21) Turner syndrome
Gene defects XXX syndrome
Klinefelter syndrome XYY syndrome
Meiosis process
Bukatko, D., & Daehler, M. W. (1998). Child development: A thematic approach

(3rd ed.). New York: Oughton Mifflin Company.
Jas Laile Suzana Jaafar. (2002). Psikologi kanak-kanak dan remaja. Kuala Lumpur:
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Pettijohn, T.F. (1998). Psychology: A connectext (4th ed.). Ohio, Dushkin: McGraw-
Hill.

Topic  Mental
3 Retardation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define mental retardation;
2. Identify the common causes of mental retardation;
3. Explain the psychological and behavioural criteria for children with
mental retardation; and
4. Describe the teaching methods appropriate for mentally retarded
children.
 INTRODUCTION
We often hear the concept of human equality. All men are born equal. This
statement is commonly used around the world. Ironically, no man is equal. There
are still visible differences in the equation. For example, although a pair of twins
are said to be identical twins, there may be differences in terms of interests,
behaviours and strengths. Thus, we can see that there are differences in the
equation.
In this topic, we will look deeper at people with intellectual retardation, better
known by the term "mental retardation". We will look at the definition of mental
retardation; the sources of intellectual retardation; the psychological and
behavioural criteria for the mentally challenged; and teaching methods
appropriate for mentally retarded children. Typically, it would be rather difficult
to detect any abnormalities in children who experience minimal problems from
childhood. However, early signs can assist various parties such as parents,
teachers and the community to find the best way to educate these children.
Happy learning!

TOPIC 3 MENTAL RETARDATION  37
3.1 DEFINITION OF MENTAL RETARDATION

According to the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR), those
with intellectual retardation are defined as individuals who have certain
limitations in mental functioning, in addition to the low skills from the aspect of
behavioural adjustment such as those involving self-care skills like the ability to
dress, eat or to upkeep themselves. Individuals who have detectable retardation
sometimes are not able to care for themselves or live independently. This defect
is usually detected before the age of 18 years.
What about intellectual retardation? The Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

describes intellectual retardation as low intellectual function (IQ) and lacking in
social behaviour during the period of development of the child's education.
Intellectual function or IQ is usually measured by IQ tests. The average score is

100. Individuals who get a score below 70 to 75 have been identified to have
intellectual retardation. To measure adaptive behaviour, the comparison is done
by observing what the children can do compared with their peers. Some skills are
important as adaptive behaviours. Among them are:
(a) Skills in daily activities such as wearing clothes, bathing, eating and so
forth;
(b) Communication skills such as understanding what is spoken and being able
to respond; and
(c) Social skills, such as relationships with friends, family, adults and society.
These limitations lead to the slower development of the learning process of these
children compared to other normal children. Children with mental retardation
may take longer to learn to talk, walk and manage themselves. Most of them also
have learning problems in school. These children may be learning but the
learning process will take longer. Some of them simply do not learn a thing.
What caused the mental retardation?
Intellectual retardation occurs due to the failure of brain functioning. Retardation

that occurs in an individual involves not only mental functioning but also
emotional development. The cognitive abilities of mentally retarded children are
also affected. This means that they are not only slow to receive any information
communicated to them but also find it hard to understand complex concepts.

38  TOPIC 3 MENTAL RETARDATION
There are two important points to be seen before declaring a child as mentally
retarded, which are:
(a) Mental capacity to learn, think, and solve problems, as well as intellectual
functioning (IQ); and
(b) Social skills possessed to enable independent living, or better known as

adaptive behaviours such as wearing clothes, showering, self management
and so forth.
How do we identify these children? Generally, mentally retarded children show

some or all of the particular signs below:
(a) Speech problems;

(b) Difficulty in remembering;
(c) Difficulty in understanding the social rules;
(d) Inability to distinguish effects and consequences;
(e) Having trouble in problem-solving processes; and
(f) Having problems thinking logically.
There is no specific treatment for intellectual retardation. However, mentally

retarded children are able to learn many things. Only the learning process will
take longer and require support from various parties.
There are three categories of mentally retarded children as described in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Categories of Mental Disability
Category Description
Mild mental  Have potential for growth in terms of the academic, vocational
retardation and social aspects.
(IQ score 50-75)
 Difficulty in following the normal learning process; thus
needing an education programme suited to them.
 Have potential to be independent if given a suitable education.
 Are able to function and interact well with normal children
who are 1-2 years younger.
 Have ability to receive nine months of the 12-month study
period.
Moderate mental  Managing self (eating, wearing clothes and managing

retardation themselves in the toilet).
(IQ score 30-50)
 Adapting to social relations (sharing and collaboration).
 Learning to read, count and recognise symbols.
 Carrying out tasks with supervision.
 Work in confined spaces.
 Need repetition in learning new concepts.
 Able to accept six months of the 12-month study period.
Severe and very  Need a specific programme and environment.

severe mental
retardation  Need more repetition in learning.
(IQ scores 30 and  Need help in daily routines.
below)
 Usually have other disabilities such as hearing, vision or
medical.
 Have language and communication problems.
 Difficulty in focusing.
 Need verbal instructions that are clear and easy.
 Tasks should be broken down to ease execution.
 Praise good behaviour.
 Encourage involvement with normal children (buddy system).
 Can receive three to four months of the 12-month study period.

3.2 CAUSES OF MENTAL RETARDATION

Now, we will identify the causes of intellectual retardation. You certainly
understand that this not a disease. Many experts estimate that we can only
determine the cause of mental disability for only 10 to 15 per cent of existing
cases. The cases vary from mild mental disabilities to moderate and severe. These
situations occur when there has been injury or damage to the brain; consequently
affecting its normal development. Intellectual retardation is not one of mental
illness, such as depression or stress. There are times when we are not able to say
for sure if someone has mental retardation since there are many factors that lead
to intellectual retardation such as genetic factors, brain damage or brain injury,
infection and environmental factors. Let us look at these factors one by one.
3.2.1 Genetic Factor

According to a World Health Organization (WHO) report, about 30 percent of
severe mental disabilities have been caused by genetic abnormalities such as
Down syndrome. Around 25 per cent are due to cerebral palsy while another 30
percent by meningitis and pre-natal problems. The remaining 15 percent remain
impossible to determine the cause factors.
Intellectual retardation may occur due to genetic abnormalities such as

Syndrome X. This refers to the fragile X chromosome, which determines gender.
The syndrome has been identified as the main source of intellectual retardation.
Single genes, such as phenylkenoturia (PKU), and metabolic failure when the
foetus is in the womb can also be factors contributing to intellectual retardation,
if not detected at an early stage. Mutations during the development of genes can
also cause intellectual retardation. For example, the surplus of chromosome 18 or
better known as (Trisomy 18) and Down syndrome. Down syndrome is due to
the abnormal development of chromosome 21.

Phenylkenoturia (PKU)
Phenylkenoturia (PKU) is a type of sickness related to metabolism failure caused
by the liver not functioning actively. The following are some factors in
phenylkenoturia (PKU):
(a) Traced from lineage and genetic inheritance.
(b) Children with PKU appear normal, but if left untreated, will suffer from
mental retardation as early as one year of age. If given a special diet just
after birth, they will grow normally like other people.
(c) A blood test can be performed as early as possible to prevent PKU.
3.2.2 Brain Damage/Injury

Did you know that brain damage or injury that causes brain dysfunction, is a
major cause of mental retardation among children? How does this happen? This
situation can occur when a pregnant mother suffers from high blood pressure
during pregnancy (hypertension) or blood poisoning (toxaemia), resulting in
reduced oxygen to the foetus. This situation will then have an effect on the brain,
causing intellectual retardation.
The delivery process that causes physical defects in the head, brain and central
nervous system may also be a source of intellectual retardation. For example,
nerve tube defects are birth defects that cause the improper formation of the
spinal cord. This results in the formation of excess fluid from the spine that will
lead to hydrocephalus (big head baby). What are the consequences? The stress of
a larger head may cause failures in the learning process.
3.2.3 Infection
Kernicterus is brain damage that occurs when a newborn has jaundice or yellow
fever. What are the causes of jaundice? Jaundice is caused by the yellow pigment
produced by the liver. Usually the jaundice will disappear by itself. However, if
too much pigment production is not controlled or treated, it may cause brain
damage. Many cases of kernicterus were found to have resulted in cerebral palsy
and hearing loss. However, some children are also vulnerable to mental
retardation due to this condition. This situation can be overcome by using special
lighting or other appropriate therapies.

Bacterial infection (Hib disease), prolonged cough/whooping cough, chickenpox

and measles are among the infections that can cause intellectual retardation if not
given early treatment. Infection of the membrane lining covering the brain
(meningitis) or inflammation (swelling) of the brain itself (encephalitis) can cause
damage to the brain and mental retardation. In addition, the violent shaking of
an infant or child by an abusive caretaker can affect the childÊs fragile brain.
3.2.4 Environmental Factor

Did you know babies who are neglected or not provided with mental and
physical stimulation as part of the developmental process may have problems in
learning? Children who are malnourished, living in an unhealthy environment
and without proper health care, have a higher risk of suffering from mental
retardation.
The intellectual development of mentally retarded children differs from that of

normal children due to their lack of contact with individuals of normal IQ levels
and reading abilities, as well as a lack of verbal stimuli. In addition, poverty,
large family size factor, improper nutrition and low expectations of academic
achievement may also stunt intellectual development.
Did you know there are other sources other than those we discussed earlier?
Figure 3.1 lists other sources that also affect children's intellectual retardation.
Figure 3.1: Other causes of children's mental retardation

ACTIVITY 3.1
1. Describe the signs of children who have mild intellectual retardation.
2. Discuss the factors that influence mental retardation in children.
3.3 PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIOURAL

CRITERIA
In determining the psychological and behavioural criteria of mentally retarded
children, we cannot ascertain exactly whether an individual is mentally retarded.
This is because there are moments when an individual who is mentally retarded
does not show all the criteria. There is a wide variation in behaviour among
mentally retarded children that makes every one of them unique individuals. In
this subtopic, we will discuss various criteria such as concentration, memory,
language development, academic achievement and social development of
mentally retarded children.
3.3.1 Concentration
Concentration or focus in the learning process is very important. Why is focus
very important? Focus is important because an individual must be able to
understand a given task before learning occurs. Most children have difficulty
concentrating on something or focusing for a long time.
These children are also not able to solve problems because of their inability to
think logically.
3.3.2 Memory
Research shows that mentally retarded children have difficulty remembering
information received. What about the education environment in schools? In the
educational environment in schools, mentally retarded children have problems
getting information. Inability to recall the information conveyed limits their
ability to learn. This situation represents a major obstacle in the learning process
in schools. The ability to remember is a complex learning process, which requires
certain strategies. Mentally retarded children have difficulty remembering
concepts and theories.

3.3.3 Language Development

Language is used in young children for the purpose of communication,
presenting of needs and feelings in an environment (Hatton, 1998). Late language
development is clear evidence of mental retardation (Warren & Abbeduto, 1992).
Articulation problems can be detected in mentally retarded children. Generally,
for children who have mild intellectual retardation, their language development
is consistent with normal children. The language development progress is rather
slow for the category suffering severe mental retardation.
Delayed language development in children with mental retardation correlates

with self-confidence. Mentally retarded children have difficulty expressing
themselves through language due to their poor mastery of the language.
3.3.4 Academic Achievement

What about the academic achievement of mentally retarded children? You are
certainly aware that there is a strong relationship between intellectual ability and
achievement. So it is not surprising that mentally retarded children often have
lower academic achievement compared to their normal peers. Mentally retarded
children also often have low expectations of achievement because of the level of
intellectual ability that they possess (MacMillan, 1982).
3.3.5 Social Development

Mentally retarded children are usually more sensitive and emotional. These
children also face problems in communicating with peers. Children learn social
skills while receiving instruction in school. However, the mentally retarded child
is unable to understand the role of waiting in queue for someone to finish talking
before you start a conversation topic. Mentally retarded children also face
problems in understanding social concepts. For example, the concept of money.
They have difficulty understanding the function of money and the use of money
in daily life. Mentally retarded children also have difficulty in understanding the
causes and effects of a relationship. For example, knowing that there are
consequences for every action that we take.

3.4 TEACHING METHODS

What are the teaching methods for children with mental retardation? The focus
of education for the mentally retarded children should be varied depending on
the level of intellectual retardation of children or the extent to which these
children need support services. For example, if a child has a mild retardation,
academic skills should be emphasised by teachers. Conversely, if the child has a
severe retardation, teachers need to make adjustments to teaching methods that
include the formation of self-confidence, self-management, communication skills
in the community and vocational skills.
You, as a special education teacher, need to apply self-management skills,

academic skills, self formation, communication skills and vocational skills in the
educational process regardless of the level of retardation faced by mentally
retarded children.
3.4.1 Suitable Materials and Curriculum

The use of appropriate curriculum and materials should be emphasised from the
beginning of the learning process for the mentally retarded. These children
should be exposed to all the materials and aspects of life that can be applied to
them and by them. The aim of using these materials is to help these children live
independently.
As a teacher, the teaching approach used should be based on the analysis of the
behaviour of the child. What is behaviour analysis? Behaviour analysis is the
application and evaluation of learning theory principles in teaching.
There is a six-step lesson or approach that can be used for mentally retarded
children:
(a) Step 1:
The teacher identifies the overall goal. This includes the skills needed by
children that need to be improved.
(b) Step 2:
Level of skills measurement should be established. This helps to identify
the ability of children and teachers to make a comparison between the
levels determined by the ability of the child.
(c) Step 3:
Set specific objectives for the teaching and learning process.

(d) Step 4:
Implementing an intervention programme to improve the skills needed or
to reduce inappropriate behaviour.
(e) Step 5:
Monitor the learning progress of children on an ongoing basis.
(f) Step 6:
Assess the impact of interventions carried out by comparing the
development with the predetermined level so that the teacher can make a
decision to continue the process of teaching and learning in accordance with
the existing method, or to modify or terminate an intervention programme.
3.4.2 Suitable Activities

Most educational programmes for mentally retarded children focus on
preparation for their independent living. Therefore, learning activities provided
should be in practical forms (Wehman, Moon, Everson, Wood & Barcus, 1988).
Learning how to dress a doll, for example, is not an effective method of learning
how to dress oneself. Instead, children should be shown how to put clothes on
real models. Some mentally retarded children can learn academic skills. Learning
theories on related matters will take a long time to grasp; therefore the most
important thing is to teach them what they need in life, as well as the things they
can handle.
3.4.3 Interaction with Normal Students

Professionals agree that mentally retarded children will benefit through
interaction with normal peers. How and how often these interactions take place
should not be a problem. Some experts believe it would be better if mentally
retarded children are placed in normal classes during the daily learning period in
school. It aims to foster interaction between normal students with mentally
retarded children. There is also the other opinion that the interaction needs to
occur between them, but in a more limited context. For example, some schools
may try putting a normal student as a tutor or a classroom assistant in a class of
mentally retarded children.

3.4.4 Community-Based Learning

In an effort to help mentally retarded children acquire specific skills, educational
programmes for these children should have a place in society as much as
possible. Many everyday skills that can be learned by mentally retarded children
are outside the classroom such as how to use public transportation and shopping
at supermarkets. These are exciting and more effective educational programmes.
Teachers could also create a mini shopping centre in the classroom to prepare the
children before they go to the actual store. However, this experience is not
enough because children should be exposed to the actual experience of using the
skills they have learned in real situations.
3.4.5 Parental Involvement

Parental involvement is very important to increase the effectiveness of
educational programmes for special education at all levels. For mentally retarded
children, parental involvement is important because most of the skills learned are
based on the models made by parents at home. So, the first education of mentally
retarded children begins at home with early involvement by parents as direct
educators.
ACTIVITY 3.2
In a group, discuss the psychological characteristics and behaviour of a

mentally retarded child that you may know of at work or in other
situations.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Explain why parental involvement is important in the education

of children with special needs.
2. As an educator, discuss the steps to be taken in preparation of the

teaching process for mentally retarded children.

 Individuals with intellectual retardation have certain limitations in mental

functioning, in addition to low skills from the aspect of behavioural
adjustment (American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR)).
 According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA),

intellectual retardation is low intellectual function (IQ) and poor social
behaviour during the period of development that affects the development of
the child's education.
 There are many sources of intellectual retardation. These include genetic

factors and environmental influences, brain damage/injury, and infections.
 Children with mental retardation have learning problems associated with

focusing, remembering, self-management, language development, academic
achievement, social development and self-motivation.
 Educational goals for children who have mild intellectual retardation should
include the application of living and academic skills in early childhood.
 Educational programmes such as curriculum based on age, suitable activities,

community-based education, interaction with normal peers and parental
involvement are some of the education methods used.
Environmental factors Phenylkenoturia (PKU)

Genetic factors Sources of intellectual retardation
Hydrocephalus Teaching methods
Intellectual retardation Teaching steps
Kernicterus Toxaemia

Language development in mental retardation (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

aamr.org
MacMillan, D. L. (1982). Mental retardation in school and society (2nd ed.).

Boston: Little, Brown.
Mental retardation (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov
Mental retardation (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www/nichy.org/pubs/

factshe/fs8lxl.htm
Mental retardation-intelectual ability (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.merck.

com
Paula, A.F., & Martin, K.R. (2006). Mental retardation. Retrieved from
http://www. healthline.com/galecontent/mental-retardation/5
Philip, C.K., Constane, H. (1988). Abnormal psychology: Understanding human

problems (2nd ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Warren, S.F., & Abbeduto, L. (1992). The relation of communication and language
development to mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Retardation,
97(2), 125-130.
Wehman, P., Moon, M.S., Everson, J.M., Wood, W., & Barcus, J.M. (1988).
Transition from school to work: New challenges for youth with severe
disabilities. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Topic  Learning
4 Disabilities
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define learning disabilities;
2. State what autism is;
3. Identify the characteristics of autism;
4. Recognise the causes of learning disabilities in biological, genetic and
environmental terms;
5. Explain the four criteria of psychological and behaviour of children
with learning disabilities; and
6. Discuss the two methods of teaching for academic problems.
 INTRODUCTION
All children develop differently; each one unique with their characteristics and
behaviours. In fact, there are terminologies for the types of behaviours and
conditions that we see. There are children who have emotional and behavioural
problems, learning disabilities and learning progress; and there are also gifted
children. Teachers and parents should use specific teaching methods and
curriculums to cater for these diverse groups.
This topic will deal specifically with learning problems, defining learning
disabilities, autism and its characteristics; and outlining the causes of learning
disabilities. This is followed by psychological and behavioural criteria. Finally,
you will learn the methods of teaching for academic problems. Happy learning!

TOPIC 4 LEARNING DISABILITIES  51
4.1 DEFINITION
Did you know that children with learning disabilities have the same IQ level as
normal children? Although they had the same IQ level, they have problems in
one or more parts of learning.
For your information, learning disability is a neurobiological problem. Children

with learning disabilities learn in a different way because their brain structures
and functions are different. However, children who are visually impaired,
hearing impaired or physically or mentally handicapped, are not considered as
having learning disabilities.
What are the difficulties faced by these children? Children with learning
disabilities often have difficulty in collecting, compiling, or acting on information
obtained verbally or non-verbally. The problems encountered are difficulty in
understanding spoken language and written language. As mentioned earlier, this
problem occurs because of differences in neurological functioning and brain
structure. There are nine aspects of learning disabilities, as listed in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Nine aspects that are affected by learning disabilities

52  TOPIC 4 LEARNING DISABILITIES
4.2 GENETIC DEFECTS

This subtopic will discuss further genetic defects, mainly focusing on autism.
4.2.1 Autism
For your information, children with autism appear normal but differ in
behaviour and growth patterns. Late discovery of autism in children will cause
serious delays in the development of their social and communication skills. What
is autism? It is characterised by a childÊs preference to be left on his own.
Autism is often associated with disorders of communication, social interaction,

sensory, patterns of play, behaviour and emotion. Autism can be detected as
early as three years old. Children with autism also have mental retardation in
various stages. Causes of autism are often linked to genetics. Sometimes, it is also
caused by viruses that affect the mother during pregnancy such as rubella or
herpes; bleeding, or even food poisoning that has affected the baby's brain
functions. Digestive problems are also identified as a cause of autism. Over 60%
of children with autism have problems with digestion. What are the
characteristics of an autistic child? Let us see the details in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Characteristics of Child with Autism
Aspect Characteristics
Communication  Delayed or no language development;
 Rarely uses the language;
 Difficulty in getting the child to talk;
 Uses language that cannot be understood;
 Likes to pull the hands of others when requesting something;
and
 Answers do not correspond with questions asked.
Social  Likes to be alone, stays away and sits in a corner;

interaction
 Does not like playing with friends and frequently refuses
invitations from friends; and
 No eye contact and avoids looking at other peopleÊs faces.

Sensory  Sensitive to touch; does not like to be held or hugged;

 Sensitive to loud sounds and covers ears;
 Less sensitive to pain or fear; and
 Loves to kiss and lick toys and other things.
Patterns of play  Does not like to play with peers;

 Does not play with toys the usual way; instead, rotates and
bounces them; and
 Likes rotating objects such as electric fans.
Behaviour  Either active or hyperactive ;

 Does not like changes;
 Sits still without doing anything and has no reaction; and
 Performs the same actions or movements over and over again.
Emotion  Often gets angry, laughs or cries for no reason;

 Goes berserk if the childÊs requirements are not followed;
 Attack anyone and destroy anything if emotion is disturbed
Sometimes has self-inflicted injury; and
 Unsympathetic and does not understand the feelings of others.
Figure 4.2 shows the structure of the brain, which is affected in the case of
autism.

Figure 4.2: Structure of the brain

Source: www.nimh.nih.gov
SELF-CHECK 4.1
In your opinion, do autism and mental retardation have the same

characteristics? Give reasons for your answer.

4.3 CAUSES OF LEARNING DISABILITIES

Now, let us see the causes of learning disabilities. There are three reasons for
learning problems as shown in Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Causes of learning disabilities
Let us explore the details about the three factors in the next subtopic.
4.3.1 Biological Factor

Many people believe that learning disabilities are caused by neurological factors.
Studies conducted by a team of scientists show that those who have learning
disabilities have different brain waves. These brain waves can be seen by using
electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG requires a number of electrodes attached to
various parts of the head. These electrodes will allow storage of electrical data in
the brain waves.
In addition to EEG, other methods used are computerised axial tomographic scan
(CAT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography
(PET). What are CAT scan, MRI and PET? Let us look at the description of the
scans in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: CAT, MRI and PET Scans
Scan Description
CAT Head of individual is placed in a large coil. Then, some brain x-rays are taken
and sent to a computer.
MRI Using radio waves to record cross-sectional images of the brain.
PET Done when an individual is carrying out an activity like reading. Individuals
will be injected with a low radiation liquid. By using a scanner, researchers
will look at parts of the brain which give response and vice versa.

Based on the results of CAT and MRI scans, researchers found evidence that
neurological factors affect learning disabilities (Hynd, Marshall & Gonzalez,
1991). While through the PET scan, researchers found differences in brain
metabolism between those with learning disabilities and those without
disabilities (Flowers, 1993). Thus we can conclude that neurological problems are
fundamental to learning disabilities.
4.3.2 Genetic Factor

Evidence also shows that learning disabilities can be inherited genetically. There
are two studies often conducted to evaluate learning disabilities due to genetics.
These studies are known as familiarity study and inheritance study, as explained
in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: The Familiarity and Inheritance Study
Familiarity Study Inheritance Study
Seeing how the probabilities of learning Inheritance studies are often done on twins.
disabilities are passed down to the next These studies show learning disabilities
generation. However, the results are still often occur on identical twins as compared
not certain. Sometimes the problem is not with non-identical twins. If one of the
passed down from the previous generation identical twins has learning disabilities,
but due to environmental conditions. then the other would also have the same
problem.
4.3.3 Environmental Factor

Finally, let us look at the environmental factors. It is difficult to state the
influence of environmental factors on learning disabilities. Environmental factors
involve the way a child receives the learning process at the early stage of their
development. It is believed that learning disabilities exist because of the
weakness of the teaching provided. If teachers taught using the right technique,
then the problem can be avoided.
Environmental factors such as family habits also influence the learning

disabilities. If the child is more exposed to the learning environment, they may be
able to learn faster. In fact, the way parents teach their children who have
learning disabilities must be different from normal children. The correct way will
enable these children to overcome their learning disabilities more quickly.

4.4 BEHAVIOUR AND PSYCHOLOGY CRITERIA

This subtopic will explain further the behaviour and psychology criteria. This
subtopic will look into academic achievement problems, perception and
coordination problems, memory and cognitive problems and finally, social and
emotional problems.
4.4.1 Academic Achievement Problems

Children with learning disabilities face difficulties in remembering, compiling
and responding to verbal and non-verbal information. They often face problems
in understanding and using language and writing. These children can be
identified through the following problems:
(a) Skills and the development of language (listening, speaking, reading,

writing and spelling);
(b) Social interaction;
(c) Mathematics;
(d) Social skills;
(e) Motor skills;
(f) Cognitive development;
(g) Focusing and organising; and
(h) Taking the test.
It should be noted that children with learning disabilities are not low in IQ level,
but they are on normal average level. However, their performances in the tests
are usually lower than normal children their age. This is because of their learning
disabilities and not a low IQ level.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. What is the role of parents and teachers in handling children with

learning disabilities?
2. Explain the types and meaning of learning disabilities.

Learning disabilities can be categorised into main types of learning problems and
miscellaneous learning problems. Let us look at these in detail in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Types of Learning Disabilities
Types Description
Speech and  Difficulty in producing speech sounds and pronouncing the
language words incorrectly;
problems
 Difficulty in using language; and
 Difficulty in understanding the speech of others.
Academic skills  Problems in reading (dyslexia);

problem
 Problems in writing (dysgraphia); and
 Problem in arithmetic skills (dyscalculia).
Miscellaneous  Motor skill problems (dyspraxia);

learning
problems  Non-verbal learning problems; and
 Other problems.
Based on Table 4.4, you have been introduced to dyslexia, dysgraphia and
dyscalculia. What exactly are these problems? Let us look at the following
description of these problems.
(a) Dyslexia
What is dyslexia? Dyslexia is a condition where children face difficulty in
reading, writing and spelling.
Dyslexia has three levels i.e. mild, moderate and severe. There are three
types of dyslexia, as described in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Three Levels of Dyslexia
Type Description
Visual dyslexia Visual problems (differentiation and interpretation of what is seen).
Auditory Hearing problems (difficulty identifying the sounds into syllables,

dyslexia etc).
Visual-auditory Severe as the senses of vision and hearing are not functioning
dyslexia properly. The two senses fail to interpret what is seen and heard.

What are the characteristics of children who have dyslexia? The following
are six characteristics:
(i) Reading and spelling skills are weak;

(ii) Confused with almost similar words;
(iii) Difficulty in following instructions;
(iv) Speech and language development is slow;
(v) Difficulty in copying; and
(vi) Difficulty in using a winding road.
(b) Dysgraphia
What is dysgraphia? Dysgraphia is difficulty in transferring what is in the
mind into writing and graphic forms.
What are the characteristics of children who have dysgraphia? The following
are five characteristics:
(i) Bad handwriting;

(ii) Problems in processing information (writing upside down, not in
sequence);
(iii) Writing slowly;
(iv) Difficulty in spelling, identifying punctuation marks and others; and
(v) Mixing up letters and numbers in formulas.
How do we identify children with dysgraphia? We can identify them by

observing 12 signs:
(i) Face problems in writing skills but can communicate well;

(ii) Repeating the same sentences or words incorrectly;
(iii) Punctuation and spelling errors;
(iv) Misinterpreting questions;
(v) Difficulty in writing numbers in sequence;
(vi) Mixing up uppercase and lowercase letters;
(vii) Do not complete words or sentences;

(viii) Distance between words is not consistent;

(ix) Sounding out the words when writing;
(x) Slow in writing;
(xi) Paying attention to the hand that writes; and
(xii) An abnormal grip of stationery.
(c) Dyscalculia
Finally, let us look at the problem of dyscalculia. What is dyscalculia?
Dyscalculia is a problem with mathematical operations.
What are the characteristics of children with this problem? Children with
dyscalculia have four characteristics as follows:
(i) Weak in the process of absorbing information (unable to digest

numbers and mathematics);
(ii) Problem in recognising and mixing up of numbers;
(iii) Problem in organising information; and
(iv) Problem in remembering facts and formulas to solve mathematical
calculations.
We can identify children with dyscalculia by observing the following eight

signs:
(i) Difficulty in understanding mathematical concepts in a sentence;

(ii) Confused with almost similar numbers (7 and 9, 3 and 8);
(iii) Difficulty in arranging numbers according to space and left to right
orientation;
(iv) Problems in using calculators;
(v) Usually smart in science and art subjects;
(vi) Difficulty in recalling names of people;
(vii) Difficulty in remembering and understanding the concepts of time
and direction; and
(viii) Cannot remember mathematical concepts, formulas and basic facts in
mathematics.

SELF-CHECK 4.2
Give the meaning of the words below and state their characteristics:
(a) Dyslexia;
(b) Dysgraphia; and
(c) Dyscalculia.
4.4.2 Perception and Coordination Problems

What do children with perception and coordination problems face? Children
with impaired perception face difficulty in completing picture arrangements,
viewing and remembering the shape of an object. They also have difficulty in
identifying words, numbers or letters that are almost the same (e.g. confusion
between 52 and 25, "b" with "d"). Coordination problems are problems involving
large and small motor functions. What are the characteristics of perception and
coordination problems? Let us look at Table 4.6.
Table 4.6: Characteristics of Children with Perception and Coordination Problems
Views and Vision Disorders Motor Skills
 Spelling is not consistent  Poor coordination

 Often leave letters at the base of words  Extraordinary movement of the wrist
 Often add letters at the end of words  Slow in writing
 Problems in the arrangement of letters  Bad writing
 Difficult to understand words  Difficulty in holding a pencil correctly
 Poor memory  Difficulty in cutting
 Difficult to imagine words  Difficulty in balacing the body
 Difficulty in kicking properly
 Difficulty in climbing stairs correctly

4.4.3 Memory and Cognitive Problems

Children with learning disabilities often have issues with short-term memory
and active memory. Short-term memory problems are difficulty in recalling
information after seeing or hearing it. What is the function of short-term
memory? Short-term memory functions to recall and repeat words that are heard.
For children with learning disabilities, it is a difficult task. Problems with the
active memory are difficulty in storing certain information while doing other
cognitive processes. For example, remembering the address of the house while
listening to the instructions to that address.
Cognitive problems occur when individuals fail to organise information,

resulting in failure to plan and organise daily routines either at school or at
home. Therefore, they have difficulty formulating a solution to a problem. In
addition, the ability to understand what is read is very minimal. They cannot
resolve the problem faced. If the children are normal, they will read over and
over again the paragraph that is not understood.
4.4.4 Social and Emotional Problems

According to Achenbach and colleagues (Achenbach, Howell, Quay & Conners,
1991), there are two dimensions in behavioural problems: internal behaviour and
external behaviour.
External behaviour is related to rebellious behaviours or protesting against

others. Internal behaviour is related to emotional and mental conflict such as
pressure and anxiety.
Figure 4.4 shows six behavioural problems and examples.

Figure 4.4: Six behavioural problems
Children with behavioural problems are often different from normal children.
They are always difficult to approach, can be delusional and may experience
mental instability.

4.5 CONSIDERATION FROM THE ASPECT OF

EDUCATION
This subtopic will further explain the consideration from the aspects of education.
In this subtopic, we will discuss the methods of teaching for academic problems.
4.5.1 Methods of Teaching for Academic Problems

There are two methods of teaching for academic problems i.e. cognitive training
and continuous instruction. Cognitive training has three techniques that can be
implemented, namely, self instruction, mnemonic keyword method and
scaffolded instruction. See Figure 4.5 for a summary of these teaching methods.
Figure 4.5: Two methods of teaching for academic problems
Let us look at further description of these two methods in the next section.
(a) Cognitive Training

This method emphasises three components, namely, changing the thinking
process, providing learning strategies and teaching self initiative. The
purpose of cognitive training is to change the mindset of students and also
to see the changes that occur in their behaviour. The training has shown
success in helping children with learning disabilities.

There are two reasons why cognitive training is suitable to be used:
(i) To provide training related to problems involving cognition and

metacognition by providing various strategies of solutions.
(ii) To provide training related to motivation and encourage children to

cooperate fully in their treatment method.
There are three techniques that can be used in cognitive training. The three
techniques are described in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Three Techniques of Cognitive Training
Technique Description
Self  Requires students to read the problem aloud to themselves. They are
instruction encouraged (five-step strategy) to:
(a) Mention the word aloud;
(b) Cite the first syllable;
(c) Cite a letter in the syllable three times;
(d) Write and cite the letter; and
(e) Repeat steps two and four for the next syllable.
 Pupils will use some self-instruction, namely:

(a) Define problem = "What should I do?"
(b) Planning = "How can I solve this problem?"
(c) Use of strategy = "Five-step strategy to help me solve the problem"
(d) Self assessment = "How do I fair?"
(e) Self Motivation = "Good. I'm doing it right"
Mnemonic  Encourage students who have problems remembering information

keyword given by the teacher.
methods
 Teachers change the abstract information to pictures or graphics to be
more easily understood and to memorise.
 Example: to store what needs to be remembered in the long-term
memory. For example, Every Sunday Party:
(a) E = episodic;
(b) S = semantic; and
(c) P = procedural.

Scaffolded  Teacher provides assistance when a student is just beginning to learn a

instruction task.
 Assistance will be reduced gradually when the students began to
master the lessons.
 Finally, when the students are more skilled, they will perform tasks
without assistance from the teacher.
 Teacher can use the reciprocal teaching technique in which the teacher
will teach a subtopic. Then instruct a student to explain to other
students.
(b) Continuous Instruction

Continuous instruction involves a continuous training process. It
emphasises the systematic teaching without taking into account the
characteristics of students who are being taught. It is often used for
students having problems in math, language and reading. This programme
contains a structured content and is taught to small groups of 4-10 people.
It involves a lot of drills and exercises. Trained teachers will give
instruction and the students follow the instruction and give response.
Teachers will give praise to the correct answers and give the correct
answers to the mistakes made. Continuous instruction is often used in
dealing with learning disabilities and an improvement is shown by
students.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
Give your views on the types of teaching often used on children with
learning disabilities. Share your views during tutorial.

 Learning disability is a neurobiological problem. Children with learning

disabilities learn by a different method because their brain structures and
functions are different.
 Autism can be defined as children who love to be alone in their own world.
Autism is often associated with disorders of communication, social
interaction, sensory, patterns of play, emotion and behaviour. Among its
characteristics are:
 Slow language development or none at all;
 Seldom uses language;
 Difficult to get them to speak;
 Uses language that cannot be understood, and so forth.
 There are three causes of learning disabilities, namely, biological factors,

genetic factors and environmental factors.
 There are four psychological and behavioural criteria of children with

learning disabilities. The four criteria are academic achievement problems,
perception and coordination problems, memory and cognitive problems and
social emotional problems.
 There are two methods of teaching children with learning disabilities. The
methods are cognitive training and continuous instruction.
 Cognitive training has three techniques i.e. self instruction, mnemonic

keyword method and scaffolded instruction.

Autism Familiarity study

Computerised axial Tomographic Scan Inheritance study
(CAT)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Direct Instruction
Mnemonic keyword method
Dyscalculia
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Dyslexia
Self instruction
Dysgraphia
Scaffolded instruction
Electroencephalogram method (EEG)
Autism (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.AutismFacts.com.html
Autism spectrum disorder (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/

publicat/autism.cfm
Children with learning disabilities. (1999). Retrieved from http://www.aacap.

org
Hallahan, D., & Kauffman. (2003). Exceptional children: Introduction to special

Learning disabilities. (n.d). Retrieved from http://childdevelopment info.com/

learning/learning_diabilities.shtml
Learning disabilities: Types, symptoms, diagnosis and causes. (n.d). Retrieved

from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/learning_disabilities
LWD ă learning disabilities worldwide (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.

ldworldwide.org

Topic  Emotional and
5 Behavioural
Disorders
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define emotional and behavioural disorders;
2. Describe the two dimensions and categories of emotional and
behavioural disorders;
3. Explain the four factors that cause emotional and behavioural
disorders;
4. Describe the four criteria of psychology and behaviour; and
5. Discuss the two considerations from the education aspect.
 INTRODUCTION
We are aware that children and adolescents who have emotional or behavioural
problems often have difficulty in making friends or maintaining relationships.
Typically, these children face difficulties in forging a strong emotional
relationship with another individual. In fact, these groups tend to isolate
themselves from others and indirectly lead others to show disinterest in
befriending them.
Every child develops differently, and there will be those who have emotional and
behavioural problems. Teachers and parents should thus use specific curriculum
and teaching methods to help these groups.
You will learn further about this issue in this topic. You will read the
explanations regarding the emotional and behavioural disorders suffered by
some children, starting with the definitions, followed by the dimensions and

70  TOPIC 5 EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS
major categories of emotional and behavioural disorders. Next, you will learn
what causes these problems, as well as their criteria. Finally, we will look at
considerations in dealing with these problems.
5.1 DEFINITION OF EMOTIONAL AND

BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS
Did you know that individuals who face behavioural and emotional problems
are often not good at socialising? Their main problem is difficulty in establishing
social relationships with others. Usually they are isolated because they are very
aggressive and difficult to handle. So, what can we conclude about emotional
and behavioural disorders? Emotional and behavioural disorders refer to
extreme behaviours that are different from the norm; problems that are difficult
to overcome quickly; and unpredictable behaviours due to social and cultural
factors.
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), serious

emotional and behavioural disorders are identified if these five behaviours occur:
(a) A person who is not able to learn, which cannot be explained by their
intellectual ability, sensory or medical factors;
(b) Are not able to build and maintain relationships with peers and teachers;
(c) Have behaviours or emotions that are difficult to control;
(d) Suffer from depression or stress; and
(e) Have physical symptoms such as fear of personal problems or problems at
school.
The definition proposed by the National Mental Health and Special Education
Coalition in 1990, states that emotional and behavioural disorders are categorised
through emotional and behavioural responses in school that differ according to
age, culture or ethnicity that affect educational development.
What then is educational development? It refers to the development of academic,

social, vocational and personal skills.
Emotional and behavioural disorders can co-exist with other types of defects
such as schizophrenia, anxiety disorder or a variety of other conditions that may
interfere with the individualÊs educational development (Forness & Knitzer,
1992).

TOPIC 5 EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS  71
5.2 CATEGORIES OF EMOTIONAL AND

BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS
There are two main dimensions of emotional and behavioural disorders of
children, namely, internal and external dimensions. What are the differences in
these two behaviours? See Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Differences of External Dimensions and

Internal Dimensions of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders
External Dimension Internal Dimension

The external behaviours commonly shown Symptoms of emotional and behavioural
are rough and aggressive behaviours. disorders of children are anxiety, fear,
seclusion, or changes in mood or feeling.
In the next subtopics, we will focus on two categories of emotional and

behavioural disorders that often occur in children, namely, attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and anxiety disorder.
5.2.1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

What is attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? In summary, ADHD is
the development of poor concentration and hyperactivity. There are many other
terms used to describe this situation. Among these are:
ADHD is a condition where a person has difficulty sitting still, controlling

his own behaviour and paying attention.
(Mingguan Malaysia, 22 April 2007)
Hyperactivity syndrome and "minimal brain dysfunction" is a common

syndrome in children suffering from ADHD.
Did you know that ADHD is often more likely to happen in boys? The
proportion is about three to five times as many as girls. ADHD symptoms can be
detected as early as seven years old. In the United States, between three and five
per cent of children have ADHD. Of these, about 30 to 70 percent carry it through
to adulthood (Mingguan Malaysia, 22 April 2007). Table 5.2 displays the three
criteria for ADHD and the symptoms.

Table 5.2: Three Criteria for ADHD
Criteria Symptom
Unable to  Failure to complete tasks;
focus
 Not following instructions;
 Failure to pay attention to the activities carried out;
 Difficult to organise tasks and daily activities;
 Often avoids or does not like to be given assignments;
 Often forgets important items to carry out an activity (pencils,
books, etc.); and
 Often forgets daily activities.
Impulsive  Acting without thinking;

 Difficulty in carrying out given activities;
 Difficulty in waiting turns;
 Often changes from one activity to another activity;
 Requires more attention; and
 Answering a question without hearing the complete question.
Hyperactive  Difficulty sitting quietly in one place;

 Physically active all the time;
 Failure to play in a quiet and calm situation;
 Moving excessively during sleep; and
 Running or climbing without control.
Based on the above three criteria, three types of ADHD can be identified as
described in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Three Types of ADHD
Type Characteristic
Predominant,  Difficulty completing tasks;
not focused
 Difficulty paying attention;
 Difficulty following instructions; and
 Easy to forget the daily routines.
Predominant,  Nervous and talks a lot;

hyperactive
 Difficult to sit still in one place;
and
impulsive  Running, climbing and jumping with no control;
 Likes interrupting a conversation;
 Snatches things from the hands of others; and
 Always gets injured.
Combination  Combination of the above symptoms in the individual concerned.
5.2.2 Anxiety Disorder

If someone always has anxiety, he might be considered problematic. The anxiety
concerns matters which usually occur in psychiatric problems. Individuals who
suffer from anxiety are often not given attention because the symptoms are
difficult to identify.
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth

Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR), anxiety problems can be classified into 10
categories as shown in Figure 5.2.

Figure 5.2: Ten categories of anxiety problems
Did you know that excessive anxiety problems can lead to suicidal behaviour? It
is often associated with stress and drug use. If the pressure is too high, sufferers
may kill themselves. Women are often associated with anxiety problems more
than men at a ratio of 3:2. As for children, they face the problem of anxiety
associated with school.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. What is the role of parents and teachers in handling children with

anxiety problems?
2. Describe the six characteristics of children with behavioural

problems.
Various signs or symptoms may be seen in a person who has anxiety problems.
Detection of these symptoms may provide space and opportunities for
individuals to find the best solution to overcome these problems at an early
stage. Table 5.4 shows anxiety problems and symptoms.

Table 5.4: Anxiety Problems and Symptoms
Problem Symptom
Panic Sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, nausea, fast heart
beat.
Normal anxiety Frequent fatigue, difficulty in focusing, irritability, muscle

spasms, sleep disturbances.
Obsessive- Repeat behaviour (e.g. hand washing, ordering).

compulsive
Social phobia Concerned with educational achievement, avoids social

interactions.
Post traumatic Avoids conversations about the trauma faced, trauma,

stress amnesia, difficulty sleeping, difficulty in focusing.
Children with anxiety problems may be referred to psychiatrists. Regular visits

can help them overcome this anxiety. This group is also not encouraged to take
caffeinated drinks such as coffee, tea and carbonated drinks.
5.3 CAUSES OF EMOTIONAL OR

BEHAVIOURAL DISORDER
There are four main factors identified as the causes of emotional and behavioural
disorders, namely, biological and disease factors, family relationships, school
experiences and negative cultural influence factors. Although in most cases, no
specific evidence shows these factors as causes, some factors may have effects on
children in the formation of problematic behaviours.
Some factors such as family background (for example, observing the behaviour
of their parents hitting other siblings) can affect children emotionally. Some
studies have shown that the average juvenile crime committed by children and
adolescents is due to emotional and behavioural disorder problems. Now, let us
look at four of these factors in greater depth.

5.3.1 Biological Factor

Behaviour and emotions that formed inside a child can be influenced by heredity,
neurological or biochemical factors or a combination of these factors. Clearly,
there is a strong relationship between the body and the behaviour.
Every child is born biologically with his or her own style of behaviour or
temperament. Although a child's behaviour can be changed through education,
many believe that children who have behaviour that is difficult to control are
more likely to have emotional and behavioural disorders (Thomas & Chess,
1984). However, there is no direct correlation between defects and the style of
behaviour of children.
Children who have emotional and behavioural disorders may be more difficult to
manage. In addition to the style of behaviour, disease, imbalanced diet, brain
defects for example, can cause emotional and behavioural disorders (Baumeister,
Kupstas, & Klindworth, 1990). Physical and mental abuse can also be one of the
contributing factors to emotional and behavioural disorders. Children with
autism or schizophrenia often show signs of having problems related to the
neurological system (brain) (Proir & Weey, 1986). Children with Tourette's
syndrome, for example, frequently repeat the same conduct or the same
movements over and over again, or make noises and say the words and phrases
that are inappropriate.
While we can understand that autism, schizophrenia, hyperactivity, Tourette's

syndrome and some forms of depression are caused by the failure of the brainÊs
biochemical system to function properly, it is difficult to explain the biological
factors. We do not know the extent to which these biological factors contribute to
the problem of emotional and behavioural disorders among children, or what is
the most appropriate method to correct this biological problem. However, we
should remember that:
(a) Having defects caused by biological factors does not mean that an
individual has no emotional and behavioural disorders. Physical disability
may also cause disturbed emotions.
(b) Physical and emotional disorders are usually caused by biological and
psychological factors. When there is a biological defect, it will indirectly
create psychological problems that may contribute to emotional and
behavioural disorders.

(c) Medical treatment can be given to overcome the problem. Medical

treatment can provide good benefits, but prevention in this case is not
really necessary because the psychological factors and social aspects should
also be emphasised.
5.3.2 Family Factor

The family nucleus consisting of mother, father and children is an important unit
in the formation of a childÊs attitudes and behaviour. Early childhood
development affected by negative interactions between mother and child is said
to be the main cause of children experiencing emotional and behavioural
disorders. Children tend to mimic the behaviour of their parents in their
developmental process. This action can sometimes affect the emotions of the
parents and the children as well. Children should be taught and educated in
dealing with the various pressures that may be encountered in the living
environment whether at school, among friends or in society.
Methods of disciplining children not only rely heavily on the techniques

adopted. These also depend on the criteria of the children themselves. Parents
should present themselves as good role models at home to shape good and
proper behaviour among their children. Rejection, cruelty or too harsh a
punishment may encourage children to behave aggressively. Divorce, the house
not being in proper order and not having good social relations can also cause the
emotions and behaviours of children to become unstable (Reitman & Gross,
1995). Conversely, if the family environment is comfortable and stable, it will
instil a good and harmonious family relationship. This is because children will
shape their attitudes and behaviours based on their experiences in the family
unit.
5.3.3 School Factor

Did you know that some children acquire emotional and behavioural disorders
before entering school? Good classroom management can help children become
better and vice versa (Walker, Colvin & Ramsey, 1995). The success of children in
the social and academic fields will be affected if they already have a negative
style of behaviour before entering school. They will receive negative responses
from peers and teachers (Martin, 1992).
Among the contributors to emotional and behavioural disorders of children are

unrealistically high expectations of the child's academic achievement, overly
strict school discipline, teachers who are less sensitive to changes in childrenÊs
behaviour and negative interactions among peers. An unfriendly school

environment and teasing among friends can also cause children to become
aggressive. This should be given due attention because children who feel
depressed due to such situations can react by becoming hostile and disrespectful.
According to Kauffman (1997), teachers need to ask themselves, „What do we

hope to achieve and what approach should we take to help solve our studentsÊ
emotional problems?‰ Teachers cannot only blame the negative behaviour of
children, because without proper classroom management, behavioural
management of children will be difficult.
5.3.4 Cultural Factors

Family and the school environment are cultural factors that have a powerful
impact on life (Rogoff & Morelli, 1989). In addition, society in general has high
expectations of childrenÊs behaviour as well as that of their peers. Do you believe
that cultural influences such as the mass media (television, etc) have contributed
to the anxiety, stress and aggressive behaviours occurring today? Garmezy (1985)
states that the cultural changes that took place in the United States in the 1980s
have increased the development of emotional and behavioural disorders in
children.
Among the behavioural symptoms are an increase in the number of school

dropouts and teenage pregnancies. Poverty and child neglect have also left a
question mark on the importance of health and child welfare in American culture
(Hodgkinson, 1995).

CRITERIA
Explaining the criteria for emotional and behavioural disorders in children is a
challenge because they are so varied. However, we can trace them through their
intellectual achievements, their social and emotional development, brain injuries
and disorders associated with schizophrenia and autism. Let us look at four of
these criteria one by one.
5.4.1 Intelligence and Achievement

Did you know that the idea that children who experience emotional and
behavioural disorders are intelligent is a myth? Studies clearly show those
children who have emotional and behavioural disorders have an IQ below the
normal level (about 90) and only a few have scores that exceed the normal level.

In fact, many children who have emotional and behavioural disorders are
categorised below the level of learning disabilities or mild mental retardation.
Obviously, we refer to children who have emotional and behaviour disorders as

a group. Some children who face this problem are really smart and get high
scores in intelligence tests. We also need to realise that behavioural interventions
at an early stage can improve children's cognitive abilities that are not yet shown.
Even so, there are a handful of children who have cognitive problems that may
be assumed to have permanent cognitive deficiencies.
Intelligence tests are not a perfect instrument to measure intelligence and it can
be argued that emotional and behavioural disorders can prevent children from
achieving the high score they are capable of. Hence, it is not fair to give
intelligence tests to these children because their true intelligence capabilities may
be higher than the test scores obtained.
Lower IQ among some children causes them to be unable to do a task well when
compared with other peers. Moreover, a low score is often accompanied by
deficiencies in other aspects such as academic achievement and social skills.
Intelligence tests may not actually be the best measuring stick to determine the
extent of academic and social development of children.
Most children who have emotional and behavioural disorders are grouped as
having low achievement in schools through the measurement of standard tests
(Kauffman, 1997). The student fails to achieve the level that is expected to be
achieved at a certain age. More accurately, many students with severe problems
cannot master basic skills like reading and arithmetic, and are not able to apply
skills in solving everyday problems. Those with serious emotional and
behavioural problems are not able to master self-management skills such as
using the toilet, dressing or feeding themselves.
5.4.2 Social and Emotional Achievement

Emotional and behavioural disorders can be detected through internal and
external criteria. What are these internal and external criteria? The clear external
criterion is being aggressive and aloof, while the internal criteria is anxiety or
extreme low self-esteem. Our subsequent discussion will focus on the aggressive
and aloof attitudes displayed by children who have emotional and behavioural
disorders.
Aggressive attitudes and aloof behaviours are the criteria that are often seen in
children who have emotional and behavioural disorders. This causes the children
to be different from others in terms of quantity and quality. Some children may
exhibit aggressive behaviour at one time, but at other times will be sitting alone.
Many children with emotional or behavioural problems have a variety of other
problems (Walker et. al, 1995).
As we know, children who suffer emotional and behavioural disorders are less
popular with their peers. Studies show that these children are seldom accepted in
the social community and it is not surprising. They are not only ignored but
denied their participation in the peer group. Sad, is it not?
5.4.3 Criteria Relating to Brain Injury

Brain injury, whether caused by accidents, violent shaking and so forth, can
cause serious emotional and behavioural effects. It should be noted here that
other forms of behavioural disorders caused by traumatic events cannot be
associated with brain damage. However, we know that brain injuries can lead to
aggression, hyperactivity, lack of concentration and emotional and behavioural
disorders; problems that are broader in scope, depending on which part of the
brain has been damaged or injured (Allison, 1993).
There are seven effects of brain injuries involving psychosocial problems (Deaton
& Waaland, 1994):
(a) Shows uncivilised behaviour;

(b) Fails to understand jokes or „read‰ social situations;
(c) Easily tired, upset or irritable;
(d) Afraid or worried for no reason;
(e) Mood changes abruptly;
(f) Suffers from stress or depression; and
(g) Repeats an act or behaviour without being consciously aware of it.
Emotional and behavioural disorders due to brain injury also depend on the age
when the brain injury occured and the social environment experienced by the
individual after the injury occurred (Deaton & Waaland, 1994). For children who
suffer brain injuries, an effective education is not only classroom management
oriented, but family therapy, medication and good communication training are
also required (Feeney & Urbanczyk, 1994). Besides that, individual counselling,
behaviour modification programmes, vocational training, academic and support
systems are also needed to help these children.

5.4.4 Criteria Relating to Schizophrenia and Autism

Emotional and behavioural disorders require vigorous treatment. Strong support
from the family and community are vital in determining the success of the
efforts. In this subtopic, we will look at two types of emotional and behavioural
disorders that are common i.e. schizophrenia and autism.
(a) Schizophrenia
Do you understand the meaning of schizophrenia? Let us look at its
definition.
Schizophrenia is a disease where a severe personality change occurs as

a result of a shortage of chemical liquid in the brain. Schizophrenia is
categorised by changes in personality, attitudes and behaviour,
thinking, emotions, interests and relationships with others. Most
patients with schizophrenia seem to be in their own world.
What are the symptoms and causes of schizophrenia? There are eight
symptoms and causes of schizophrenia, which are:
(i) Feels restless, anxious and unhappy but refuses to seek help because
of embarrassment or distrust of other people;
(ii) Is not sensitive to the feelings of other people close to him or her;
finds it difficult to be considerate;
(iii) Experiences hallucinations (hearing voices from inside);
(iv) Experiences emotional stress or depression;
(v) Self-talks, laughs or gets angry suddenly; and
(vi) Has difficulty in controlling emotions.
Children with schizophrenia have problems in their way of thinking. They

may believe that they are controlled by aliens or having hallucinations.
Children who suffer from schizophrenia typically go through the normal
process of development, but experience this condition in an unpredictable
phase.

Classification of the emotional and behavioural disorders discussed earlier

point to the dimensions of a childÊs behaviour. Concentration problems,
aggressive behaviour, anxiety and aloofness, hard to control movements
and so on, are part of the emotional and behavioural disorders experienced
by a child with schizophrenia.
(b) Autism
Autism can be detected in children as young as three years old. Children
with autism have mental retardation at various stages. Autism is often
linked to genetics. Sometimes, autism is caused by a viral infection suffered
by the mother during pregnancy such as rubella, herpes, bleeding or food
poisoning that has affected the baby's brain function. In addition, digestive
problems have also been identified as the cause of autism – more than 60%
of children with autism have problems with digestion.
ACTIVITY 5.2
1. In groups, discuss what is meant by schizophrenia.
2. Describe the characteristics of children with autism.

EDUCATION
Children who have emotional and behavioural disorders often get low grades
and poor academic achievement compared to other peers. They are also typically
placed in a limited education environment and are often said to be involved with
juvenile problems (US Department of Education, 1994).
In the US, several strategies have been developed to strengthen the national
agenda for educating children who have serious emotional disorders. Among
them are:
(a) Expand existing educational opportunities, taking into account the needs of
children who suffer from emotional disorders.
(b) Strengthen the capacity of schools and communities and provide education
in a suitable environment.

(c) Highlight the value of diversity. This is to promote inter-cultural

understanding and forge strong cooperation among families, professionals,
students and the community.
(d) Cooperate with family members. They are directly involved in the support
team to improve the education provided.
(e) Promote appropriate assessment.
(f) Provide continuous support and skill development.
(g) Create and collaborate in producing a comprehensive education system.
In addition to these strategies, the educational aspect must be addressed by

balancing the control of behaviour with academic and social learning, and giving
importance to support services. Let us look at both these considerations in the
next section.
5.5.1 Balancing the Control of Behaviour with

Academic and Social Learning
Some observations made regarding the quality of educational programmes for
children with emotional and behavioural disorders are usually disappointing.
This is linked to how the concept of the educational model was applied. The
focus is often given solely to the control of external student behaviour and
academic achievement. Social learning that must be learned by children is often
overlooked and become the second subject (Knitzer, Steinberg & Fleisch, 1990).
Behaviour control strategy is an important part in educational programmes for

children who experience various externalising problems. Without control of
behaviour that is often disturbing, social and academic learning cannot take place
properly. The best teaching strategies can reduce many behavioural problems.
However, the best educational programme is not necessarily able to remove all of
the students' behavioural disorders. Teachers still need to have a good control
strategy. Teachers also need to offer effective instruction in academic and social
skills that enable students to live, learn and work with others (Walker et al.,
1995).

5.5.2 Importance of Support Services

Children and adolescents with emotional and behavioural disorders are said to
have diverse and complex needs. For them, life comes in more than one way. In
addition to having problems in school, these children also have problems at
home and in interacting with their surrounding communities. In addition to their
need for special education, these children require a variety of family-oriented
services, counselling or psychotherapy, community supervision, career training
and so forth. Integration of services provided in a more organised and effective
manner will be able to support and become a continuous effort to help these
children (Edgar & Siegel, 1995).
ACTIVITY 5.3
1. As a member of the community, discuss the support services that can

be provided for children with emotional and behavioural disorders.
2. As a teacher, what would you do if you are asked to educate these

children? State your actions together with the appropriate reasons.
 Emotional and behavioural disorders refer to extreme behaviours that are

different from habits; they are problems that are difficult to handle quickly
and are unpredictable due to social and cultural factors.
 Two dimensions of emotional and behavioural disorders are the external

dimension (externalising) and internal dimension (internalising); the two
main categories of emotional and behavioural disorders are attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and anxiety disorder.
 Four factors that cause emotional and behavioural disorders are biological
factors, family factors, school factors and cultural factors.
 Four criteria to identify these behaviours are intelligence and achievement,

social and emotional achievement, brain injury and schizophrenia and
autism.
 Two considerations from the aspect of education are balancing behavioural

control with academic and social learning, and the importance of support
services.

ADHD External dimension

Anxiety disorder Internal dimension
Autism Schizophrenia
Category Temperament
Emotional and behavioural disorders TouretteÊs syndrome
Allison, M. (1993). Exploring the link between violence and brain injury.
Headlines, 4 (20), 12-17.
Baumeister, A.A., Kuptas, F., & Klindworth, L.M. (1990). New morbidity:
Implications for prevention of childrenÊs disabilities. Exceptionality, 1, 1-16.
Deaton, A.V., & Waaland, P. (1994). Psychosocial effects of acquired brain injury.
In R. C Savage & G. F. Wolcott (Eds.). Educational dimensions of acquired
brain injury (pp. 239-255). Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed.
Dr. Tan, C.K. (1985). Stress and mental health in society. Singapore: Heinemann
Asia.
Edgar, E., & Siegel, S. (1995). Postsecondary scenarios for troubled and troubling
youth. In J. M. Kauffman, J. W. Lloyd, D. P. Hallahan, & T. A. Astuto (Eds.),
Issues in educational placement: students with emotional and behavioural
disorders (pp. 251-283). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Feeney, T.J., & Urbanczyk, B. (1994). Behaviour as communication. In R.C Savage

& G. F. Wolcott (Eds.), Educational dimensions of acquired brain injury (pp.
239-255). Austin, Texas: Pro-Ed.
Fornes, S. R., & Knitzer, J. (1992). A new proposed definition and terminology to
replace „serious emotional disturbances‰ in individuals with disabilities
act. School Psychology Review, 21, 12-20.

Garmezy, N. (1987). Stress, competence, and development: Continuities in the

study of schizophrenic adults, children vulnerable to psychopathology, and
the search for stress-resistant children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
57, 159-174.
Hallahan, D., & Kauffman. (2003). Exceptional children: Introduction to special

Hodgkinson, H.L. (1995). What should we call people? Race, class and the census
for 2000. Phi Delta Kappa, 77, 173-179.
Kauffman, J.M. (1997). Characteristics of emotional and behavioural disorders of

children and youth (6th ed.). New York: Merril/Macmillan.
Knitzer, J., Steinberg, Z., & Fleinsch, F. (1990). At the schoolhouse door: An
examination of programs and policies for children with behavioural and
emotional problems. New York: Bank Street College of Education.
Martin, R.P. (1992). Child temperament effects on special education: Process and
outcomes. Exceptionality, 3, 99-115.
Philip, C.K., & Constance, H. (1998). Abnormal psychology. Understanding

human problems. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Prior, M., & Werr, J.S. (1986). Autism, schizophrenia, and allied disorders. In H.
C. Quay & J. S. Werry (Eds), Psychological disorders of childhood (3rd ed).
New York: John Wiley.
Reitman, D., & Gross, A.M. (1995). Familial determinants. In M. Hersen & R.
Ammerman (Eds.). Advanced abnormal chil psychology (pp. 87-104).
Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrance Erlbaum.
Solomon, H. S., Malcom, H.L. (1988). The Encyclopaedia of psychoactive drugs

(Escape from anxiety & stress). London: Burke Publishing Company
Limited.
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1984). Genesis and evolution of behavioural disorders.
From infancy to early adult life. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1-9.
Walker, H.M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behaviour in school:
Strategies and best practices. Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole.

Topic  Communication
Problems
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the meaning of communication problems;
2. Describe the three theories of communication development;
3. Explain four issues in language problems;
4. Distinguish four variations of communication problems;
5. Discuss four methods of early detection; and
6. Describe the transition of communication.
 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Topic 6 which will focus on communication problems. As we know,
language is an important part of human life. Without language we cannot
communicate with each other. Although there are thousands of languages in use
around the world, the development of language is the same for all humans.
Language is very important. This is because language can symbolise the social
identity of a person in a community. Language can also be used as a tool to
differentiate the educational status of individuals. Similarly, identity can be
shown through spoken language.
This topic will explore language development in the child. Language

development occurs in tandem with the childÊs physical and emotional
development. We will look at the characteristics of this development and
problems faced by children. Among those that will be discussed are the
definition of communication problems, theories of language development, issues
of language problems, variations in communication problems, methods of early
detection and transitions. Happy learning!

88  TOPIC 6 COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS
6.1 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

PROBLEMS
We are aware that speech and language are tools for communication. What is
communication? Communication is a process involving the encoding and
decoding of messages.
Communication involves several components which include a receiver and a

transmitter. In addition, you should be aware that communication does not
necessarily involve language only. Communication can be done in the form of
gestures, facial expressions and so forth. However, when communication is
mentioned, we always associate it with the use of language only. Do you know
the definition of language? Language is the communication of ideas through
meaningful symbols.
What about speech? Speech is the formation of sounds for oral language.
Communication without speech is known as augmentative communication (sign
language).
You have just read some definitions related to language and communication; so
how do we define „communication problem‰?
6.2 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Language is the communication of ideas that uses a particular code or system of
meaningful symbols. Language has rules that we must learn which is considered
learned behaviour; most often acquired in childhood. Children with language
problems are those who have problems acquiring their mother tongue.
6.2.1 The Continuity of Language Development

A proper conversation is the result of mastery of the language. Every person goes
through the same process in the mastery of language. According to linguists,
there are two levels of speech and language mastery i.e. pre-linguistic level (in
infancy) and linguistic level (during childhood and later).
What are the important components of language? There are five important
components of language as described in Table 6.1.

TOPIC 6 COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS  89
Table 6.1: Important Language Components
Important Language Components

Phonology  Sound systems and procedures used in language.
Semantics  Meaning of speech involves vocabulary/lexicon.

 The meaning of the words may be abstract or concrete/literal.
 Example: Proverbs.
Syntax  Rules of word arrangement and how words relate to each other.
 Examples: The subject and object in the sentence; active and passive
sentences.
Morphology  Rules of vocabulary or grammar such as pronouns, verbs, etc.

Pragmatics  Regulation of the language according to different social contexts or
audiences.
 Example: Using different language forms when talking to children
and adults.
Now, let us look at the first communication and the first words in the world of
children.
First Communication
The first communication of the pre-linguistic level consists of two phases (see
Table 6.2).
Table 6.2: Two Phases of First Communication at Pre-Linguistic Level
Phase Description
Crying (6-8 Babies communicate by crying:
weeks)
 Interpretation of a baby crying can lead to a variety of purposes;
 Sometimes a baby cries because of hunger, anger, pain, etc. and
 Interpretation is based on a variety of tone, strength and form of
crying by the baby.
Cooing and  Cooing is a form of vocal expression but is sometimes accompanied

chattering (6-8 by a consonant and is usually caused by sounds generated in the
months) back of the mouth i.e. k and g, such as "kooh" or "gaah".
 Cooing usually occurs when babies are happy.

Did you know there are seven pre-linguistic stages? The seven stages are
Table 6.3: Seven Pre-Linguistic Stages
Stage Description
Crying without  Crying is a reflection of the moment that communicates the
any difference physiological needs of infants such as hunger, thirst, pain,
discomfort, etc.
Crying with  When reaching the age of one month, the difference in pattern
difference can be heard from the babyÊs crying.
 This different crying reflects whether the baby is sick, angry or
sleepy.
Cooing  At this stage, the baby is able to produce sounds using the
consonant „h‰.
 Infants who reach the age of one and a half months will start
producing this sound.
Babbling  The baby will make a recurrent sound like „ma ma ma ....‰, at
the age of three or four months.
Lallation (Non-  The baby will be sensitive to what is happening in the

perfect imitation) surroundings, at the age of six months.
 If there are things that attract his interest, the baby will remain
silent, and when finished, the baby will repeat what has been
heard on his own.
Echolalia  A baby tends to repeat words heard without understanding or

(Imitating knowing what he is saying.
sounds)
Expressive jargon  When the baby is more than one year old, he seems to be able to
use a sentence with intonation.
 However, the sentence does not carry any meaning.

SELF-CHECK 6.1
Fill in the blanks below with the correct pre-linguistic stage.
Stage Description
Infants produces a sound with consonant 'h'.
Babies crying because of hunger, pain, etc
Using sentences as if with intonation without meaning.
Reflection of the moment, communicating physiological

needs.
Repeating the words heard without knowing their meaning
Sensitive to the surroundings
Now, let us look at the first words – the language of early childhoodÊs linguistic
speech level.
This stage is the foundation for linguistic conversational ability. In this stage,
vocal development is to create a conversation in any language. There are three
levels of linguistic conversations as listed in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: Three Levels of Linguistic Conversations
Level Description
Holophrase (Single Babies are able to say the first word at the age of 12 to 20
word sentence) months. According to a study conducted by Rice (1989), the
first words mentioned by the children are the words
associated with food, toys, animals, body parts and people.
However, according to Bloom (1973) most of the childÊs

first words are limited to a specific context. For example, he
found that a nine-month-old baby who would only say
"car" when he saw the car on the road but not in the car
park, in pictures of cars, or when in the car.
However, not all of the words spoken by the child is

understood by him. This is because sometimes they just
imitate the sounds of words. Sometimes a word may carry
many different meanings for a child. What is important at
this time, children are able to understand the speech of
adults, but less able to express the meaning.
Multiword sentences After mastering a few words, children begin to use

different words in communication. For example, when
finished eating, he will say "finish already". This is also
known as telegraphic speech of some words carrying
certain meanings.
Grammatically correct When the child has attained the age of three years or has
conversations mastered a lot of vocabulary, then the child is able to speak
using correct grammar.

6.2.2 Theories of Language Development

Now, let us look at three theories of language development as described in Table
6.5.
Table 6.5: Three Theories of Language Development
Theory Description
Learning Theory According to this theory, children learn to speak as a result of

learning. When the child is able to follow the sounds and the
way adults speak, parents can provide reinforcement for the
child to launch their speech.
Skinner believes that language acquisition is the operant

behaviour of children who were later given positive
reinforcement by parents. Yet most parents sometimes do not
pay attention to grammatical errors, but more focus on the
accuracy of the content and meaning of the spoken sentence.
Nativist Theory Explored by Chomsky (1969, 1980). According to this theory,

the human brain has been programmed naturally to enable
them to speak and understand language just like the ability to
walk.
Chomsky identifies this system as a LAD (Language Acquisition

Device), which depends on the cells in the cerebrum cortex. LAD
is the function that allows the child to analyse the language they
heard and establish the correct grammar.
However, this theory failed to explain the differences in the

abilities and understanding of the learners, and why sometimes
the speaker is an important factor in language learning.
Cognitive and In this theory, the ability of children to speak can be formed by
Social Interaction watching and imitating adult speech. Although imitation
Approach Theory occurs, sometimes it does not influence the child's speech. This
is because there are children who tend to create their own
sentences.
6.3 LANGUAGE PROBLEMS

Let us turn to the problems of language. We will look at them in terms of
classification, assessment and early detection strategies, language problems in
autistic children and delayed development of language.

6.3.1 Classification
Language problems often involve the following:
(a) Problems with forming sentences by combining sounds (phonology).
(b) Vocabulary or grammar problems, such as pronouns and verbs

(morphology).
(c) Problems of word arrangement and words related to one another (syntax).
(d) Speech problems involving vocabulary/lexicon in which the meaning of

the words may be abstract or concrete (semantics).
(e) Problems in using the language according to different social contexts

(pragmatics).
Language problems can occur in cases of mental retardation, language learning

disability, specific language impairment, autism, serious brain injury, language
delay and abuse.
There are five common language problems as described in Table 6.6.
Table 6.6: Five Common Language Problems
Problem Description
Language delay This problem can occur in normal children as well as the mentally
retarded. They can use the language but at a lower level for their
age.
Problems in written There are two forms of language issues in writing:

language
 Expressive (not able to ask questions); and
 Receptive (not able to understand directions).
These children often do not have problems in oral language.
Problems faced by These children do not suffer physical, emotional, behavioural,

children with neurological, physiological, cultural and other problems. They look
learning disabilities the same as other children. The problems can be seen significantly in
reading, writing and arithmetic.
Language impaired These children suffer hearing, vision and neurological disorders.
children due to
physical disability
Language and Children have problems in academic learning. This occurs because
hearing impaired their auditory sensory reception is at a very low level.
children

6.3.2 Early Detection and Assessment Strategy

What are the early detection and assessment strategies of language problems?
There are two strategies that are often used, namely:
(a) Determination: Looking at the language ability of children coinciding with

their developmental age.
(b) Monitoring: Looking at a child's learning rate of new language skills.
According to Wallace, Larsen and Elskin (1992), there are three methods that can
be used to assess language problems (see Table 6.7).
Table 6.7: Three Methods to Assess Language Problems
Method Description
Standard test Rarely used in the intervention programme, but is useful in
comparing the language ability of children in certain parts.
Development scale Monitoring is done on the language development of children

in accordance with their age.
Non-standard test and Look at how children use language in different situations.
behaviour monitoring
This assessment is very important because the language problem is different

among individuals and by age. Therefore, intervention is needed to solve this
problem. Intervention programmes should emphasise content, form and use of
language. Emphasis should also be given to:
(a) What the children are saying and what should be taught about what they
are saying;
(b) How children talk about things and how they can be taught to use language
more effectively; and
(c) How children use language and how to teach them to use the correct
language to communicate and socialise.

Each language problem requires different ways of learning. Intervention needs to

be done in a normal and ordinary environment and fully involve the cooperation
of parents and teachers at the school. Teachers especially need to know how to
track students who experience language problems. Teachers need to see the
differences exhibited by impaired children compared to normal children. They
should be identified and placed in special classes for a more appropriate learning
method.
6.3.3 Language Problems among Autistic Children

Children with autism appear normal but differ in behaviour and growth
patterns. Late discovery of the condition will cause serious delays in the
development of their social and communication skills. Do you remember the
definition of autism?
Autism can be described as a condition where a child likes to be on his own.

Autism affects communication, social interaction, senses, pattern of play and
emotional behaviour of the child.
There are six characteristics of language problems among children with autism,
which are:
(a) Slow language development or none at all;

(b) Rare use of language;
(c) Difficulty in getting them to talk;
(d) Use of language that is not understood;
(e) Likes to pull other peopleÊs hands when asking for something; and
(f) Provides incorrect responses to questions asked.
6.3.4 Delayed Language Development

Children with language development problems are physically the same as
normal children. However, their language skills lag a few months behind. The
differences in language development between normal children and language
impaired children can be seen in Table 6.8.

Table 6.8: Differences in Language Development

for Normal and Language Impaired Children
Language Impaired Children Normal Children

Age (Month) Achievement Example Age (Month) Achievement Example
27 First words Mama, 13 First words Mama,
bye-bye bye-bye
38 50 words in the 17 50 words in the
vocabulary vocabulary
40 Combination of This shirt, 18 Combination of Want
the first two blue ball, the first two more, my
words papa shirt words shirt,
mama ball
48 Advanced Nice shirt, 22 Advanced My cat,
combination of brown combination of drink milk
two words chair, two words
papa car
52 Meaningful 24 Meaningful Papa sleep,
paragraph, paragraph, mama cook
combination of combination of
two words two words and
55 Words have Mama eat, has a function
meaning and cat run
function
63 Meaningful 30 Meaningful Mama is
paragraph, paragraph, sleeping,
combination of combination of sister is
three words three words. The drawing,
words indicate papa wash
66 Words have Mama is the function car
meaning and eating, with the
function with the brother is addition of
addition of running, sentence
sentence brother is connector
connector drawing
73 Meaningful 37 Meaningful
paragraph, paragraph,
four words four words
79 Meaningful Can buy 40 Meaningful Mama, can

paragraph, this book? paragraph, I play?
four words. four words.
Building Building
question based question based
sentence. sentence.

6.4 VARIATIONS OF COMMUNICATION

PROBLEMS
There are four variations of communication problems we need to learn. The four
variations are listed in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1: Four variations of communication problems
Let us review these four problems in the next subtopics.
6.4.1 Speech Problem

Arguably, 70%-80% of children who start school have speech problems. These
problems occur when the sounds produced by children are not well understood
by those who hear them. Sometimes, the speech impairments among children are
caused by defects such as cleft palate, hearing loss, cerebral palsy and dyspraxia.
How can we identify children with speech problems? There are three ways,
which are as follows:
(a) Phonological Problems

(i) Use language that is lower than their age. For example: A child is
eight but uses the language of a six-year-old.

(ii) Use alternative terms that are not understood by the listener.
Example: The word „small‰ becomes „chemall‰.
(iii) Articulation problems i.e. the ability to produce sounds is slow.
(b) No sound comes out when the child tries to speak.
(c) Stuttering
(i) The sound is too soft or too loud;
(ii) Repeating the word before the connecting sentence;
(iii) Extending the sound of words;
(iv) Uses long stop (pause) between the words;
(v) Uses incomplete phrases; and
(vi) Does not finish sentences.
ACTIVITY 6.1
Try to differentiate between stuttering and stammering. Discuss in groups

and specify what can be done to solve the problem of stammering.
6.4.2 Voice Problem

Did you know that voice problems are often associated with the larynx? Voice
problems can occur due to disruptions caused by biological and non-biological
disorders. Among the causes are a tumour of the larynx (nodules, polyps or
cancer tissue), infection of the larynx (laryngitis), nerve damage to the larynx or
bruises and scratches on the larynx.
How do we identify voice problems? Voice problems can be identified by:
(a) Tone of voice that is too soft or too loud;
(b) Sometimes, the voice is coarse;
(c) There is a nasal or buzzing sound even though the child does not have any
other disease;

(d) Irregular sound waves due to nasal problems and rasping; and
(e) Voice echoing caused by the shape of the palate.
During a voice problem test, the pathologist will look at the quality of voice,
echoes, ringing tone and length of tone. If there are problems, the child will be
referred to a specialist for surgery or other treatment.
6.4.3 Articulation Problem

What do children with articulation problems face? They tend to leave out early,
middle and end sounds or the entire word when speaking or reading.
For example, „home‰ becomes "ome" and „before‰ becomes "fore". Sometimes,
the substitution occurs in the words spoken. Example: Bottle - boton. In addition,
there is always the problem of word changing. Example: say - syay, chanting -
syanting.
According to Kneedler (1992), articulation problems are known as baby talk or

lisping. However, severe articulation problems may occur due to three factors:
(a) Dysarthia – Cannot control the muscles due to neurological damage in

people with cerebral palsy;
(b) Facial structural abnormalities – Cleft lip; and
(c) Severe deafness.
6.4.4 Speech Problems Due to Nerve Damage

Finally, let us look at speech problems due to nerve damage. How do these
problem occur? There are two categories of speech problems due to nerve
damage, namely:
(a) Dysarthia
Brain damage leading to failure to control the muscles used in articulation.
(b) Apraxia
Failure to move the muscles involved in speech.

Speech problems due to nerve damage occur because the speech-controlling

nerve cannot function properly. This often occurs due to damage to the part of
brain that controls speech muscles and nerves.
Speaking difficulty occurs because the muscles that control the larynx, pharynx,
tongue, jaw and lips cannot function properly and accurately. Sometimes, speech
problems are also caused by brain damage and cognitive function.
6.5 EARLY DETECTION

Now, let us learn how to detect these problems early. Studies on child language
development indicate that the early years of a childÊs growth is a critical period
in language learning. Most of children's language and social development
depends on the manner and quantity of spoken language and communication
given by parents and guardians.
Parents should focus on encouraging and providing guidance for their child to
explore the new world. Parents should also provide guidance and knowledge
about things and their relationships to each other. Children with language
problems are instead often reprimanded for their reserved attitude. Such
criticism from their caregivers is not only inappropriate for their age but will also
affect their emotions, causing them to dislike interacting with others even more.
Children whose parents are working professionals and concerned about the
welfare of their children tend to speak better language (Hart & Risley, 1995).
Differences in language skills give much effect to the childrenÊs academic
achievements. However, language skills are not related to the income levels and
ethnicity of a person. Differences in skills are often related to how and how much
their parents interact with their children. The more frequent the communication,
the more skilled the children will be in using language.
Early detection should be done during preschool and primary school. Language
is often associated with cognitive processes. Lack of language ability can affect
cognitive processes. Damage to motor and neurological disabilities will result in
the inability to speak. Language development is generally formed during early
interaction between mother and child. Early detection programmes involve a
major parental role. For example, parents can play language games with their
children besides just talking with them. The selection of objects, activities and
words is very important to make learning fun and easy for the children as well as
to increase their vocabulary.

How to make an early detection? Early detection can be made with the four
following methods (refer to Figure 6.2):
Figure 6.2: Methods in early detection
Let us look at the description of the four methods in detail.
(a) Pre-linguistic Detection

Pre-linguistic detection is very important in language development.
Detection should begin before the child's language is formed. The
foundations of language development are based on non-verbal
communication with parents and guardians. In pre-linguistic detection, the
parents may request the assistance of experts in the formation of the childÊs
language.
(b) Behaviour Observations

Detection can also be done through children's behaviour observation.
Attention is given to the behaviour of children during social interaction. For
children who are not proficient, behavioural observations are made on
imitation, play activities, playing objects and identifying the function of an
object. Observations are focused on how children see and take the object
when asked to do something to the object according to the instructions, or
use sounds to indicate acceptance and rejection of the instruction. When the
children already know the language, their behaviours are noted as follows:
(i) How they view the people who interact with them;
(ii) Take turns to speak;
(iii) Follow the viewing directions of adults on an object; and
(iv) Create movements, sounds or words when an adult shows no
reaction.

(c) Language Skills

During preschool age, language skills are an important focus of attention.
In this period, children have to learn how to relate the experience in detail
and explain the things that happen. They also need to know to wait for
their turn to speak, and stay in the topic of conversation or change the topic
of conversation in the right way. Teachers play an important role by
interacting with individuals as much as possible. Storybook reading can be
done and then followed by a small discussion in class.
(d) Peers
Finally, peers also influence the development of language. Language is very
important in social relations, thus peers should be coached on how to
interact with those who have a language problem. Friends can help when
playing together by making eye contact, explaining a game played,
repeating the words and asking for an explanation on what was said by the
language impaired child.
6.6 TRANSITION
Individuals who have language problems need to undergo a transition process in
the development of language. As we learned earlier, there are individuals with
language problems due to health problems and some are caused by a natural
defect. Surgery can be done to improve this situation. However, they must
undergo a transition process that takes time.
During the transition process, the assistance of a pathologist is often required.

Things to do are as follows:
(a) Teaching them simple and functional language (introduction).

Example: Hello, how are you?
(b) Naming of objects and words showing a request.

Example: Can you get me some water?
The important thing during transition is to ensure that ongoing and continuous
training is given from childhood to adulthood. Speech intervention is important,
as it makes those with language problems understand what was presented by
others, and those who are listening can also understand what was spoken by
them. Communication skills need to be developed such as eye contact, turn-
taking, identifying the topic and staying on the topic discussed. Besides that,
reading, writing according to directions, using public transport, and doing the
job also can be instrumental in the transition process.

Early detection should be done by teachers with the help of experts as it is vital to
ensure that individuals with language problems can go through the transition
process more effectively.
ACTIVITY 6.2
If you have students with language problems, what is the first action to
take? What further steps are suitable for the students involved?
 According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)

(1993), communication problem is the failure to receive, transmit, process and
combine the concept of verbal, non verbal and graphic symbol systems.
 Communication problems can be categorised into language problems, speech

problems and the diversity of communication (dialect differences, differences
in the use of sign language).
 Three theories that discuss the development of language are:
 Nativity theory;
 Learning theory; and
 Cognitive and social interaction approach.
 Four issues related to language problems are:
 Classification;
 Assessment and early detection strategies;
 Language problem in autistic children; and
 Delays in language development.
 Four variations of communication problems are:
 Speech problems;
 Voice problems;
 Articulation problems; and
 Speech problems due to nerve damage.
 Early detection can be done by parents, guardians and teachers. Detection can
be seen at the pre-linguistic level, from the behaviour as well as the
communication skills of the children.
 Early detection can be made with the following four methods:
 Pre-linguistic detection;
 Behaviour observation;
 Language skills; and
 Peers.
 The result of this detection is the transition process in which the individual is
given continuous training to communicate more effectively in the community.
Articulation problem Nativity theory

Cooing and chattering Phonology
Holophrase Pragmatics
Learning theory Pre-linguistic
Linguistic speech Semantics
Morphology Syntax
Children with learning disabilities. (1999). Retrieved from http://www.aacap.org
Eggen, P., & Kauchak, D. (1997). Educational psychology windows on classrooms.

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hallahan, D.P., & Kauffman, J.M. (2003). Exceptional children: Introduction to

special education. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Learning disabilities (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.med.umich.edu

Oliver, M. (1990). Understanding disability: From theory to practice. London:

Macmillan.
Rahil Mahyudin, & Habibah Alias. (2006). Psikologi pendidikan untuk

perguruan. Shah Alam, Selangor: Karisma Publication Sdn. Bhd.

Topic  Hearing
7 Impairments
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define hearing impairment;
2. Discuss three types of hearing impairments;
3. Describe the structural anatomy of the ear;
4. Identify two methods for measuring hearing ability;
5. Recognise five root causes of hearing impairments;
6. Describe four criteria of psychological and behavioural problems in
hearing; and
7. Elaborate three educational approaches for hearing impaired
children.
 INTRODUCTION
Hello! Welcome to Topic 7, which explores hearing impairments. You would
agree that each individual is born with privileges and advantages. Most
individuals are born physically perfect but some are not. Notwithstanding the
advantages and disadvantages, every human being has equal rights to education,
freedom of speech and medical services.
For children with disabilities, various terms are assigned to this group. Some are
called „special‰, „exceptional‰ and „handicapped‰. However, the terms given
should not be a barrier to them getting the educational opportunities available
specifically for them.

108  TOPIC 7 HEARING IMPAIRMENTS
In our society, hearing loss is seen as an embarrassment. One reason for the lack
of demand for treatment is because it is not discussed much. One excuse is that it
is a sign of getting old. However, like individuals who have lost their sight, this
is a common health problem worldwide.
So in this topic, you will learn about the definitions and types of hearing
impairments. In addition, the structural anatomy of the ear as well as
psychological and behavioural criteria will also be studied. Finally, you will be
given three approaches in educating these children. Happy reading.
7.1 DEFINITION OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT

What do you understand about hearing impairment? Can you provide the
definition? Hearing impairment is a term used by most world communities to
describe hearing loss either to one or both ears. The two commonly known
hearing losses are, namely:
(a) Hearing Impaired

Loss of all or part of the ability to hear from one or both ears. The level of
hearing loss may be mild, moderate or severe.
(b) Deafness
Loss of all hearing ability in one or both ears.
Hearing impairment is categorised according to the degree of hearing loss. What

is meant by the degree of hearing loss? It refers to the level of hearing loss.
There are five levels of hearing loss that are commonly known as shown in Table
7.1.
Table 7.1: Levels of Hearing Loss
Hearing Loss (Decibel) Degree of Deafness

0dB to 20 dB Normal
20dB to 40dB Light
40dB to 60dB Moderate
60dB to 90dB Severe
Above 90dB Very Severe

TOPIC 7 HEARING IMPAIRMENTS  109
How do we identify deafness? Deafness can be identified through five symptoms

(see Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Five signs of deafness
7.2 TYPES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT

When explaining hearing loss, we look at three things, namely, type, level and
configuration. Hearing loss can be categorised by identifying the damaged
auditory system.
There are three types of hearing impairment, namely:
(a) Conductive;
(b) Sensory neural; and
(c) Mixed hearing loss (conductive and sensory neural).
We will look at all three types of hearing impairment one by one in the next
subtopics.
7.2.1 Conductive
What is conductive hearing loss? Conductive hearing loss occurs in the middle
ear where sound is blocked or obstructed from entering the middle ear.
Typically, this type of hearing loss involves the reduction of sound or the ability
to hear sounds which are not clear. This hearing loss can often be addressed by
treatment or surgery.

There are nine conditions that can cause conductive hearing loss, which are:
(a) Faulty earpiece;

(b) External otitis (ear pus);
(c) The condition of the middle ear;
(d) The failure of the eustachian tube function;
(e) Middle ear infections;
(f) The external auditory canal is not perfect;
(g) Swollen eardrum;
(h) Foreign objects in the external auditory canal; and
(i) Skeletal bone imperfection.
7.2.2 Sensory Neural

Do you know how sensory neural hearing loss occurs? Sensory neural hearing
loss occurs when there is damage to the inner ear (cochlea) or the nerve
connecting the inner ear (retro cochlea) with the brain.
This type of hearing problem is very serious. It cannot be solved by medical

treatment or surgery because this is a permanent hearing loss. This type of
hearing loss involves not only the lack of sound level or the ability to hear sounds
that are not clear, but also affects speech understanding or the ability to hear
spoken sounds.
Do you know what causes this problem? This type of hearing loss may be caused
by the following:
(a) Illness;
(b) Injury at birth;
(c) Genetic/hereditary;
(d) Virus;
(e) Trauma;
(f) Tumours or growths; and
(g) Ageing.

7.2.3 Mixed Hearing Loss (Conductive and Sensory

Neural)
Did you know that sometimes conductive hearing loss comes together with
sensory neural hearing loss? In other words, the patient suffers damage to both
the anatomy of the outer ear and inner ear or auditory nerves. When this occurs,
we refer to it as a mixed hearing loss.
7.3 EAR ANATOMY

You would agree that the ear is a very important part of the body in life. This is a
very important sense which enables proper hearing function. Without this part of
the body, the pleasure of hearing awarded by God may not materialise. Thus, in
appreciation of all the blessings given to us, proper care should be emphasised so
that the hearing that we have is permanently maintained.
The human ear consists of three main sections – outer ear, middle ear and inner
ear (see Figure 7.2). Next, we will look at the functions of each part of the ear,
which affect human hearing.
Figure 7.2: Ear anatomy

Source: http://www.edoctoronline.com
Now, let us discuss the functions and features of the outer, middle and inner ear.
(a) Outer Ear

(i) Consists of the earpiece, ear canal and air space.
(ii) The inner end is covered by the eardrum (tympanic membrane).
(iii) Its length is about one inch.
(iv) Sound waves go through the canal and cause the eardrum to vibrate.
(v) The ear canal functions as a reflector and amplifier of sound waves
(amplifies sound waves/acoustic resonator).
(vi) Pressure from two to four times greater in the eardrum than from the
outside.
(vii) The outer ear allows us to detect the sound which cannot be detected
if the eardrum is located in the outer ear.
(viii) The location of the eardrum is to protect physical damage from being
exposed to hot weather and humidity.
(b) Middle Ear

(i) Contains hearing ossicles which consist of three small bones (malleus,
incus and stapes).
(ii) Connected mechanically between the eardrum and the inner ear.
The cavity is surrounded by the skull.
(iii) Ossicles in the central cavity are connected by ligaments to the cavity
walls.
(iv) The malleus is attached to the eardrum and covers more than half the
area of the eardrum.
(v) Movement or vibration of the eardrum is transferred by the malleus to
the incus which is connected to the stapes.
(vi) Stapes base covers the oval window (the entrance to the inner ear).
(vii) The middle ear is completely closed causing the air pressure
difference inside and outside the ear.
(viii) The eustachian duct located in the middle ear and the mouth cavity
connects the middle ear space with the outside air.

(ix) The difference can be felt when the external air pressure suddenly
changes. For example, when we are climbing, while flying in the plane
or diving into the water.
(x) A small difference in pressure causes us some discomfort. When the
difference is too much, it causes pain or an eardrum rupture or tear.
When we swallow, the eustachian canal normally opens for a while
and helps to balance the pressure.
(c) Inner Ear
(i) Small, hollow and surrounded by the skull.

(ii) The cochlea, shaped like a snail, functions in changing mechanical
vibrations into nerve impulses.
(iii) Divided into two main sections along the canal:
 Part I: Connecting the oval window is the vestibule scale;
 Part II: The part contacting the oval window is the tympanic scale.
(iv) The two parts are filled by a liquid called per lymph (two times
denser than water).
(v) The centre is the cochlea partition between the vestibule scale and
tympanic scale.
(vi) The end of the cochlea is called the epical end. There is an open space
covered with membrane that connects the middle ear.
(vii) The vestibule duct does not play any role in the mechanism of
hearing.
(viii) The semicircular duct controls the balance system of our body.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. By referring to additional reading material, discuss the role of the

middle ear in the function of human hearing.
2. Discuss THREE types of hearing impairment and their causes.

7.4 MEASUREMENTS OF HEARING ABILITY

What are the ways to measure sound? There are two ways, namely:
(a) In terms of strength or decibel level; and

(b) In terms of frequency or tone.
What is the decibel scale? The decibel scale is a logarithm that can rapidly
increase the sound pressure from one level to the next level.
The level of decibels (dB) starts from 0dB as the lowest sound we could hear to
the most powerful sound level, about 150dB.
In a normal perspective, human speech is within 40dB to 60dB. Sound levels

exceeding 80dB have the potential of damaging hearing if prolonged. Frequency
is measured in hertz (Hz). Do you know the meaning of hertz?
Hertz is the frequency wave count of each second of air molecule movement in
the sound wave.
Frequencies associated with human speech range fall within 200Hz to 8000Hz,
although the human ear can detect frequencies from 20Hz to 20000Hz.
To measure the ability of individualsÊ hearing, two common methods are used –
pure tone audiometry and speech audiometry. Let us discuss these further.
7.4.1 Pure Tone Audiometry

First of all, we need to know what is meant by pure tone audiometry. It is carried
out to detect the level of childrenÊs hearing loss.
For children over the age of 30 months, the test can be performed with pure
sound stimulation using earphones. The tool used is the audiometer whereby the
air-conduction test (sound directed into the inner ear) can be carried out. The
scores will be recorded in the audiogram. The test conducted should be
performed in an acoustic room. Ideally, the test should be done several times to
get the validity.

In pure tone audiometry, the symbols used are:
Test through air - O/R = right ear

X = left ear
Test through bone - [< = right ear

]> = left ear
Hearing loss tests taken with audiometer headphones are usually listed in dBHL
(decibels hearing loss).
Audiograms taken in the open state for small children or audiograms wearing
hearing aids are usually recorded in dBSPL (decibels sound pressure level).
7.4.2 Speech Audiometry

Because the ability to detect and understand speech is an important skill, a
technique called speech audiometry was developed to examine the extent to
which an individual can detect and understand speech sounds. Detection of
speech is identified as the lowest level (in dB) when an individual can detect
speech without having to understand it.
What is more important is at which decibel level a person is capable of

understanding speech. This is known as SRT (speech reception threshold). One
way to measure SRT is to show a person a list of two syllable words and to test
both ears separately. The decibel level that the individual can understand a word
is commonly used as an estimate of SRT.
7.5 CAUSES OF HEARING PROBLEMS

Now, let us learn about the causes of hearing impairments. Did you know that
hearing impairments of individuals in the world today are due to various
factors? The anatomy of the ear, which consists of three parts as we have
discussed earlier, are also key members of the body that should be given good
care. This is because there are many factors that can damage our ear anatomy
which would affect our hearing. Among the causes of hearing impairment is
damage in the outer, middle and inner ear, and infections. In addition, there are
other factors that contribute to this problem. Let us look at the causes further.

7.5.1 External Ear Damage

The first cause is damage in the outer ear. You should be aware that although
damage in the outer ear is not very serious compared to the middle ear or inner
ear damage, some damage in the outer ear can also cause hearing problem. For
example, some children who have a physically imperfect ear lobe (Artesia) can be
faced with this problem. In addition, infection of the external ear canal can cause
hearing impairment to children. Tumours or growths also affect hearing.
Are there other causes? Yes. Among other causes for hearing impairment are
bacterial infections, such as an attack on the skin or tissue, acne, sores from
wounds or injuries due to prodding by hard objects such as nails, pins, match
sticks or insect bites. Excessive and hardened wax in the ear canal can also
interfere with the hearing.
7.5.2 Middle Ear Damage

Now, let us look at the second cause of hearing impairment. Did you know that
the abnormality of the middle ear is usually more serious than the damage to the
outer ear? This is because the damage could lead to an individual being classified
as having hearing impairment. Hearing loss caused in the middle ear is usually
from the mechanical action of the ossicles bones. Damage to the middle ear can
be treated through medical treatment or surgery.
A problem commonly encountered in the middle ear is media otitis, an infection

of the middle ear caused by bacteria. This damage is often difficult to detect,
especially in infants because most show no symptoms at early stages (Giebink,
1990). Media otitis is associated with the failure of the eustachian tube to function
in drying and guarding the middle ear from infection.
Media otitis is often suffered by children with Down syndrome or cleft palate
because of eustachian tube defects. Infection in the eustachian canal causes pus
collection in the middle ear cavity, leading to severe pain. Media otitis can lead
an individual to have a temporary conductive hearing loss or if left untreated,
can cause damage to the eardrum.

7.5.3 Inner Ear Damage

Did you know that most of the hearing loss suffered by children is related to the
third cause i.e. the inner ear? Hearing loss that involves damage to the inner ear
will affect the treatment and education of children. Defects in the inner ear can
affect the balance of the body and cause vertigo (dizziness, nausea and vomiting)
as a result of hearing loss. Sometimes, children who have damage to the inner ear
often hear a buzzing noise.
Most cases of deafness in children are hereditary (Schildroth, Rawlings & Allen,
1989). In addition, bacterial infection such as meningitis is the second most
common cause of deafness in children. Oxygen deficiency, rubella and syphilis
are among other factors that can affect children's hearing.
7.5.4 Infections
Ear anatomy infections may be another factor in hearing loss among children.
Infections due to severe colds will cause infections in the eustachian canal that
can affect children's hearing. Mumps, measles and chronic inflammation of the
tonsils also cause severe ear pain. In addition, otosclerosis infection will also lead
to chronic deafness where the stapes bone becomes stiff and unable to move
freely within the oval window in the middle ear.
7.5.5 Other Factors

Finally, let us look at other factors. Among other factors that contribute to
hearing loss are:
(a) Imperfections at birth or congenital malformation;

(b) Children who are born without the pinna or the outer auditory canal;
(c) Hereditary or genetic (individuals who are not deaf but are carriers of a
recessive gene);
(d) Infections (rubella, measles, herpes simplex);
(e) Use of alcohol, drugs and liquor excessively during pregnancy;
(f) Children who have defective auditory canal problems;
(g) Advanced age factors; and
(h) Lack of body weight (premature birth).

SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Describe TWO methods that are commonly used to measure an
individual's hearing ability.
2. State the factors or causes of hearing problems and suggest

measures to overcome the problems of hearing loss.

CRITERIA
Now, let us look at the psychological and behavioural criteria. Did you know that
hearing loss affects the behavioural aspects of children? If you had the option to
either be blind or deaf, which one would you prefer? In general, most of us
would choose to be deaf because we would still have the vision and the ability to
move about. On the other hand, in determining the function of language, a blind
person is more fortunate because a deaf individual has less mastery of the
language because of the inability to hear.
7.6.1 Development of Language and Speech

Some of the problems faced by deaf children or children with hearing
impairment are the understanding of language and its usage. Deaf children often
have difficulty mastering a language than normal children in the community.
The inability to speak is linked to hearing loss. About 75 percent of deaf children
often fail to master a language compared to only 14 percent who have severe
hearing loss who can master it, although not fully.
Children with hearing loss have difficulty in learning to speak because they do
not get the reaction from hearing the sounds they make. They also cannot hear
adult language. Failure to respond is also the main reason for the lack of
language production among deaf children. According to Fry (1966), children who
can hear can develop the motion or response received when they move their
fingers, mouth and tongue, while deaf children are not able to do so. Therefore,
deaf children are unable to repeat the sounds of spoken words or speech.

The language weaknesses experienced by deaf children are as follows:
(a) Difficulty getting meaning from text;

(b) Failure to give accurate responses to information received;
(c) Limited vocabulary;
(d) Errors in syntax;
(e) Difficulty understanding abstract matters;
(f) Often make mistakes in writing assignments;
(g) Take longer to read, understand and receive information; and
(h) Lack of confidence in producing academic assignments.
7.6.2 Intellectual Ability

Most professionals believe that deaf children have limited intellectual capability
due to the lack of speech ability. This belief is based on two reasons, namely:
(a) The assumption that language can be equated with cognitive ability
(Vygotsky, 1962). Vygotsky assumes that early child speech is more internal
and can affect the mind.
(b) The assumption that individuals who cannot speak is as such because the
deaf do not have the language. However, even though they have no spoken
language such as English, they can use the American Sign Language (ASL),
as they are said to be using the correct language with its own grammatical
structure.
The failure of communication with deaf children caused many researchers to

assume that deaf children face deficiencies in their cognitive abilities. Although
deaf children use sign language, the focusing division interferes with their
intellectual development. Implementation of performance tests compared to
verbal tests, particularly in sign language, can help teachers to determine the
intellectual ability (IQ) of deaf children.

7.6.3 Academic Achievement

Many deaf children face deficiencies or weaknesses in academic performance.
The ability to read is the most affected academic skill among deaf children.
Studies have shown that the development of reading achievement among deaf
children is only one-third of normal children. Even after completing the
secondary level, it is not unusual for a deaf youth to only be able to read at the
level of a Year Four pupil.
Some studies have also shown that deaf children with deaf parents perform
better in reading skills than deaf children with parents who are not deaf. This is
due to two factors:
(a) Deaf parents are able to communicate better with deaf children using ASL
as well as provide the support needed by their children.
(b) Deaf children with deaf parents are more proficient in the use of ASL,
which can help the children to learn reading and writing (Lane, 1992).
7.6.4 Social Adaptation

Social and personality development depends on communication. Normal
individuals do not face problems in communicating with others. However, the
deaf have difficulty finding other individuals who may be able to communicate
or chat with them. Studies show that deaf children face the risk of feeling lonely
(Charlson, Strong & Gold, 1992; Loeb & Sarigani, 1986).
Two important factors that are emphasised in order to avoid segregation of deaf
children are the merger and the hearing status of parents of deaf children.

EDUCATION
Appropriate teaching approaches can help deaf children to master what they
have learned. The methods used should be adjusted to the level of the childrenÊs
hearing loss. In addition, the involvement of parents, peers and the community
are needed to support the advancement of the deaf child's learning. There are
three considerations in teaching deaf children, namely, verbal oral-auditory
approach, total communication and lip reading. Let us review these three
considerations further in the next subtopics.

7.7.1 Verbal Oral-Auditory Approach

What is meant by this approach? Verbal auditory approach is a teaching method
for deaf children, using their own hearing to learn spoken language through
hearing aids or cochlea implants.
In this method, the emphasis is on listening to speech sounds (unisensory

stimulation) without reading the movements of the lips. This method is entirely
dependent on the ability to use hearing aids. Teaching is usually carried out in an
acoustic room or in a quiet room. This approach should be taught as early as
possible before other modes of communication such as sign language are used.
This method is more effective with parental involvement in the learning process
of their children.
7.7.2 Total Communication

What about total communication? Let us look at the meaning. Total
communication is an approach used in the education of deaf children.
This method is attractive because it uses the whole language such as signal
movement, sign language, facial expression, speech, lip reading, finger spelling,
reading and writing. In addition, this method should be used as early as possible
so that the child is able to master the language and can communicate with the
community and be able to avoid feeling isolated.
7.7.3 Lip Reading

Last but not least is lip-reading. First of all, let us look at its definition. Lip-
reading is a communication method through the understanding of speech by
following or observing the speakerÊs lips including the understanding or
interpretation of facial muscles and body movements of the speaker.
However, this approach has weaknesses. What are the drawbacks? The weakness
of lip-reading is that attention cannot be given to the quality of sound of the
speech itself such as the high or low speech sound.

Reading lips is very dependent on the sense of sight whereby a bright light is
needed to facilitate convergence towards the face of the speaker. Among the
speech organs involved in lip-reading are the lung, larynx, vocal cords, throat,
nose, jaw and mouth.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. There are several approaches that could be used in the education of

deaf children. Discuss the advantages of these approaches.
2. Explain language development of deaf children from infancy up to

age three by reading additional references. Discuss with a friend at
the next lecture.
 Hearing impairment refers to the total or partial loss of the ability to hear in
one or both ears.
 Three types of hearing impairments are:
 Conductive;
 Neural sensory; and
 Mixed hearing loss (conductive and neural sensory).
 The human ear consists of three main parts, namely the outer ear, middle ear
and inner ear.
 Two methods commonly used to measure hearing ability are pure tone
audiometry and speech audiometry.

 Five causes of hearing impairment are:
 Damage to the outer ear;
 Damage to the middle ear;
 Damage to the inner ear;
 Infections; and
 Other factors.
 The four criteria of psychological and behavioural aspects in hearing

impairment are:
 Development of language and speech;
 Intellectual ability;
 Academic achievement; and
 Social adjustment.
 Three educational approach to children with hearing impairment are:
 Verbal oral-auditory approach;
 Total communication; and
 Lip reading.
Conductive Pure tone audiometry

Deafness Speech audiometry
Hearing impairment Stapes
Incus Total communication
Lip reading Verbal oral-auditory approach
Malleus Vertigo
Neural sensory

Audiology (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.bcm.edu/oto/ studs/aud.html
Deafness and hearing impairment. (2006). Retrieved from http://www.who.int/

mediacentre/factsheet/fs300/en/print.html
Fry, D. B. (1966). The development of a phonological system in the normal and

the deaf child. In F. Smith & G.A Miller. (Eds.), The genesis of language: A
sycholinguistic approach. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Giebink, G.S. (1990). Medical issues in hearing impairment: The otitis media
spectrum. In J. Davis (Ed), Our forgotten children: hard-of-hearing pupils in
schools (pp.49-55) Bethesda, Maryland: Self Help for Hard of Hearing
People.

Heward, W. (2003). Exceptional children: An introduction to special education.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Lane, H. (1992). The mask of benevolence: Disabling the deaf community. New
York: Knopf.
Teaching students with hearing impairments (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

shef.ac.uk/disability/teaching/hearing/3_language.html
Warning signs: Language/communication developmental delay (n.d.). Retrieved

from http://www.disabilitymalaysia.com

Topic  Gifted
8 Children
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the term „gifted children‰;
2. Explain two theories of intelligence;
3. Describe how intelligence is measured;
4. Discuss the physical, psychological and behavioural criteria for gifted
children; and
5. Describe two appropriate education strategies for gifted children.
 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to Topic 8 which explores the concept of giftedness in children. We
know that every individual is born different. Some of us are born with a gift such
as intelligence or a physical disability. Each of these differences needs different
learning methods. There are several theories that explain intelligence. Intelligence
is a good gift, but will require a different way of learning from normal children.
Similarly, for those who have a disability, they too need a different approach.
This topic describes the better known theories of intelligence and how to measure
intelligence. In addition, you will be exposed to the physical, psychological and
behavioural criteria for gifted children. Finally, after knowing the characteristics
of gifted children, you will be able to identify a suitable plan for their education.
They need special teaching methods. These special requirements would depend
on the level of their intelligence. Happy reading!

126  TOPIC 8 GIFTED CHILDREN
8.1 DEFINITION OF GIFTED CHILDREN

Have you heard about gifted children? What does giftedness mean? Gifted
children are children with high potential and abilities in academic pursuits. In
addition, their creative efforts are also unique and impressive.
Did you know that they are often regarded as naughty children? This is because
they often do not pay attention in class. Actually, they do not pay attention
because they have mastered well and quickly what has been taught. This makes
them easily bored because what is taught has been mastered, while other
children still need to be taught.
Gifted children often have more than 130 degrees of intelligence. This gives them
an edge over other children in terms of ability.
Do you know what abilities a gifted child has? These are:
(a) An extensive vocabulary compared with their peers. Often use meaningful
terms; making smooth, matured statements and descriptions.
(b) Like perfection. Not easily satisfied, they like to evaluate incidents and
other individuals.
(c) A high sense of curiosity, frequently asking questions.
(d) Self confident and have good leadership characteristics.
(e) Ability to act logically.
(f) Has high thinking skills.
(g) Good social interactions.
(h) Quick to learn through experience and adapt to the environment.
(i) Can solve problems more systematically.

TOPIC 8 GIFTED CHILDREN  127
8.2 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

Now, let us look at the theories of intelligence. There are two theories of
intelligence often used as a reference. These theories can help parents and
teachers identify the problems faced by their children. After the childrenÊs level
of intelligence has been identified, the appropriate method of learning can be
determined. Let us learn the theories of intelligence further.
8.2.1 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

The first theory is GardnerÊs Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Let us look at this
theory in terms of its background, definition, principles and types.
(a) Background
This theory was introduced by Howard Gardner in 1983. This theory states
that humans have at least eight intelligences. What are the eight
intelligences? These include a variety of skills, talents and abilities. GardnerÊs
eight types of intelligences can be seen in Figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1: Eight types of GardnerÊs intelligences
Gardner stressed that all the intelligences are not dependent on each other.
There are individuals who are smart in mathematics but not in terms of
music. Everyone has different levels of each type of intelligence.

Intelligence is not necessarily inherited. If parents have a low IQ, it does not
necessarily mean their children are stupid. Intelligence is related to the
brain. The development of intelligence varies according to age and gender.
(b) Definitions
How does Howard Gardner define the Theory of Multiple Intelligences?
See Figure 8.2 for his definition.
Figure 8.2: GardnerÊs definition on the Theory of Multiple Intelligences
(c) Principles
What are the principles of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences? There are
eight principles of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences:
(i) All individuals have multiple intelligences.

(ii) Each intelligence has a unique mix and is ever-changing.
(iii) The intelligence of an individual varies with other individuals based
on their development.
(iv) All intelligences are dynamic.
(v) Multiple intelligences can be identified and specified.
(vi) Every individual has the ability to develop all of his intelligences.
(vii) An intelligence can be used to develop other intelligences.
(viii) OneÊs background is an important factor to develop the knowledge,
confidence and skills in all intelligences.
Did you know that the left and right brain have different functions? See
Figure 8.3 for the functions of the right and left brain.
Figure 8.3: Functions of the right and left brain

Source: http://www.elanguages.org/20439
(d) Eight Types of Intelligences

You have already learned that there are eight types of intelligences in the
Multiple Intelligences Theory. Let us look at the description of each type of
intelligence in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1: Eight Types of Intelligences in the Multiple Intelligences Theory
Types of
Description
Intelligence
Verbal-  Ability to use words effectively, both orally and in writing.
linguistic  Easy use of language to express feelings and opinions.
 Communicates effectively through listening, reading, writing, speaking
and linking.
 Remembers information easily and has the ability to stimulate the
emotions.
 The most effective learning methods: oral teaching and explanations.
 Verbal-Linguistic Individuals: poet, reporter, writer, speaker, lawyer,
presenter and politician.
Mathematical-  Ability to analyse deductively and inductively as well as conceptual and

logical abstract thinking.
 Combining mathematical and scientific abilities.
 Easily resolve complex problems related to mathematics.
 Can relate, ask questions, analyse, compute, synthesise, and use the
computer efficiently.
 The most effective methods of learning: problem solving, discovery,
inquiry and cooperative learning.
 Mathematical logic individuals: mathematicians, engineers, researchers,
physicians and computer programmers.
Visual-spatial  Ability to present visual-spatial ideas graphically.

 Trace and describe space, form, colour and line.
 Ability in art and the creative use of colour, read maps and a powerful
memory.
 The most effective learning methods: demonstrations, videos and
diagrams and can contribute to the group project through charts and
diagrams.
 Visual-space individuals: artists, sailors, engineers, surgeons, architects,
sculptors and graphic designers.
Bodily-  Ability to use the body to express ideas, feelings and solve problems.
Kinesthetic
 Efficient manipulation of physical objects and balancing mental and
physical movement.
 Likes physical activities such as dancing, playing, sports and efficient
use of motor skills.
 The most effective methods of learning: simulations, games, role play
and model building.
 Kinesthetic individuals: actor, dancer, mechanics, athletes and race car
driver.

Musical-  The ability to detect non verbal sounds, music and rhythm in the
Rhythmic environment.
 Sensitive to noise.
 The ability to detect the rhythm, tone and melody.
 Skilled in identifying songs and changing the tempo and rhythm in
simple melodies.
 The most effective ways to learn: verbal instruction, activities such as
dance, gymnastics, and background music.
 Music individuals: singer, composer, music conductor, musician and
composer.
Interpersonal  Ability to motivate, understand the feelings, traits and intent of others.
 Able to interact easily and work together in groups.
 Recognise and sensitive to the mood of others.
 Skilled in reading hidden desires.
 Most effective ways to learn: cooperative learning and peer groups,
participation in class discussions.
 Interpersonal individuals: religious and political leaders, teachers,
lecturers, salespeople, counsellors, doctors, nurses and social workers.
Intrapersonal  Ability to understand themselves and know their own strengths and
weaknesses.
 Independent and self confident.
 Understand the feelings of others and have a high degree of
concentration.
 The most effective ways to learn: love to learn independently and able
to make a good journal reports.
 Intrapersonal individuals: novelist, psychologist and philosopher.
Naturalist  Ability to identify and classify the flora, fauna minerals with ease.
 Able to link between the plant and animal kingdom.
 The most effective ways to learn: through activities outside the
classroom.
 Naturalist individuals: the biologist, zoologist, farmers, veterinarians,
and environmental activists.Dictionary - View detailed dictionary

8.2.2 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Now let us look at Sternberg's Triarchic Theory from its background and structure.
(a) Background
Robert Sternberg (see Figure 8.4) is a psychologist from Yale University. He
was born in 1949. According to him, intelligence is linked with the processing
of information. He made a study of the flow of information into individuals
and how they change with the needs of the individuals concerned.
Figure 8.4: Robert Sternberg
SternbergÊs theory is known as Theory of Three Branches of Intelligence

(Triarchic Theory). What are the three branches? The three branches are the
component, experience and context (see Figure 8.5).
Figure 8.5: SternbergÊs Triarchic Theory

He stated that an individual does not necessarily have only one intelligence.
There are individuals who have all three integrated branches of intelligence.
When someone has all three branches of intelligence, the individual has a
high level of intelligence.
(b) Structure of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Now let us look at the description of the three branches of this theory
further in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Three Branches of SternbergÊs Triarchic Theory
Branch Description
Componential  Ability to analyse.
intelligence
 Good in academics.
 The combination of:
 Metacomponent – control and evaluate the cognitive process.
 Implementation component – store data in a short-term
memory, computation and data recalls from long-term memory.
 Knowledge acquisition component – the process of obtaining
and storing new knowledge.
Experiential  Can explain meaning creatively.

intelligence
 Ability to cope with new situations and learn from the experience.
 How individuals relate the internal world to the external world of
reality.
 Using creativity, and changing it to effective use in new situations.
Contextual  Ability to adapt themselves in any situation.

intelligence
 Good at manipulating the situation for personal needs.
 Understand and interact well with the daily routine.
8.2.3 Measuring Intelligence

How do we measure intelligence? There are many ways to measure intelligence.
Among the methods used have been introduced by Sir Francis Galton and Alfred
Binet (see Figure 8.6). Sir Francis Galton carried out testing through a variety of
psychophysical work. Sir Francis Galton believed psychophysical ability is the
basis of intelligence.

Figure 8.6: Sir Francis Galton and Alfred Binet

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org
Alfred Binet believed intelligence should be measured through assessment of

skills such as problem solving, evaluation, comprehension and reasoning. Did
you know that the test method performed by Binet is a very famous test? It is the
IQ Test. You have certainly heard about it, havenÊt you? In this method, Binet
used the concept of „age of intelligence‰. It is a test in which the average child
should pass a number of test items.
Here is the formula used to measure intelligence.
IA
DI = ï 100
AA
Where:
DI = Degree of Intelligence
IA = Intelligence Age
AA = Actual Age
Let us see an example of how to use this formula.
Examples of calculation:
Children aged seven years, but has 10 years of intelligence age will have:
10
DI = ï 100 or 1.4  100 = 140
7

Children aged seven years, but has six years of intelligence age will have:
6
DI = ï 100 or 0.9  100 = 90
7
Average DI for each age group is 100. Therefore, a child aged seven years who
has seven years of intelligence age will have:
7
DI = ï 100 = 100
7
In conclusion, children who have a degree of intelligence of 100 indicate that the
children have a moderate progress.
However, most IQ tests today determine intelligence based on the statistics

distribution. According to these statistics distributions, an estimated 95% of the
population have an IQ of between 70 and 130 (see Figure 8.7).
Figure 8.7: IQ Distribution

Source: http://library.thinkquest.org
According to this IQ distribution curve, an IQ above 130 is considered as smart

and talented. IQ of 70-84 is classified as approaching the border of intellectual
retardation (also known as mental retardation). IQ of 55-69 is minimal
intellectual retardation. IQ of 40-54 is a person with moderate intellectual
retardation, while an IQ of 25-39 is a person with severe retardation.

ACTIVITY 8.1
1. State the difference between GardnerÊs Theory of Intelligence with

Sternberg's Theory of Intelligence.
2. If a child is five years old but has a seven years intelligence age,
what is the IQ score?
8.3 PHYSICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND

BEHAVIOURAL CRITERIA
Did you know that smart and talented children are those who show high
potential in terms of intellect, creativity, artistic ability, or leadership? Gifted
children need learning activities that are different from the ones commonly used
to develop the abilities they have. Physical development of gifted children are the
same as other normal children. What distinguishes them is the development of
psychology and behaviour. Gifted children are seen as more mature than their
real age.
8.3.1 Who are Gifted Children?

Do you know how to identify gifted children? These children can be identified
as:
(a) Usually consists of those who obtained an IQ test score above 130.
(b) Study at a rapid pace.
(c) Processing materials in greater depth.
(d) Have the energy, imagination, intellectual courage, sensitivity and emotion
that are higher than the normal population.

8.3.2 Learning Characteristics of Gifted Children

Now, let us look at what are the learning characteristics of a gifted child. There
are five learning characteristics of a gifted child:
(a) Has the ability to assess.

(b) Likes reading a book or magazine written for an older person.
(c) Likes intellectual activity.
(d) Has a lot of information that can be used spontaneously.
(e) Likes to ask questions and seek information on his own initiative.
8.3.3 Creative Characteristics of Gifted Children

What about the creative characteristics of gifted children? Gifted children have
five creative characteristics, namely:
(a) Ability to use various means to solve problems.

(b) Can see the relationship between objects, ideas and facts differently.
(c) Likes to fantasise and think.
(d) Likes to solve complex problems.
(e) Curiosity about objects, ideas, situations and events.
8.3.4 Levels of Gifted Children

Did you know that the level of intelligence and talent can be measured by IQ
tests? There are five levels in identifying the intelligence and talent of children as
Table 8.3: Five Levels of Giftedness
Level IQ Range Prevalence

Mildly (or basically) gifted 115 - 129 1:6 - 1:44
Moderately gifted 130 - 144 1:44 - 1:1,000
Highly gifted 145 - 159 1:1,000 - 1:10,000
Exceptionally gifted 160 - 179 1:10,000 - 1:1 million
Profoundly gifted 180+ Fewer than 1:1 million

8.3.5 Ten Steps in Expanding the Capability of Gifted

Children
You have been able to identify children who are gifted, their characteristics and
the level of their intelligence. Now, how to expand their capabilities? There are 10
steps that can be taken to expand the capability of gifted children as follows:
(a) Provide many ways or options to understand what is being taught.

Example: When learning about the country, use many ways such as
brochures, maps, posters and so on.
(b) Encourage students to meet learning goals with self-access strategy.
(c) Use a different method than the ordinary. Exploratory learning is suitable
for them. Always ask the question "where can you find the information?",
"how do you know?"
(d) Find out what they know. Find other information that they do not know.
(e) If the child has understood the concepts, proceed to the next stage of
learning. Give a reward for what they know.
(f) Provide challenging activities more frequently.
(g) Build their interest. Provide information that may attract interest in
learning a particular topic.
(h) Provide opportunities for gifted and talented children to work with those in
the same intellectual level.
(i) Avoid practices, drills and note-copying activities. This will lead to
boredom and create unexpected behaviours.
(j) Use project-based learning methods as often as possible.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
What are the effective ways teachers can use to teach gifted and talented
children to expand their abilities?

8.4 POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EDUCATION

We realise that the education given to gifted children should be different from
normal children. This is because they have a different level of thinking. Thus,
even though they look normal like everyone else, they are far different in their
cognitive abilities.
There are three characteristics that should be considered for gifted children,
namely:
(a) The curriculum must meet their cognitive skills development;

(b) Use a strategy of self-accessed learning and a variety of activities; and
(c) Identify students who should be categorised in the same gifted group.
In general, there are two specific plans for gifted children:
(a) Enrichment
Providing different experiences and learning together with other peers
(without putting them into a higher level).
(b) Acceleration
Placing students in a class higher than their peers (in one or more subjects).
However, the separation of gifted students from their peers creates a lot of
controversy. Some educationists say that the placement of gifted children in a
higher class will have a negative impact on the normal children in the same class.
They will think that they are not intelligent and this will reduce their self
confidence. Meanwhile, usage of a different curriculum does not necessarily meet
all the learning needs of gifted children. This is because gifted children have
different skills and intelligence.
Sternberg suggested the identification of gifted children through three aspects;

analytical, synthetic and practical. If a child has the intelligence of all three levels,
a different curriculum can be used in the learning process. The uses of
technological advances in educating gifted children are also very important.
Teachers can use the television, computer, e-mail and video conferencing to
interact with these children.
Next, let us look at the two ways mentioned in more detail.

8.4.1 Enrichment
Olenchak & Ranzulli (1989) used an enrichment model based on the studentÊs
capabilities, creativity and commitment to the task. According to this model,
students are grouped according to their intelligence and then given a task that
has enrichment activities. The work can be for individuals or groups. This task
requires the solving of actual problems in life. They can become lawyers,
politicians, geologists and others. What about your role as a teacher?
You as a teacher can create a learning experience conducive for your students by:
(a) Getting them to identify problems and to try to find solutions for them.
(b) Providing the tools or methods that can be used in solving the problems.
(c) Students can present their findings to the audience.
This model is known as the school wide enrichment model (Olenchak & Ranzulli,
1989). Through this model students are evaluated in stages (see Table 8.4):
Table 8.4: Stages of Evaluation
Stage Description
First stage The ability to explore new information is assessed.
Second stage How new information is used in a group activity.
Third stage The application of information on real problems, either individually or

in groups.
For your information, the identification of gifted children is often more toward
the first and second stages.
8.4.2 Acceleration
Acceleration involves placing students ahead of their peers in an advanced class
as part of the curriculum. This means that students will jump two or more stages,
or study together with older students for certain subjects.
However, there are some disadvantages in the acceleration programme. Among

them are:
(a) Students may not be able to adapt themselves to social interaction with
peers who are older.

(b) Students become more mature than their age.

(c) Special curriculum for gifted children available in special schools only or in
classes with students older than them.
(d) Facing pressure from older peers because of their intelligence.
It must be reminded that acceleration is a good programme but it requires special

attention in terms of individual intelligence and the appropriate curriculum.
8.4.3 Teachers of Gifted Children

As a teacher, you might realise that educating gifted children is a challenging
one. Their capabilities need intelligent, creative and motivated teachers. Teachers
have to be smart to nurture and bring out the creativity in a gifted child with a
creative way of teaching. Teachers also need to be sensitive to the ability of the
students. Their intelligence and capabilities improve every day, so teachers need
to know the latest capabilities of their students. This identification can be done
through communication, monitoring, test scores and interviewing students and
parents.
In conclusion, the teachers who teach gifted children must also have features in
common with the child. Whitlock and DuCette (1989) state five characteristics
that should be in the teachers who teach gifted children as shown in Figure 8.8.
Figure 8.8: Five characteristics of teachers for gifted children

8.5 EARLY DETECTION

Detection should be done in advance so that identification can be carried out.
Detection may be performed as early as when the child is in Year Three or Four.
This would allow parents and teachers to be given guidelines for teaching and
interacting with gifted children. However, the school system does not provide a
special curriculum for these children. In addition the school system does not
accept the entry of children under pre-school age to attend lessons.
However, these children can attend lessons through enrichment and acceleration.
They should be given the freedom to learn in a higher class in accordance with
existing abilities. They can follow the regular school system to enter school at the
age of seven years. Then they can follow the acceleration programme. Sometimes
the intelligence of these children raises some issues. Problems can arise in terms
of social and emotional skills as their language and cognitive development are
more advanced than their peers. They need guidance and proper instruction for
their intelligence and skills to be used in social interaction.
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. What early intervention can be done for gifted children?
2. As a teacher, how do you generate creativity in a gifted child?
 Gifted children are those who have high potential and abilities in the
academic field. In addition, their work is also unique, creative and amazing.
 Gifted and talented children need learning activities that are different from
normal children.
 GardnerÊs and Sternberg's theories are often used to describe intelligence.
 Intelligence can be measured by intelligence tests.
 Gifted children have a distinctive attitude towards learning and tend to be

creative people. They can be classified into five levels.

 Gifted children can learn in two ways i.e. enrichment and acceleration:
 Enrichment is to provide educational content that are consistent with

their capabilities and intelligence.
 Acceleration is placing the child in a class along with normal children in

the higher level class (e.g.: the age of seven years, but placed in Year 2).
 Early intervention needs to be done on gifted children so that proper steps

can be taken for the purpose of their educational development.
Acceleration GardnerÊs theory

Actual age Gifted children
Component intelligence Intelligence age
Context intelligence IQ distribution
Enrichment Level of intelligence
Experience intelligence SternbergÊs triarchic theory
A 10 step inclusional model: Giftedness (n.d.). Retrieved from http://specialed.

about.com/od/giftedness/a/giftedstep.htm
Children with learning disabilities (May, 1999). Retrieved from http://www.

aacap.org

Hasan Mohd. Ali. (2006). Anak kita memang pintar cerdas. Batu Caves, Selangor:
PTS Publications & Distributions Sdn. Bhd.
Kecerdasan pelbagai. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://myschoolnet.ppk.kpm.my/

pNp/multiple/kenal.htm
Measuring intelligence. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://library. thinkquest.org

Rahil Mahyudin, & Habibah Alias. (2007). Psikologi pendidikan untuk

Recognizing the characteristic of gifted children. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.ri.net/gifted_talented/character.html
Teori Triachic Sternberg. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://psikologi.vox.com/

libralry/post/teori-triachic-sternberg.html

Topic  Self, Gender
9 and Moral
Development
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the development of self-concept;
2. Explain changes in self esteem;
3. Distinguish the four theories of gender role development;
4. Discuss the development of gender roles in infants, children and
adolescents;
5. Analyse the influence of family and peers; and
6. Describe moral development in terms of reasoning, the role of
emotions and moral behaviour.
 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this new topic. What awaits you in Topic 9? You certainly know that
gender, morals and self development play an important role in life. Positive
developments will make us successful. These will make us feel confident and
happy as well as live more vibrantly. There are many influences that are involved
in this development. The influence of family and peers is the most powerful. This
is because these are the two influences that we always use as a guide to self
development.
This topic will describe self development and self esteem. It also deals with the
theories of gender role development and its influence. Finally, we will look into
the moral development of the individual in terms of reasoning, the role of
emotions and moral behaviour. Happy learning!

146  TOPIC 9 SELF, GENDER AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
9.1 SELF DEVELOPMENT

Along with age, our brains will also be developing. The development of age and
brain often makes us wonder about ourselves. Often children will ask their parents
about themselves, their origin, personal relationship with the environment and so
forth. All of this will haunt us until we understand and find out ourselves. Let us
look at the development of self concept in the next section.
9.1.1 Development of Self Concept

What is meant by self concept? Self concept is how a person thinks about himself.
It is subjective because it is a combination of the conscious and the subconscious,
attitude and perception. Self concept has a direct effect on self esteem.
(a) Self Theories

Do you know the famous self theories? There are two popular self theories,
namely, the Cognitive-Development Approach and the Learning/
Environment Theory. Let us look at both these theories in greater depth.
(i) Cognitive-Development Approach

Robert Selman (1980) is a psychologist who popularised this approach.
He has conducted research by providing a story about characters who
are facing a dilemma. Children will be asked how they feel about the
main character and how to solve the dilemmas faced. Through this
study, Selman has identified five levels of self knowledge (refer to Table
9.1).
Table 9.1: Five Levels of Self Knowledge
Level Description
Level 0 (Baby) Understand the physical existence but does not know about the
existence of psychology.
Level 1 (Early Can isolate cognition from behaviour. Belief that feelings and
childhood) thoughts can be seen from the behaviour and appearance of a
person.
Level 2 (Middle Understand that behaviour is different from the mind of a person.
childhood)
Level 3 (Pre- Self knowledge is a stable component of personality.
adolescent)
Level 4 Self knowledge sometimes cannot be fully understood because
(Adolescent) personality is formed at the subconscious level.

TOPIC 9 SELF, GENDER AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT  147
(ii) Theory of Learning/Environment

The second theory is the Theory of Learning/Environment. This
theory is based on the notion that children do not know what happens
to them physically and environmentally. Thus, the role of parents is
very important in building self concept. Parents will give instructions
and restrictions to children. Instructions given when mixed with the
experience of trial and error will result in the childÊs self effectiveness
level.
There are two factors that can promote effective self effectiveness as
Table 9.2: Two Factors that Promote Self Effectiveness
Factor Description
Modelling  Children will make something as a model. This model will be the
basis of measuring whether the children can do it themselves or not.
 Example: Looking at other children climb trees. If the model is

successful, then the child thinks he can succeed too.
Internal  Reactions to emotions such as pain, sweating and depression.

body Children are able to identify emotional stimuli such as anxiety,
reactions doubt, fear and others.
(b) Self System

Now, let us look at the self system. The self system can be divided into
three components (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Three components of self system

What about the development of self concept? See descriptions in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3: Development of Self Concept
Level (Year) Characteristics

0 -1  Consistently builds trust;
 Starts interacting with the environment; and
 Can differentiate own self with the environment.
1-3  Knows to differentiate what is liked and what is not;

 Action and thinking skills increased;
 Already able to appreciate personal appearance and its functions;
and
 Builds self through imitating and interacting with a model.
3-6  Initiative;
 Knows the gender difference;
 Increased self awareness;
 Improvement in language skills; can differentiate feelings; and
 Sensitive to the feedback of family members.
6-12  Incorporates feedback from teachers and friends;

 Increased self esteem by mastering new skills (reading,
mathematics, sports and music);
 Sexual identity strengthened; and
 Sensitive to own strengths and weaknesses.
12-20  Accepts physical changes/matures;

 Assesses attitudes, values and beliefs;
 Determines future goals;
 Positive on self development; and
 Interacts with people who attract their attention.
Mid 20s - mid  Has close ties with family and certain individuals;
40s  Positive and stable feelings of own self; and
 Increased sense of responsibility.
Mid 40s - mid  Accepting change of appearance and physical endurance; and
60s  Comfortable with increasing age.
Late 60s  Positive with the meaning of life; and

 Interested to leave a legacy to future generations.

SELF-CHECK 9.1
In your opinion, at what age does the child acquire self knowledge, self
assessment and self regulation?
Next, we will look at the pressures that can affect self concept.
(c) Pressure Affecting the Self Concept

What do you understand about pressure of self concept? The pressure of
self concept refers to the things that happen in reality or the change of
perception that threatens identity, self image and role behaviour.
What are the aspects involved in these changes? The aspects involved in
these changes are physical, spiritual, emotional, sexual, family and socio-
cultural. All of these six aspects can affect self concept. If one can accept the
stress, this will result in a positive sense of self and vice versa. Do you
know how many types of stress there are? There are two types of pressure
i.e. identity pressure and self-image pressure. Let us look deeper at these
two pressures in the next section.
(i) Identity Pressure

You would agree that the strongest identity pressure is experienced
during adolescence. This is because at this time a lot of big changes
happen to the individual physically and mentally. During this period
we also try to accept the changes that occur physically, mentally and
emotionally as we mature. Teenagers at this time try to develop
psychosocial competencies and imitate strategies used by adults.
The identity crisis is one factor that contributes to the identity

pressure. It occurs because individuals cannot distinguish between
themselves and others. When this occurs a person will not feel
confident and this results in a negative self concept.
(ii) Self Image Pressure

Self image pressure is associated with the appearance, structure and
function of the body. Changes that occur in the appearance, structure
and function of the body require a positive acceptance. When there
are changes that alter the self appearance, we will feel inferior and
inadequate. This feeling will make us uncomfortable when interacting
with others.
Our inability to accept our self image will affect the development of
our self concept. Thus, it is important for us to accept ourselves as we
are so that our self concept can develop better.
9.1.2 Changes in Self Esteem

Let us also learn about changes in self esteem. Self esteem is a concept that has
long existed in the field of psychology. Self esteem was first introduced by
William James in 1890 involving the perception of self quality of an individual.
(a) Definitions
What do you understand about self esteem? Let us look at two well-known
definitions of self esteem.
Maurice Resenberg (1960) states that self esteem is a stable sense of self-
values or qualifications. Self-esteem can be measured by self-report
tests.
This definition is used by many researchers. However, this definition

becomes inaccurate when dealing with issues of narcissism and inaccurate
information (lying on the self report). We look next at the second definition
by Branden.
Nathaniel Branden (1969) defines self esteem as an efficiency experience

in meeting the challenges of life and is eligible to be feeling happy with
the efficiency.
Changes in self esteem happen to each individual throughout life.

However, fluctuating changes to self esteem often happen to teenagers aged
between 12 and 14 years. Arguably, if we have high self esteem in
childhood, then we will also have high self esteem during adolescence.
Sometimes the self esteem increases in tandem with the increase in age.
There is no doubt there are individuals who have high self esteem and
those who have low self esteem. People who have low self esteem are
always thinking about what they should do to assess themselves. Usually
they are still not satisfied, even if they have a good performance.
Meanwhile, individuals who have high self esteem accept the situation as it
is. They can balance their strengths and weaknesses and at the same time
feel they deserve to receive the results based on the action taken.
How do we build children's self esteem? Let us look at the following

explanation.

(b) Building ChildrenÊs Self Esteem

Self esteem expands rapidly at childhood. A positive approach will lead to
healthy self esteem and a negative approach will result in low self esteem.
As parents, we must know how to build a healthy self esteem within our
children. Table 9.4 explains the difference between healthy and low self
esteem.
Table 9.4: Differences between Healthy and Low Self Esteem
Self Esteem Characteristics
 Often praised;
 What he says is heard;
 Given respect;
 Given attention and often hugged;
 Successful in sports or academic fields; and
Healthy
 Have friends who can be trusted.
 Often being criticised;

 Often being scolded or hit;
 Being neglected, bullied or disturbed;
 Always hopes to be perfect; and
Low  Fails in sports or academic fields.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Go online and find THREE steps that can be used to develop good self
esteem. Discuss your answers in the online discussion forum.
(c) Improving ChildrenÊs Self Esteem

Children's self esteem can be enhanced from time to time. Parents are
important agents in ensuring children's self esteem is at a good level. There
are five steps that can be done to improve children's self esteem (see Table
9.5).

Table 9.5: Five Steps to Enhance Children's Self Esteem
Step Description
Appreciation Self esteem will be reduced if the children feel they are not
appreciated. Show your appreciation all the time. Praise them
when doing something good. Children love to be praised, so they
feel confident when something they do get compliments.
Encouragement Encouragement will put self esteem at a favourable level.

Encourage children to make their own decisions, as this will create
a feeling of confidence and independence.
Praise Praise good behaviour. This will cause the child to know between
good and bad. Compliments also can make children want to try
their best.
Mutual respect Respect the children as how we want to be respected. Give an

explanation for everything that happened. Treat them like adults.
Children who are often belittled will not be confident in
themselves. Mutual respect will create trust and confidence.
Accept failure Explain to children that failure is the root of success. Never say
they have failed. Instead say "Try again". Make yourself as a
mentor and help children believe in their ability even if it takes a
long time.
Did you know that young girls have a higher self esteem than boys? This is
because young girls are often concerned with their appearance. This issue is what
always makes their self esteem change. They are worried whether or not they
will be liked by their peers.
Academic achievement is also taken seriously by young women. Academic

performance became a yardstick to gauge their success and in boosting self
esteem. In addition, social class is also a self-esteem determinant. On average,
young women from middle class have high self esteem. Perhaps success in the
academic field makes them more confident and increases their self esteem.
9.2 GENDER-ROLES DEVELOPMENT

This subtopic will further explain gender-role development. It will look into
gender roles in development theories, gender-role development and finally,
family and peer influence.

9.2.1 Gender-Role Development Theories

Often we wonder why there are differences between girls and boys. They differ
in terms of thinking, behaviour and development. This indicates the existence of
gender-role. What do you understand about gender-role?
Gender-role is an external show of masculinity or femininity in social

surroundings. Gender-role also refers to how we behave and think as a man or a
woman.
Do you know what are the theories related to gender roles? There are four
theories that can be associated with gender roles, as shown in Figure 9.2:
Figure 9.2: Theories associated with gender roles
Let us look at these four theories in greater depth.
(a) Biological Theory

What does this theory say? This theory states that the genetic and biological
process affects gender-role development. This genetic and biological
process creates physical, social behaviour, brain function, chromosomal and
hormonal differences. There are also psychologists who say that the
combination of chromosomes controls gender development i.e. the merging
of chromosomes X and Y.
If female foetuses are influenced too much by the androgenic hormone

(male) during pregnancy, most likely they will become stronger and more
assertive. Similarly, if male foetuses are more exposed to the estrogen
hormone and progesterone during pregnancy, they may become less
assertive and less physically active.

(b) Psychoanalysis Theory

What is the main focus of the psychoanalysis theory? The psychoanalysis
theory connects individual needs with the environment.
Humans are born with natural instincts. Therefore, people need to take into
account community values and norms in fulfilling their instinct. The
development of gender roles involves an unconscious process that occurs
when biological differences interact with the processes of identification
experienced by men and women.
Childhood is the most important stage in determining the personality and

gender-role of a person. This stage occurs between the ages of two and
seven years. At this point, children will develop an instinctive love for their
parents. Often boys will be more attracted to the mother, and girls to the
father. At this stage, children face a conflict because this love is identified
with the mother or father who is of the same gender. In this show of love,
boys will emulate their father's behaviour. Therefore, fathers need to
demonstrate manly attributes to their sons. If the fathers do not show a
strong manly model, are seldom at home and are less dominant, then, the
sons will have weakened male attributes. This process is known as the
Oedipus complex.
For girls, they tend to follow the behaviour of their mother in showing love
to their father. If the mother fails to show her feminine role, then, girls will
also fail to perform the feminine role. For girls, this process is known as the
Electra complex. Both Oedipus and Electra complexes occur at the
subconscious level and are influenced by many things such as parents,
school, media, peers and so on.
According to Freud, pre-school age is a critical stage in determining gender-

role development. According to him, men are more likely to adopt gender-
roles than women. Men are more quickly aware of gender stereotypes and
gender-type behaviour compared to women. Freud also emphasised that
the role of the father is crucial in determining gender-role development.
(c) Social Learning Theory

There are two aspects in the social learning theory i.e. reinforcement and
observation. According to Bandura, children will be rewarded when
showing appropriate gender behaviour and penalised, if otherwise.
Through observation, children often follow the behaviour of the model
suitable to their gender.

Fagot (1978) found that girls are given reinforcement by gifts of dolls,
dancing and being dependent on their parents. Girls are forbidden to run,
jump and so forth. Male children are encouraged to play with guns,
wooden blocks, cars and so forth. Fathers are more rewarding if children
show appropriate behaviour. Therefore, fathers play an important role in
the development of childrenÊs gender-roles.
Hutson (1983) says peers also play a role in the development of gender-
roles. Male children would boycott their peers who like playing with dolls
and girls. Through observation, they will see toys and activities appropriate
to their gender. They also emulate the model of the same gender with them.
Observation of models can be done through television, magazines and
social interaction. Girls are more likely to emulate the actions of both
women and men models. This is because the gender-role of girls is not so
strict and limited.
In conclusion, this theory explains that the gender-role can be influenced by

parents, peers and imitating role-models.
(d) Cognitive-Development Theory

The last theory on gender-role development is the cognitive development
theory. According to Kohlberg, there are three levels in the process of
gender-role development, as described in Table 9.6.
Table 9.6: Three Levels in Cognitive Development Theory
Level Description
Gender identity A child already knows that he is a boy or a girl at the age of
three years.
Gender stability Children know that gender identity would not change at the age
of four.
Gender consistency Children get a complete concept of gender when they know that
the gender of people remain stable, wherever they are.
In conclusion, children's gender-role development exists from cognitive

awareness about their gender identity. Understanding of gender roles improves
in line with cognitive development. The important issue here is that girls do not
become a woman if the identification is done with the mother or someone else.
Instead, girls will realise first that they are female, and then make their mother a
model for their identification process.

9.2.2 Gender-Role Development

Now let us look at the development of gender-roles at babyhood, childhood and
adolescent stages.
(a) Baby
According to studies, female babies are much healthier than boys. Baby
girls are also better in terms of development than boys even though they
are physically smaller and lighter. Did you know that baby girls are able to
maintain eye contact during the first week? Male infants are more inclined
to activity involving motor skills and they are more awake. Male infants are
also said to be more active.
Upon reaching the age of two years, girls will speak faster than boys. There
are many other studies showing differences in sensory ability, hearing, etc.,
but the results of the studies are inconsistent and difficult to translate.
Learning of gender-roles at the baby stage occurs due to the influence of

parents. If it is a boy, parents will praise or call him by saying such gender-
biased words like "Clever hero" or "Son of papa". For girls, they are called
"Beautiful mamaÊs love", "Diamond", "Baby" and so forth. Parents also tend
to buy blue things for boys and pink things for girls. Boys are encouraged
to do physical activities such as crawling and walking. Baby girls receive
oral stimulation from mothers like talking. Therefore, the way parents and
others treat babies would create gender differences.
(b) Childhood
When a child is two years old, the differences become more significant and
it is consistent with traditional stereotypes. Boys mostly play with games
that show manly natures such as cars, guns, kites, and so forth. They also
do a lot of physical activities and are more sociable with other people and
their peers.
Girls love to play with dolls and house-keeping; or they prefer reading and
writing. Girls also like to play games that show womanly and manly natures.
During preschool, boys and girls tend to play with friends of the same
gender. Boys like to play in a big group and vice versa for girls. Parents and
teachers also play a role at this time. Parents and teachers will not
encourage boys and girls to play games that do not suit their gender.
Games that are purchased also contribute to the separation of gender e.g.
girls are given feminine games and toys (dolls) and boys are given
masculine types (guns).

(c) Adolescence
As they get older, children tend to behave according to their gender.
Adolescent girls in particular, emphasise the role of gender. The differences
that exist during adolescence are due to social prompts to produce
stereotyped behaviour.
Adolescent girls face more self-image interference and are more self
conscious than boys. Adolescent girls at this stage are more interested and
efficient in forming close friendships. They are not so interested in math
and science. Most researchers say that at this stage, the gender-role will
increase in certain aspects.
Finally, let us look at the chronological summary of gender-roles in Table 9.7.
Table 9.7: Chronology of Gender-Roles
Level Description
Pre-birth  Development of sex organs and chromosomes; and
 Physical and brain development influenced by sex hormones.
At birth  Infants identified as male or female.
2-3 years  Children can identify their own gender;

 Know gender difference;
 Know a little about gender stereotypes; and
 Play with same gender friends and games suitable to gender.
4-5 years  Gender stability; and

 Not fond of showing cross-gender behaviour.
6-10 years  Obtain permanent gender;

 Negative towards cross-gender games; and
 More positive towards gender-role stereotypes.
16-18 years  Dislike gender-separation interaction;

 Adolescent girls like to look and smile;
 Adolescent boys tend to like space-perception tasks; and
 Able to tolerate the behaviour of the opposite sex.
ACTIVITY 9.2
You have a student who is experiencing identity disorder. How should

you act to help the student overcome the problem? Discuss.

9.2.3 Family and Peers Influence

Family and peers are two major influences in our daily lives. Let us now look
into the influences in detail.
(a) Family Influence

The influence of family can be classified into four aspects as described in
Table 9.8.
Table 9.8: Four Aspects of Family Influence
Aspect Description
Social class Most expectations indicate that high social class families educate
their children in a way that is less gender-stereotype. However,
there are studies that found children from higher social class
families to be more stereotyped in terms of behaviour and
attitudes. It can be concluded here, the social class of the family
does not guarantee the gender-stereotype behaviour.
Single parent Some studies show that children who come from single parent
homes show less gender stereotyping. For children of single
mothers, the absence of a father who is always concerned with
gender stereotype may be the cause. Another possibility that
could be taken into account is a single mother being forced to act
both as a mother and a father; leading to a more equalitarian
model for the child.
Working mother Children with working mothers appear less stereotyped in terms
of attitudes, interests and behaviours. This provides high impact
on the boys. They tend to help the mother and be more tolerant
of gender-role stereotypes. Mothers who are full-time
homemakers prefer to maintain gender stereotypes.
ChildrenÊs It has been discussed before that the upbringing of children by

upbringing and parents influences their gender-roles. Treatment of boys and girls
parental attitudes are different (girls – pink things, non-aggressive activities, boys –
blue things, vigorous activities) lead to the existence of gender
stereotypes. Parents emphasise academic achievement of girls
when small, but emphasise the achievement of boys as adults. It
can be said here that the parents play a big role in shaping the
development of gender-role behaviour from early childhood age.

(b) Peer Influence

Children show more sociable behaviours when playing with those of the
same gender. Girls will become passive when mixing with boys. However,
girls prefer to share a game and are not easily upset or cry when they play.
Boys who demonstrate cross-gender behaviour will receive penalties and
are ridiculed more than girls who do so. At the age of three to four years,
gender segregation starts to happen. Girls will only play with friends of
their own gender. However, this gender segregation behaviour will
disappear when they enter adolescence.
9.3 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Now, we will look at moral development in terms of moral reasoning, the role of
emotions and moral behaviour.
9.3.1 Moral Reasoning

As humans, we always talk about morality. Good moral values are always used
as an example and bad moral values will be avoided. What do you understand
about morality? It is human realisation about what is good or bad and what is
right or wrong.
What about moral development? It is what is acquired by a person on matters of

right and wrong. Moral development will be influenced by the ethical codes of
the local community.
It can be concluded that morality implies the ability to identify good and bad,
and what is wrong and right, and we respond through our behaviours based on
this understanding.
Did you know there are three components of morality? See the descriptions in
Figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3: Three moral components
ChildrenÊs Moral Development

Most children are still too small and not very moral conscious. They learn through
experience, peer influence and parental upbringing. As age increases, their moral
reasoning grows. There are some opinions on moral development propounded by
among others, Kohlberg and Piaget. Kohlberg emphasises moral development
from birth to adulthood. While Piaget's moral evaluation is based on the good and
bad intentions of a child – how good or bad intentions are combined with positive
and negative consequences. Children need to choose between the good or bad
intentions, and expect the consequences that will happen.
Finally, see Table 9.9 which summarises the chronology of moral development.
Table 9.9: Chronology of Moral Development
Level Description
At birth  Responds to another infantÊs crying and shows empathy through
primitive ways.
10-14  Shows signs of various types of empathy.
months
1-2 years  Responds by patting, touching or giving an object; and
 Indicates a conflict when interacting with peers.
3-6 years  Verbally aggressive and hostile;
 Assesses the moral value based on consequential objectives;
 Believes in true justice and redemption assessment; and
 Reasoning according to rewards and penalties.
10-16  Evaluates moral dilemmas according to faith, believing in the principle
years of penalties and retaliation; and
 Reasoning based on rules and laws.
16 years  Reasoning based on principles of internal justice.

9.3.2 Role of Emotions: Guilt and Empathy

Emotions are things that play a role in moral formation. If emotions are not
stable, it will have negative effects on morale and vice versa. What causes
emotional disorders? Emotional disorders are often caused by disappointment,
stress, anxiety, sadness, embarrassment and so on. Teenagers are often dealing
with emotional problems. Teenagers are disappointed because of the double
standard that exists in their environment. They are taught to do good things, to
manage themselves well and make their own decisions. However, in reality the
opposite happens instead. Therefore, teenagers are frustrated because of the
conflict between the demands of the community with what is to be achieved.
Emotions also have a direct impact on a teenagerÊs brain. Arguably, children who
have negative emotions will face problems in learning. Emotion is seen as a
switch that can open or close our brains to learn. If there are too many negative
emotions, the desire to learn will be closed, making it difficult to receive lessons.
Did you know there are six ways that can be done to promote positive emotions?
See the descriptions in Table 9.10.
Table 9.10: Six Ways to Promote Positive Emotions
Ways Description
Motivation  Motivation develops confidence and thereby creates
competitiveness in the child. Praise the newly acquired skills
and give children the opportunity to show these skills.
Curiosity  Curiosity will provide opportunities for children to try new

ideas. This will make them like to try something new.
Enriching the  Know what children can do well. Encourage and provide
wisdom, talent and support on matters of interest in terms of time; as well as
power through financial and psychological support.
Encourage  Help children to relate their experiences through words,

communication pictures, music and so forth.
Monitoring  Make a portfolio for each child. Encourage them to keep

developments journals concerning themselves either in the form of pictures
or words. Often communicate with them so they feel
appreciated.
Tolerant  Parents should be tolerant with children. Give support and

encouragement if they fail.

Positive emotions will help children to boldly accept the challenges with
optimism and they can then interact with others more openly.
Emotion and empathy are the two things that are related. What is empathy?
Empathy is the ability to identify, translate and experience the feelings and
emotions that other people have.
At the age of two, babies are known to show a sense of empathy with emotional
reactions like crying when they see other people crying. Empathetic attitudes will
continue to grow in line with age. Ways to show empathy will also vary
according to age. Children who do not have the nature of empathy often ignore
other people. They are also not sensitive to the feelings of others. Their behaviour
does not take into account the sensitivity of others.
9.3.3 Moral Behaviour: Altruism and Aggressiveness

What is altruism? Altruism can be said to be an attitude to love others as we love
ourselves.
There is a saying that altruism is to sacrifice oneself for the happiness of others.
Those who are altruistic love to share life with others, if other people are happy
they will be happy and vice versa. What is the importance of altruism? Altruism
is considered important in family relationships, because it encourages
cooperation and avoids conflict.
Altruism emphasises more on cooperation between an individual and other

individuals. Girls are more likely to have the nature of altruism than boys.
Children begin to show altruistic natures at the age of six to seven years. At this
stage, they are good at playing games that form cooperation. However, according
to Chapman and Zahn-Waxler (1983), children aged less than two years have
shown altruistic nature. For example, a child will give his toy to a crying friend.
Social class also affects the altruism of an individual. Those who come from
lower social classes and from rural areas are more cooperative than children from
higher social classes.
Aggressive behaviour is also known as antisocial behaviour. Aggressive

behaviour is often associated with intrusive behaviour (likes to interrupt),
disruptive behaviour, assertiveness and being domineering (likes to control other
people). Children who are aggressive can hurt others and they like to fight. They
like to lie, steal and run away from home.

What causes this aggressive nature? Causes of aggressiveness are because of

feelings of disappointment, the modelling process (TV, parents, peers), and the
uncertainty that comes with adolescence and turmoil.
This antisocial behaviour will be influential until adulthood. When reaching

adulthood they will find it difficult to establish rapport with others, and struggle
to be good parents. They will also be bad at planning and prone to changing jobs.
ACTIVITY 9.3
1. Discuss the steps to be taken to address moral problems among

students.
2. You have a student who is aggressive, often fights and likes to take
things from others. How do you correct the aggressive attitude?
What is the most suitable approach? Discuss.
 The development of an individual will continue in tandem with age.

Adolescence is the period that puts the most pressure on someone going
through self development.
 There are several things that influence self development and self esteem,
namely, looks, self image, intelligence, social class, and so forth.
 Boys and girls are brought up in different ways, resulting in gender-role

differences.
 Parents are agents that lead to gender-role perceptions. However, fathers

play a more vital role to daughters and sons.
 In addition to parental influence, gender-role perceptions are also influenced

by the environment and peers.
 The four theories of gender-role development are biological theory,

psychoanalysis theory, social learning theory and cognitive-development
theory.

 The influences of family and peers are the most powerful. This is because
these two factors are what we always use as a guide for forming self
development.
 Moral development occurs in each individual. Positive and negative

developments are based on emotion and empathy as well as altruism and
aggressiveness.
 Positive emotions and empathy will lead to a positive morale.

Altruism will lead a child to have a good moral attitude. While aggressive
behaviour makes the child to possess undesirable morals.
Aggressiveness Moral reasoning

Altruism Psychoanalysis theory
Biological theory Self concept
Cognitive-development theory Self esteem
Empathy Self image pressure
Gender-role Social learning theory
Healthy self values Self system
Identity pressure
Better self-esteem. (1999). Retrieved from http://www.utexas.edu
Gender development: Social theories. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://blue.utb.

edu/ecantu

Jas Laile Suzana Jaafar. (2002). Psikologi kanak-kanak dan remaja. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Rahil Mahyuddin., & Habibah Alias. (2007). Psikologi pendidikan untuk

perguruan. Shah Alam, Selangor: Karisma Production Sdn. Bhd.
The role of emotions in learning. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

schwablearning.org
What is altruism? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.altruists.org/about/

altruisme/
What is self-esteem? (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.more-selfesteem.com

Topic  Emotional
10 Development,
Family
Relationships
and the
Environment
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the meaning of emotion;
2. Describe emotional development from the aspect of temperament
and linkage;
3. Identify three parenting styles;
4. Differentiate three aspects of child upbringing;
5. Discuss appropriate suggested methods in child upbringing; and
6. Explain how peer pressure and media influence affect children.

TOPIC 10 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT, FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS  167
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the last topic of this module. In this topic, you will learn about
emotional development, family relationships and environmental influences.
What do you understand about emotions? Emotion is something that is within

every individual. We were born with emotions. In general, emotions are inherent
at birth. What distinguishes us is how we handle our emotions which we can do
either positively or negatively. Understanding of emotions is limited in children
as compared to adults. Parents need patience to deal with the emotional
problems of their children. Emotional development can be divided into two,
namely the development of temperament and development of linkage.
Through this topic, we will look at how family relationships influence children's
emotional development. Peers and the environment also play an important role.
Thus it can be concluded here that children need to learn in terms of experience
to control their different emotions. As they grow older and gain more experience
they become more matured in controlling their emotions. All the best!
10.1 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Before we look at the development of emotion, let us discuss first the meaning of
emotion. You would agree that it is something complex. So, how do we define
emotion? In general, emotions mean the psychophysical processes that appear
spontaneously, consciously and in a positive or negative form.
Did you know that emotions are different from feelings? Because of this, we need
to study the differences; emotions require knowledge associated with psychology
and neuroscience.
10.1.1 Basic Emotions

Let us look at the basic emotions. Basic emotions are common emotions in early
childhood. Some theorists have been able to identify several types of emotions as
basic emotions.
In general, there are eight basic emotions as described in Table 10.1.

168  TOPIC 10 EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT, FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Table 10.1: Eight Basic Emotions
Basic Emotion Description Example

Fear Associated with unpleasant memory Watching a horror movie.
and experience.
Sadness Feeling sad at the loss of something Lost dolls.

that is important and something that
is loved.
Love Feeling of love for people, animals or Hugs and kisses the mother.
things. Shown in the form of
hugging, patting and kissing the
object/person.
Jealousy Occurs when children feel their Getting a new sibling.

parentsÊ love switch to others.
Anger May be due to fighting for toys, Unable to buy ice cream.
unachieved desires or quarrels.
Envy Closely linked to the abilities or Friends having a new game.

things owned by others.
Curiousity Applicable to new things seen, about Wants to know why snails
themselves or other people. move slowly.
Happiness A sense of accomplishment at being Successfully buttoning up the

able to complete tasks that are shirt.
considered difficult.
10.1.2 Development of Temperament

What is Temperament?
Have you heard about temperament? What does this mean? Temperament is a
set of characteristics that is inherent in an individual.
Temperament is the instrument of personality development of children. In

fact, it will determine how children learn about things that happen around
them.
Features of this property are stable at birth in which it does not manifest bad or
good behaviour. Parents need to know the childrenÊs nature of temperament to
adapt to it. When parents understand the nature of their children, then they can
be prepared for situations that might cause problems.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
In addition, parents can change and adapt their parenting strategies based on the
characteristics of the temperament. Parenting styles would be more effective if
they are more open to the children's unique personality. During early
development, parents should treat children with tolerance, not by force. As they
grow older, parents can help their children in adapting their characteristics with
their environment.
Nine Characteristics of Temperament

Studies of classic child development conducted by Chess and Thomas have
identified nine temperament characteristics. The nine temperament characteristics
are described in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: Nine Temperament Characteristics
Characteristic Description
Activity level Observe the activities of a child, whether the child likes to run, is
always moving about, or sitting still or doing activities quietly and
calmly. Children who are active will be more successful in the field of
sports and jobs that require a lot of energy and may assume various
responsibilities.
Degree of Look at the degree of concentration of children when they are not
interested in a particular activity. Do they quickly shift attention
concentration
when given other things or activities? How does an object or a sound
attract the attention of children? Example: aircraft noise attracts
attention while drinking water. Children whose attentions are easily
distracted will be easy to manage. Example: when they cry, we give
them a toy to divert their attention to stop crying. However, this
attitude is seen as negative when the attention is often shifted during
learning and doing homework.
Seriousness Refers to the positive or negative reaction toward something. Do

children just accept or fight for what they want. Children who are
more serious, tend to attain what they want and have more
emotional depth. They usually are individuals who are skilled in the
field of arts/drama. Children with high seriousness, require a high
level of tolerance to handle.
Consistency Associated with biological factors that can be expected, such as

appetite and sleeping time. Is the child tired or hungry at a certain
time? Or are their actions unpredictable? Children who are more
consistent are easier to handle.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Sensory Related to how children respond to physical stimulations. Does the

sensitivity child respond positively or negatively at a sound? Or is the child
choosy or fussy? Children with high sensory sensitivity are artistic
and creative.
Easy to reach/ Refers to how the child acts to new situations or strangers. Is the
child eager to meet people or will the child distance himself?
distant self
Children who distance themselves are more careful and think before
acting.
Adaptation How do children adapt to transitions and changes such as moving

from one activity to another activity. Does the child have difficulty in
changing their routines? Does the child take longer to adapt?
Children who are slow to adapt will not do something dangerous
and are not easily influenced by peer pressure.
Perseverance/ Related to the time taken by the child in overcoming obstacles to

complete the activities. Does the child continue to modify activities to
persistence
match the situation or change to other activities? Children who have
high perseverance and persistency are often able to achieve their
goals. While the children of low perseverance and persistency have
high social skills. This is because they realise that other people can
help them.
Mood The tendency of children to act positively or negatively. Is the child

always in a good mood? Or does the child take matters seriously?
Children who are serious will be analytical and evaluate things more
carefully.
10.1.3 Linkage Development

What is meant by linkage? Linkage means a binding relationship between babies
and parents or guardians.
It should be noted that linkage is different in nature with dependence. This is

because the nature of dependence will cause a child not being able to be self-
reliant and become overdependent on others.
Linkage is a strong bond of affection that binds one person to another (Bowlby,
1969). Linkage is also a reciprocal process. What is reciprocity? Reciprocity means
that the mother has a close relationship with the child and vice versa. This
process can occur through mother-child interaction over the long term. Linkage
can influence the success and failure of the childÊs cognitive, social and emotional
development.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
(a) An InfantÊs Linkage Processes

Now let us look at the infantÊs linkage processes in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3: Three Processes of an InfantÊs Linkage
Process Description
Social responses are not  InfantsÊ response to the voices, faces and other social
differentiated (Birth to 2-3 stimuli. Still cannot differentiate between the faces of
months) mothers and the faces of others.
Social responses can be  First linkage is formed. Babies like the close and
differentiated (2-3 to 6-7 familiar people only.
months)
 Example: Mother, father, siblings and guardian.
Active search for closeness  Babies are very close to a person (mother). Then, when
(6-7 months to 3 years) reaching the age of 18 months, they become close with
a few others (grandfather, grandmother).
 At this time two things happen, namely:
(a) Separation anxiety: will be formed at the age of
14 -18 months;
(b) Months later, and this will be reduced; and
(c) Stranger anxiety: the fear of strangers.
(b) Types of Linkages

Do you know how many types of linkages there are? Let us look at Table
10.4.
Table 10.4: Three Types of Linkages
Types Description
Secure linkage  Babies feel safe when their mother are with them.
(experienced by 70% of
infants)  Babies will play actively and vigorously when their
mothers are with them.
 If the mothers are not nearby, babies will feel sad and
often cry.
 Babies easily get along with others when the mothers are
with them.
 Mothers are considered a security base for the babies
because they are responsive and sensitive to the needs of
babies.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Anxiety and resistance  Babies become worried and anxious when the mothers are
linkage (experienced by not around.
10% of infants)
 When the mothers come back, the babies will insist on
being carried, but only temporarily, as they will soon
struggle to be released.
 Babies are very sensitive to the presence of others even if
the mothers are around.
 It can be concluded that babies do not like parting with
their mothers and will like to be with the mothers after
each separation.
Anxiety and avoidance  Not interested in the toys while the mothers are around.
linkage (experienced by
20% of infants)  Baby feels anxious when left alone. But when the mother
returns the baby does not bother about the mother and try
to avoid being hugged.
It can be concluded that babies who experience secure linkage have a happy and
close relationship with the mother wheras babies who experience anxiety and
resistance linkage, are close with the mother but do not trust her. Anxiety and
avoidance linkage shows that the babies want to avoid and isolate themselves
from the mother.
Table 10.5 summarises the chronological development of emotions in the child.
Table 10.5: Chronological Development of Emotions
Age Development
Newborn  Distinguishes the voice, face and smell of the mother from others;
 The reaction of interest, joy, sadness and dislikes;
 Imitates facial expressions of caregiver when surprised, happy
and sad;
 Smiles when sleeping; and
 Cries when it has physical needs.
1 month  Crying is sometimes not for want of physical needs.
3 months  Smiles at the mother/guardian;

 Distinguishes between anger, surprise and sadness; and
 Participates in the interaction.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
4 months  Begins to show their anger; and

 Laugh.
7 months  Shows feelings of fear;

 Begins to identify and selects people;
 Shows a specific linkage; and
 Separation anxiety.
18-24 months  Shows feelings of guilt, shame and jealousy; and

 Starts using words to describe the feeling.
3-4 years  Reacts to smiling of peers of the same sex;

 Knows how to explain reasons and emotional consequences; and
 Less worried about separation.
6-7 years  Knows and understands the emotional changes over time; and
 Knows that senses control the emotions.
10-12 years  Knows that there can be two emotions at a time;

 Good at faking certain emotions; and
 Understands emotions are based on internal feelings.
Source: Psychology of Education for Teachers
ACTIVITY 10.1
Visit http://childdevelopmentinfo.com and find ways to deal with the

personality of the child based on their temperament characteristics.
Discuss your findings in the next tutorial.
10.2 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

We certainly agree that the way parents educate, will influence the children's
personalities. Every parent has a different way to control their childÊs behaviour.
All forms of control are dependent on the choices made by the parents. There are
parents who practice direct control. For emotional development, there are
parents who think that if there are fewer rules, the better it is.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
10.2.1 Parenting Styles

Baumrind (1971) has identified three basic personality profiles of pre-school
children. Based on the three profiles, he has classified three styles of raising
children, as shown in Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: Three styles of raising children
Now, let us look at the styles one by one.
(a) Authoritative
This style emphasises more on the rules or limitations of certain behaviour.
However, it allows for open communication and freedom to make decisions
on certain matters.
What are the characteristics of an authoritative parent? Characteristics of

the authoritative parent are as follows:
(i) Flexible and rational. Promoting children's self reliance.

(ii) Firm control but decreases with the development of children.
(iii) Limitations of behaviour imposed according to childrenÊs individuality.
(iv) Promotes oral tolerance. Always explains why an action is imposed.
(v) Explaining the value of the practice and hopes that the children follow
them.
(vi) Adopting the nature of autonomy and self direction. Teaching
children to be responsible for their behaviour.
(vii) Not being manipulated by the children.
(viii) Encourages children to help in doing household chores.
(ix) Friendly but firm, responsive, gives encouragement and respects the
interests of the child.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
How about the characteristics of children who grow up with an authoritative

style? Children who grow up with an authoritative style:
(i) Usually are more energetic;
(ii) High sense of curiosity;
(iii) Able to control themselves;
(iv) Self reliant;
(v) Satisfied with themselves;
(vi) Positive attitude; and
(vii) Likes to explore.
(b) Authoritarian
Parents impose strict controls by establishing rules. Every rule or value
needs to be observed and cannot be disputed. So, what can you conclude
about the characteristics of the authoritarian parent? The following are
characteristics of the authoritarian parent:
(i) Imposes strict regulations, controls the behaviour of children and

emphasises obedience and conformity.
(ii) Children must obey the instructions and no oral tolerance.
(iii) Parents' decision is final.
(iv) Every word is a command.
(v) Behaviour is controlled, shaped and judged by the standards set.
(vi) Children who are compliant are considered having high moral values
and physical intimidations are given to disobedient children.
(vii) Tends to use punishment as a disciplinary mechanism.
(x) Not responsive, not flexible and too much control on children's
behaviour.
(xi) Does not encourage children to become independent.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
How about the characteristics of children raised in the authoritarian style?

Children raised by the authoritarian style can be identified with the
following characteristics:
(i) Not satisfied with oneself;

(ii) Violent;
(iii) Easily offended;
(iv) Negative attitude;
(v) Does not like to socialise; and
(vi) Cannot be trusted.
(c) Permissive
Permissive parents practice open communication and give less emphasis on
the good behaviour of children. What are the characteristics of permissive
parents? Permissive parents tend to:
(i) Give full freedom to the children.

(ii) Use the method of explaining the reasons and do not use violence.
(iii) Open communication and do not control the behaviour of children.
(iv) Accept all desires of the children and do not like to punish.
(v) Allow the children to arrange their own activities.
(vi) Guide children without imposing strict limits.
So, what are the characteristics of children raised by permissive parents?

Children raised in the permissive parenting style are:
(i) Unable to control themselves;

(ii) Lack of self reliance;
(iii) Less explorative; and
(iv) Demanding.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
10.2.2 Ways of Raising Children – Discipline, Reward

and Punishment
Figure 10.2 explains three ways in raising children.
Figure 10.2: Three ways of raising children
Let us discuss the ways in detail now.
(a) Discipline
Did you know that discipline is an aspect most widely used and also the
most effective? Discipline is implemented to correct childrenÊs behaviour in
line with societyÊs values and norms. Discipline is also practiced to ensure
more mature development of children and it is often accompanied by
punishment and reward. Rewards and punishments are used for certain
behaviours and they are sometimes used together.
(b) Rewards
Rewards are often given for good behaviour. Rewards can be in the form of
praises, hugs or gifts (present, candy, etc.). Rewards are one way of
behaviour modification. When a reward is given, the children will tend to
exhibit good behaviour.
What is the effect of the reward? The effect of the reward is that the good
behaviour will be self-developed in a child. Although eventually, the
rewards may stop but, the children will feel good and happy. Parents who
often reward children will mould children with good characters.
(c) Punishment
What about punishment? Punishment is carried out when children behave
badly. The aim is to reduce or eliminate this kind of behaviour. The
punishment can be given in three forms, namely the use of power;
withdrawal of love and induction (see Figure 10.3).

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Figure 10.3: Three forms of punishment
10.2.3 Appropriate Ways to Bring Up Children

What are the appropriate ways in the upbringing of children? There are nine
appropriate ways as described in Table 10.6.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Table 10.6: Nine Proposed Ways of ChildrenÊs Upbringing
Ways Description
Avoiding problems Easier than solving the problem. Parents should be alert to the
situation that is expected to create problems.
Providing an Give a reasonable explanation to the children in understanding

explanation for rules the logic and rationale for the rules.
Communication Give children an opportunity to express an opinion on these

rules.
Allowing children to Encourage children to express their feelings in a controlled

express emotions situation. Ask for reasons if there are things they dislike.
Avoiding unnecessary Give a punishment commensurate with the offense. Do not

punishment give excessive punishment because it will affect the emotions
of children.
Disciplining the Punishment should be in reference to the wrong behaviour. Do

childÊs behaviour and not punish the child but punish their behaviour.
not the child
Becoming a role Become a role model for the children. In addition, parents
model should be positive if they want the children to be positive.
Giving freedom to Give children the freedom to make a decision or do an activity.

children However, freedom must be controlled so as not to be too
independent.
Providing a positive Use a positive atmosphere for good social relationship

atmosphere development. For example, mutual cooperation, sharing toys
and so on.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Compare and contrast the effects seen from the children of parents who
use authoritative, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
10.3 ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE

There are two environmental influences that will be discussed in this subtopic
namely peers and friendship as well as children and the media. Let us look at
them one by one.
10.3.1 Peers and Friendship Influence

Generally, there are two main factors in the environmental influence, which are
peers and friendship. The following are the details of the influences.
(a) Peers
What do you understand about peers? Can you provide an explanation?
Peers are individuals, who share the same social factors in terms of age,
maturity, back ground and like to be together in various activities.
What is the importance of peer groups? Peers play an important role

because they are a major source of information. Through shared
information, they make a comparison of the actions, attitudes and personal
feelings. Did you know there are two types of peers? Let us look at the two
types of peer groups in Table 10.7.
Table 10.7: Two Types of Peer Groups
Clique Crowd
 A close group.  The number of members between 15-30

people.
 Membership of at least six people.
 Ties are not very close.
 Engage in shared activities.
 There are two to four cliques in a crowd.
 Often meet at school and outside
school.  Relationships in a larger number and more
casual.
 The meetings are usually organised and have
a social function. Example: Extracurricular
activities, club meetings and so forth.
 Always meet only on weekends.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
You certainly understand that peers are very important in a youthÊs life.
When children start to attend school, relationships with the family begins to
decline. Peer groups are important because they act as:
(i) A family substitute;

(ii) Mechanisms in life transitions;
(iii) Providers of social and academic support;
(iv) Agents of socialisation;
(v) Develop concept of social relations;
(vi) Formation of personality and search for identity;
(vii) Reference group for the formation of self-concept;
(viii) Place to express feelings and solve problems; and
(ix) Controller of behaviour and academic achievement levels.
(b) Friendship
Friendship is something very important in the lives of children. Friends
easily accept the behaviour of children more. What do you know about
friendship? Friendship is a reciprocal action of support for each other
through allegiance and intimacy.
In friendship, children try to understand the attitude and uniqueness of a

friend and expect vice versa. If a child can identify the personal qualities of
a friend, then the friendship is more enduring, committed and loyal.
Friendship also involves intimacy and feelings of closeness. Do you know

the meaning of intimacy? Intimacy means a willingness to share secrets,
feelings and problems.
What are the advantages of having a friend? Many qualities of a friend are
openness, ability in keeping a secret and being more reliable than adults.
The attitude of empathy is an aspect of friendship. Thus friendships can be
considered as a means of helping children develop emotionally. Positive
and negative attitudes depend on the type of friends chosen.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
10.3.2 Children and Media

The rapid development of technology provides many alternatives in educating
children. This development is resulting in a wider reach to the outside world.
Children can find out what is happening in the whole world quickly. Apart from
knowledge, the media also allows different cultures to be introduced with ease.
Its influence is huge so much so that sometimes the children are very much
obsessed with what is being exposed. For example, the science fiction story of
„Superman‰. There are children who want to mimic and fly like Superman and
this may be dangerous if unsupervised.
Media as we know, can bring positive and negative effects. The positive impact is
that children can gain knowledge and know about current developments. On the
other hand, children are more vulnerable to the elements that are not healthy.
The images in the media subconsciously will remain in the minds of children.
And these images will affect their thinking., appearance and mentality.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. How do children behave when they are with the peer groups?
2. Discuss the characteristics of conformity that appear when they

are together.
 The term „emotion‰ in general, refers to the psychophysical process that

appears spontaneously, in a conscious situation and in a positive or negative
form.
 Emotion temperament is a natural emotion. It is inherent in individuals

concerned. Positive developments can be achieved if parents understand the
characteristics.
 Emotional temperament may be modified through linkage. Linkage is the

quality of a child's relationship with his parents. The development of good
linkage will produce positive emotions.
 Parenting styles are divided into three styles, namely, authoritative,

authoritarian and permissive.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
 These parenting styles involve ways of raising children through discipline,

rewards and punishments.
 Among the proposed appropriate ways in childrenÊs upbringing are:

avoiding the problems, becoming a role model, giving freedom to the
children, avoiding unnecessary punishment and so forth.
 Environmental influences also play an important role. Environmental

influences include peers and media influences.
 Parents need to know how to handle their children and should also know
who their childrenÊs peers are. This aspect is important because friends are a
source for most of the influences on children.
Authoritarian Peers
Authoritative Permissive
Discipline Punishment
Friendship Reward
Linkage Temperament
Media influence
Baumrind, D. (1991). Parenting styles and adolescent development. In J. Brooks-

Gunn, R. Lerner, & A. C. Peterson (Eds.), The Encyclopaedia of Adolescence,
pp. 746-758. New York: Garland.
Bimbinglah si kecil ungkapkan emosi. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

bicaramuslim.com
Exploring different types of parenting styles. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

babycarehelp.com
Jas Laile Suzana Jaafar. (2002). Psikologi kanak-kanak dan remaja. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Media has big influence on kids. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

parentingbookmark.com
Rahil Mahyudin., & Habibah Alias. (2007). Psikologi pendidikan untuk

Temperament and your childÊs personality. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.

childevelopmentinfo.com

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Faculty of Education and Languages

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Julia Jantan

Moderator: Amir Hamzah Aman

Translator: Shiamala Rasalingam

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2013

Topic 1 Understanding Child Development 1

Topic 2 Genetics and Lineage 21

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Topic 3 Mental Retardation 36

Topic 4 Learning Disabilities 50

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Topic 5 Emotional and Behavioural Disorders 69

Topic 6 Communication Problems 87

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Topic 7 Hearing Impairments 107

Topic 8 Gifted Children 125

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8.4 Points to Consider in Education 139

Topic 9 Self, Gender and Moral Development 145

Topic 10 Emotional Development, Family Relationships and the

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Describes the development process of children from pre-natal, physical,

2. Differentiate between normal and abnormal development that leads to the

3. Discuss education approaches for the category of children with special

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4 focuses on the category of children with learning disabilities. We will

Topic 5 focuses on issues of emotional and behavioural disorders of children. We

Topic 6 focuses on children's language development and language problems

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 8 discusses definition and theories related to intelligence and gifted

Topic 9 focuses on self, gender and moral development of individuals. The

Topic 10 looks at the development of emotions, relationships with family

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPMENT

What is meant by development? Development is a qualitative change that cannot

Development involves physical, cognitive, social and personality changes in the

1.1.1 Development Scope

Figure 1.1: Five main stages of a childÊs development

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In addition, a child's development also includes four main aspects, as shown in

Figure 1.2: Aspects in child development

Discuss the stages of child development from infancy to adolescence with

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Table 1.1: Aspects of Child Development According to Developmental Stages

Developmental Developmental Aspects

Baby (0-2 years)  Changes in  The child  Cognitive  Begins to

Early childhood  Obtains gross  Language  Able to  Interaction

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Late  Masters basic  Demonstrates  Starts  Begins to be