Iugaza Tom2012 - CH1-5 PDF

Theory of Machines
Dr. Anwar Abu-Zarifa . Islamic University of Gaza . Department of Mechanical Engineering . © 2012 1
Syllabus and Course Outline
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering
EMEC 3302, Theory of Machines
Instructor: Dr. Anwar Abu-Zarifa

Office: IT Building, Room: I413 Tel: 2821
eMail: aabuzarifa@iugaza.edu.ps
Website: http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/abuzarifa
Office Hrs: see my website
SAT 09:30 – 11:00 Q412
MON 09:30 – 11:00 Q412
Text Book: R. L. Norton, Design of Machinery “An Introduction to the
Synthesis and Analysis of Mechanisms and Machines”, McGraw Hill
Higher Education; 3rd edition
Reference Books:
§ John J. Uicker, Gordon R. Pennock, Joseph E. Shigley, Theory of Machines

and Mechanisms
§ R.S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta,Theory of Machines
§ Thomas Bevan, The Theory of Machines
§ The Theory of Machines by Robert Ferrier McKay
§ Engineering Drawing And Design, Jensen ect., McGraw-Hill Science, 7th
Edition, 2007
§ Mechanical Design of Machine Elements and Machines, Collins ect., Wiley,
2 Edition, 2009
Grading:
Attendance 5%
Design Project 25%
Midterm 30%
Final exam 40%
Course Description:
The course provides students with instruction in the fundamentals of theory of

machines. The Theory of Machines and Mechanisms provides the foundation
for the study of displacements, velocities, accelerations, and static and
dynamic forces required for the proper design of mechanical linkages, cams,
and geared systems.
Course Objectives:
Students combine theory, graphical and analytical skills to understand

the Engineering Design. Upon successful completion of the course,
the student will be able:
§ To develop the ability to analyze and understand the dynamic

(position, velocity, acceleration, force and torque) characteristics of
mechanisms such as linkages and cams.
§ To develop the ability to systematically design and optimize
mechanisms to perform a specified task.
§ To increase the ability of students to effectively present written,
oral, and graphical solutions to design problems.
§ To increase the ability of students to work cooperatively on teams
in the development of mechanism designs.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Definitions
The subject Theory of Machines may be defined as that branch of

Engineering-science, which deals with the study of relative motion
between the various parts of a machine, and forces which act on
them. The knowledge of this subject is very essential for an
engineer in designing the various parts of a machine.
Kinematics: The study of motion without regard to forces
More particularly, kinematics is the study of position, displacement,

rotation, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
Kinetics: The study of forces on systems in motion
A mechanism: is a device that transforms motion to some desirable pattern

and typically develops very low forces and transmits little power.
A machine: typically contains mechanisms that are designed to provide

significant forces and transmit significant power.
Application of Kinematics
Any machine or device that moves contains one or more kinematic elements
such
As linkages, … gears…. belts and chains.
Bicycle is a simple example of a kinematic system that contains a chain drive

to provide Torque.
An Automobile contains many more examples of kin-systems…
the transmission is full of gears….
Chapter 2
DEGREES OF FREEDOM (MOBILITY)
Degrees of Freedom (DOF) or Mobility
• DOF: Number of independent parameters

(measurements) needed to uniquely define
position of a system in space at any instant of
time.
• A mechanical system’s mobility (M) can be
classified according to the number of degrees
of freedom (DOF).
• DOF is defined with respect to a selected frame
of reference (ground).
Ø Rigid body in a plane has 3 DOF: x,y,z
Ø Rigid body in 3D-space has 6 DOF, 3 translations & 3
rotations àthree lengths (x, y, z), plus three angles
(θ, φ, ρ).
Ø The pencil in these examples represents a rigid body,
or link.
Types of Motion
• Pure rotation: the body possesses one point (center

of rotation) that has no motion with respect to the
“stationary” frame of reference. All other points
move in circular arcs.
• Pure translation: all points on the body describe
parallel (curvilinear or rectilinear) paths.
• Complex motion: a simultaneous combination of
rotation and translation.
Excavator
Slider-Crank Mechanism
Links, joints, and kinematic chains
Linkage design:
§ Linkages are the basic building blocks of all mechanisms
§ All common forms of mechanisms (cams, gears, belts, chains)
are in fact variations on a common theme of linkages.
• Linkages are made up of links and joints.
• Links: rigid member having nodes

• Node: attachment points
1. Binary link: 2 nodes
2. Ternary link: 3 nodes
3. Quaternary link: 4 nodes
Joint: connection between two or more links (at their
nodes) which allows motion;
(Joints also called kinematic pairs)
Joint Classification
Joints can be classified in several ways:
1.By the type of contact between the elements, line, point, or
surface.
2.By the number of degrees of freedom allowed at the joint.
3.By the type of physical closure of the joint: either force or
form closed.
4.By the number of links joined (order of the joint).
A more useful means to classify joints (pairs) is by the

number of degrees of freedom that they allow between
the two elements joined.
A joint with more than one freedom may
also be a higher pair
• Type of contact: line, point, surface

• Number of DOF: full joint=1DOF, half joint=2DOF
• Form closed (closed by geometry) or Force closed
(needs an external force to keep it closed)
• Joint order
Joint order = number of links-1
lower pair to describe joints with surface contact
The six lower pairs
The half joint is also called a roll-slide joint
because it allows both rolling and sliding
Form closed (closed by

geometry) or Force closed
Terminology of Joints
ü A joint (also called kinematic pair) is a connection between two or

more links at their nodes, which may allow motion between the links.
ü A lower pair is a joint with surface contact; a higher pair is a joint with
point or line contact.
ü A full joint has one degree of freedom; a half joint has two degrees
of freedom. Full joints are lower pairs; half-joints are higher pairs and
allow both rotation and translation (roll-slide).
ü A form-closed joint is one in which the links are kept together form by
its geometry; a force-closed joint requires some external force to
keep the links together.
ü Joint order is the number of links joined minus one (e.g. 1st order
means two links).
Kinematic chains, mechanisms,
machines, link classification
• Kinematic chain: links joined together for motion
• Mechanism: grounded kinematic chain
• Machine: mechanism designed to do work
• Link classification:
§ Ground: any link or links that are fixed, nonmoving with

respect to the reference frame
§ Crank: pivoted to ground, makes complete revolutions
§ Rocker: pivoted to ground, has oscillatory motion
§ Coupler: link has complex motion, not attached to ground
crank mechanism
Elements:
0: Ground (Casing, Frame)
1: Rocker
2: Coupler
3: Crank
The “Ground” Link
§ When studying mechanisms it is very helpful to establish a fixed

reference frame by assigning one of the links as “ground”.
§ The motion of all other links are described with respect to the
ground link.
§ For example, a fourbar mechanism often looks like a 3-bar

mechanism, where the first “bar” is simply the ground link.
Drawing kinematic Diagrams
Determining Degrees of Freedom
Determining Degrees of Freedom
Two unconnected links: 6 DOF

(each link has 3 DOF)
When connected by a full joint: 4 DOF

(each full joint eliminates 2 DOF)
Gruebler’s equation for planar mechanisms: DOF = 3L-2J-3G

Where:
L: number of links
J: number of full joints
G: number of grounded links
Determining DOF’s
• Gruebler’s equation for planar mechanisms
M= 3L-2J-3G
• Where
M = degree of freedom or mobility
L = number of links
J = number of full joints (half joints count as 0.5)
G = number of grounded links =1
M = 3 ( L − 1) − 2 J
Kutzbach’s modification of Gruebler’s equation
The Cylindrical (cylindric) joint - two
degrees of freedom
It permits both angular rotation and an
independent sliding motion (C joint)
The Spherical (spheric) - Three degree
of freedom
It permits rotational motion about all three
axes, a ball-and-socket joint (S joint)
Example
Example
Gruebler’s Equation
Gruebler’s equation can be used to L=2

determine the mobility of planar J=1
mechanisms. G=1
Link 1 DOF = 1
3 DOF
Gruebler’s Equation
DOF = mobility
L = number of links 1 DOF
J = number of revolute joints or
prismatic joints
G = number of grounded links
DOF (M) = 3*L – 2* J – 3 *G Link 2

= 3 (L-1) – 2 * J 3 DOF
Dr. Anwar Abu-Zarifa . Islamic University of Gaza . Department of Mechanical Engineering . © 2012
Mobility of Vise Grip Pliers
This example applies Gruebler’s equation to
the determine the mobility of a vise grip plier.
Each revolute joint
removes two DOF.
The screw joint
4 1 5 removes two DOF.
1
3 L=5
4 2 J = 4 (revolute)
3 2 J = 1 (screw)
G = 1 (your hand)
DOF = 3*5 - 2*5 - 1*3 = 2
The mobility of the plier is two. Link 3 can be moved relative link1 when
you squeeze your hand and the jaw opening is controlled by rotating
link 5.
Punch Press
Slider-Crank Mechanism
Joint
Formed between links Joint type
As designated in the figure, there are four Number
links link 1, link 2, link 3 and link 4. Link 1 Revolute

1 Link 4 and Link 1
acts as a crank. Link 2 acts as (or Pin)
connecting link, link 3 is the slider and Revolute
2 Link 1 and Link 2
link 4 is ground. (or Pin)
Revolute
3 Link 2 and Link 3
(or Pin)
Translatio
4 Link 3 and Link 4 nal or
(Slider)
Mechanisms and Structures
§ If DOF > 0, the assembly of links is a mechanism and will

exhibit relative motion
§ If DOF = 0, the assembly of links is a structure and no motion

is possible.
§ If DOF < 0,then the assembly is a preloaded structure, no

motion is possible, and in general stresses are present.
Paradoxes
• Greubler criterion does not include geometry, so it
can give wrong prediction
• We must use inspection
L=5
J=6
E-quintet
G=1
M=3*5-2*6-3*1=0
Rolling cylinders even without slip (The joint between the two wheels can be
postulated to allow no slip, provided that sufficient friction is available) is an
example in which the ground link is exactly the same length as the sum of two
other links.
If no slip occurs, then this is a one-freedom, or full, joint that allows only
relative angular motion (Δθ) between the wheels.
With that assumption, there are 3 links and 3 full joints,
The equation predicts DOF = 0 (L=3,
J1=3), but the mechanism has DOF = 1.
Others paradoxes exist, so

the designer
must not apply the equation
blindly.
Chapter 3
Linkage
History
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452, 1519), Codex Madrid I.

• Industrial Revolution was the boom age of linkages: cloth
making, power conversion, speed regulation, mechanical
computation, typewriting and machining
Linkages Today
§ In many applications linkages have been replaced by
electronics.
§ Still linkages can have a cost advantage over
electronic solutions: Couple different outputs by a
mechanism rather than using one motor per output
and electronics to achieve the coupling.
§ Current applications: Sports Equipment, Automotive
(HVAC modules), Precision Machinery (Compliant
Mechanisms), Medical Devices
Mechanical linkages are usually designed to transform a given input
force and movement into a desired output force and movement.
Transmission System
Gear Linkage
consistent translation Inconsistent translation

àlinear transfer function non-linear transfer function
Gearbox transfer function
consistent translation
àlinear transfer function
crank drive = Linkage Inconsistent translation
non-linear transfer function
Bagger
The pushing movement of the piston (crank mechanism) is transferred

into a swinging movement of the shovel.
Fourbar Mechanism
Ø Twobar has -1 degrees of freedom
(preloads structure)
Ø Threebar has 0 degrees of freedom
(structure)
Ø Fourbar has 1 degree of freedom
§ The fourbar linkage is the simplest
possible pin-jointed mechanism for
single degree of freedom controlled
motion
One link is grounded in each case
§ The fourbar linkage is the simplest possible pin-jointed
mechanism for controlled motion with one degree of freedom.
§ Changing the relative lengths of the links can create a wide

variety of motions.
4-Bar Nomenclature
• Ground Link
• Links pivoted to ground:
– Crank B
– Rocker Coupler
A
Rocker
• Coupler Crank
Link 1, length d
Ground Link
Pivot 02 Pivot 04
Linkages of more than 4 bars
• Provide more complex motion

• See Watt’s sixbar and Stephenson’s sixbar mechanisms in the textbook
The Grashof Condition
§ Grashof condition predicts behavior of linkage based
only on length of links
§ S=length of shortest link
§ L=length of longest link
§ P,Q=length of two remaining links
Ø If S+L ≤ P+Q the linkage is Grashof :at least one link
is capable of making a complete revolution
Ø Otherwise the linkage is non-Grashof : no link is
capable of making a complete revolution
Grashof-Type Rotatability Criteria for Higher-Order Linkages
Rotatability is defined as the ability of at least one link in a kinematic

chain to make a full revolution with respect to the other links and defines
the chain as Class I, II or III.
Revolvability refers to a specific link in a chain and indicates that it is

one of the links that can rotate.
I. If S + L < P + Q (Class I), the linkage is Grashof and at least one link
will be capable of making a full revolution with respect to ground.
II. If S + L > P + Q (Class II), the linkage is non-Grashof and no link will
be capable of making a full revolution with respect to any other link.
III. If S + L = P + Q (Class III), the linkage is special-case Grashof and

although at least one link will be capable of making a full revolution.
Crank-Slider
The crank-slider (right) is a transformation of the fourbar crank

rocker, by replacing the revolute joint at the rocker pivot by a
joint, maintaining the same one degree of freedom.
Cam Follower
§ A cam follower is a mechanism that appears to have only two

moving links (apart from ground), but it has 1 DOF.
§ It has a fourbar equivalent if the coupler (Link 3) is viewed as a
link of variable length.
Practical Considerations
§ There are many factors that need to be considered to create good-
quality designs.
§ The choice of joint type can have a significant effect on the ability to
provide good, clean lubrication over the lifetime of the machine.
Pin Joints versus Sliders and Half Joints
A. Pin Joint
Ø Easy to lubricate ( with hydrodynamic lubrication)
Ø Can use relatively inexpensive bearings
B. Slider
Ø Requires carefully machined straight slot or rod
Ø Custom made bearings
Ø Lubrication is difficult to maintain
pin joint is the clear winner
Sleeve or journal bearing, the geometry of pin-in-hole traps a
lubricant film within its annular interface by capillary action and
promotes a condition called hydrodynamic lubrication in which
the parts are separated by a thin film of lubricant .
Seals can easily be provided at the ends of the hole, wrapped

around the pin, to prevent loss of the lubricant.
Relatively inexpensive ball and roller bearings are
commercially available in a large variety of sizes for
revolute joints.
Their rolling elements provide low-friction operation

and good dimensional control.
For revolute joints pivoted to ground, several commercially available
bearing types, Pillow blocks and flange-mount bearings.
MOTORS AND DRIVERS
§ Unless manually operated, a mechanism will require some type of
driver device to provide the input motion and energy.
§ A motor is the logical choice to create the input.
§ Motors come in a wide variety of types. The most common energy

source for a motor is electricity, but compressed air and pressurized
hydraulic fluid are also used to power air and hydraulic motors.
Electrical Motors
Ø AC
Ø DC
Ø Servo
Ø Stepping
Chapter 4
Design of Linkage Systems
Engineering Design involves
1. Synthesis
2. Analysis
Design a mechanism to obtain a specified motion or force.
Mechanism Synthesis
•Type Synthesis given the required performance, what type

of mechanism is suitable? Linkages,
gears, cam and follower, belt and
pulley and chain and sprocket.
•Number Synthesis How many links should the mechanism

have? How many degrees of freedom
are desired?
•Dimensional Synthesis deals with determining the length of all

links, gear diameter, cam profile.
QUALITATIVE SYNTHESIS
• The creation of potential solutions in the absence of a

well-defined algorithm which configures or predicts the
solution and also judge its quality.
• Several tools and techniques exist to assist you in this
process. The traditional tool is the drafting board, on
which you layout, to scale, multiple orthographic views
of the design, and investigate its motions by drawing
arcs, showing multiple positions, and using
transparent, movable overlays.
• Commercially available programs such as SolidWork
and Working Model allow rapid analysis of a proposed
mechanical design. The process then becomes one of
qualitative design by successive analysis which is
really an iteration between synthesis and analysis.
TYPE SYNTHESIS
• The definition of the proper type of mechanism best

suited to the problem and is a form of qualitative
synthesis.
• This is perhaps the most difficult task for the student as
it requires some experience and knowledge of the
various types of mechanisms which exist and which
also may be feasible from a performance and
manufacturing standpoint.
• An engineer can do, with one dollar, what any fool can
do for ten dollars. Cost is always an important
constraint in engineering design.
DIMENSIONAL SYNTHESIS
• The determination of the proportions (lengths) of the

links necessary to accomplish the desired motions and
can be a form of quantitative synthesis if an algorithm
is defined for the particular problem, but can also be a
form of qualitative synthesis if there are more variables
than equations.
MECHANISM SYNTHESIS: TWO APPROACHES
CAD program à SolidWorks
LIMITING CONDITIONS
• Once a potential solution is found, it must be

evaluated for its quality. There are many criteria which
may be applied. However, one does not want to
expend a great deal of time analyzing, in great detail,
a design which can be shown to be inadequate by
some simple and quick evaluations.
TOGGLE: One important test consist in to check that the linkage can in
fact reach all of the specified design positions without encountering a
limit or toggle position, also called a stationary configuration.
The toggle positions are determined by the colinearity of two of the

moving links.
o TRANSMISSION ANGLE: The transmission angle μ is
defined as the angle between the output link and the
coupler.
o It is usually taken as the absolute value of the acute angle of
the pair of angles at the intersection of the two links.
o It is a measure of the quality of force transmission at
the joint.
§ Radial component only increases friction at pivot O4.
§ Tangential (normal to Link 4) produces torque.

– μ = 90o is optimal.
– In design, keep μ > 40o
To promote smooth running and good force transmission.
Ideally, as close to 90° as possible
Position analysis
for Crank-Rocker mechanism
• The calculation of out-put angle
4.5 ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES -Additional
ALGEBRAIC POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES
Excel or other program
Graphical Synthesis –
Motion Generation Mechanism
Two positions, coupler as the output
B1
1. Draw the link AB in its two desired
positions, A1B1 and A2B2 A2
A1
2. Connect A1 to A2 and B1 to B2.
3. Draw two lines perpendicular to B2

A1 A2 and B1B2 at the midpoint O2
(midnormals).
4. Select two fixed pivot points, O2 O4
and O4, anywhere on the two
midnormals.
5. Measure the length of all links,
O2A = link 2, AB = link 3,
O4B = link 4 and O2 O4 = link 1
Graphical Synthesis – Motion Generation
Mechanism
Three positions, coupler as the output
Same procedure as for two positions.

A2
1. Draw the link AB in three desired B1
A1
positions.
2. Draw the midnormals to A1A2 and A3

A2A3, the intersection locates the O2 O4
fixed pivot point O2. Same for point B
to obtain second pivot point O4. B2
3. Check the accuracy of the mechanism,
Grashof condition and the transmission
angle.
B3
4. Change the second position of
link AB to vary the locations of
the fixed points
Graphical Synthesis –
Motion Generation Mechanism
Two positions Grashof 4-Bar mechanism with rocker as the output
1. Draw the link CD in its two desired D1
positions, C1D1 and C2D2
2. Connect C1 to C2 and D1 to D2 and C1 C2
draw two midnormals to C1C2 and
D1D2
B1 B2 D2
3. The intersection of the two A2
midnormals is the fixed pivot point O2
O4.
4. Select point B1 anywhere on link O2A = B1B2 / 2
O4C1 and locate B2 so O4B1= O4B2 O4
5. Connect B1 to B2 and extend. Select

any location on this line for fixed
pivot point O2.
6. Draw a circle with radius B1 B2 / 2, 7. Measure the length of all links, O2A = link
point A is the intersection of the 2, AB = link 3, O4CD = link 4 and O2 O4 =
circle with the B1 B2 extension. link 1
DIMENSIONAL SYNTHESIS - Solution
Coupler Curves
q A coupler in a linkage in general has complex motion and provides the

greatest variety of paths that can be traced.
q The Hrones and Nelson Atlas of Fourbar Coupler Curves is a good
reference
Chapter 5
Velocity Analysis
Velocity
Definitions
Velocity of a point
Position of Point P
r
RPA = peiθ
Velocity of Point P
r r r&
VPA = VP = RPA
jθ dθ
= pje = pωje jθ Link in pure rotation
dt
RPA as a complex number in polar form
P is the scalar length
J is the complex operator (constant)
Imaginary
Vector r can be written as:
reiθ = r [ cos θ + i sin θ ]
r cos θ
Euler's formula
Multiplying by i gives:
ireiθ = r [ − sin θ + i cos θ ] r
θ
r sin θ
Real
Multiplying by i rotates a vector 90° r sin θ r cos θ
If point A is moving (Relative Velocity)
Velocity Analysis of a 4-Bar Linkage
Given ω2. Find ω3 and ω4
Analytical Velocity Analysis of Fourbar Linkage
Numerical Example

Iugaza Tom2012 - CH1-5 PDF

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Iugaza Tom2012 - CH1-5 PDF

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Theory of Machines

Instructor: Dr. Anwar Abu-Zarifa

MON 09:30 – 11:00 Q412

§ John J. Uicker, Gordon R. Pennock, Joseph E. Shigley, Theory of Machines

The course provides students with instruction in the fundamentals of theory of

Students combine theory, graphical and analytical skills to understand

§ To develop the ability to analyze and understand the dynamic

The subject Theory of Machines may be defined as that branch of

Kinematics: The study of motion without regard to forces

More particularly, kinematics is the study of position, displacement,

A mechanism: is a device that transforms motion to some desirable pattern

A machine: typically contains mechanisms that are designed to provide

Bicycle is a simple example of a kinematic system that contains a chain drive

the transmission is full of gears….

• DOF: Number of independent parameters

• Pure rotation: the body possesses one point (center

• Links: rigid member having nodes

A more useful means to classify joints (pairs) is by the

• Type of contact: line, point, surface

Joint order = number of links-1

The six lower pairs

Form closed (closed by

ü A joint (also called kinematic pair) is a connection between two or

§ Ground: any link or links that are fixed, nonmoving with

§ When studying mechanisms it is very helpful to establish a fixed

§ For example, a fourbar mechanism often looks like a 3-bar

Two unconnected links: 6 DOF

When connected by a full joint: 4 DOF

Gruebler’s equation for planar mechanisms: DOF = 3L-2J-3G

Gruebler’s equation can be used to L=2

DOF (M) = 3*L – 2* J – 3 *G Link 2

DOF = 3*5 - 2*5 - 1*3 = 2

links link 1, link 2, link 3 and link 4. Link 1 Revolute

§ If DOF > 0, the assembly of links is a mechanism and will

§ If DOF = 0, the assembly of links is a structure and no motion

§ If DOF < 0,then the assembly is a preloaded structure, no

Others paradoxes exist, so

• Leonardo da Vinci (1452, 1519), Codex Madrid I.

consistent translation Inconsistent translation

The pushing movement of the piston (crank mechanism) is transferred

One link is grounded in each case

§ Changing the relative lengths of the links can create a wide

• Provide more complex motion

Rotatability is defined as the ability of at least one link in a kinematic

Revolvability refers to a specific link in a chain and indicates that it is

III. If S + L = P + Q (Class III), the linkage is special-case Grashof and

The crank-slider (right) is a transformation of the fourbar crank

§ A cam follower is a mechanism that appears to have only two

Pin Joints versus Sliders and Half Joints

pin joint is the clear winner

Seals can easily be provided at the ends of the hole, wrapped

Their rolling elements provide low-friction operation

§ A motor is the logical choice to create the input.

§ Motors come in a wide variety of types. The most common energy

Design a mechanism to obtain a specified motion or force.

•Type Synthesis given the required performance, what type

•Number Synthesis How many links should the mechanism

•Dimensional Synthesis deals with determining the length of all

• The creation of potential solutions in the absence of a

• The definition of the proper type of mechanism best

• The determination of the proportions (lengths) of the

CAD program à SolidWorks

• Once a potential solution is found, it must be

DOF (M) = 3L – 2 J – 3 *G Link 2

DOF = 35 - 25 - 1*3 = 2