ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

1. INTRODUCTION

 The operation of many types of electrical devices is based partially on

magnetic or electromagnetic principles
 Basic principles in magnetism and electromagnetism – magnetic field,
magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, magnetic quantity and units, magnetic
hysteresis, electromagnetic induction.

2. THE MAGNETIC FIELD

 Magnetic field: a force field that acts on some materials, also known as
magnetism
 Magnet: physical devices that possess magnetic field
 A permanent magnet – has a magnetic field surrounding it
 Magnetic field – consists of lines of force, or flux lines, that radiate from
the north pole (N) to the south pole (S) and back to the north pole through the
magnetic material
 This effectively forms a continuous magnetic field surrounding the magnet

Fig. 6.1: Magnetic lines of force around a bar magnet

 When unlike poles of two permanent

magnets are placed together, an
attractive force is produced by the
magnetic fields
 When two like poles are brought close
together, they repel each other

Fig. 6.2: Attracting poles

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Fig. 6.3: Repelling poles

 When nonmagnetic material (e.g. paper, glass, wood, plastic) is placed in a

magnetic field, the lines of force are unaltered
 When a magnetic material (e.g. iron) is placed in the magnetic field, the lines
of force tend to change course and pass through the iron rather than through
the surrounding air
 Reason – the iron provides a magnetic path that is more easily established
than that of air
  the iron would easily attracted to the magnet

Fig. 6.4: Effect of nonmagnetic and magnetic materials on a magnetic field

 Magnetic flux: the group of force lines going from the north pole to the south
pole of a magnet
 Symbol:  (phi)
 The number of lines of force in a magnetic field determines the value of the
flux (the more the lines of force, the greater the flux and the stronger the
magnetic field)
 Unit: weber (Wb), where 1 Wb = 108 lines
 Since weber is a very large unit, thus in most practical situations, microweber
is used (1 µWb = 100 lines)
 Magnetic flux density: the amount of flux per unit area perpendicular to the
magnetic field.
 Symbol: B, unit: tesla (T)

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 Equation:

B
A
where  = flux
A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic field (m2)

2.1 How materials become magnetized

 Ferromagnetism: phenomenon by which a material can exhibit a spontaneous

magnetization
 Ferromagnetic materials (e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt) become magnetized when
placed in the magnetic field of a magnet
 E.g. permanent magnet pick up paper clips, nails, iron fillings, etc
 In these cases, the object becomes magnetized (i.e. becomes a magnet itself)
under the influence of the permanent magnetic field and becomes attracted to
the magnet
 When removed from the magnetic field, the object tends to lose its magnetism

Fig. 6.5: Ferromagnetic domains in (a) an unmagnetized and (b) a magnetized material

 Phenomena – ferromagnetic materials have magnetic domains created

within their atomic structure by the orbital motion and spin of electrons
 Domains – can be viewed as very small bar magnets with north and south
poles
 When the material is not exposed to an external magnetic field, the
magnetic domains are randomly oriented
 When the material is placed in a magnetic field, the domains aligned
themselves, thus becomes a magnet
 Application: magnetic switch, alarm system

3. ELECTROMAGNETISM

 Electromagnetism: the production of a magnetic field by current in a

conductor
 Conductor: a material which contains movable electric charges in which an
electric current can be produced

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 Principle – when an electric potential difference is impressed across separate

points on a conductor, the mobile charges within the conductor are forced to
move, and an electric current between those points appears in accordance with
Ohm’s law; metallic and non-metallic
 Insulators: non-conducting materials
 Current – produces an electromagnetic field around a conductor

Fig. 6.6: Magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor

 Although magnetic field – cannot be seen – capable of producing visible

effects

Fig. 6.7: (a) A current-carrying wire – inserted through a sheet of paper in

perpendicular direction, iron fillings placed on the surface of the paper arrange
themselves along the magnetic lines of force in concentric rings
(b) The north pole of a compass placed in the electromagnetic field will point in
the direction of the lines of force

 The field is stronger closer to the conductor and becomes weaker with
increasing distance from the conductor
 Direction of the lines of force can be determine from the left-hand rule
 For parallel conductors:
a) The conductors repel with each other when the currents are in
opposite directions.

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

b) The conductors attract with each other when the currents are in
the same direction.

 Several important electromagnetic properties:

a) Permeability, µ
- mechanical property of a material
- higher the permeability, the more easily a magnetic field can be established
- permeability of a vacuum, µo = 4  x 10-7
- relative permeability of a material, µr = µ / µo
b) Reluctance, 
- opposition to the establishment of a magnetic field in a material
- equation:
 =l/µA

where l = length of magnetic path

µ = permeability
A = cross-sectional area of the material

 Electromagnetic coil:
- The magnetic field – produced by a straight wire – not very strong
- Stronger field – produced by coiling wires around a piece of soft iron
- Also known as solenoid
- Shape of magnetic field – same as bar magnet

- The soft iron inside the coil makes the magnetic field stronger because it
becomes a magnet itself when the current is flowing
- Soft iron is used because it loses its magnetism
as soon as the current stops flowing (temporary magnet)
- In this way, the electromagnet can be switched on and off
by turning the electricity on and off
- The strength of the magnetic field around the coil can be increased by:
1. Using a soft iron core.

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

2. Using more turns of wire on the coil.

3. Using a bigger current.
- Reversing the direction of the current will reverse the magnetic field direction.

 Magnetomotive force (mmf): force that produces the magnetic field

 Unit: ampere-turn (At)
 Equation:
Fm = NI
Where Fm = magnetomotive force
N = number of turns of wire
I = current in amperes

 Ohm’s law for magnetic circuits:

Fm



Where flux, (  ), is analogous to current, the mmf ( Fm ) is analogous to voltage

and the reluctance, (  ) is analogous to resistance.

4. ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES

 Solenoid
- solenoid: type of electromagnetic device that
has a movable iron core called a plunger
- movement of this iron core depends on both
an electromagnetic field and a mechanical
spring force
- basic structure – consists of a cylindrical coil of wire wound around a
nonmagnetic hollow form; a stationary iron core is fixed in position at the end
of the shaft, and a sliding iron core is attached to the stationary core with a
spring

- at-rest (unenergized) state – plunger – extended as shown:

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

- solenoid – energized by the current through the coil

- current sets up an electromagnetic field that magnetizes both iron cores
- the south pole of the stationary core attracts the north pole of the movable
core, which causes it to slide inward, thus retracting the plunger and
compressing the spring
- as long as there is coil current, the plunger remains retracted by the attractive
force of the magnetic fields
- when the current is cut off, the magnetic fields collapse; and the force of the
compressed spring pushes the plunger back out
- application – opening and closing valves; automobile door locks

 Relay
- Differ from solenoids – electromagnetic action used to open / close electrical
contacts rather than to provide mechanical movement
- Relay – consists of two circuits
- Circuit 1 is a simple electromagnet which requires only a small current.
- When the switch is closed, current flows and the iron rocker arm is attracted
to the electromagnet.
- The arm rotates about the central pivot and pushes the contacts together.
Circuit 2 is now switched on.
- Circuit 2 may have a large current flowing through it, to operate powerful
motor or very bright lights.

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

- When the switch is opened the electromagnet releases the rocker arm and the
spring moves the contacts apart. Circuit 2 is now switched off.
- The advantage of using a relay is that a small current (circuit 1) can be used to
switch on and off a circuit with a large current (circuit 2).
- This is useful for two reasons:
(i) circuit 1 may contain a component which only uses small currents,
(ii) only the high current circuit needs to be made from thick wire.
- Application - operate the starter motor in cars and the heating circuit in diesel
engines.

5. MAGNETIC HYSTERISIS

 Magnetizing force, H, in a material: magnetomotive force per unit length of

the material
 Unit: ampere-turns per meter (At/m)
F
 Equation: H  m

where H = magnetizing force
Fm = magnetomotive force (Fm = NI)
l = length of the material
 H – depends on the number of turns of the coil of wire, current through coil,
length of material

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Fm
 Since   , as Fm  increases, the flux increases;  H increases


 Recall that B  ,  B is also proportional to H
A
 The B-H relationship – showed by a B-H curve, also known as the hysteresis
curve

Fig. 6.8: Parameters that determine the magnetizing force (H) and the flux density (B)

 Hysteresis: characteristic of a magnetic material whereby a change in

magnetization lags the application of a magnetizing force
 Figures below illustrates the development of hysteresis curve:
a) Start by assuming a
magnetic core is unmagnetized (B =
0). As the magnetizing force (H) is
increased from zero, the flux density
(B) increases proportionally. When H
reached a certain value, the value of
B begins to level off.

b) As H continues to increase, B
reaches a saturation value (Bsat) when
H reaches a value (Hsat). Once
saturation is reached, a further
increase in H will not increase B.

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

c) If H is decreased to zero, B
will fall back along a different path
to a residual value (BR). This
indicates that the material continues
to be magnetized even with the
magnetizing force removed (H = 0).
The ability of the material, once
magnetized, to maintain a
magnetized state without the
presence of a magnetizing force is
called retentivity.

d) Reversal of the magnetizing force is

represented b negative values of H on
the curve and is achieved by reversing
the current in the coil of wire. An
increase in H in negative direction
causes saturation to occur at a value
(-Hsat) where the flux density is at its
maximum negative value.

e) When the magnetizing

force is removed (H=0), the flux
density goes to its negative residual
values (-BR).

f) From the –BR value, the flux density

follows the curve back to its maximum
positive value when the magnetizing
force equals Hsat in the positive direction.

g) The complete B-H

curve, called as the hysteresis
curve. The magnetizing force
required to make the flux
density zero is called the
coercive force, Hc.

6. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

 When a magnetic field is moved past a stationary conductor, there is a relative

motion, known as the induced voltage, vind, which across the conductor
 Amount of induced voltage depends on the rate at which the conductor and
the magnetic field move with respect to each other (the faster the relative
motion, the greater the induced voltage)

Fig. 6.9: Relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field

 If the conductor is moved first one way and then another in the magnetic field,
a reversal of the polarity of the induced voltage will be observed
 When the relative motion of the conductor is downward, a voltage is induced
with the polarity indicated in Fig. 6.10(a). When the relative motion of the
conductor is upward, the polarity is as indicated in part (b) of the figure

Fig. 6.10: Polarity of induced voltage depends on direction of motion of the conductor
relative to the magnetic field

 When a load resistor is connected to the conductor, the voltage induced by the
relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field will cause a
current on the load, called the induced current (iind)

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Fig. 6.11: Induced current (iind) in a load as the conductor moves through the
magnetic field

 Figure below shows a current inward through a wire in a magnetic field:

Fig. 6.12: Forces on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field (a) Upward force:
weak field above, strong field below; (b) Downward force: strong field above, weak field
below

 The electromagnetic field set up by the current interacts with the permanent
magnetic field, as a result, the permanent lines of force above the wire tend to
be deflected down under the wire because they are opposite in direction to the
electromagnetic lines of force. Therefore, the flux density above is reduced,
and the magnetic field is weakened. The flux density below the conductor is
increased, and the magnetic field is strengthened. An upward force on the
conductor results, and the conductor tends to move toward the weaker
magnetic field.
 Figure (b) shows the current outward, resulting in a force on the conductor in
the downward direction.
 Michael Faraday – discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction in
1831 (moving a magnet through a coil of wire induced a voltage across the
coil)
 Faraday’s observation:
a) the amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic field with respect to the coil
b) the amount of voltage induced in a coil is directly proportional to
the number of turns of wire in the coil
 Faraday’s law: the voltage induced across a coil of wire equals the number of
turns in the coil times the rate of change of the magnetic flux

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 ENT 163 FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Fig. 6.13: Faraday’s first observation

Fig. 6.14: Faraday’s second observation (a) Magnet moves through a coil and induces a
voltage, (b) Magnet moves at the same rate through a coil with more turns (loops) and
induces a greater voltage

 Heinrich F. E. Lenz – defines the polarity or direction of the induced voltage

 Lenz’s law: when the current through a coil changes, the polarity of the
induced voltage created by the changing magnetic field is such that it always
opposes the change in current that caused it.
 Application of electromagnetic induction – DC generator, DC motors

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