Modern Materials/Chemicals

Ceramics
 A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid make up of clay that have been shaped and then
hardened by heating to high temperatures.
 Ceramic comes from the word meaning ‘pottery’.
o Pottery is just one part of the ceramic world.
 Nowadays, ceramic includes materials like glass, advanced ceramics and some cement systems as
well.

Properties

The properties of ceramic materials are dictated by the types of raw materials present.

In general, most ceramics have following properties:

1. Ceramics are hard, extremely strong, Brittle and having little elasticity.
2. Ceramics are corrosion-resistantor oxidation-resistantand durable.
3. Ceramics are refractory material with high melting point that is used to line the insidewalls of a
furnace.
4. Ceramics are inert to chemical action and generally do not react with most liquids, gases alkalis
and acids.
5. Ceramics are thermal insulators and electrical insulators.
6. But certain ceramicsconduct electricity, such as, Chromium dioxide conducts electricity as most
metals do.
7. Ceramics are non-magnetic but ceramics containing iron oxide (Fe2O3) can have magnetic
properties similar tothose of iron.
8. The iron oxide-based ceramics are called ferrites.
9. Ceramics are primarily oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides and silicates

Applications

Ceramics have application in the following areas:

 Aerospace:

Ceramics are used in the formation of parts of space shuttle, rockets and space stations.

 Consumer Usage

Ceramics have great usage in our homes like glassware, pottery dinnerware and home electronics.

 Automotive Industry

For example, catalytic converters, filters rotors, valves, spark plugs, thermostats,piston rings, etc.
are ceramics.

 Medical (Bioceramics)

Ceramics are used in medical field especially in dental and bone fillings and in bone implants.

 Military

Structural components for ground, air and naval vehicles of military are made from ceramics.

 Computers and Electronics

Computer parts like insulators, resistors, superconductors, capacitors, etc. are made up of
ceramics.
  Abrasives

Abrasives are used for grinding, cutting, polishing of materials.

Abrasives are natural (garnet, diamond) and synthetic (silicon carbide, diamond, fused alumina).

 Building and Construction

Manufacturers use ceramics to make bricks, tiles, piping and other constructionmaterials.

 Coatings

As ceramic materials are more corrosion-resistance than most metals, manufacturers often coat
metal with ceramic enamel.

Classification of Ceramics:

Ceramics can be classified into three distinct material categories:

1. Oxides: Alumina, Zirconia, Iron Oxide, etc.

2. Non-Oxides: Carbides, borides, nitrides and silicides
3. Composites: Combinations of Oxide and Non Oxide.

Plastics
 The word plastic is derived from the Latin words plasticus (“capable of molding”) and plastikos
(Greek “to mold,” or “fit for molding”).
 Plastic is made up of large organic (carbon-containing) molecules that can be formed into a variety
of products.
 The molecules that compose plastics are long carbon chains, called polymers, which give plastics
many of their useful properties.

Properties of plastics:

1. They are lighter than many materials of comparable strength, and unlike metals and wood.
a. Plastics have a lower density than that of metals, so plastics are lighter.
2. Plasticsdo not rust or rot, they are corrosion-resistant or oxidation resistant.
3. Most plastics can be produced in any color.
a. They can also be manufactured as clear as transparent, translucent (transmitting small amounts
of light), andopaque (impenetrable to light).
4. Plastic can also be strengthened with glass and other fibers to form incredibly strong materials.
5. Certain plastics are specifically designed to withstand temperaturesas high as 288° C (550° F).
a. Although,in general plastics are not used when high heat resistance is needed.
6. Plastics are electrical insulator.
7. Plastics are non-magnetic in nature.
8. Plastics are chemically stable and somewhat inert.
9. Plastics are not brittle and ductile.

Chemistry of Plastics:

 Plastics consist of very long molecules each composed of carbon atoms linked into chains.
o Such as,Polyethylene plasticis composed of extremely long molecules that each contain over
200,000 carbon atoms.
 These long chainlike molecules give plastics unique properties;
 o And distinguish plastics from materials such as, metals that have short crystalline molecular
structures.
 Although some plastics are made from plant oils, the majority are made from fossil fuels.

Thermoplastics and thermosetting Plastics

 All plastics can be divided into two groups: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
 These terms refer to the different ways these types of plastics respond to heat due to their chemical
structures of the plastics.

Thermoplastics:

 Thermoplastics can besoftened and hardened repeatedly after being heated and cooled, like candle
wax.
o For this reason, thermoplastics can be remolded and reused almost indefinitely.
 Thermoplastic molecules, which are linear orslightly brancheddo not chemically bond with each
other, when heated.
o Instead, thermoplastic chains are held together by weak van der Waal forces1that cause the long
molecular chains to cluster together like piles of entangled spaghetti.
o Because thermoplastic materials consist of individual molecules, properties of thermoplastics are
largely influenced by molecular weight2.
 For instance, increasing the molecular weight of a thermoplastic material increases its tensile
strength3, impact strength4, and fatigue strength5
 Polyvinyl, polystyrene, polyethylene, and PTFE are example of thermoplastic.

Thermosetting plastic:

 Thermosetting plastics harden permanently after being heated once.

 These consist of chain molecules that chemically bond, or cross-link, with each other when heated.
 When thermosetting plastics cross-link, the molecules create a permanent, three-dimensional network
that can be considered one giant molecule.
o Instead, many properties of thermosetting plastics are determined by adding different types and
amounts of fillers and reinforcements, such as glass fibers.
 Since thermosetting plastics consist of a single molecular network, molecular weight does not
significantly influence the properties of these plastics.
 Thermosetting plastics are often used to make heat-resistant products,
o Because these plastics can be heated to temperatures of 260° C (500° F) without melting.
 Bakelite, duraplast, melamine, epoxy resin and acrylic are the example of the thermosetting plastic.

Thermoplastics Thermosetting Plastics

Thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened by Thermosetting are hardened permanently after
heating and hardened by cooling. being heated once.
Thermoplastic molecules are not or less Thermosetting plastics have branched and
branched. complex structure.
They behave just like wax They don’t behave like wax
They are not brittle They are brittle.
Ex: Polyvinyl, polystyrene, polyethylene, and Ex: Bakelite, duraplast, melamine, epoxy resin
PTFE

1
Weak attractions between the molecules
2
The molecular weight is the mass of one mole of a substance, usually, the units used for this are grams per mole.
3
Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand a pulling (tensile) force.
4
Ability of a material to absorb shock and impact energy without breaking.
5
Ability of a material to withstand constant stress.
Importance and usage of Plastics:

 Many people sleep on pillows and mattresses filled with a type of plastic—either cellular
polyurethane or polyester.
 At night, people sleep under blankets and bedspreads made of acrylic plastics, and in the morning,
they step out of bed onto polyester and nylon carpets.
 The cars we drive, the computers we use, the utensils we cook with, the recreational equipment we
play with, and the houses and buildings we live and work in all include important plastic components.
 The average car contains almost 136 kg (almost 300 lb) of plastics—nearly 12 percent of the vehicle’s
overall weight.
 Telephones, textiles, compact discs, paints, plumbing fixtures, boats, and furniture are other domestic
products made of plastics.
 Plastics are used extensively by many key industries, including the automobile, aerospace,
construction, packaging, and electrical industries.
 The aerospace industry uses plastics to make strategic military parts for missiles, rockets, and
aircraft.
 Plastics are also used in specialized fields, such as the health industry to make medical instruments,
dental fillings, optical lenses, and biocompatible joints.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Plastics

Advantages of Plastics

 Plastics are light in weight and can be easily moulded

 Plastics possess very good strength and toughness
 Plastics possess good shock absorption capacity
 Plastics are corrosion-resistant and chemically inert.
 Plastics possess good thermal and electrical insulating property.
 Plastics is very good water resistant and possess good adhesiveness
 Plastics is a recyclable material anddoes not decompose

Disadvantages of Plastics

 Plastics is a non-renewable resource

 Plastics are brittle at low temperature.
 Plastics deform under load
 Plastics are low heat-resistant and have poor ductility
 Plastics are combustible
 Their recycling process is very costly

Plastics and the Environment

Hazards of Plastics

 Unfortunately, durability, which is the positive characteristics of plastic is in fact is highly harmful for
the environment.
o The highly durable means slowly degradable.
 Chemicals added to plastics are absorbed by human bodies. Some of these compounds have been
found to alter hormones or have other potential human health effects.
 Plastic debris, mixed with chemicals often swallowed by marine animals, can injure poison wildlife.
 Floating plastic waste serves as main transportation devices for invasive species, disrupting habitats.
 Plastic buried deep in landfills can penetrate harmful chemicals that spread into groundwater.
 Around 4 percent of world oil production is used as a raw material to make plastics, and similar
amount is consumed as energy in the process.
 People are exposed to chemicals from plastic multiple times a day through the air, dust water, food
and use of consumer products.
 In addition, burning plastics can sometimes result in toxic fumes.

 On the other hand, some argue that plastic helps the environment in server ways.
 As plastics has been used to make cars lighter, as a result, less oil is used to mobilize the cars and
less CO2 is emitted.

Plastic Waste Management

 Alternative methods for reducing and disposing of plastic wastes are being explored.
 Some of these options include reducing consumption of plastics, using biodegradable plastics and
incinerating or recycling plastic waste.
 It is also called 3R strategy: reduce, reuse and recycle.

A. Source Reduction
 Source reduction is the practice of using less material to manufacture a product.
 For example, the wall thickness of many plastic and metal containers has been reduced in recent
years.
o And some European countries have proposed to eliminate packaging that cannot be easily
recycled.
B. Biodegradable Plastics
 Due to their molecular stability, plastics do not easily break down into simpler components.
o Therefore, plastics are not considered biodegradable.
 However, researchers are working to develop biodegradable plastics that will disintegrate due to
bacterial action or exposure to sunlight.
o For example, scientists are incorporating starch molecules6into some plastic resins7during the
manufacturing process.
o When these plastics are discarded, bacteria eat the starch molecules.
o This causes the polymer molecules to break apart, allowing the plastic to decompose.

C. Incineration
 Some wastes, such as paper, plastics, wood, and other flammable materials can be burned in
incinerators.
 The resulting ash requires much less space for disposal than the original waste would.
 Because incineration of plastics can produce hazardous air emissions and other pollutants, this
process is strictly regulated.

D. Recycling Plastic:
 All plastics can be recycled.
 Thermoplastics can be remelted and made into new products.
 Thermosetting plastics can be ground, commingled (mixed), and then used as filler in moldable
thermoplastic materials.
 Highly filled and reinforced thermosetting plastics can be crushed and used in new composite
formulations.
 It is said that, it takes around 100 to 500 years for discarded plastic to get degraded naturally.
 This revelation led to the concept of plastic recycling, which was promoted by almost all nations.
 However, this method confronted various hurdles and one among them was different types of
plastic required different methods of recycling.

6
A starch molecule is a polysaccharide assembled from the simple sugar glucose; it can contain anywhere from five
hundred to several hundred thousand glucose molecules joined by covalent bonds into a single structure
7
A synthetic polymeric compound physically resembling natural resin, e.g. polyvinyl, polystyrene, or epoxy.
Types of Plastic & Plastic Recycling

 There was no universal standard to classify plastic, which is used in various products.
o It was in 1988, the SPI (The Society of the Plastics Industry) designed the symbol code for plastic
classification.
o They symbol code consists of a triangle of arrows, inside which they are chambers ranging from
1 to 7.
o Most of us are familiar with this symbol embossed on plastic items like pet bottles, yogurt cups
etc.

Following are the types of Plastics:

1. Plastic Number 1 (PET)

 Polyethylene Terephthalate also known as PETE or PET vast majority of disposable soda bottles,
medicine containers and water bottles are made of number 1 plastic.
2. Plastic number 2 (HDPE)
 High-density polyethylene or HDPE.
 Most milk jugs, detergent bottles, juice bottles, butter tubs and toiletries bottles are made of
HDPE.
3. Plastic Number 3 (PVC)
 Polyvinyl chloride or PVC.
 It is used to make food wrap shower curtains, windows and door frames, plastic pipes, automotive
parts, bottles for cooking oil and the highly common plumbing pipes.
4. Plastic number 4 (LDPE)
 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is used to make grocery bags, some wrapping films squeezable
bottles and bread bangs.
5. Plastic Number 5 (PP)
 This is polypropylene.
 Common items produced with it include yogurt cups, medicine bottles, ketchup, syrup bottles
straws and similar wide-necked containers, microwaveable bowls and bottle caps.
6. Plastic Number 6
 Polypropylene.
 Common items produced with it include yogurt cups, medicine bottles, ketchup, syrup bottles,
straws and similar wide-necked containers, microwaveable bowls and bottle caps.
7. Plastic Number 7
 This category basically means everything else.
 Product produced include baby and water bottles, sports equipment, medical and dental devices,
CD’s, DVD’s and even iPods.

 Plastic number 1, 2 and 6 are commonly collected for recycling, but 3, 4, 5 are not recycled in a
regular matter.
 Plastic items without numbers too are not fit for recycling. Plastics in categories 2, 4 and 5 are
generally considered safe.
o Any of other categories should be used with extreme caution.
 Semiconductors
 A solid substance that has a conductivity between that of an insulator and that of most metals, either
due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature effects.
o Example: Silicon is semiconductor, its conductivity is about 1011 times smaller than that of
copper.
 In addition the conductivity of semiconductor increases as the temperature increases.
 The common semiconductors include chemical elements and compounds such as silicon, germanium,
selenium, gallium arsenide, zinc selenide, and lead telluride.
 In a Pure/Intrinsic semiconductor such as silicon, the valence electrons8, of an atom are paired and
shared between atoms to make a covalent bond that holds the crystal together.
o These valence electrons are not free to carry electrical current.
 To produce conduction in electrons, temperature or light is used to excite the valence electrons out of
their bonds, leaving them free to conduct current.
 Deficiencies, or “holes” are left behind that contribute to the flow of electricity,

Differences between Holes and Electrons:

Holes Electrons
When we remove an electron from the valence Electrons are negatively charged particles that
level (outer most shell), we leave a hole. revolve around nucleus.
A holes is an absence of electron. Electron exist and they behave like a particle
and sometime like a wave.
A hole is electric charge carrier with a positive An electron is a charge carrier with a negative
charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in charge.
polarity to the charge on electron.

Doping and Extrinsic Semiconductor:

 The addition of the desired impurity atom to a pure semiconductor to increase its conductivity is
called Doping.
o The impurity atoms added are called Dopants.
 Depending on impurity atom, semiconductors are of two types:
i. P-type semiconductors
ii. N-types semiconductors.

P-type Semiconductors:

 When the impurity atom is a trivalent atom such as, indium, boron or aluminium, these atoms will
replace the silicon atom.
 The three valence electrons of Indium atom bond covalently with three of silicon atom.
o There is one incomplete covalent bond due to deficiency of an electron.
 This bond can be completed if one of Si-Si bond is broken and that electron fills this vacancy,
but a hole is created in Si-Si bond.
 Therefore the holes move in the semiconductor structure and the conductivity here is mainly due to
motion of holes or positive charge.
 P stands for positive.

N-types Semiconductors

 When the impurity atom is a pentavalent atom, (such as Arsenic and Phosphorus)then these atoms
will replace the silicon atom.
o The four valence electrons of Arsenic are bonded covalently with four of silicon atom;

8
Electrons in the outer most shells or orbit.
 o While the fifth electron is loosely bound with parent impurity atom and is comparatively free to
move.
 Hence in N-type semiconductor, current flows mainly due to free electrons.

P-type Vs N-types

N-type P-types
N-type are doped with pentavalent impurity. P-types are doped with trivalent impurity.
N-type has more free electrons p-types has more holes
Current flows due to the presence of electrons Current flows due to the presences of holes
N stands for negative P stands for positive.

Diodes:

 Diode is the simplest possible semiconductor device.

 A diode allows current to flow in one direction but not the other.
 When we put n-type and p-type silicon together we get a very interesting phenomenon that give diode
its unique properties.
 A diode is a two-terminal device that has a high resistance to electric current in one direction but a
low resistance in the other direction.
 The conductance properties of the p-n junction depend on the direction of the voltage, which can, in
turn, be used to control the electrical nature of the device.
 Series of such junctions are used to make transistors and other semiconductor devices such as solar
cells, p-n junction lasers, rectifiers, and many others.

Antibiotics
How do antibiotics work?

 An antibiotic is a selective poison.

 It has been chosen so that it will kill the desired bacteria, but not the cells in your body.
o The antibiotic acts only on the bacterium's cell-wall-building mechanism, not on a normal cell's.
 Each different type of antibiotic affects different bacteria in different ways.
o For example, an antibiotic might inhibit a bacterium's ability to turn glucose into energy, or its
ability to construct its cell wall.
 When this happens, the bacterium dies instead of reproducing.

Antibiotics and Viruses:

 Antibiotics do not work on viruses because viruses are not alive.

 A bacterium is a living, reproducing life form.
 A virus is just a piece of DNA (or RNA).
 A virus injects its DNA into a living cell and has that cell reproduce more of the viral DNA.
 With a virus there is nothing to "kill" so antibiotics don't work on it.

Side effects of antibiotics:

 Some of the common side effects include:

o Soft stools or Diarrhea
o Mild stomach upset.
 In severe cases, one can have any of the following side effects:
o Vomiting,
o Severe watery Diarrhea
o Abdominal cramps
o Allergic reaction,
 o Rash and white patches on the tongue.

Antibiotic Resistance

 If an antibiotic is used long enough, bacteria will emerge that cannot be killed by that antibiotic.
o This is known as antibiotic resistance.
 Infections exist today that are caused by bacteria resistant to some antibiotics.
 The existence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria creates the danger of life-threatening infections that don't
respond to antibiotics.

Classification:

 The most common method to classify them is according to their action against the infecting
organisms.
o Some antibiotics attack the cell wall,
o Some disrupt the cell membrane,
o The majority inhibits the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, the polymers that make up the
bacterial cell.
 Antibacterial can be further subdivided into:
o Narrow-spectrum agents
 The narrow-spectrum(penicillins) act against many gram-positive bacteria.
 Aminoglycosides, also narrow-spectrum, act against many gram-negative as well as some
gram-positive bacteria.
o Broad-spectrum agents.
 The tetracyclines and chloramphenicols are both broad-spectrum drugs because they are
effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
 Antibiotic may be classified as:
o Bactericidal (killing bacteria)
 Anti-biotic that damage the cell membranes cause the cell metabolites to leak out, thus killing
the organism.
 Such compounds including penicillins and cephalosporin are therefore classified as
bactericidal
o Bacteriostatic (stopping bacterial growth and multiplication).
 Bacteriostatic nonetheless effective because bacteria that are prevented from growing will die
off after a time or be killed by defence mechanism of the host.
 The tetracyclines and the sulphonamides are among the bacteriostatic antibiotics.
.

Types of Antibiotics:

 Penicillins such as penicillin and amoxicillin

 Cephalosporins such as cephalexin (Keflex)

 Macrolides such as erythromycin (E-Mycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin), and azithromycin

(Zithromax)

 Fluoroquinolones such as ofloxacin (Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin), and ofloxacin (Floxin)

 Sulphonamides such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim) and trimethoprim (Proloprim)

 Tetracyclines such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin) and doxycycline (Vibramycin)

 Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex)

Difference between antibiotics and vaccines:

Vaccines Antibiotics

Vaccines are the substances used to prevent Antibiotics are used to treat the disease.
diseases

Vaccines don’t kill pathogens Antibiotics kill pathogens

Vaccines are not used frequently and there is Antibiotics are used frequently.
proper schedule of vaccination.

Vaccines are the weakened germs or part of the Antibiotics are chemicals and don’t activate
pathogens that activate immune system. immune systems.

Example are polio vaccines, BCG and DPT Example are Cephalosporin and tetracycline.

Vaccination / Immunization / Inoculation:

 A method of exciting resistance in the human body to specific diseases using micro-organisms—
bacteria or viruses—that have been modified or killed.
o In immunization weakened or killed germs are introduced in the body.
o Which do not cause the disease, but rather trigger the body's immune system to strengthen a
defense mechanism that continuously guards against the disease.
o If a person immunized against a particular disease later comes into contact with the disease-
causing agent, the immune system is immediately able to respond defensively.

History of Vaccination:

 A significant breakthrough came in 1796 when British physician Edward Jenner discovered that he
could immunize patients against smallpox by inoculating them with material from cowpox sores.
o He prepared first vaccine.
 In 1885 Louis Pasteur created the first successful vaccine against rabies for a young boy who had
been bitten 14 times by a rabid dog.
 In 1954 Jonas Salk introduced an injectable vaccine containing an inactivated virus to counter the
epidemic of poliomyelitis.
 Subsequently, Albert Sabin made great strides in the fight against this paralyzing disease by
developing an oral vaccine containing a live weakened virus.

Vaccines:

 A vaccine is any preparation intended to produce immunity to a disease by stimulating the production
of antibodies.
 For example, vaccines includesuspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms, or products /
derivatives of microorganisms.
 The most common method of administering vaccines is by injection, but some are given by mouth or
nasal spray.

Vaccine immunity:

 Vaccines have contributed to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious and deadly
diseases known to man.
 o Other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near
as common as they were a hundred years ago.
 As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is much more difficult for an outbreak of
disease to occur, let alone spread.
o This effect is called herd immunity.
 It is the blessing of science that population as whole is now immune to certain diseases.

Vaccines effectiveness:

 Vaccines do not guarantee complete protection from a disease.

 Sometimes, this is because the host's immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all.
o This may be due to a lowered immunity in general (diabetes, steroid use, HIV infection, age)
o Because the host's immune system does not have a B cell capable of generating antibodies to that
antigen.
 Even if the host develops antibodies, the immune system might still not be able to defeat the
infection.
 On the other hand vaccine can actually cause the disease in the human body.
o The germs may overpower the body’s defence system and can be fatal.

Vaccines delivery system:

 There are several new delivery systems in development in the hope of making vaccines more efficient
to deliver.
 The latest developments in vaccine delivery technologies have resulted in oral vaccines.
 Vaccine development has several trends:
o Until recently, most vaccines were aimed at infants and children, but now adolescents and adults
are increasingly being targeted.
o New methods of administering vaccines are being developed, such as:
 Skin patches,
 Aerosols via inhalation devices,
 Eating genetically engineered plants.
 Vaccines are being designed to stimulate innate immune responses, as well as adaptive.
 Attempts are being made to develop vaccines to help cure lingering infections, as opposed to
preventing disease.
 Vaccines are being developed to defend against bioterrorist attacks such as anthrax, plague, and
smallpox.

Types of Vaccines:

There are four basic types of vaccines on the basis of materials introduced in the body.

1. Killed / Inactivated Vaccines:

 These are the preparation of the normal (wild type) infectious, pathogenic virus that has been
rendered non-pathogenic, usually by chemical treatment such as with formalin that cross links
viral proteins.

2. Attenuated / live Vaccines:

 These are live virus particles that grow in the vaccine recipient but donot cause disease;
o Because the vaccine virus has been altered (mutated) to a non-pathogenic form.

3. Sub-Unit Vaccine:

 These are purified components of the virus such as surface antigen

4. DNA Vaccine:
  These are usually harmless viruses in to which a gene for a (supposedly) protective antigen has
been spliced.
 The protective antigen is then made in the vaccine recipient to elicit an immune response.

Some Diseases and some vaccines:

Diseases Vaccines

Hepatitis-A Hepatitis-A Vaccine

Hepatitis-B Hepatitis-B Vaccine

Influenza Influenza vaccine

MMR Vaccine, MMRV Vaccine (MMR= Measles, Mumps

Measles and
and Rubella) (MMRV= Measles, Mumps, Rubella and
Mumps
Varicella)

Anthrax Anthrax Vaccine

Whooping Cough DPT, (Diphtheria Purtosis Tetanus)

Tetanus DPT (Diphtheria purtosis Tetanus)

Diphtheria DPT (Diphtheria purtosis Tetanus)

Tuberculosis BCG Vaccine (Bacillus Calmette Guerin)

Polio Myelitis Polio Vaccine

Fertilizers
 Fertilizer is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming
material) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.
 There are 16 essential elements needed by plants to grow.
 The most important of these are Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK).
o Without nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium plant simply cannot grow.
o Because it cannot make the food it needs.
 To make plant grow faster, fertilizers supply the elements that the plants need in readily available
form.

Nutrients can be classified into macro and micro nutrients.

1. Macronutrients:
 They can be broken down in two more groups.
o Primary
o Secondary
 The Primary Nutrients are nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (k).
o These major nutrients usually are lacking from the soil because plants use large amounts for
their growth and survival.
 The SecondaryNutrients are calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S).

2. Micronutrients:
 They are the elements essential for plants growth and which are needed in only very small
(micro) quantities.
 These elements are sometime called minor elements or trace elements.
  The micronutrients are Boron (B), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), chloride (Cl), Manganese (Mn),
Molybdenum (Mo), and Zinc (Zn).
 Recycling organic matter such as grass clippings and tress leaves, is an excellent way of
providing micronutrients to growing plants.

Classification:

Fertilizers (on basis mode of operation in the soil)

1. Direct Fertilizers:

 The fertilizers which are directly assimilated by the plants are called direct fertilizers.
o For example super phosphate, nitrate and ammonium compounds.
o These contain nutrient elements in the form of mineral salts which can be absorbed directly.

2. Indirect Fertilizers:

 These are substances which are introduced into the soil mainly to improve its mechanical,
chemical or biological properties.
o Ground dolomite CaMg (CO3)2 and limestoneCaCO3 are used to reduce soil acidity,
o Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O is used to improve the properties of soils with high salt content are the
examples of indirect fertilizers.

3. Complete Fertilizers:

 These contain all the principal ingredients (NPK9) for the growth of plants in the combined form,
so that an additional fertilizer is not necessary.
o Zor-Aawar and Zarkhaiz by Engro Fertilizer Ltd are the examples of complete fertilizers.

4. Incomplete Fertilizers:

 These fertilizers contain only one or two needs elements such as ammonium nitrate or potassium
chloride and provide nitrogen and potassium respectively.
 They supply only a part of the requirements.

5. Mixed Fertilizers:

 Fertilizers obtained by mechanical mixing of various fertilizers are known as mixed fertilizers.
o For example, Urea mixed with single super phosphate and potash.

6. Micro fertilizers:

 These contain the elements boron, manganese, zinc and copper needed in very small amounts to
stimulate the plant growth.

Fertilizers (on the basis of nutrient supplied)

1. Nitrogenous Fertilizers:
i. Urea: Urea contains 45% to 46% nitrogen.
ii. Anhydrous Ammonia: It contains 82% nitrogen.
iii. Ammonium Nitrate: it contains 34% nitrogen.
iv. Ammonium Sulphate: It contains only 21% nitrogen.
2. Potash Fertilizers:
i. Muriate of Potash (Potassium Chloride, KCl): It contains 50 to 60 percent potash.
ii. Sulphate of Potash (K2SO4): This contains 46 percent potash.
3. Phosphate Fertilizer:

9
NPK= Nitrogen, Phosphate, Potassium.
 i. Superphosphates: It contains 46 percent phosphate
ii. Ammonium Phosphates
o Mono-ammonium phosphate (MAP)
o Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP): DAP contains 18 percent nitrogen and 46 percent
phosphate
iii. Polyphosphates:
 Ammonium polyphosphate (APP) is a popular, effective fertilizer made with polyphosphate.

Natural vs Synthetic Fertilizers

Natural Fertilizers

 Natural fertilizers differ from chemicals fertilizer, in that; they feed plants while building the soil’s
structure.
 Another advantage of natural fertilizers is that they are made from plant and animal sources or from
rock powders.
o These materials need to be broken down by soil microbes in order for their nutrients to be
released, and that takes time.
 Because natural fertilizer works slowly, it provides long-term nutrition, rather than excessive growth.

Synthetic Fertilizers

 Chemical fertilizers work fast, they can make a bad crop look good much quicker than most natural
fertilizer can.
 However, the nutrients are released too quickly, creating a great deal of top growth before the roots
are able to catch up this kind of growth often leads to weaker plants.
 Also, because they are so rich, synthetic chemicals can easily be over applied and burn roots or
creates toxic concentration of salts.
 Chemical fertilizers will not improve the structure of the soil.
o Soils become barren and they need more and more fertilizer for continuous cultivation.

Environmental and Health Hazards of Fertilizers:

Groundwater Pollution

 When high rates of Nitrogen are used especially on sandy or permeable soils, inevitably some nitrate
is leached and may enter groundwater if there is a water table.
o If this groundwater is used for domestic supplies, it presents a serious health hazard.

Eutrophication

 Phosphates and nitrates, usually harmless, can fertilize the algae that grow in lakes or rivers.
 When algae grow, in the presence of sunlight, they produce oxygen.
 But if algae grow too much or too fast, they consume great amounts of oxygen, both when the sun is
not shining and when the algae die and begin to decay.
 Lack of oxygen eventually suffocates other life; some living things may be poisoned by toxins
contained in the algae.
 This process of algal overgrowth, called Eutrophication or algal bloom can kill aquatic life in lakes
and rivers.
 In some cases, particular algae can also poison the drinking water of people and livestock.

Soil Acidity:

 There are three major acidifying processes:

o First is the addition of nitrogen to the soil by fertilizer or fixation of atmospheric nitrogen,
followed by loss of nitrate from the soil due to leaching or run-off.
o Second is production of organic acids from decomposing organic matter
o Thirdly, removal of alkaline products such as hay from the soil.
 Pakistani soils are becoming acidic due to heavy use of nitrogenous fertilizer.

Health Hazards

 Health hazards of chemical fertilizers are birth defects, reproduction problems, liver damage, kidney
damage, Blue Baby syndrome and reduced immune response.
 Some fertilizer has been found to contain dioxin, one of the most dangerous environmental chemicals
ever identified and heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury.
 Children are most vulnerable to the toxic effects of most metals, especially lead.

Pesticides
 Pesticide is any substance or group of substances indeed for preventing, destroying or controlling
pests, including insects, rodents, fungi and unwanted plants.
 Pesticides are used in public health to kill vectors of disease, such as mosquitoes, and in agriculture,
to kill pests that damage crops.
 By their nature, pesticides are potentially toxic to other organisms, including humans, and need to be
used safely and disposed of properly.
 Pests include insects, plat pathogens, weeds, molluscs, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes and microbes
that destroy property, spread disease or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance.

Classification:

Pesticides can be classified on the basis of the following factors

1. Pest-Controlled

2. Chemical name

3. Mode of entry

Types of Pesticides:

A. Pesticides types (On the basis of target pest or Agronomic classification)

B. Pesticide Types (on the basis chemical ingredients used)

1. Inorganic
 These do not contain carbon (lead arsenate, Paris green, Sulphur, zinc phosphate)
2. Synthetic Organic:

i. Organophosphate Pesticides:

 These pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting the enzyme that regulates
acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter, most organophosphates are insecticides.

ii. Carbamate Pesticides:

 These affect the nervous system by disrupting an enzyme that relates acetylcholine, a
neurotransmitter.
iii. Organochlorine Insecticides:
 These were commonly used in the past, but many have been persistence e.g. DDT and
chlordane.

iv. Pyrethroid Pesticides:

  These were developed as a synthetic version of the naturally occurring pesticide pyrenthrin,
which is found in chrysanthemums.
 They have been modified to increase their stability in the environment.
 Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to the nervous system.

3. Biorational

These are derived from various biological sources.

i. Bio-pesticides:

 These are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants,
bacteria and certain minerals.
o For example, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal applications and are
considered Biopesticides.

ii. Microbial Pesticides:


These consist of a micro-organism e.g. a bacterium, fungus, virus kinds of pets, although
each separate active ingredient is relatively specific for its target pest.
o For example, there are fungi that control certain weeds, and other fungi that kill
specific insects.
C. Insecticide Classification Based on Mode of Entry

1. Stomach Poison –

 Insecticide enters the body through the mouth of the pest and acts in the stomach.

2. Contact Poison –

 Toxic action is through direct contact on the cuticle of the pest.

 Insecticides enter the body through the integument into the blood or into the respiratory
system through the spiracles.

3. Fumigant Poison –

 These are volatile poisons that enter the body through the respiratory system.

Advantages of Pesticides

1. Cost-effectiveness:

 Pesticides are an economical way of controlling pests.

 They require low labor input and allow large areas to be treated quickly and effectively.
 It has been estimated that there is a four-fold return on every Rupee a farmer spends on
pesticides.

2. Flexibility:

 A suitable pesticides is available for almost all pest problems with variation in type,
activity and persistence.

3. Quality, Quantity and Price of Produce:

 Using pesticides means there is a plentiful supply and variety of high quality products at
reasonable prices.
 Modern society demands nutritious food free from damage caused by pests and flowers
which look untouched.
 This would be very difficult without pesticides.
 4. Prevention of problem:

 Pesticides are often used to stop the spread of pests in imports and exports, preventing
weeds in gardens and protecting house and furniture from destruction.

5. Protection of pets and humans:

 Under the blanket of pesticides is pet flea products, fly and insect spray and other
household products which make life bearable.

6. Protection of the environment:

 Currently, weeds are controlled by herbicides, but without them, land would need to be
cultivated, increasing land degradation.

The Pesticide Problem: Hazards of Pesticides

1. Pesticides create secondary pest problems:

 Chemical insecticides are rarely selective and kill a large number of insects, including the
good ones.
 The environment created by indiscriminate insecticide use often allows other insects to
rapidly increase in number because no natural enemies (beneficial insects) remain to prevent
the population explosion.

2. Pesticides invoke resistance:

 Insect pests have an uncanny ability to develop resistance to conventional insecticides.

 Currently, they are more than 500 insect pest and mite species that have shown
resistance.

3. The economics of pesticide use:

 The combination of secondary pest outbreaks, insect resistance, government regulations

and legal battles over safety and the environment have caused the cost of chemical
insecticides to rise dramatically.

4. Environmental and social costs:

 Pesticides indirectly cost a lot if we include factors like: Domestic animal deaths and
contamination, honeybee and pollinations losses, groundwater contamination, bird and
fishery losses.

5. Drift of sprays and vapour:

 Pesticides can affect other areas during applications and can cause severe problems in
different crops, livestock, waterways and the general environment.
 Wildlife and fish are the most affected. Taking special note of weather conditions can
reduce drift.

6. Residues in food:

 There is possibility of pesticides in human food, either by direct application onto the
food, or by bio-magnification along the food line.
 Not all levels of pesticides are undesirable but unnecessary and dangerous levels must be
avoided through good agricultural practices.

7. Groundwater Contamination:

 Chemicals can reach underground aquifers if there is persistent product use in agricultural
areas.
 8. Poisoning hazards:

 Pesticide operators can risk poisoning through excessive exposure if safe handling
procedure are not followed and protective clothing is not worn.
 Poisoning risks depend on dose, toxicity, duration of exposure and sensitivity

9. Suicidal agent:

 Pesticides are used as a suicidal agent.

 So extremes care is needed for their handling and storage.

10. Pesticides and Human Health:

 Pesticides have been linked to a wide range of human health hazards, ranging from short-
term impacts such as headaches and nausea to chronic impacts like cancer, reparative
harm and endocrine disruption.
 Acute dangers such as nerve, skin and eye irritations and damage, headaches, dizziness,
nausea, fatigue and systemic poisoning – can sometimes be dramatic and even
occasionally fatal.

The Solution to Pesticides:

1. Cultural Controls:

 It involves manipulation of the environment to favor beneficial insects or inhibit pests.

 For this, changes can include adjusting soil pH, watering practices, amount of sunlight or
selecting pest-resistant plants.

2. Mechanical Control:

 It includes a wide variety of tools that remove, trap or exclude pests.

 These methods include copper tape for slugs, yellow sticky traps for aphids, or even
hand-picking.

3. Beneficial Insects:

 These predatory and parasitic insects attack and destroy only pests.
 They are harmless to people, plants and pets.

4. Biological Pesticides:

 These are either living organisms like parasites, predators and pathogens or are the toxins
produced by them.
 Biological pesticides have very little or no effect on human beings.

5. Botanical Insecticides:

 Derived from plants, these organic pesticides provide a quick “knock down” to a large
number of pests.
 They are powerful insecticides, but non-selective usually biodegrade much more quickly
than their chemical cousins.

6. Try to use the least toxic pesticide:

 That will work and apply it correctly.

 Reduce your exposure to chemicals by wearing and using the proper clothing and
equipment.
 Be careful when mixing chemicals.

7. Protect desirable plants:

 Insects, soil and the water table from exposure and contamination.
 Avoid pesticide drift and runoff.