Science Reviewer

Earth- 4.5 billion years old, approximately 1/3 of the age of the universe.
Nebula Theory- it was form at the same time as well as the other members of
the solar system by accretion of the solar nebula.
The nebula collapsed due to its gravity and it form into a disk. Other materials
were pulled toward s the center, forming the sun. While other materials
collided and stuck together forming the large bodies called the eight planets.
Moon- one very large collision is believed to have caused the tilting of the
planet earth and the formation of its satellite.
Eventually, the hot Earth cooled down and its surface solidified to a crust.
As a result of the cooling process, iron and sulphur sank inside the earth while
lighter materials such as silicate and water floated near Earth’s surface.
Water evaporated in the atmosphere and condensed back to the surface,
creating the cooling effect,
It was suggested that the Erath’s crust and oceans was created about 200
million years ago after the Earth’s formation.
Earth- is a small blue planet that is bathing in a film of white clouds and liquid
water.
Life on Erath is possible because of the major parts of Earth: atmosphere,
hydrosphere, geosphere (complex system)
70.8 percent- water
29.2 percent- land
1.4 billion 𝒌𝒎𝟑 - total volume of water on Earth
1300 million 𝒌𝒎𝟑 - total volume of water on oceans
35 million 𝒌𝒎𝟑 or 2.5 percent- total volume of water on freshwaters
70 percent- form of ice and permanent snow in mountainous region, the
Antarctic and Arctic regions.
Cryosphere- crucial element of climate system, it is the key indicator of
climate change.
3.7 km- average depth of oceans.
Challenger deep in the Marina Trench- deepest point of Earth’s ocean,
10.994 km
-its name was credited by a British survey ship Challenger II, who
discovered it on 1951.
Mount Everest- highest mountain.
In the beginning of 20th century, scientist explained the physical attributes of
Earth using the Raisin Theory.
Raisin Theory- earth is like a grape that contracted into a raisin due to the
cooling process that occurred on Earth after the Big Bang about 13. 77 billion
years ago.
The contracting Earth concept was further explained when an American
seismologist and geologist, Clarence Edward Dutton, proposed the term
“isostasy” in 1889.
Theory of Isostasy- states that wherever equilibrium exist, equal mass must
underlie equal surface area.
Tectonic- Greek word tekton meaning carpenter or builder.
Tectonic plates- have been used by scientist to describe the movement of the
lithosphere.
-it is now widely use to describe the physical plates more than their
movement.
-also called as lithospheric plates, a massive, irregular slabs of solid rock
that envelope the surface of the Earth.
Theory of tectonic plates- states that Earth’s outermost layer is fragmented
into a dozen or more large and small solid plates or slabs called tectonic or
lithospheric plates.
Asthenosphere- mobile material
-fit like a jigsaw puzzle and its movement ranges from less than 1 to more
than 15 cm per year.
Plate tectonic theory- about the rocks of the ocean floor.
Theatrum Orbis Terrarum- first world atlas.
- Abraham Ortelius on May 20, 1570
Alfred Wegener- Continental Drift Theory.
-The Origins of Continents and Oceans, 1915 (Wegener expanded his
theory and presented evidences that Pangaea (“all Earth”) really existed
during the Permian period.
1100 million years ago there was a supercontinent named Rodinio that
predated Pangaea.
During the late Triassic period, Pangaea began to break up forming two
supercontinents named Laurasia and Gondwanaland, which moved to
northern and southern extremes of the planet, respectively.
514 Million years ago (MA)- Laurasia that drifted southward
425 MA- Gondwanaland
Panthalassa- a vast ocean that surrounds the Pangaea, it was formed
approximately 356 MA while the 2 continents were separated by Tethys Sea
251 to 65.5 million years ago.
The now-known North America smashed into northwestern Africa, forming a
vast mountain range.
Around 200 MA- Pangaea began to break apart, forming a valley that is now
called Atlantic Ocean.
Continental drifting continues during the Jurassic Period.
End of Cretaceous Period and the beginning of Cenozoic Period the
continents were already taking their forms as we know them today.
65 MA- all the present continents and oceans had been formed.
It was also predicted that some 250-300 million years from now, the 7
continents will move toward each other again, reforming the historical Pangaea.
Earth- generally composed of 58 crustal plates.
-15 major tectonic plates, seven or eight primary plates and the others
are smaller plates.
Tertiary plates- are smaller parts of primary or secondary plates that have
broken off and continued being broken up over time.
2 basic lithospheric plates:
1. Continental lithosphere
2. Oceanic lithosphere
Continental crust- where you stand right now.
- It is lighter than the oceanic crust because it is composed of lower- density
materials such as granitic rock.
- Formed through volcanic eruption.
- Has several deposits that vary in age, forming the foundation of Earth’s
crust.
Basement rock- oldest foundation, which is estimated to be 4 billion years old.
-comprised of a mixture of granite and volcanic rocks.
Cratons- when platforms are connected with basement rocks.
-often survive the merging and rifting of continents and are generally found
in the interiors of tectonic plates.
Oceanic crust- made of heavier basalt and gabbro rocks.
-younger than the continental crust, around 200 million years old.
-formed by magma, when volcanic eruption occurs underwater.
7 km thick- oceanic crust
10 to 70 km thick- continental crust
Asthenosphere- a soft layer that lubricates the lithosphere.
Volcano- is a mountain that opens downward to a reservoir of molten rock
called magma below the surface of Earth.
-they have vents where molten rock escapes to the Earth’s surface during
volcanic eruption.
Volcanic landforms- controlled by the geological processes that formed them
and act on them even after they have formed controlled by the geological
processes that formed them and act on them even after they have formed.
There are more than 1500 volcanoes on Erath that have the potential to become
active, as they have already erupted within the past 10,000 years.
3 stages: invasion of magma, building pressure, and eruption
About 95% of the world’s volcanoes are located near the boundaries of tectonic
plates.
1960- Hotspots and mantle plumes were first observed.
John Tuzo Wilson- a Canadian geophysicist and one of the founders of the
theory of plate tectonics, during his visit in Hawaii he noticed something
features about ocean islands.
1971, William Jason Morgan- an American geophysicist further developed
Wilson’s theory.
Mantle plumes- areas or columns where heat or rocks in the mantle are rising
toward Earth’s surface.
-located underneath continental or oceanic crust or along plate boundaries.
Hotspots- locations of Earth’s surface that have experienced active volcanic
activities for a long period of time.
There are 40-50 identifies hotspots in the world.
 Volcanism- refers to the processes and phenomena associated with the surficial
discharge of molten rock and other materials into the surface of Earth and other
heavenly bodies such as the moon and other planets in the solar system.
4982 C- heat generated in the core, a temperature that allows solid matter as
hard as a rock to melt.
Convection- occurs when matter, such as magma, circulates within Earth.
Earthquake- natural phenomenon that is characterized by a sudden, violent
shifting of massive plates underneath Earth’s surface.
-releases stress that generates along geologic faults.
October 15, 2013, a 7.2 magnitude earthquake jolted the provinces of Bohol,
Cebu and the rest of the whole Central Visayas region.
-the epicenter of the quake was located 6 km southwest of Sagbayan town
at a depth of 12 km.
-deadliest earthquake in the Philippines since the last 23 years and the energy
released was equivalent to 32 Hiroshima bombs.
CEDIM- Center for Disaster Management and Risk Reduction Technology
Hypocenter (focus) - point within the earth along the geological faults where
the earthquake originates.
Epicenter- point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus.
Shallow-focus earthquakes- when the hypocenter is located near the surface,
from 0-70 km
Deep-focus earthquakes- between 70-700 km
Fault- crack across which the rocks have been offset first.
1965- Rat Island earthquake in the Aleutian arc involved a 650-km length of the
earth’s crust.
4 parts of fault:
1. Fault plane- where the fault occurs.
-may be sloping or vertical
2. Fault trace- a line that may be visible or not, which occurs on Earth’s surface.
3. Hanging wall- which refers to the block of crust above the fault
4. Footwall- block of crust below the fault
Normal fault- a fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the
footwall as a result of extension.
-most common faults
Reverse fault- also called thrust fault.
-which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall as a result of
compression.
Strike-slip fault- which two blocks of crust slide past each other on the same
plane.
Seismic waves:
1. Body waves- waves that travel
below the surface of Earth
 Compressional or primary
waves (P) – travel the fastest at a speed between 4-8 km/s at Earth’s crust
-first to arrive at a location
 -can move through all states of
matter.
 Shear or secondary waves (S) -
usually travel at 2.5-4 km/s and can
only travel through solid materials.
2. Surface waves- can only travel along the surface.
 Love waves- move transverse to the direction of the propagation but with no
vertical motion.
-cause rocks to move horizontally
or side to side at right angles to the
direction of the traveling wave.
-cause most damage to buildings and
other structures.
 Rayleigh waves- also called ground roll
-cause rock particles to move upward up,
backward, and down in a path that
contains the direction of the wave travel.
1. Tectonic earthquake- which happens
when the shifting of Earth’s plates are
driven by the sudden release of energy which some limited region of the rocks
of Earth.
-anchored on the Elastic Rebound Theory by the American geologist, Harry
Fielding Reid.
Asperities- the roughness or harshness along the faults
Fault barriers- places where the rupture slows or stops
2. Volcanic earthquake- often occurs in volcanic regions and can serve as an
early warning of volcanic eruptions.
-caused by either the injection or withdrawal of magma in response to the
changes in pressure in the rock where the magma has experienced stress.
 Volcano tectonic earthquakes- occur after a volcanic activity has taken place
 Long-period volcanic earthquake- occurs after volcanic eruption.
3. Collapse earthquakes- caused by seismic waves produced from the explosion
of rocks on the surface.
-small earthquakes located underground and in mines that are caused by the
disintegration of the roof of the mine or cavern or by massive land sliding.
-“mine (rock) burst”
4. Explosion earthquake- an earthquake that results from detonation of chemicals
or nuclear devices
March 2011, at least 1596 people were killed when a nuclear reactor in the
Fukushima Daiichi Plant in Japan exploded.
Seismology- scientific study of earthquakes
Robert Mallet- an Irish civil engineer and scientist, studied earthquake motion
by observing the effects of earthquakes and by measuring the velocity of elastic
waves generated by explosion.
 Magnitude- size of the earthquake
-determined using the seismic waves created by the earthquake.
Mercalli scale- was invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 (intensity) (1-12)
1934, Charles F. Richter- introduced the Richter Scale (magnitude) (2-8)
MMS (Moment Magnitude Scale)- Thomas C. Hanks and Hiroo Kanamori in
1979.
1969, Mauwia Barazangi and James Dorman- charted and published the
locations of all earthquakes that occurred from 1962 to 1967.
-their finding revealed that earthquakes occur in the same general patterns
year after year, principally in the three large zones of Earth called earthquake
belts.
Circum-Pacific Belt (Ring of Fire)- the world’s largest and strongest
earthquake belt
-located along the rim of the Pacific Ocean.
-approximatelt 81% of the world’s largest earthquakes in the world were
recorded in this zone.
Foreshocks- small earthquakes that commonly precede a major earthquake.
Sumatra earthquake in 2002- believed to be a foreshock of the Indian Ocean
earthquake in 2004.
Aftershocks- smaller earthquakes, after the major earthquake.
Tsunami- a Japanese word for “big wave in the port”
-was coined by fishermen who returned to their ports after their villagers had
been devastated by a giant wave while the fishermen had not seen any waves in
the open sea,
-generated when the ocean floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the
overlying water.
March 11, 2011, Tohoku earthquake- often referred to in Japan as Higashi
Nihon Daishinsai, generated a tsunami that killed a thousand people and
flooded the entire town of Sendai.
The tallest tsunami on record was 524 m tall occurred in Lituya Bay, Alaska on
July 8, 1958
Seiche- refers to a large wave that moves up and down instead of forward.
Orogeny- refers to the forces and events that lead to a large structural
deformation of Earth’s lithosphere.
-came from the Greek oros for “mountain” and genesis for “creation”
-a product of movements of tectonic plates.
Orogenesis- deformed rocks called orogens or orogenic belts are formed as the
continental plate is crumpled and pushed upward.
Gorge- very steep valley between young mountains
Geomorphology- study of mountains.
Stages of Mountain Building:
1. Accumulation of Sediments
2. Orogenic period of rock deformation and crustal uplift
3 types of tectonic convergence:
  Arc-continental- observed when an island arc collides with the edge of a
continental plate
 Oceanic-continental- the collision of ocean and continental plates allows
the accretion of marine sedimentary deposits to the edge of the continent.
 Continental-continental- occurs when an ocean basin closes and two
continental plates collide.
3. Period of Crustal Uplift caused by isostatic rebound and block faulting
Mountain range- succession of many closely spaced mountains covering a
particular portion of Earth.
Mountain belts- several mountain ranges that run roughly parallel to each other
-typically located either in the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt.
Pacific Ring of Fire or the Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt- is a horseshoe-
shaped region in the Pacific Ocean basin that is characterized by a large number
of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Alpide belt- mountain range that is being created by the ongoing collision of
plate tectonics.
Himalayan Range- highest mountain system and also the youngest in the
world.
-origin dates back to the Jurassic Era, which is about 80 million years ago.
-comes from the Sanskrit language and means the House of Snow or the
Snowy Range.
Andes Mountain- longest mountain chain in the world.
-extend along the entire west coast of South America from Cape Horn to
Panama, a distance of 4500 miles.
Appalachians- primary mountain system of the eastern Northern America.
-oldest mountains in the United States.
Alps- largest mountain system in Europe.
Rocky Mountains (Rockies)- group of jagged, snow-capped peaks that run
through the western part of Northern America.
Great Dividing Range- also called as the Eastern Highlands
-Australia’s most substantial mountain range and the third longest and land-
based range in the world.
Seafloor Spreading Theory- played a crucial role in providing a conceptual
base for the development of the plate tectonics.
-was first proposed by an American geologist, professor, and military officer
Harry Hess in the 1960s.
-was first coined by Robert S. Dietz, a scientist with the US Coast and Geodetic
Survey in 1961.
-using the word of Arthur Holmes, an English geologist in the 1930s, Hess
came up with a groundbreaking hypothesis that is now known as the seafloor
spreading.
-the seafloor was created at mid-ocean ridges,
spreading in both directions from the ridge system.
Boundary- the border between two tectonic plates.
 3 types:
1. Convergent - also called the destructive plate boundary
-occurs where two plates are pushing toward each other
Subduction zones- regions where a portion of the tectonic plates are diving
beneath other plates into Earth’s interior.
-Wadati- Benioff Zone
3 types:
1) Oceanic-oceanic convergence- occurs when two oceanic plates meet
and one oceanic plate is pushed underneath the other.
Outer swell- a bulge in the descending plate
-commonly develops where the plate bends to dive down the mantle.
Forearc ridge- traps sedimentary deposits and is underlain by faulted and
highly formed sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
Back arc- located behind the volcanic and is a broad region of variable
character that may be compressed or extended.
2) Oceanic-continental convergence- occurs when oceanic plate pushes
into and moves underneath a continental plate.
3) Continental-continental convergence- occurs when two continents
meet head on.
2. Divergent boundary- zone where two lithospheric plates
move apart from each other.
-also known as constructive boundary, this plate
boundary is characterized by tensional stresses that
normally produce long rift zones, normal faults, and
basaltic volcanism.
-marked by a mid-oceanic ridge, which is a center that is responsible for
seafloor spreading.
3. Transform fault boundary- zone between two plates
that slide horizontally past one another.
-also called conservative boundary \
When they occur on the seafloor, they form oceanic
fracture zones
While on land, they produce faults
Triple junction- the point at which three plate boundaries meet
3 types:
1) Ridge
2) Trench
3) Transform
There are approximately 50 tectonic plates with about 100 triple junctions
among them.
Ridge (R), Trench (T), Fault (F)
RRR- three plates are moving apart
TTT- three plates are pushing together if they are lined up just right
FFF (all transform triple junction)- impossible to occur
 Afar Triple Junction- a junction of three tectonic ridges centered in the Afar
Depression (Afar Triangle) of northeastern Africa.
-represents the junction of the Arabian plate and two subplates known as the
Nubian Plate (southeast) and the Somali Plate (northeast)
Geomorphology- scientific study of landforms and the processes that shapes
them.
Topography- study of the certain terrain features of a region and the graphic
representation of a particular landform on a map.
Landforms- defined as the natural physical feature on the surface of Earth.
November 21, 2013- a new island dubbed as Nii-jima was born.
 Aeolian landforms- formed by the chemical and mechanical actions of the
wind.
Dunes- mounds or small hills that are made up of sand.
-can be 1-10 m high
Loess- silt-sized sediment that are formed by the accumulation of windblown
dust.
-appears yellowish or brownish in color and it exhibits “cat steps”
-thickness ranges from few centimeters to about 100 m
Mushroom rock- also called rock pedestal, natural occurring rock that
resembles the shape of a mushroom.
-found at Mushroom Rock State in Kansas, USA
Erosional Landforms- are created from exclusively erosional and weathering
activities.
Mesas- also called table mountains, elevated areas of land with a flat top and
sides that are usually steep cliffs.
-surrounded by a resistant rock known as a cap rock
-Grand Mesa in Western Colorado
Buttes- almost similar to mesas as they have flat tops and steep cliffs and are
formed in arid to semi-arid desert conditions.
-originated from a French word which means hillock or small hill.
-Elephant Butte in New Mexico
Canyons- also called “gorge,” a deep ravine between cliffs that is often carved
from the landscape by a river, wind, or glacier.
-Grand Canyon in Northern Arizona, which was carved out by the Colorado
river.
Mountainous Landforms- those that rise higher than the rest of their
surroundings.
Volcanoes- controlled by geological processes that form them and continually
act on them after their formation.
Vent- opening at the top
Hills- elevated portions of land that are formed by geological activities such as
faulting.
Valley- or dales, low-lying area that is situated between hills or mountains.
V-shaped- when carved out by flowing water
U-shaped- when carved out by glaciers.
Glacial landforms- results of the actions of glaciers.
2 types:
1. Alpine glaciers- formed in high mountains
2. Continental glaciers- formed in cold polar region
Fluvial landforms- those that underwent sedimentation, erosion, or deposition
on a river bed.
Glaciofluvial or fluvioglacial- if the bodies of water associated with these
landforms interacted with glaciers or ice caps
Wave refraction- wave creates in the bodies of water realign themselves as a
result of decreasing depths.
Delta- low-lying triangular area located at the mouth of rivers where it meets an
ocean, a sea or an estuary.
Alluvium- refers to the sediment that had accumulated due to interaction with a
delta and bodies of water.
Peninsula- also called as byland or biland, a piece of land that projects into a
body of water and is connected with the mainland by an isthmus.
-came from the Latin word paeninsula (paene which means almost and insula
which means island)
Meander- is a bend in a sinuous watercourse of river.
Sea cliffs- high rocky coasts that plunge down to the edge of the sea.
Plains- flat and broad land areas that have no great changes in elevation when
measured with reference to then mean sea level.
Coastal plains- generally rise from sea level they meet higher landforms such
as plateaus or mountains.
Abyssal plains- found at the deepest part of the ocean
Plateaus- also known as table lands or flat-topped mountains, are portions of
land elevated thousands of feet above their surroundings.
-cover about 45% of Earth’s land surface.
Tibetan Plateau- world’s largest and highest plateau and is also known as the
Roof of the World
Interior structure of Earth- layered in spherical shells like an onion, a hard-
boiled egg, or a chocolate-covered cherry.
Rheology- the study of the flow of matter primarily in the liquid state under
conditions at which they respond with plastic flow rather than deforming
elastically in response to an applied force.
Mechanically, Earth can be divided into 5 layers: lithosphere, Oxygen- 46.6%
asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, inner core. Silicon-27.7%
Chemically, the layers of Earth are: crust, upper mantle, lower
Aluminum- 8.1%
mantle, outer core, inner core.
Lithosphere- outer solid part of the planet including Earth’s crust Iron-5%
as well as the underlying cool, dense, and rigid upper part of the Calcium- 3.6%
upper mantle.
-70-100 km Sodium- 2.8%

Crust- outermost layer of Erath. Potassium- 2.6%

Magnesium- 2.1%
 -thinnest layer as it makes up only 1% of Earth.
-the thicker the layer, the older the crust.
-oceans (5-10 km thick)
-continents (35 km thick)
-mountain ranges (60 km)
Mohorovicic Discontinuity- separates the crust from the mantle.
-Croatian seismologist Andrija Mohorovicic in 1909
-8 km beneath the ocean basins
-32 km beneath the continental crusts.
Mantle- largest layer of Earth that is composed of iron, aluminum, calcium,
magnesium, silicon, and oxygen.
-3700 C
Geothermal gradient- which is believed to be the one responsible for different
rock behaviors within the mantle.
Mesospheric mantle- below the lithosphere and asthenosphere but above the
outer core.
Upper mantle- highly viscous layer that lies between the crust and the lower
mantle.
-660 km
Lower mantle- extends from just under the upper mantle to 2200 km.
Core- last and innermost layer, which is separated into the liquid outer core and
the solid inner core.
Outer core- represents about 4% of the mantle-crust mass.
-5000 C, liquid state.
Inner core- can be found at the deepest region of the planet.
-5000-6000 C
-1250 km
-70%, as wide as the moon.
Dynamo effect- circulating current.
Geomagnetic field- protects us from the harmful rays emitted by the sun.
Plate tectonic theory- regarded as the most important theory ever developed in
the field of geology.
Seismic tomography- technique of inverting data to retrieve a three-
dimensional image of the anomalies in seismic wave velocity within the media
they cross.
2 major thoughts that were raised to explain the mechanism of tectonic plates
1. Mantle Convection Theory- Arthur Holmes in 1929
Convection- heat can be transferred from one place to another thought his
process.
2. Slab Pull Theory- this theory states that gravity and the plates themselves are
the ones responsible for the plate tectonics through subduction process.
Fossils of two land-dwelling reptiles-Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus
Glaciation- or a glacial period is an interval of time within the ice age that is
marked by colder temperature and glacier advances.
Interglacial- is the period characterized by warmer climates within an ice age.
 Paleoclimatology- study of the extended climatic conditions of past geologic
ages.
Paleomagnetism- study of ancient magnetic fields.
Magnetometer- a sensitive instrument, to determine the direction of the
magnetic poles and the magnetic latitude at the time the rock was formed.
Astronomy- derived from the Greek word astron (starts and namos (law)
-natural science that deals with the scientific study of all celestial bodies beyond
our world.
2 main branches:
1. Optical astronomy- study of celestial objects in the visible band
2. Non-optical astronomy- which uses instruments other than the telescope to
study objects in the radio through gamma ray wavelengths.
Planetary astronomy- focuses on the study of planets both within and beyond
our solar system as well as objects like asteroids and comets.
Stellar Astronomy- study of starts including heir creation, evolution, and
death.
Galactic Astronomy- studies the complex system os starts, nebulae, and dust
that compose the Milky Way.
Extragalactic astronomy- study of all astronomical objects which are not
covered by galactic astronomy.
Hubble Space Telescope (HST) - scientist are able to investigate space,
including the birth of starts similar to our Sun.
Our solar system was formed around 4.5 billion years ago.
Protostar- cloud of gas that became the sun and it took one to 10 million more
years before the main star reached its present stage.
Accretion- the coming together of materials that formed the heavenly bodies
Planetisimals (small planets)- objects formed by accretion
Sun- the central and the largest member of the solar system.
-contains 99.8% of the total mass of the solar system.
-approximately 5 billion years old.
-Richest source of electromagnetic energy- mostly heat and light
-1,390,000 km in diameter and has a mass of 2𝑥1030 kg.
Coronagraph- to further study the features of the SUN.
-attached to a telescope and it operates in the same manner as an eclipse.
Photosphere- outer visible layer of the sun
-6000 C
Sunspots- are cool regions whose temperature is only about 3500 C.
Chromosphere- glows faintly relative to the photosphere.
-2000-3000 km thick and its edge is made up of spicules, which are narrow
columns of materials that ascend into the corona.
Corona- above the chromosphere, collection of immediate gases around the
Sun.
-999,000 C
Helmet streamers- are large cap-like coronal structures with long pointed
peaks that usually arise from sunspots and active regions.
 -we can find prominence or filament lying at the base of these structures.
Coronal holes- are regions found at the dark part of the corona.
-we can use X-ray telescopes to study these holes.
Coronal loops- are located around sunspots in active regions and are associated
with the closed magnetic field lines connecting magnetic regions on the solar
surface.
Cool loops- are those that exist at temperatures below 1 million C
Hot loops- are those that reach temperature 1 million C
Polar plumes- column-like streamers that project outward from the Sun’s
magnetic poles.
Proxima Centauri- nearest stellar neighbor of the sun.
-a red dwarf star that is 4.3 light years away.
Solar system is divided into 2:
1. Inner solar system- four terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars)
and the 3 moons in this region.
2. Outer solar system- four Jovian Planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune)
and their 169 satellites.
Pluto- was originally classifies as the ninth planet from the sun, was
disqualifies as a planet in 2006.
Asteroids- minor planets that circle the Sun in a region called the asteroid belt.
The size of an asteroid ranges from 50 m and beyond, anything smaller than that
will be called a meteoroid.
Classified according to composition:
1. Carbonaceous or C-types- most common type of asteroids which appear dark
-carbon-based rocks
2. Silicaceous or S-types- fairly bright composed of rocky metals.
3. Metallic or M-types- appear fairly bright as they are made up of iron.
Near-earth asteroid- when an asteroid closely approaches Earth.
Meteors- sometimes enters Earth’s atmosphere, burn
-glowing fragment of rock matter in space that burn and glow upon entering
the atmosphere of Earth.
-sometimes called shooting stars
Meteorite- if the asteroids are large enough and did not burn upon entry to
Earth, it will hit the surface, produce a crater.
-when it already landed at the surface.
Meteoroid- before it hits the surface of Earth
Centaurs- orbit in the outer solar system
Chiron- first centaur to be discovered
-named as asteroid 2060 Chiron and comet 95P/Chiron.
Perseid shower- mid-August
Leonid shower- mid-November
Classification of Meteorites:
1. Stony meteorites- appear like rocks found on and within Earth.
-most common type of meteorites.
 Chondrites- composed of small round spheres called chondrules
  Achondrites- composed of the same minerals as chondrites but lacking
of chondrules.
2. Iron Meteorites- composed of alloys of iron and nickel.
-higher density compared to normal crustal rocks.
3. Stony iron meteorites- composed of a mixture of stony silicate material and
iron.
Meteorites- about 2-3 cm
February 15, 2013- a meteorite measuring 17 m in diameter hit Russia and
injured nearly 1500 people.
1938- a small meteorite crashed through the roof of a garage in Illinois.
1954- a 5-kg meteorite fell through the roof of a house in Alabama
1992- a small meteorite demolished a car near New york City.
2003- a 20-kg meteorite crashed through a two-story house in uptown New
Orleans.
-a shower of meteorites destroyed several houses and injured 20 people in
India.
Exoplanets- an extrasolar planet, is a planet located outside our solar system.
(861 exoplanets as of February 2013)
PSR 1257 b and c- first exoworld to be discovered
PSR B1620-26b- oldest known exoplanet
-also called Methuselah or the Genesis Planet
HD 209458 b aka Osiris- shrinking exoplanet
V391 Pegasi b/ V391 Peg b- survivor of the Apocalypse
Sun- about 26,000 light years from the center of the Milky Way, a spiral galaxy
where our solar system can be found in the universe.
Milky Way- contains roughly 200 billion stars
-measures 80,000 to 120, 000 light years across and less than 7000 light years
thick.
Solar systems- smallest among the three systems.
Galaxy- congregation of solar systems, stars, dusts, and gases held together by
gravity.
Universe- largest of the three astronomical systems.
1926, Edwin Hubble (1889-1953) - classified galaxies according to the Hubble
Sequence, otherwise known as the Hubble Tuning Fork Diagram.
-divided the galaxies into 2 general categories: elliptical and spiral galaxies.
With the discovery of other galaxies that are neither spiral nor elliptical in
shape, galaxies are now categorized into three.
Spiral galaxies (S)- most common type of galaxy.
-77% of the observed galaxies in the universe, including our Milky Way.
Nucleus- a bright bulge at the center.
Type a galaxy- very tightly wound arms
Type b galaxy- has a more loosely wound arms
Type c galaxy- has a very loose wound arms
Face-on spirals- those that clearly exhibit a spiral shape.
 Edge-on spiral- If the spiral galaxy is seen from the side
Spiral galaxies- have bright line or bar sunning through them.
Elliptical galaxy (E, 0 to 7) - a collection of stars that forms an ellipsoid.
E0- elliptical galaxy with no flattening
E7- elliptical galaxy that is very elongated or stretched out
Irregular galaxies- neither spiral nor elliptical
1. Im- have some structure but they are still distorted enough to be
classified as an S or an E galaxy.
2. IO- irregular galaxy which are completely chaotic in form.
Cigar galaxy or M82- irregular galaxy that is located in the constellation of
Ursa Major.
-about 12 million light years away
-brightest galaxy in the sky
-5 times brighter than our spiral galaxy
Local group- our home galaxy belongs to this group of galaxies
Next to Andromeda, our galaxy is the second largest-though possibly the most
massive galaxy in the Local Group.
Galactic disk- flattened component of a spiral galaxy where most of its stars
are located.
Nucleus- center of the disk bulge
The nucleus of the Milky Way lies in the direction of Sagittarius.
Nonthermal filaments (NTFs) - surrounding the galactic center are this narrow
threads.
-the Arc, the Pelican, and the Snake
Spiral arms- outside the central area, stars are located along this area.
Milky way has four major spiral arms namely the Norma, Scutum-Centaurs,
Sagittarius, and Perseus Arms
Our sun is believed to lie in a small partial arm called the Orion Arm (Orion
Spur) located between the Scutum-Centaurs and the Perseus Arms.
Globular clusters- refers to rich, compact, nearly spherical groups of almost
millions of stars that are scattered below and above the plane of the galactic
disk.
-150 clusters in the Milky Way.
Halo- large, dim region surrounding the entire galaxy.
Stellar population- refers to the group of stars within the galaxy that resembles
each other in terms of age, spatial distribution, or chemical composition.
3 stellar populations in our galaxy:
1. Halo population- outline the original shape of the rotating cloud if the Milky
Way.
-stars in this population are located at the far outer regions of the galaxy.
2. Bulge population- restricted to the rounded, central region of the galaxy.
-contains very old stars.
3. Disk population- inhabits the rotating, flattened region of the galaxy.
-Youngest stars
 Stars can also be divided by main population based on metallicity (Z) which
refers to the proportion of its matter made up of chemical elements other than
hydrogen and helium.
Population I- youngest stars.
Population II- old stars that contain little heavy metals in their atmosphere.
Population III- hypothetical population of extremely massive, metal-less stars
that have formed in the early universe.
The Realm of the Nebulae in 1936- described the term as a typical small
group of nebulae, which is isolated in the general field.
Triangulum Galaxy- third largest and the only unbarred spiral galaxy in the
Local group.
-Giovanni Battista Hodierna
-also known as the pinwheel galaxy
-approximately 3 million light years from Earth.
Supercluster- refers to a group of galaxies typically consisting of 3 to 10
clusters and ending up to 2 billion light years.
-largest structures in the universe.
-superclusters from larger structures of galaxies called filaments, walls, or
sheets that may extend between several hundred million light years to one
billion light years,
Big Bang Theory- major scientific theory that tried to explain the origin and
acceleration of matter thought the universe.
-about 13.7 billion years ago, all matter was compressed to something the size
of a golf ball.
Plank Epoch- all of space was extremely small and energy was distributed
within this matter.
1. Inflation stage- the universe underwent a period of rapid expansion as it
grew by a factor
-caused the visible universe to be extremely flat on scales that can be
measured.
2. Baryogenesis- it continued to expand but in a much slower rate.
3. Nucleosynthesis- allowing the protons and neutrons to gain stability.
-which began between 100 to 300 second after the Plank Epoch and lasted
only for few minutes.
4. Decoupling stage- characterized by the stabilization of neutral hydrogen and
helium atoms and the emission of cosmic microwave background through
space.
3 main concepts about the expanding universe:
1. Open- it would forever expand.
2. Closed- it would eventually stop its expansion and re-collapse on itself,
which might lead to another Big Bang in the future.
3. Flat-would also expand forever but the expansion rate would come to zero
after an infinite amount of time.
Omega (Ω) - density of matter present in the universe.
As the universe continues to expand, its temperature continues to decrease until
such time that the universe runs out of any usable heat and reaches the stage Big
Freeze.