Natural Hazards and Disaster

Earthquake
Earthquake is shaking of the Earth’s surfaces caused by rapid movement of the Earth’s rocky outer
layer.

Earthquakes occur when energy stored within the earth is released suddenly. Energy is usually
stored in the form of strain in rocks. This energy is transmitted to the surface of the Earth by
earthquake waves.

Anatomy of Earthquake:

Focus and Epicenter:

The point within the earth along the rupturing geological fault where an earthquake originates is
called the focus, or hypocenter.

The point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the epicenter.

Earthquake Waves

The sudden movement of rocks along a fault causes vibrations that transmit energy through the
earth in the form of waves.

Waves that travel in the rocks below the surfaces of Earth are called body waves, and there are two
types of body waves: primary or P waves and secondary or S waves.

The S waves, also known as shearing waves, move the ground back and forth.
Seismograph

Seismograph is advice that measures and records the seismic waves produced by Earthquakes and
earth vibrations.

Earthquake Measurement

Earthquake can be measured through

 Measuring its magnitude – the amount of the ground shaking as the quake pass. Magnitude is
measured on Richter scale
 Through intensity – the impact of an earthquake on the cultural landscape on people, their
activities and structures. Intensity is measured on the Mercalli scale.

Causes or Theories of Earthquakes

A number of factors cause earthquakes. The major causes of earthquakes include:

1. Plate Tectonic Theory

2. Volcanic activity
3. Isostatic adjustment
4. Accumulation of water
5. Local causes

Plate Tectonics Theory

Tectonics comes from the Greek word, tektonikos which means builder.

Scientists believe that the lithosphere is broken into a series of plates or segments. According to
the theory, large crustal plates of the zone above the asthenosphere, called the lithosphere, move
about the surface of the earth, gliding on the weaker asthenosphere.

The theory states that Earth is broken into 7 large plates and several minor plates.

These plates move in three different ways in relation to each other. These are

1. Convergent: They collide or move against each other

2. Divergent: They pull apart or move away from each other.
 3. Lateral or sideswiping: They slide past each other as they move sideways.

The movements of these plates helps explain many geological events such as earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions as well as mountain-building and the formation of the oceans and continents.

Volcanic Activity:
The flow of hot magma or lave in erupting volcanoes causes earthquakes.

These quakes happen to be localized and seldom cause any extensive damage.

Relationship between volcanoes and earthquakes:

 earthquake occurs at the theme of volcanic eruptions

 sometimes earthquakes cause of volcanic eruptions.

Isostatic Adjustment
The maintenance of the hydrostatic equilibrium of the earth’s crust is called isostasy. In simplest
terms, the addition of a significant amount of weight onto a portion of crust will cause it to sink,
whereas the removal of a massive weight will allow the crust to rise, in a sort of balancing reaction.
So, according to the theory of isostasy, some causes or combination of causes, continuously
depresses the region of deposition and raises the region of erosion. Thus lowering and rising of the
earth’s crust cause earthquakes.

Accumulation of Water:
Whenever there is a large scale accumulation of water, it causes stress in the underlying rocks.
When stress causes to exceed rupture strength, rocks are broken and sudden vibrations take place I
form of an earthquake. Such earthquakes are associated with dams, lakes and tanks.
Local Causes:
Minor earthquakes take place due to local causes, such as landslides and sudden collapse of caves.
Moreover, heavy traffic, mining and atomic tests can also cause local shaking of the earth.

Distribution of Earthquakes:

It is interesting to know that 80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt and most of this
result from convergent margin activity. While 15% occur in the Mediterranean Asiatic belt remaining
5% occur in the interiors of plates.

Volcanoes:
A volcano is a place on the earth’s surface where molten rock, gases and pyroclastic debris erupt
through the earth’s crust.

Volcanoes vary quite a bit in their structure – some are cracks in the earth’s crust where lava erupts,
and some are dome, shields or mountain-like structures with a crated at the summit.

Magma is molten rock within the earth’s crust. When magma erupts through the earth’s surface, it
is called lava.

Lava can be thick and slow-moving or thin and fast-moving.

Volcanic eruptions can cause great damage and the loss of life and property.

The word volcano comes from the Roman god of fire and metal working Vulcan.

Causes of Volcanism

The predominant causes of volcanism include:

 Plate Tectonics
 Percolation of water
 High temperature and pressure
 Earthquakes

Distribution of Volcanoes

There are more than 1500 active volcanoes on earth. The world’s largest, active volcano is Mauna
Loa in Hawaii. Mauna Loa is 13,677 feet above sea level.

 The Pacific Ring of Fire is an area of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions encircling
the basin of the Pacific Ocean. The Ring of Fire has 452 volcanoes and is home to over 75%
of the world’s active and dormant volcanoes. (National Geographic)
 Eurasian Belt consists of Italy and Eastern Mediterranean region. This belt spreads through
Italy to Armenia, Iran, Pakistan and Myanmar
 Atlantic Belt consists of West Indies and the Islands of Eastern Atlantic from Iceland to ST.
Helena which all are of volcanic origin.

Type of Volcanoes

On the bases of their activity, volcanoes can be classified as

 Active
  Dormant
 Extinct

Volcanoes that erupt regularly are called active,

Those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet are called dormant or inactive,

Those have not erupted in historical times are called extinct volcanoes.

Tsunami
Tsunami, Japanese word meaning “harbor wave,” used as the scientific term for a class of abnormal
sea wave that can cause catastrophic damage when it hits a coastline.

Tsunamis can be generated by:

 An undersea earthquake,
 An undersea landslide,
 The eruption of an undersea volcano,
 By the force of an asteroid crashing into the ocean.

Note: The most frequent cause of tsunamis is an undersea earthquake.

When the ocean floor is uplifted or offset during an earthquake, a set of waves is created similar to
the concentric waves generated by an object dropped into the water.

Most tsunamis originate along the Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanoes and seismic activity, 32,500 km
(24,000 miles) long, which encircles the Pacific Ocean.

Since 1819, about 40 tsunamis have struck the Hawaiian Islands.

A tsunami can have wavelengths, or widthsof 100 to 200 km (60 to 120 mi).

It may travel hundreds of kilometers across the deep ocean, reaching speeds of about 725 to 800
km/h (about 450 to 500 mph).

A tsunami is not one wave but a series of waves.

In the deep ocean, the waves may be only about half a meter (a foot or two) high.

People on-board a ship passing over it would not even notice the tsunami.

Upon entering shallow coastal waters, however, the waves may suddenly grow rapidly in height.

When the waves reach the shore, they may be 15 m (50 ft) high or more.

Tsunamis can also take the form of a very fast tide or bore, depending on the shape of the
sea floor.

Tsunamis are sometimes called tidal waves, but they have nothing to do with the gravitational
forces that cause tides.

Floods:
High-water stage in which water overflows its natural or artificial banks onto normally dry land, such
as a river inundating its floodplain.
The effects of floods on human well-being range from unqualified blessings to catastrophes.

This can happen in a multitude of ways.

 Most common is when rivers or streams overflow their banks.

 Excessive rain,
 A ruptured dam or levee,
 Rapid ice melting in the mountains,
 An unfortunately placed beaver dam can overwhelm a river and send it spreading
over the adjacent land, called a floodplain.
 Coastal flooding occurs when a large storm or tsunami causes the sea to surge inland.

Flood in Pakistan:
2010

In 2010 Pakistan was struck by its worst ever natural disaster, one fifth of the country was inundated
by floodwater causing massive damage to infrastructure.

Unprecedented monsoon rains caused flooding of the Indus river, starting in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
spreading South through Punjab, Balochistan and Sindh.

At its worst the flood waters covered roughly one-fifth of Pakistan’s land area

18 million people were affected

1,985 people killed

12 million people’s homes were damaged or destroyed

2.2 million hectares of crops were destroyed

10,000 schools damaged or destroyed

450,000 livestock lost

2014

In the first week of September 2014, heavy monsoon rains and floods in the catchment areas of
India's eastern rivers of Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Jhelum, resulted in flash floods in Punjab, Gilgit
Baltistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJ&K).

The floods killed 367 people and affected more than 2.5 million people, and 129,880 houses were
damaged or destroyed.

Over 1 million acres of cropland and 250,000 farmers were affected, in most cases resulting in the
loss of standing food, fodder or cash crops.

Non-farm sources of livelihoods and services affected include many small enterprises, manufacturing
and processing businesses and loss of wage employment due to disruption of the economy.

Avalanche
Avalanche, sudden flow of a large mass of snow or ice down a slope or cliff, sometimes at speeds
exceeding 160 km/h (100 mph).
Avalanches are most common on slopes exceeding 30°, frequently when a deep snow falls suddenly
and does not have a chance to adhere, or when a warmer weather undercuts a blanket of older
snow.

There are various kinds of avalanches, including:

Rock avalanches: It consist of large segments of shattered rock), ice avalanches (which
typically occur in the vicinity of a glacier.

Debris avalanches: It contain a variety of unconsolidated materials, such as loose stones and
soil.

Snow avalanches, the subject of the remainder of this article, constitute a relatively common
phenomenon in many mountainous areas.

Avalanches are set off by a combination of factors, including:

 Temperature,
 Shearing of creeping snow masses,
 Sudden vibrations, including loud noises.

Flows of wind-packed slabs of snow can be especially hazardous.

Snow patrols in mountain areas reduce the hazard by detonating strategically placed explosives that
cause smaller, less destructive flows.

A landslide is a similar massive movement of rock and soil.

Avalanches kill about 150 people a year in North America and Europe.

Avalanche in Pakistan:
On 7 April 2012, an avalanche hit a Pakistani military base near the disputed Siachen Glacier region.

On 29 May 2012, Pakistan declared that the 129 soldiers and 11 civilians were dead.

Cyclone and Anticyclone

A cyclone is a storm or system of winds that rotates around the center of low atmospheric pressure.

An anticyclone is a system of wind that rotates around center of high atmospheric pressure.

Distinctive weather patterns tend to be associated with both cyclones and anticyclones.

 Cyclones commonly known as lows are generally indicators of rain, clouds and other
forms of bad weather.
 Anticyclones commonly known as highs are predicators of fair weather.

Winds in cyclone blow:

 Counter clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere

 Clockwise in the Sothern Hemisphere.

Winds in an anticyclone blow just the opposite of cyclone pattern.

Types of Cyclone:
1. Tropical Cyclone:
Cyclones that form over warm tropical oceans are called tropical cyclones.

Tropical cyclones usually move toward the west with the flow of trade winds.

Cyclones that developing the regions between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer are called
tropical cyclones.

Tropical cyclones are large-scale weather systems developing over tropical or subtropical
waters, where they get organized into surface wind circulation.

The tropics can be defined as the area of the Earth found between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° North)
and the Tropic Capricorn (23.5° South).

2. Extratropical / Middle latitude / Temperate /waveCyclone:

It occurs in temperate zones and high latitude regions, though they are known to originate in
the Polar Regions.

Mid-latitude cyclones are the result of the dynamic interaction of warm tropical and cold polar air
masses at the polar front.

This interaction causes the warm air to be cyclonically lifted vertically into the atmosphere where
it combines with colder upper atmosphere air.

This process also helps to transport excess energy from the lower latitudes to the higher latitudes.

Mid-latitude cyclones can produce a wide variety of precipitation types. Precipitation types
include: rain, freezing rain, hail, sleet, snow pellets, and snow.

Frozen forms of precipitation (except hail) are common with storms that occur in the winter months.

Hail is associated with severe thunderstorms that form along or in front of cold fronts during spring
and summer months.

3. Tornado:
A tornado is a violently-rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the Earth
and a cumulonimbus cloud or in rare cases the base of cumulus cloud”.

They are often referred to as twister or cyclones, although the world cyclone is used in meteorology,
in a wider sense, to name any closed low pressure circulation of wind.

Most tornadoes have wind miles before dissipating.

The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour (480 km/h),
stretch more than two miles across and stay on the ground for more than 100km.

Various types of tornadoes include the landspout, multiple vortex tornado and waterspout.

Hurricanes and Typhoons

A tropical cyclone that drastically increases in intensity is knows as a hurricane when it occurs in the
Atlantic Ocean or adjacent seas.
To be classified as a Hurricane, a tropical cyclone must produce winds over 74 miles per hour.

Hurricanes usually generate off the coast of West Africa and move westward toward Central
America and the eastern Unites States.

In addition to this, sustained winds, hurricanes deliver heavy rain and devastating ocean waves.

Hurricanes are called by different names in other parts of the world.

When they happen over the North Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico or
the Northeast Pacific Ocean, they are called Hurricanes.

Storms that happen over the northwest Pacific Ocean and west of the International Date
Line are called typhoons.

Hurricanes near Australia in the Indian Ocean are called tropical cyclones.

Sometimes people of Australia call them willy-willies.

Drought:
Drought is condition of abnormally dry weather within a geographic region where some rain might
usually be expected.

A drought is thus quite different from a dry climate, which designates a region that is normally, or at
least seasonally, dry.

The term drought is applied to a period in which an unusual scarcity of rain causes a serious
hydrological imbalance:

 Water-supply reservoirs empty,

 Wells dry up,
 Crop damage ensues.

The severity of the drought is gauged by the degree of moisture deficiency, its duration, and the size
of the area affected.

Classification:
If the drought is brief, it is known as a dry spell, or partial drought1.

Catastrophic droughts generally occur at latitudes of about 15°-20°, in areas bordering the
permanently arid regions of the world.

Precaution measures:
Although drought cannot be reliably predicted, certain precautions can be taken in drought-risk
areas. These include;

 Construction of reservoirs to hold emergency water supplies,

 Education to avoid over cropping and overgrazing,
 Programs to limit settlement in drought-prone areas.

1
Partial drought is usually defined as more than 14 days without appreciable precipitation, whereas a drought
may last for years.
Drought in Pakistan:
Drought in Pakistan has become a frequent phenomenon in the country.

The drought of 1998–2002 is considered worst in 50 years.

According to a report issued by the Economic Survey of Pakistan, the drought is one of the
factors responsible for poor growth performance.

Balochistan especially the western and central parts of the province remain in the grip of
drought almost all year round.

If the monsoon season fails to deliver rains then drought emerges.

People of Thar in Sindh, Pakistan have witnessed a disastrous drought in 2014, whichaffected their
lives entirely.

It is reported that nearly 121 have died during the drought in the last three months,
according to the Mithi taluka hospital.

Affected Areas. Mithi, Chachro, Dahli, Diplo, Islamkot and Nagar Parkar (19,638 Sq Km).

Types of drought:
The three types are briefly described as under:-

Meteorological Drought:
Meteorological drought involves a reduction in rainfall over a region for a specified period below a
specified amount, usually defined as some proportion (percentage) of the long term average for the
specified time period.

Hydrological Drought:
This involves a reduction in water resources (stream flows, reservoir levels, ground water,
underground aquifers etc) below a specified level for a given period of time.

Agricultural Drought:
This emerges due to the impact of Meteorological and Hydrological droughts on a particular area of
human activity.
Wild fire:

It is uncontrolled blazes, fueled by weather, wind, and dry underbrush. (NatGeo)

A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside
area.

Wildfires can burn acres of land—and consume everything in their paths—in mere minutes.

Also called brush fire, bush fire, forest fire, desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire,
vegetation fire, and veldfire may be used to describe the same phenomenon depending on the
type of vegetation being burned.

Conditions: Fire triangle

There are three conditions that need to be present in order for a wildfire to burn, which
firefighters refer to as the fire triangle: fuel, oxygen, and a heat source.

Although four out of five wildfires are started by people, nature is usually more than happy to help
fan the flames.

Process:
 Dry weather and drought convert green vegetation into bone-dry, flammable fuel;
 Strong winds spread fire quickly over land;
 Finally, warm temperatures encourage combustion.
 When these factors come together all that's needed is a spark—in the form of
lightning, arson, a downed power line, or a burning campfire or cigarette—to ignite a
blaze.

Impact on ecosystem:
Small-scale, periodic wildland fires can actually improve the health, resilience, and productivity of an
ecosystem.

When these fires do not occur often enough, however, flammable vegetation can build up,
leading to a large-scale fire that harms plant and animal species.

Education and regular patrols of campgrounds help prevent or control many of the fires
caused by people.

Intentionally setting controlled, small-scale fires prevents fuel from building up.

Wildfires in Pakistan:
Forest fires in Margalla Hills in Islamabad in 2013

The northern regions of Pakistan and AJK are prone to forest fires.

Urban fires
Urban fires can be caused maliciously, by accident, or as the result of an unforeseen ignition.

For example by an electrical, mechanical, or chemical process.

Causes:
 Fires may also result of a natural cause such as earthquakes or lightning.
 Most of our fires occur in the kitchen due to cooking carelessness, like unattended cooking,
spreading to vegetation and ultimately to property.
 While living in a city may not increase the risk of fire, demographic changes including the
growing numbers of older adults, people with disabilities, immigrants and people living in
poverty may impact fire safety in the city.
 Another problem is urban areas are often located close to manufacturing and primary
production
 CNG gas stations are installed in all urban areas and the gas is also sold at small stores for
household use.
 Sale of petroleum products within residential areas is also common in cities.
 These practices pose major fire risk in urban areas, while urban services are generally poorly
equipped to fight these risks.

Safety Measure:
 Factories should be out of residential areas especially chemical factories.
 Maintaining proper fire exits and proper exit signage (e.g., exit signs pointing to them that can
function in a power failure)
 Compliance with electrical codes to prevent overheating and ignition from electrical faults or
problems such as poor wire insulation or overloading wiring.
 Placing and maintaining the correct type of fire extinguishers in easily accessible places.
 Prohibiting flammable materials in certain areas of the facility.
 Maintaining fire alarm systems for detection and warning of fire.
 Maintaining a high level of training and awareness of occupants and users of the building
such as, the propping open of fire doors.
 Conducting random fire drills throughout the year.

Urban fire incidents in Pakistan:

2012: Baldia town garment factory incident in Karachi

2014: Timber market fire incident in Karachi

2014: PTCL building fire incident in Lahore.

2010: Bolton market tragedy in Light house, Karachi

Disaster Risk Management:

Disaster
"A serious disruption of the functioning of society,causing widespread human, material or
environmentallosses which exceed the ability ofaffected society to cope using only its own
resources."

Risk
It is defined as the combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.
Disaster risk
The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur
to a particular community or a society over some specified future time period.

Disaster Risk Management

The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and
capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the
adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.

Comment:

 This term is an extension of the more general term “risk management” to address the specific
issue of disaster risks.
 Disaster risk management aims to avoid, lessen or transfer the adverse effects of hazards
through activities and measures for prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

(Source: UNISDR Website)

Hazards
Pakistan’s exposure to natural hazards and disasters could be ranked between moderate to severe.

Natural hazards including avalanches, cyclones and storms, droughts,earthquakes,

epidemics, floods, glacial lake outbursts, landslides, pest attacks, rivererosion and tsunami
pose risks to Pakistani society.

A variety of human-induced hazardsalso threaten the society, economy and environment.

They include industrial, transport,oil spills, urban and forest fires, civil conflicts and internal
displacements ofcommunities.

High priority hazards in terms of their frequency and scale of impact are: earthquakes, droughts,
flooding, Wind Storms and Landslides that have causedwidespread damage and losses in the past.

Government institutions currently working on disaster risk management in Pakistan:

For Mitigation / Prevention:
i. Federal Flood Commission
ii. Provincial Irrigation Departments
iii. Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA)/ Dams safety council

For Preparedness and Response:

i. Civil Defence
ii. Emergency Relief Cell
iii. Fire Services
iv. National Crisis Management Cell (NCMC)
v. Pakistan Meteorological Department
vi. Provincial Food Departments
vii. Provincial Health Departments
viii. Provincial Relief Commissioners
ix. Rescue 1122
x. Space and Upper Atmospheric Research Commission (SUPARCO)
For Recovery & Reconstruction:
i. Earthquake Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Authority (ERRA)
ii. Provincial Irrigation Departments.