.,. !”,, . . . ...1...- . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . .. . . .. . .. . . . .

f ~-i-,,,. :, ,,,>.., L-..,

Black, Uyless D.
Comp.lcr networks, (-,
,. )
[.eludes index.
1. Comp.!.r networks. 1. Title.
TK5105.f.0S6 19K7 (M4,6 87-2228 Contents
ISIIN0.13.166091.8

EdimriaVproduction supervision
md interior design: Evalyn Schoppc#
Manufacturing buyer: Gordon Osbourne

Thif edition May be sold only in rhose coIinfr{t?J to which ir is

cowigned by Prenrlce-tl allIntertmtioml, It is not 10 be re-e.xpor fed
and it 1snor for sole i12the USA., Mexico or Canada,
Preface vii I
0 1987 by Prentice. Wall, Inc.
A division of Simon & Schuster Acknowledgmcn(s ix
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632
Chapter One. Introduction to Computer Networka 1

‘I’he Use of Ne[works, I Adv?nfages of Ne!works, 1 Structure of the

All rights reserved. No pan of (his book may be
Communica[inns Ne~work, 2 Poitlf-ro-PoiM OIICI Mulfidrop Circuifs,
reproduced, in any form or by rmy means, without
permission in writing (rum tbc publisher, 4 D(ito Flow aml IJhysiccl Circuirs, .f Network Topologies, 6 Topolo-
gies <Itu/ Lksigtl Qo(IIs, 6 Ilierwchic(d Topology, 8 Ilorizo!ttal Topology
(LIIUJ, 10 .Sfnr Topokgy, 10 Ring Topo/ogy, 10 Me$h ToPo/ogY,
Printed in the United Slates of America 11 “f_he Telephone Network, 11 Swifched mtd Nonswi(ched Opfions,
13 Fundmncn[uls of Communicidions Theory, 14 Chame! Speed and Bit
109 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Rote, 14 Voice Cu!ltt]![ttlicclliotis oml Amllog Wavrforms, 15 lk!d~.idth
WIJ Ihe Frequewy Specrrum, 16 Connecting !he Analog and Digital
Worlds, I9 Di.yitdl Sign(I/f, 19 The Modem, 20 Synchronizing Network
Components, 21 Sym’hrottiz(t!iott Codes, 22 Asym’hro}ious and SyIIchro-
ISBN O-13-ILL071-A 0.?5 nojt$ Y“wwnis$im, 25 Message Formats, 26 The Communications Port,
27 Addiliorud Nclwm’k Compcmenls, 28 Conclusion, 30 NoIrs, 30 St/g-
gd~t<>(i/te([(/ill&>J, 30

Prcnlice.Hcdl Computer Communications Series Chapter Two. Communlcatlons Between and Among
Wushow Chou, Advisor
Computers and Terminals 32
Prentice. Hall Internntionnl (UK) Limiled, Londm Introduction, 32 TrMlic Control and Accountability, 32 Checking for
Prcnticc. Hali of Auslmlia Ply. Limited, .Syd!tey
Errmr, 34 Wide Area and Loc;d Ne~works, 35 Connection.Oriented and
Pren!icc.HaO of Canada Inc., Torottfo
Connec!ionless Networks, 38 Clm.sifica(ion of Communications Protocols,
Prentice. Hall Hispa”oamecicana, S, A., A#e.rico
*\ Prc”tice.HaO of Indil Privaw Limikd, Nt’w Delhi 4 I Pollin@election Systems, 43 Scleclh>e nnd Groiip Po/ling, 46 5foP-
,,,, %en(ice. Hall of Japan, !nc,, Tokyo dml- W({il l’()//i)]g~Sr/[, c/ion, 47 Ccm(inucms A RQ (.slidi~!l Wit] dews), 48
.tice. Hall of Southeast Asia Pk. Ltd., ShIgqxmc Nonpolling Sys(cms, 52 NCWCSI ~u S.wdlC/ear w Stwd, 53 XO)LYOE. 53
\ F’remice-Ha}l do Ilm$i!, Ltda., J?iodtJmIeim Time Divisicw A4u//ip/e Acces$ (TDA4A), S5 Nonpriori[y Systems, 56
‘ III, Inc., Li$lewod Cliff,, NLWJcrxcy ‘fime Diti.simt Af(d/iplai)!g (TDA4) or Slot, 56 Rexis!er Iruertiojl,
\
Ill

\
 (MAP), 163 The T., !,/ utld OJice Products .$ys(em (TOP), 163 Con-
clusion, 163 NoIe$,, . ..5 SIWgt’$/ed Readittg$, 165

Chapter Seven. Switching and Routing in

Networke 166
Chapter Three. Layered Protocols, Networks, end the
[nlroduc{ion, 166 Telephone Switching Systems, 166 Elec!rot?tecllo)tic(tl
0S1 Model 64
.SysIem$, Sforsvl Program Conlro/ Sys/em$, 17 I Message Swiwhing,
169
Introduction, 64 Ratiwmlt for L~yered Pro[ocols, 64 Gods of Layered 173 Packet Switching, 175 W6en and Whe)t NOI To Use Pw!ieI Swi/ch-
Protocols, 65 Ne(work Design Problems, 65 (hmuunictitions Between ing, 177 P[tc!ie( Rwling, 179 Packel-Swi[ching Support to Circuil-
Layers, 66 A Progma[ic lllus[ration, 69 Introduction to Standards Orga- Switching Networks, 189 Conclusion, 191 Nofe$, 191 Sugges/ed Reaif-
nizations and [hc OS I Stamtwd, 72 Stomlwds C@tjlizttiws, 72 The ings, 192
I
Loyers OJ 0S1, 74 Conclusion, 76 .$uggestcd Ifemlings, 77
Chspter Eight. The X.25 Network 193
Chapter Four. Polling/Selection Networks 78
Introdwlion, 193, Layers of X.25, 195 X.2$ md fhe Phy$ictll Layer,
introduction, 78 Binary Synchronous Control (tISC), 78 BSC Forma($ 195 X.25 ond the Data Link Loyer, 196 Companion Stamlards to X.25,
~Iw/ CWIIMI Code$, 79 Litle Mode$, 80 Litle Cemfro(, 8 I Other BSC 198 Features of X.25, 198 X.25 Channel Oplions, 198 Flow-conmol
Syslems, 83 The 3270 Fmily, 83 Problems will) 13SC, lt5 11f3LC, Principles, 203 Other Pticket Types, 203 X.25 Logical Channel Slates,
86 HDLC Op!iott$, 86 lIDLC Fmme ForoMit, 89 Code ‘Trmspcvency 207 Timeouts and Time Limits, 2138 Packet Formats, 208 The D Bi!,
and Sytfchrottizotiotl, 9 I HDLC Cou[rol Field, 92 Commmds md Re- 213 The M Bi(, 213 A aIId B Puckels, 2[4 The Ql?ir, 215 Flow Control
SPO)JSPS, 95 TIJe IIDLC Trmsmissimz Process, 100 IIDLC Subsers, and Windows, 216 X.25 Facilities, 216 O~her Standards and Layers,
105 SDLC, 107 Protocol Conversion, 108 Conclusion, 11 I Note$, 219 The PAD, 219 PAD: Packet Formats and P(Icke/ Flow, 226 The
III Sugges[ed Re(/c/i/lg$, 11 I Trunxport Loyer, 227 ln!ernelworking, 232 Connectioniess-mode Net-
works, 234 X.75, 234 Communications Between Layers, 238 Conclu-
Chapter Five, Satellite Networks 113 sion, 248 Notes,. 250 SUggestcil Iteadittgs, 250

1nlroduction, 113 Pros nml Cons of Saiellife Networks, I I4 Brief Iiis-

Chapter Nine. Digital Networks 252
fory, 116 Using Saielli[es to Communicate, 117 Crmventiomd hfultiplex-
i!tg, 117 Pollitlg/Sele c/ion, 117 Nwpolli)lg Peer/Peer Sysiems, 1[9 Non- hmoduction, 252 Advantages of Digital Systems, 252 Signal Conversion,
po//i~1g Primary Secondm3 System$, 124 .%!elli!e Delay Unils (SDUS), 254 Digital Carrier Systems, 257 Channel and Data Service Units,
127 Tht Teleporl, I?) Conclusion, 129 IVu!es, 130 S!tggexlcd RL.ml- 260 Analog-to-DigiKd Techniques, 260 Wuvcform Awdy$i$. 260 Pwf/m-
iltgs, I 30 etcr Codiw (Vrxwdsw), 262 Future Digital Systems, 263 !nleg~dted
Digi[al Networks, 264 SafeRi/e J3minesf Sysrems’ Jntegmted Ne[wrk,
Chapter SIX, Local Ares Networka 131 264 T/Ie Itllcgrafcd .$ervices 13igikr/ Neiwork, 266 Europe, the Fur EasI,
oml tlw lS.DN l(ccoj)ltttet]~l(itiotts, 28 I fJJ1i[ed S[(ties and !he lSDN Rec-
ln[roduction, 131 Prim;try AI Lribules of a LAN, 132 .!lromllmtw! w!d ommend<llions, 282 Digital Switching, 283 Voice Transmission by
Bmebnttii LANs, 133 lEEE LAN Siandards, 133 Rc4ufionfhip of (he 802 Pucket, 285 13ell Lubs’ Ptwket-Switched Voice-Data Patent, 287 Conclu-
S[i?miards 10 ihc ISOICC177 Model, 134 Comlec(iotl optio,t$ $,,1/))LANs, sion, 288 Notes, 289 Sttgges/ed Readi)tgs, 289
135 LLC and hfAC Pro/oco/ Dafa Unil$, 137 LAN Topologies and
Protocols, 138 CSMA/CD md IEEE 802.3, 139 7oke/t Ritjg (Priori(y),
Chapter Ten. Public Networke and Carrier
144 Tokc)ti ffus oml 1)<1<1<6’02,4, 149 Suj!twvy of IIW 802 .S[>t,c(li[:(ttiojls,
Offerings 290
151 O[her S yslcms, 152 AM T //~ormf)/;o)J .Sy$fcfn NeIItwk (/SN),
152 IBM TokerI Ring, 153 ANSI Fiber Distributed f)alo I{lterf<;ce introduction, 290 Public Nelworks, 290 Te/ene(, 290 TI’MNET,
(Ff)f)/J, 1s9 Ccll(,r(ll ,i/ofors” Mojll!fi!r’ttirij!,q A [Jlow(tti<ut Protocol 292 A U7’0NE3’,, 293 GwIIhIItiI, 294 PA CNET, 294 Carrier OtTcrings,
 CHAPTER ONE j ~

Introduction to Computer Networks

The Use of Networks

DUC 10 the !rcmendous imp:lcl or comptllcrs :lnd cc>mputcr nclworks cm

socic(y during [he PUS( dccxlc, this period in hislory h:is come 10 bc collcd
!hc “informu[io. WC.” The produciivi[y ;Ind profil:lhilily of both orRiniza-
Iions nnf.1individu;ds h;tvc hccn cIllmt)ccd signilic;lol[y hy lhcsc rcvolu lion-
;wy tools, Hardly a thy goes by wi~houl an imliviclu:ll using a compu[er
ne[work to conduct personal and professional business. This trend is
accelerating as more businesses nnd homes cfiscovcr (I1c power o[compu[ers
ond communica[icms networks. The d;!y-to. dny[ransacf ions a[ dcp.ar[mcnl
s!orcs, banks, reservation counters, and other businesses are all dependent
upon compu[cr nc!works. The inrormal ion agc is equally dcpenden[ on [be
compu[er of(d [hc computer nc!wovk.
Wha( is a computer network? Several delinilions are accepted in the
indus[ry. Perhaps [he simplest is: A number or conlpulers (and USUJIIY
iermirmls) interconncclcd by onc or moie lm!lsnlission pa!bs, The lmnsnl is-
I sion path is often the (elephone line, due [o its convenience and universal
presence, The network exists [o meel one goal: the transfer and exchange of
d:t[a between the compu[crs and terminals. This (iolo exchange provides for
IIIC nlany computer-based scrviccs we ollen l~kc for gmnlcd in our daily
lives, such as hnnk !cllcr nlochines, poitlt-or-s:dc {crminals. chcck-vcri -
(ico[ion dcviccs, und even !hc guid:lncc of !hc sp;wc slllll!lc.

Advantages of Networks

Compuler ncfworks provide scvcrol in,porfanf advaolages to businesses and

individuals.

1, Modern organizations Iml:Iy arc widely dispersed, jvilh oficcs located

in diverse mrls ofa cot!nlt’v and IIIC world M~nv or!hc comnulcrs :nrl[l
.?,
 ... . .. . .... ; ,. ,,:..,,, . . ,, ,,,.. ;., $
. .. . . . .. . . .. .....,, .,,,. . .

2 ln!mduclion10Computer Nolwocks chap, ! chap. 1 SIIuckm 01tho Communica[(onsNetwork 3

terminals localed xl !bc silts need 10 cxch:ingc in[orm:l[i o!>>ncl cJ:I(:I,

dm on :L~At~a~is. A network provides (IIC mc:ms 10 CXC!MIIL!C dNI:I
among these compdlers and 10 m;~ke pmgranls and dti[o ;Ivoil:!blc 10 the
people 0( lhc organization.
2. The networking or conlputcrs pcrmi[s lbc sharing of rcsourccs of {hc
machines, For instance, if a compuler bccomcs s>!luralcd will] too
much work n{ one si[e, (he work cnn be Iomled Ihrough Il)e Ilelwork
pa[h on[o another computer in [hc network. Such lmId sh:wing pcmliM ——— —-
DTkA DCE’& Comm.kations D~EB DT; 8
a more even and bel~er utilization or rcsourccs. Channel
3. Networking also provides [he critical function of hack-up.in tbc cvenl
that one cornputcr fails, its coi!nterparl can assunle i{s funclions nml — Phy,k,l Ccmrn”nic,,ion,
workload. Iluck. up captibility is espcci:d!y inTrIurlw1t irl syslcms $~lch
m air trallc control. in the cvcn[ a compu[cr malrunc[im?s, back-up
Figure 1-1, A CommunicationsSydem
compu{ers mpidly lake over and ~ss!jme cOnlr~l of OPcr~tif~lls wi~hO1i[
endangering air travelers. (A1’AJ, (This book uses the Icrm opplicofiott process to describe cnd.user
4, The use of networking allows a very flexible working enviro!lnlenl. $Ipplications, unless otherwise noled, )
Employees can work al home by using te!m[in~ls lied Iltrm]gh nc[works The application resides in (I1c (Ic!ro /.r!tt;/trtl rqlrip>>!l>,!(, or DTII DTE
into [he compulcr al (he oJlicc. Mmy cmployccs now ciiiry lcmlin:!ls is a generic ternl used [0 dcscrihc lhc cn+uscr nmchinc, which is usually :1
or portable personal computers On trips and tic intO lhcir l~c~\vOrks compu[er or terminal. The OTll could be ~ targe main[rame compuler, such
Ihrough ho[el room telephones. Other employees (IOVLI 10 remolc xs n Imgc IBM or ICL machine, or il could bc a smidlcr machine, such as a
ollces and usc lelcphotles and nelworks [o [ransmil and reccivc crilic:!l [cuminal ora pcrswvd computer. The OTE takes many forms in the induslry.
sales, adminislm live, nnd research dalo frOnl conlputcrs at comrmny Here nre several examples:
headquarters.
● a work stnlinn for zn :iir Irafllc controller
The information age is ap!ly named, for our society now relics ON
● an aa!onla[ed Iellcr machine in a bank
information to reduce the costs to produce our soods M well as [o improve
ille overall qu~llily of our Iivcs. Communications sysfcms nnd comm]lcr ● a point -o f-s;de iermin:d in a depar[menl store
networks provide for rapid exchange of in[orm:iliou rcsidin~ On cornpalcrs ● a sflmpliog dcvicc to rnc:tsurc lhc qtmlily of :\ir
throughout a counlry. ● a computer used [0 automa(e [he manufacturing process in a fac[ory
● an electrollic mail computer or terminal
● a personal computer in (he home or OBicc,
Structure of the Communications Network
The funclion of n c<>ll!tllll!lic;!lic>lls nc[vwrk is 10 in[crconnccl DTCS
Before proceeding fur!her, ii will he llelpful 10 define some terms. Figure 1- I togc[ber so that [hey can shore resources, exchange chit;!, provide back-up
illtislra [es a simple dfim communications system. The opp[icn[iolr pmcef.r
ror each other, and aflow’ employees nnd individuals 10 perform their work
(AP) is [he end-user opplic~tion. [[ usually c(rnsis[s of so flwmre SUCI1as o
rrO[ll mty location,
compuler program, or il could bc an end.user icrmin:d, Typicnl cx:lmplcs :!re
Figure l-l shows tlw( n nclwovk pmvidcs I,,,ci<,tl :OW[plt.v,~ic,tl CO!)).
fin accoun[s receivable program, a payroll pro~r am, an nirlinc rescrvot ion
mu!licat ions for the computers and ferminals to be connected. The applica-
syslcm, an invclltory control packxgc. or a personnel syslcrn.
tions :Ind files usc Ihe physicnt ch;!nncl fcr elTec[ logic:il communion lions,
In Figt)re 1-1, si[c A could execttte a!) nppJicatiorl process (A I’A1)i!l the
Logicnl, in (his ccmlex!, mcnm lhe DTEs are nol concerned wi[b [hc
furm d n sOrtwaTc pmgmnl to access an applic:,tion process :\t silt 11(which
physical aspects of llle cmllnlunica[iuns process. Applic~[ion A I need oniy
is in Ibis case ? progmtn [A PI],] ond a dal;! bnse). Figure i-l also shows a silt
.. . . ., ...” .1. .8 .:,.. ,+ ,1,7-<,.1, 0. anr,lir:,l ion nmrralll issue a logical Re{rd rcqucsl will! aa idcnlificfi[ ion or (he dn!o. In turn, lhe
~., ,,
,:, ., .,,
>

I
..
4 Introduction10Comp.ter Networks Chgp. I ch3D. 1 Slruc!.re of Ihe Communica!lonsNe!wofk 5

communic:~liuns sys(cm is rc.spom~ihlc ror sc]>ding lhc II<,,i,l Icq IIcs[ Ncross Data Flow and Phy.deal C/rcuits
(he physical channels [0 application Ul, ,,
Figure l-l also shows the daIo cirr,(i[.tcrt,,i,j<,f!)l~ cqII;I,mc,II, or f)CE The DTEs :Iml DCES send conlrllunic:!lions lrtiiTc [o each other in one
(also called dala cOmmunicatiOns equipment). Ifs (unc[iull is to cmluecl (IIC of three methods:
DTEs into the communication line or channel, i The DCEs designed in the
1960s and !970s were slriclly communications devices, IIowevcr, in the last Sinlplex: Transmission in one dircclion OIIIY
fcw years lhe DCES have incorporn[cd more user fttnc lions, :Ind lod:Iy some flolr-D1lpleX: Tr:timsmission in ho[h directions, but only one direction
DCES contain a portion of an application process. N[~\tvilllsln!l[l ing, tlIc at a time (nlso cnllcd two. wi!y olicrno!c ITWAI)
primary function of [hc DCE remains io provklc :ttI I’,,IcI:fitce d IIIC [)1’fl FuII.DuPIcx (or Duplex): Tramsmissirm simult~ncously in bolh direc-
in[o the communic:t lions nc[work, Tbc fatnili>!r modcm is ;kn cx;!nlplc of :1 tions (Blso callcwl [wO-w:Iy simull:incous [TWSl).
DCE.
The in[e!’fxces are specified and eslablishccl thmugk protocol.~. Proto. Simplex Wmsrnission is conlmon in television and commercial radio. 1[
cols are agrcemcn(s 011haw communications cmupuncnls mId DTEs ;\rc [O is not as common in dola communications bec:luse of the one-way na[ure of
communicate wi[h each oihcr, They may include aclu:tl rcgul$l[ioms which the process, bu~ simplex systems :trc rould itl smI1c upplicxtions, such as
s[ipuia[e a required or recommended convention or technique. Typically, tclcmctry. Ilal(-dup[cx Ir;!nsmission is round i{! ninny sysIcms. sIJch as
several levels ofinterfnces and protocols are requirecl to sup~r[ on end-user inq{/iry/response applications wherein a DTE sends a query (o ano[her DTE
and waits for the appli~llions process 10 ncccss andlor compute the answer
application.
and transmit [he response back, Tcrnlinal-boscJ systems (kcybonrd tcrmi-
Today, many organizations are mtapling common in[erroces and pro-
nols :)nd terminals with CRT screens) often use half-duplex lecbniques,
tocols as a result of worldwide ctTorts 10 publish recomnlcndcd ,s(n,IJnr,/,T
Full-dup[cx (or simply duplex) provides for simultaneous two-way transmis-
[hat are vendor and product independent. Our goal is IO g:tirl an undcrs[ and.
sion, wi[hou[ I}lC ‘inlcrvcning stop-rind. wni[ nspcct or half-duplex. Full-
ing of (hese valuable protocols, shmdards, arid intcrrnccs. dIrplcx is widely used in applications requiring continuous channel usage,
high througllpu[, and fos[ response !ime.
Po/n/-/popn/n/ and Mu/l/drop Clrcuila Thus Llr, the [crnls Imlf-duplex and full. dt!plcx (dIIpIcx) hflvc been used
to describe how dala !novcs across the circuit We h;!vc focused on thtsc
DCES and I)TEs are conncclcd in one or Iwo wmys. As illustrated in lcrms as they are used in the data communications industry. Figure I-3
Figure 1.1, Ihey are connec[ed in a poinl.lo-poin[ col]figur;j!io!) in which only SIIOWSthe physical circuit itsclr, withcm[ rcgnml to huw dnln nloves. .somc
two DTE devices are on Ibe line or channel. Illustra(cd in Figure [-2 is
Local Local

I
anoiher approach called a mul[idrop contigumtion In Ibis con figuralio!l, Connutl.. D*[* Co””ectlo”
more [ban two devices are conneclcd 10 [he same clmnnel. DTE WE IIcE DTE
R,,.,”

[.1 TwowtreClrwit

Local Local
Connection,— Data

-4 R,,.,.
01E WE DTE
Data
R,,.,”

(b) F..<.wir, Clfc.;,

., , . . . .... .. . ~:...,:,. Figure 1.3. Two.Wre and Four-Wre Circui!s
 )
7
chop, ! NelWofkTopologies

people in [he illd KS[ry [LW hnh_-dllfd.2X ~fl(i fL1t!-dllp!eX tO dCSCribe d:lta flow
ol)dthc physical circhlil i[scl f’,‘1’bc Iollo wingdiscktssion cxpl;l ins Ilic pllysicill
circuil,
In lclcpbonc cnmmunic;ilioms, lbe Icr!ns two-!$irr :lnd Jh!tr-Itire cir-
ct)ils are ol’lcn used 10 describe lbe channel. A [wo-wire circllil is somc[iums
called a hulf.duplex circuit, One wire is for [be lmnsmission dnlo aml lhc
other is for the re[urn circuit, (See Appendix A [or a discussiml or rc(uw
circuil s,) A four-wire circuil is sometimes called a full. d{lplcx circuit, Two
pnirs Ortwo wires exist, two ror lbe d:tl;I ;md IWOfor Ihc rclt,rrl civcuils. ‘Ibe
[elephone company usually describes a twc.wire circuit as n swi(cbed DSE
dial-up circuit, and a rour. wire circuit as a leased, nonswi(chcd circuit,
However, excep~ions cxis[ and the reader is cncoumgcd [o kbcck with the
specific teleph One cOnlpany. The ~radeoKs of switched and nonswi[cbcd
circuits are discussed Ia[er in [be chapter,
The advantages ci[ed cwlier of communic;)[ions’ nc[wouks c:lnno( [W
realized wi[hou[ Ihe addition of an importan[ compon cdl 10 [hi sys(cm lbj~
component is the dnfa .m,ifchin,q eqt~ipmenf, or EXE. Flg,l]rc I-4 illustrates
the use of the DSE in conjl!nc[ ion with lhe DrE zml L)Cfl, As (I!c nntllc
implies, [he major func[ ion oflhc ME is 10 swi~ch orrou(c [mliic (user datfi)
through (he network 10 [he final declination. Tbe DSE provides the vilal
funcl ions of nelwork routing around failed or busy devices and channels.
The DSE may also rou[e the dalo to [he final dcs[ination [brougb intermc.
diale components, perhaps o[her switches.
Figure I-4 illus[ra[es a simple arrangement oflbc DCE, DTE. Rt}d DSfZ
in (he network, Later discussions will rcve;!l that !bc con figurn (inns cnn bc
considerably more complex.
fl A
OTE ore

Network reliability refers [o [be fibility [o deliver user da[a correclly

Network Topologies
(wilbou( errors) fronl one DTE [o another DTE, 1[ entails [he ability [o
recover from errors or w Ma h ~hc ne~\vOrk, inchl~iw ch~nnel. DTE,
Topologies and Design Goals
DCE, or DSE Llilurc. Ilclinhility alSO rcrers 10 the maintenance Of (he
A network con figura(ioti is also czlled a ,,cftw)rk foIm/oRj, A network systcm, which inch]des day-t o-cloy [es!ing: preventive maintenance. such as
10POIOCYis {he shape (ortbe physical connec[ivily) of (be tw[wolk. ‘1’hc lcrm relieving r?l!lly or fniling co!)lpone!lts of !hcir tnsks; and rault isolation in tlle
topology is borrowec frum gcome(ry 10 describe (I1c [nrnl (Ir somc[lting, The even( of problems. When a co!llPOllclll crc~~cs Pr~~blcllls. (llc nc~work
rleluork designer bas Ihrce major goals whc” es(;~blishir)g tlw [op”logy of ;1 dingnos!ic systcm can pinpoin( [be crrou refidily, isolu[c the fault, nnd
net work. pcrhnps isolalc the componcnl from (he network.
Tbe second lm;tjor goal in establishing a lopology for [be network is [o
● provide maximum possible relinbilily (o assure proper rcceip[ or [III provide {be le>ls[-cost PI(I1 be[wee!l the application processes residing on [be
trallic (allerna[c rouling) DTl?s, “rhis involves:
,,, ● rmt{e (be [rnN1c across (be ICOS[.
COS( pnth within (I1c network hctwccn
[he sending ;!nd receiving DTf+ (al(hottgb [he Icnst-cosl mule m~y not 1, nlillimizing (I1c actual Icnglh of the cbanncl hc[wccn the components<
be chosen if olhcr fzctors, such as reliability, ;T(Cmore i!l)porf:!n(] which usually co faifs rou(ing (he [rallic (brough !be fewest nunlber of
● give [he end tlser [be bcsl possible response time :ancl lbro!!@pu[, intcr!ncdio!e conlpOncllts:
 . .. ..
<-+ . ... ...... ...... ... ..-,:,-.,- .iL.. . . . . - ... .,..

) ,,. : }
,:,,<, , . . ...
8 Inl,oduclionto computer Networks Chap, I chap. 1 No!wo,kToPO!OQIOS 9

2, providing ttle least expensive cb:lnnel oplion ror a parlic(ll:tr :lpplic;l-

m

m
lion: for inslancc, transmi[ling tow-priorily d:iltl over ;! rclnlivcly
inexpcrmive dinl. upj Iow-speed telcphotte ii(ic, in cml{uxs{ {0 tr:\tlsmit-
h-’
ting the same data over an expensive high-speed sn[ellitc chatlncl, E
c

‘b’~q
c o A
c1
The ihird major god is (o provide (be best possihlc respwisc time RmJ
throughput. Short response lime enlails minimizing dclfiy hc[wccn tbc
G 8 0
transmission and the receip[ of the dalz be(ween the [)’rEs, ond is especially E F
important for interactive sessions between user applict! (ions. Tbro!@!pM lb] Ho,[zonlnlTODOIOW
,,, l{l,,,,chlc.1or Tr,o TOPOIC9V
entails [he transmission cifbe mnximum amount of cnd-wscr dal:~ i!l ~Lgiven

o
period.
Tbe more conlnlon ne(work [opologies are dcpictcd iu Figure I-5:
A
4 [he hierarchical lopo[ogy (Irce)
● the horizontal (apology (bus) B
E
● the star topology
● the ring topology (hub)
● [he mesh topology,
D c

H/erarch/ca/ Topo/ogy
(d) RingTOPO1.9Y
k) StarTOPOI09Y
Tbe hierarchical [opology is one of the most conlmon nclworks found

e
today. The software [o control the ne[work is relnlively simple and [he
topology provides a conce!llralion point [or control and error resolution, In
n
mosl cases, (he DrE at ihe highest order of the hicrnrcby is in conlrol of tbc E F
network, In Figure 1-5(a), [ratTc flow anlong and bc[ween lbc DT13s is
ini[ia ted by DTE A, hiany vendors implemcn( a distributed nspect 10 (he
A
hierarchic~l network by providing melbods for the subcmdinn[t DTfis to c
dircc(ly conlrol these DrEs below them in the biernrclly, Ibis reduces {he G
workload of the cenlral hos[ a[ sile A,
While tlle hierarchic~l lopology is allrac[ive fro!ll [he sl:,ndpoin( of
o
simplici! y of control, i[ present ssigoilic ant po!cn[id bo(tlcocck problems. IN
some instances, the uppermost DrE, typically a large-scale nlainrrame [,) Mc’hToPoI09”
compufer, controls all lraiYic between DT’Es. No( oI]ly cnn (his crcalc
FlgurO 1.5. NetworkTopologies
bol[lcnccks, bul it also presents reliability prohlcms, In the cvcnl [bc
upper-level DTE fails, [he ne[work capabilities are Iosl complc(cly if lhe
DTE is not fully backed up by another computer. Nonelbelcss, bicrarchical (m down [o the lower Ievcl. You might pause at this point and dc[ermine if
topologies have been used widely in [he past and will conlinuc 10 bc used for you could dmw a tree-lypc nclwork lopology rclaling lo ol)e of your daily
lmany years, They permit a graceful evolul ion !oward a more complex uctivi(ics. one conlmon cxmuple is the oumiznli~rl~l chnr~ bflwing in Your
network, because subordinate D1’Es ca” be added rclo[ively c; My, once. lndccd. [he adv:lnt~ges and disndvantagcs of o vcrticxl dnta commu-
The hierarchical Iopology is also cnllcd a verlicfil ne[work or o [rcc nicn( ions network nrc nii!ch lhe same of lhose of G hicrarcbicatly structured
nelwork. The word “tree” is cferivcd from the foci lha[ a Iliemrchic:ll business-c] ear lines of all!borify ~vi~h frcqllclll bc~lllenecks al lhe lJPPer
nel!vork often resembles a free wi[h branches stemming !_rom the lop of the ‘CVCISand oflcn instlfficictll d~leo~finn nf re~nfl,~+~ilifv
. .
. . ....... . . ...

10 tntmducth ,o&L, ) Ndnwtw ChaP. 1 Ctrap.1 F p@m.3NdmM 11

Horizontal Topology (Bus) bottlenecks, such as those found in the hierarchical or star systems, are very
The horizontal topology or bus topology is illustrated in Figure i-5(h). uncommon. Moreover, the logic to implement a ring network is relatively
lbk amangement is quite popular in Iucal area networks (discussed in simple. Each compunent is tasked with a straightforward job of accepting
Chapter Six). It is relatively simple to control traffic flow between and among the data, sending it to the DTE attached to it, or sending it out on the ring
the DTEs because the bus permits all stations to receive every transmission. to the next intermediate compnnent. However, like all aetworks, tbe ring
That is, a single station broadcaw to multiple stations. The main drawback net work dues have its deficiencies. The primary problem is the one channel
of a horizontal topology stems from the fact that usually only one commu- tying in all the components in the ring. If a channel between two nndes fails,
nications channel exists to service all the devices on the network. Conse- then the entire network is lost. Consequently, some vendors have estab-
quently, in the event of a failure of the communications channel, the entire lished designs which provide for back-up channels in the event a channel is
network is lost. Some vendors provide for fully redundant channels in the lost. In other instances, vendors build switches which automatically route
event of the loss of a primary channel. Others pruvide bypass switches the da:a around the failed node to the next nude O“ the ring to prevent the
around failed nudes. Another problem with this particular comigurstion failure from btinging down the entire network.
is the difficulty in isolating faults to any one particular crrmpcment tied into
the bus. The absence of concentration points makes problem resolution Mash TO@~y
difficult.
The mesh topulogy has been used in tbe last few years. lta attraction is
its reiative immunity to bottleneck and failure problems. Due to t be
Ster Topology
multiplicity y of paths frnm the DTEs and DSES, traffic can he routed around
The star Iopolugy is one of the most widely used structures for data failed components or busy nudes, Even though this approach is a complex
communications systems. One of the major reasons for its continued use is and expensive undertaking (mesh network protocols can be quite involved
based on historical precedence. The star network was used in the 1%0s aud from the standpoint of the logic to provide these features), some users prefer
early 1970s frccause it was em y to controf-the software is not complex and the reliability y of the mesh network to that of the others.
the traffic flow is simple. All traffic emanates from the hub of the star, the
central site in Figure 1-5(c), labeled A. Site A, typically a computer, is in
complete control of the DTEs attached to it. Consequently, it is quite similar The Telephone Network
tu the hierarchical topology, except that the star topology has limited
distributed processing capabilities. Since many DCES, DTEs, and DSES are connected by a telephone channel,
Site A is responsible for routing traffic through it to the other comfw- it should prove useful tu examine the telephone system. F@-e I-6 illustrates
nents; it is responsible for fault isolation as well. Fault isolation is relatively the telephone network stmcturc. The components are arranged in a hierar-
simple in a star network because the lines cmr be isolated to identify the chy starting with the customer location at the bottom of the hierarchy. The
prublem. However, like the hierarchical structure, the star network is customers, either in homes or offices, connect through the telephone system
subject to putential bottleneck and failure problems at the central site. into the class 5 office, which is also cal[ed the cen(ra[ ojfce (CO), local
Several star networks built in the 1970s experienced serious reliability exchange, or end office. Thousands of these offices may be installed around
problems because of the centralized aspect of the network. Other systems a country. Connection is provided to the CO through a pair of wires (or four
established a redundant back-up of the hub node, which provided consider- wires) called the local loop or subscriber loop.
ably more reliability to the system. Connections between COS are also provided by a facility called a
fcmdem renter (also called a tandem switch or toll center). The tandem
Ring Topology center interconnects COS that do not have direct connections with each
other. Fonr classes of tandem centers exist in the U.S. and Canada toll
The ring topulogy is another puprdar approach to network configura- centers, primary centers, sectional centers, and regional centers. The
tion. As illustrated in Figure 1-5(d), the ring topulogy ia so named because of regional center (ten in the U. S.) has the largest area to serve, with each
tbe circular aspect of the data flow. In most instances, data flows in one lesser class serving a smaller area.
direction only, with one single station receiving the signal and relaying it to The system is designed for each switching center to be connected to an
,,I the next station on the ring. The ring topulogy is attractive because office of a higher level, excepI at the highest level. The toplevel offices are
 ) ‘i
12 lnlroduclionto Compulor Networks Chap. 1 Chap, 1 The Telephone Ne!wo:k 13

1 1 shor[csl pa[h red/or [he fewesl number of swi!ches. This design approach
Regional
C4nter
CIW$1
sacrament.
{2)
?il!,burgh I rcduccs the delay ofcstablishing the connection with the other DTE, and the
fewer number of in[ermediale switches reduces the expense [o the telephone
r
;1--
. . -.. ..- ./’: company. As [he landem path becomes longer, it must go through more

$E,\
(4) /’ II) components, incurring more delay and additional expense.
-.<:
,,- /’
‘><. The system is built around high-usage fruk (or high-volume trunks),
(3; /,0 /
Wtional . . . which carry the bulk of the traffic. High-usage trunks are established when
/’ .
center --<2) the volume of calls warran[s the inslalla~ion of high-capacity channels
class2 Oakland ‘ — ---- ;* <-------- cleveland between two ofllces. Consequently, trunk configurations vary depending on
;,7. ‘ .
;<’. . ~. ---- traffic volume between centers. The system attempts 10 switch the call down
(1), (2) into the hierarchy, across the hierarchy, or, as a last resort, up into the
[4) ~ -.>.-
.’ [31 ~~ . .
/’ -- ...< ,’ hierarchy. Routing the call up usually entails more intermediate switching,
Primary ~ - <2; -? dlcreby increasing the connection delay and the telephone company’s COSI

L
center Redwmod -- – ---– -—------ + Yo.rwm.wn to obtain the connection.
claw3 city ,,,
,., figure 1-6 provides an example of the routing.z Assume a connection
\ ‘+ is desired from a ternlinal in Palo AIIo, California, to a computer in Warren,
(1) ! (1) Ohio. The connection would be made from the Palo Alto central office to its

.6
tandem office ([he 1o11center in Redwood City). If high-usage trunks did not
exist, the pa[h would follow the final trunk route. However, a high-usage
Toll PaloAlto w,,,,”
center trunk connects Redwood City to Warren’s toll center, Youngstown. If a
class4 trunk (channel) is free, the route follows this path. If all trunks were busy on
the Redwood Cily-Youngstown group, ~he next choice would be [o the
111 {1)1 sectional center serving Warren, which is Cleveland, Ohio. If all possible
rou[es are occupied, the call is blocked, resulting in a busy signal.
AT&T has begun the implementation of a new routing concep[,
End
office dymvnic norzhierarchical routing’ (DNHR). This new technology is not
class5 constrained by a fixed hierarchical s~ructure, but allows a choice ojpa~h

c+
8 based on heavy overflow tratlic from the fixed topology. Major portions of
Lcd Local

)3
DNHR will have replaced much of the hierarchical network by 1990. DNHR
LOOP LOOP
will mean fewer busy signals and faster connections to the end user.
DTE OTE
customer C“,tomer Sw/tched and Nonswi!ched CJpt/ons
Prmiw Pr,rni,,,
— FinalRoute A telephone cus[omer may choose to acquire a Iensed or private line,
--- HighUsaB[HU)Trunks [hrough which the customer has a permanent connection in the (eiephone
I 1Parenlhe!e$
showorderof R..te Choice network froin one site to another. (Private lines can also be switched through
CitiesindicmonePowbi!ilyof HUmmec:iom(PaloAICO
coWafrenl privafe swi[ches.) A private, nonswilched line is often vezy useful when users
cannel afford the delay of a connection or the actual blockage of a calf when all
Figure 1.6. The Telephone Network
circuits are busy. Moreover, users that have tratlk with several hours of
connection time per day can save money by using a leased line. The major
completely interconnected. The structure ensures that a pa[h exists from tradeoffs between swilched, dial-up and nonswitched, Ieaxed circui!s are:
each swilch in the network to any other switch.
The CO is responsible for relaying a dialed [elephone number OUI 10 a Switched Advantages;
local loop across to another CO or [andcm ooice. The design philosophy is Flexible
to route the call through [he most economical path, which is usu:dly [hc Inexpensive for low volume
4{
 ‘! , )
14 Inlroducllm10CmI~uler Ne[wo,ks Chap, ! Chp. 1 F.ndomenlals of CommunlcalionsThco!y 15

I)i.s,r<l),,,!l,,t(,.y Only rcccnlly, in [IN km! rcw yc;us, bos (Iw induslvy successfully mewed
Slow response In 9,6 kilobi[s pcr SCCWICI[kbi[ls) 011 lclcplwnc cbonncls. Tbc [ypicd speeds
Illocking possible (hlsy signnis) ,, f[),,nd bcymd 96UObi[s pcr second ;Irc 14,4(K), 19,200, 56,0W, d 64,(WJ bit/s,
I.ow qunlily :!m[ 1.544 lmcgabit/s ( 1,544,0(!41hil.$ pcr second) ontl 2,048 Mbi [/s ill F.uropc,
Kxpcnsivc for bi~ll VOlllllle (Clloplcr Nine explains tbc bnsis for [hcsc dills va[cs.) The 1.544 lmcgubils pcr
second ch:!onel is Ibe well-kmmvn TI carrier. ‘fhis ofTering is prevnlcnl in
Nonswi[ched AJIwH/oKe,r;
lfims missionssuch as high-speed digil:d channels and digilol switches.
Stlpporls bighcr VOIUIIIC Tbc dnln colllnltlllic:llic>lls world is ftlirly slow rcl;ltivc [0 lbc compu(cr
I iigher q(mlily p(lssiblc world. For example, a convcn[ ional datfl processing sys[em wi[h disk files
No blockage (busy signxls) :)t(ocbcd 10 compu(crs opcrales at about 10 megobits per second (M bi[ls) and
D;smflwlli(lgcs
Ilp.
Expensive for low volume
Onc mighl reasomibly osk, why lhc slow speed’? The answer is (hat
Lack of flexibility wbcn line is inopcmble I)rllsznd OCiIs USU;IIIYcommunicable lbrough {bc Iclcptmnc line, 1( was [be
The ncx[ scc[ion prvvidcs a mor. dct;!ilcd cxpl:tn:tti<,n orcur)lmtlllic:l- most ccmvcnicnl old mmdi!y :lv:lil;lblc P;III1 wbcn [bc illcluslry dcvclopcd
[ions theory, The rc;ldcr who does no[ wish Ibis dculil should skip (o (IIC compu{crs :IrNI bcjytl 10 imrflcc tbcnl witll Icrmin:ds :Iml ulhcr computers
section on analug and digild signnls, in [bc 1960s. l’hc [clcphonc cb>!nncl is no! clcsigncd for fits[ [mnsmission
hc[wccn higb+pcecl c(rmpulcrs, Iblil for voice lm!lsmission bclwccn pcuplc,
wbicll dots [)0[ rcquiuc lbc spcctl ossociillcd wilh d;illL transmission,
Fundamentals of Communications Theory
Voice Communlcafions and Anslog Wavelorms
Charrne/ Speed and B// Ra!e
Voice communications generate acousticrd waverornls which propagate
Appendix A describes how (laI;I is transnli[[cd f_rom onc compulcr or lbrough the air. In clTect, voice conlmunica!ions are physical energy. When one
Icrminal (o ano[hcr in bitmry im!{ges--ls [!nd os. I:or cx;lmplc, [hc binary spczks, oscillating wttvcfornls of high ;IIKI low nir prcss!lrc nrc ct’mlcd. These
number 1001 represents (be number 9 in base I(). (Appendix D also is w:wcronns are cnllccl mmloh, w:werorms. rbcy are so Ila!llcd bccauw Ibcy
provided to assist (be render wi[h lerms used in ibis seclion or lbc book, ) cxhibil n continuous, repealing occurrence mv.t [hey are nondiscrctc, gradually
The most clcnum!ary mc[bod a dcvicc IIses 10 scIId ;I bin:try nLImbcr on a changing I_rom bigb to low prcsstwc. of cmirsc. mm cannot scc wnvcrOrtlls in
communications pa[b is to swilcb (be signal on and olTeleclric:dly, or to provide the air because the voice tmnsmissions me nir pressure vo!ial ions.
high or low vollages on (he Iinc to represcn[ {be Is nncl 0s. Rc~ardless ol_bow I“hc telephone b~ndsel Irnnslatcs [be physical oscillations Or [be air to
(be data is reprcsenied on (he pa!b-in the form or onloff s[fi( es, levels or clcctric;ll energy wi(ll simil;lr waveform ch~raclerislics. Tbe waveform
vollage, or tlirec (ions of current Ilow-lhe con]mur]icnlions channel is CIC. exhibits IIlrec primoi’y cbomc[eris(ics (bat are very imporlan( (o dn(z
scribed by i[s capacity in the number or l~it.xper second lransnlil led. Ablwevi- ci>tllml!rlica[ iotts: amp/
fItIde, j?cqIteIIcy, and phose. Figure I-7 shows these
nt ions for bi[s pcr .sccond arc 6i//,r, 6P.!, or /M, WIICNonc spmks or a 4800”bilk components. Tbe mnplilmlc of II)C sigrml is a measurement in rclal ion 10 its
line, i~ means a clcvice sends 480c bil$ per second through Ibc cb;bIIIIcl, A hit is vo[l;tgc, which can bc zero or;! plus or tllinus VOIUC,No(icc IIIC analog aspcc!
simply tbe reprcsenm (ion or lhc cleclricnl, optical, or clcctronmgnctic SIJIC of d lhc signul-i( ~rodunlly incvcnses in posilive vol[ngc, l!wn traverses [he
[bc line: volmges, currcn[, or sumc hrm of radio m o@icol sign;ll, Seven or zero VOII:ISC [o [he negntivc vol[ngc, aml rclums to zero flgoin. This
eigh[ bits usu~lly comprise a user.coded cbamclcr, or by~c (scc” Appendix A), complcle oscillation is C:lllcd o c.wfr. [;i~ure I-7 also illmslm[cs the second
A dala communications channel ulilizillg convenliowtl [clcpl]one Iiocs is m;kjar Nspccl of [be sign:!l. i[s frequency. The frequency describes [be
very slow, Below are some examples, For purposes orc(~rl]p:\riwn, o cbannct number of cornpletc cycles pcr second or Ihc number d osciiki[ ions pcr
is classifkl by cnlcgorics of low speed, medium speed, and high spcc<l: second. Tbc nunlbcr or oscillnl ions pcr second or frequency is nlsu called
bcriz (117.). Ilcrtz dcscribcs tbc nt!nlber of complete wave fornls tba[ PMS a
Low Speed: fMOO bils per second rcrcrencc poirll in a second.
Mcdiuw Speed: 600480(1 bils per SCCO,)(! ‘1’lrclcrm lw((d differs from IICIIT in 111x1il refers to IIIC mlc d sign:li
IIi, ghSpeed: 4800-9600 bi[s pcr second. clmngc on Ihc chnnncl. rcgndlcss of Ihc inrom)o[i[w cohtcnl of those
 i “ )
16 Inlrod.cliotl (0 Comp.tor Nolwmks Chnp. 1 Fundmnenltm 01CommunicationsTheory 17
chap, 1

cycle I .l~ cycle2

–_+. __Q2L3_,______
t.
-1 Tim
.4: 90~PIM,,
0: 180?Phase
c 270. ma,,
D: 00, 3.50,P!>,,,
Flwre 1-7, The AnalogSignal
signals. For example, an 1800 Hz signrd can hc chnngcd ;1[ {200 fimcs pcr
second, The 1800 IIz signal describes [he “carrier” frcqllcncy ?nd IIIC 1200
changes describe [he Lmud, Many people use the ternl “baud rate, ” which is
aclually redundnnl, since baud implies a ra[c.
The third major component of the analog si~nal is nlso shown in Figure
1.7. The phase of the signal represents [he poin[ the sign~l Ibas”reachcd i!, the
cycle. As illuslra[ed in [he figure, when [he cycle has gone ouc. four[b of i(s
phase al point A, i[ is mid 10 have [reversed lhrougb 90 pcIceII( of i(s cycle,
jus[ as traversing one-fourth the way around a circle represents a dis(ance of
90 degrees. We will examine amplilude, frequency, at}d pbasc later in (his
chapter [o explain one of Lbc functions of ccrtaitl DC13S,
Bandwidth and the Frequency Spectrum
A voice (mnsmission co”sis[s of waveforms con[;~i”i[]g m;)”y dircrc[l[
frequencies, The p,lr(icular nleld or [hcse frequencies determines (be pilcb
and sound ora person’s voice, A hunmn voice occupies lbe frcqt!cncics of
aPPrOxfmatel Y 200 Hz 10 lS,lXJO Hz. The human ear CaII dc(ccl freqtjc”cic~
over a broader range, from around 40 Hz to 18,0CX)Ilz. The range of rreqtlcncies
(for example, those comprising [he human voice spcc(mm) is cnllcd the
ba/i&id//I, The term bandwidth is also used ill compu[cr nc[works. Lkmdwid[b
refers 10 (he range of transmission frequencies tlm[ are cawicd on a comnwni-
calions line, I)findwid[b is ~ crilicnl in~redicnt in networking because !hc
capacity of a Ch;lnncl is cfircc[ly rcla( ccl [0 ils b;lmlwid[h,
MOSLphysical phenomena wi[h which wc are fao)ilior m~ni(esl IhCIII-
my spccl rum. Figure I-8 illuslrx[cs Ibc I_rcqucncy spcc( rum. The spccl rum
rnngcs fuc>rll(I1Crckl[ivcly limi[cd Iwndwid!h or (IIC olldio I’rcqttcncy. st!ch :!s
voice, lhrough lhc I)igb [vcqucncics l’ound in cuaxi:ll c:lblt% nlicrow~lvc
btcmdcns[ing, and the VCI’Yhigh frcqueilcy range where visible Iigh[ cxisls.
The idCa Orh:lmlwidlh is sonlclimcs CO1lrll$ing, hill i(s co’cct can rcwlily
be scco by some gr:tphic illustr:]{iow, Firs[, h:lndwid(b is :Iclllnlly cL>mpu(Cd
by sub(mcting [he lowest [requency found in the signal, such m a (e[ephone
ch$lnncl or a voice Imnsmission, from (be highest [rcqucncy found in Ihc
sign:!l. A Iclcplmnc chxnncl in Norlb Amcrico typicnlly occupies o band
ranging rrolll 3300 I Iz down [U 300 I 12., CvIIscqucntly, subtracting tbc lwvcr
b:ml from lbe upper Imnd yields a b:!ndwid(b of 3(J(30 Ifz or 3 kHz, The
Et!ropc;in lclcphonc bondwidth mngcs rrom 3(KI Hz (o 34o() }IZ. These
composite frequencies are used by the human voice and by d~ta communi-
cations compooen[s to transmit an analog or a digital signal through the
circuil. (The :ICIU;!I Imndwidtb or (Iw North American cbnnnel is 3300 Hz,
but wc use 3000 Hz for discussion purposes.)
Figure I-8 shows that the bandwidth between (he frequency spectrum
or 10] to 104 is 9000 I+z. Ifa telephone cb:innel occupies 3 kHz of band, then
Ibis Iwndwid(h is roughiy equivalent [0 Ibrcc voice chnnnels: 9000-3000 =
3 chrmncls (nl[hougb more chnnnels can be derived by fipplying olher
Iecbnologies). ] However, if one exnmines !be bandwidlh between 107 and
IOR, (he full bondwicf(b is 90,000,000” Ilz. If wc divide 3000 Hcr(z, tbc
voice-grade chonnel bnt]d, into this bandwid (h, [hen theoretically wc can
clerivc 30,000 voice-grade channels. (In realily, fewer channels are obmincd,
due to lhc need [0 “scpnmtc” the cbnnncls rrOm exch other. ) Simply slnted,
more Ihings are happening fas[er as sign:ds occupy chonnels in the greater
frequency speclrum. More channels can be derived at [hese high frequency
r:t(cs,
Tbc lrxl]s mission or ;tudio sign:lls ;I[ [heir origit];ll r~~llllcll~~ prccl IIdcs
more (ban one voice-grade tmnsmission from occupying the channel; the
mu!liplc sigrmls ill 300-3300 Iiz inlerfere with each other. However, (he
gren(cr bandwidths of coaxial cable ancl microw;ive allow [be 3 kHz
voice-grode bflnds (o 0CCUP%dio’crent portions or IIIC frequency spccl rum.
For cxnmplc. IWO voice.grmlc channels serving IWO DTEs can be placed
on(o higher Imnd cbonncls of’ co:!xinl coblc M follows:
300 10,030,300
voice grade ch;!llllcl I: $ t
3300 !O,O?3,300
300 10,034,300

selves in some form of freq!mncies. These frcq!]encies rongc rrom lhc audio voice grodc cbnnncl 2: $ 1
frequencies to lhc exlrcmcly high rrcqucncics fotjnd in IIIC x-rdy ;Ind g;lmm:] 3300 10,037,300
 chap. 1 Cmmwtl,,O the Arml~ “M O@!,,!Wodds j9

\ Sitlcc the 1)’lV~s’ IWO voice-grade clmnnc!s now occupy dill’crcnl

frcqtmucy spcclm, fhc Sigm]ls con Ilsc lhc surnc physicol lT1cdia, hcc;jw$c
\\
Ii Icy:tac Ii>w<>rio IIml (hey hclmvc as if lhcy :Lrc inticpcmlcrtf L,( c;!cI, olbcr,
The signals :tre mid 10 occupy or usc s){bchmwrl.r.
?71c concepl of st?vcml [rww,missions a[ di~crent frequencies CWCLipy-
itlg (IIC sume physicni medium (for cxnmple, a wire) al (he same time is oflen
quite confusing, An annlogy 10 a more filmifiar pi>cllonle$>on—tigh[ —shol]ld
help remove the mys[cry, ‘Ilc “whi(e” Iigh[ wc SEC in [hc sun’s beams is
:icltmlly cmllpriscd Or m:itly frequencies 11!:1(fxll wifhiu ihc visihlc light
frequency spccirvm, Yc[, [bc rrcqucncics Or while li~h[ yield colors (rre-
quencics) SUCI11s red, grce,fl, violc$, aAd blt!e. We can Ijl;nk or Ihe blue
(rcq~{cncics ns occupying one “suhclmnncl” of [hc while li@ spcc{mnt ;,ml
the red fvcquenrjcs M occupying nnofher. T!m prisln provides us {he fool lo
sepora[c or combine die frequencies [o travel through [he aimosphcre
(Chfimld) ns cwubincd colm’s (sigw)}s), These “prism” cnp~[,ilj(ics fire
puovidcd hy tcchoiqucs discussed in the DCX1sccfion.
[londwid[h is a limiting fsclor cm tmmmissico czp;!GiIy wi(]}in the
. nclwm’k, Other limiting factors #re the acltml sigmrl power of ihe transmis-
<“=%,: .__-l-Q sion am! [hc amount O( noise in the clwnncl, The ctmnncl noise is n problcm
flu{{ is inl~cren$ to the channct ilsclf awl can never be complelciy eiimifmtetl,
Noise restllls rronl several ractors, For instance, lltmospberic noise ema-
no[cs from elcc[rical dis{!!rbuncc?, in the ear[h’s atmosphere. Sptce noise
con cumc from the stm snd o!her stars which radiate eleclrnmagnetic energy
OVeT 2 VCry brOad freque”cy spectr,,m, NOi$e can fi]$~ be fO”nd o“ ~ wire
conduc (or or coaxial conductor becw!se the ranch-u movement of elec{rons
witllin ~he conductor gcncralcs fhcrmal energy, (See Appendix A for a
discussiml of elcc(r*n MOVemWI,)

Connecting the Analog and Digital Worids

-..._--L
-3, . Dfg/fd S/gna/s

Whet] OTES cummunic:t{c wifh eocfz o{her hy use ofa [clcphonc palh,
‘+ , ,0,
(IIC sig~i;ll most accommoda{c itself 10 0 voice-oriculml nn:dog world,
Jlowevcr, OTEs “bilk” in di~it,d rorms. As illuslmlcd in Figure I-9, [he
!ligitfil wmveform looks considerably differe”{ rrom Ihe onalog waveform. II
is similw iii lhat i{ is ccmlintm
us. rcpcxls i[sclf, ?M{ is fwrimlic, IN![ il is very
dilTcrcnt kml lhc shmdpoiw !Iml it is di,rcrcf r-it Ims very ithvitpt clmngcs
in its vollsge s{nle. CvmpuIcrs and [crmin;lls use digitnl, bimlry images
Imc;![!se scmiconducfor lraosis!ors ;irc hmicnlly IWO.SINC. discrctc devices.
(11 shOtlld he noted 111:11Itigllrc I-9 shows ;Irl idc;d digittd si~md, Duc 10 [he
cleclriczl propcr(ies of the channel< the signal is actuslly less discre(e and
sqow’c-sh:!p cd,)
,, .;, ,.. ..,. ... ,,.,,,

) )
20 Inlroducllonto Compule,. .dlworks chap. 1 Chsp, ! SynchronlzinU
,;etworkComponerds 21

Arnp[it”d, O
I
1
—
VAVAVAVA
1
I I I l---+ —t--’--+
1!, [ ! (al AmPld”deMod”18tlon
cycle3 I cycle4 I !

Figure !-9, The Dlgl!alSignal ,,

Digital transmission is available in mzmy systenls (mlny. 1[ INISsevcml
distinct advantages over [he annlog channel. and is discussed iii nlove delnil
in Chapter Nine, However, analog channels still dominu(c the locnl con!lcc-
Iions of DTEs into [he Ielephone companies’ chzmm+.
l-----+ —--+--’----+
The Modem
lb) Frequency
Mod”t,t!otn
A method is needed lo allow lwodigi(al devices to ‘ttjdk” 10 cacII OII,er
lhrough the dissimilar analog e!lvironmetlt. The modcm provides this
di~ilallonnlog intcrfncc. 1[ :Illcrs either (he ampliludc, Ilw I_rcq!tcncy, or (IIC
)
phase to represen[ binary data as nn analog signal.
The modem is our first example of a DCE. II provides [he inlcrrace
between the digital and analog worlds, as well m [he carmhili[y 10 Imnsmil
rrom a digital DTE across (he analog channel [o a receiving digital DI’E. The
w 0 rd “modem” is a shortened term for ]!Iodula[ion/de!lloc{ t!la[ ion, The
process modulates the sigmd al the [ransnli[ting modern and dcmoduln[es the
(c) PhmeMod.la!iOn
transmission at [he receiving modcm.
To be precise, lhe exact definition of moduta!ion is: the nlodification of Flguro 1-10. ModulaOonTechniques
a frequency 10 carry dala, This frequency is called IIIC carrier rrequmlcy,
The da[a (hat modulates the carrier (i. e., Ihc dnla conling rrom (hc Icrminid DC13S, and DSES. The render is cncoumgcd 10 review Appendix C if [hese
or computer) is called (he /,a,rt=ba)ld sig”l[, TIIe Ierm “hascball{ [,, “CS(1811Y in ferfaccs are unfilnliliar, or if more de(oil is needed.
refers to an unmodulztcd signal.
Ttle modem modifies (hccarric~ signnl (cithcr its ampli[t,dc, rtcqllcncy,
or phase) to carry the bm.eband signal, As illus(raled in Figure 1-1o, the AM Synchronizing Network Components
modem changes (he amplitude orits carrier in accordance with lhc bil slrennl Irl oi’dcr for compulers and terminals [o communicate, they firs{ need [o
10 bc sent, In this instance, a higher amplilmle represcrrts a zero ‘knd a lower noliry each other th;d they nre :!blc 10 communicalc, Second, once lhey are
amplitude represents a one, A more populor modem is called an FM modem commu!licnling. they mus( provide a nlc[hod which keeps both dcviccs
(lrequcncy modulz(ion nlodem) in which [he ampiitlldc remains conslnn[ and aware of the ongoing transmissions. Lel us address [he first POint. A
Ihe I_requency varies. A binary I is represented Iby onc rrcqglency a!!d a tmnsnli[(er, such as n lcrnlinttl orncompu{cr, mms[ (mnsnlit its signal so thn(
binary O by anolhcr frequency. Anolher device is (he I)M modtm (PIMISC (I1c receiving device knows when 10 search r’or nnd recognize lhc dnlo m it
mndtda!irm modcm). This modem ahrup[ly alters i[s phnsc 10 rcprcscnl (he ;)rrivcs. In essence, (he receiver must know !hc exact linlc that cnch binary
ctiange froma I Ioa(lora Olon 1, I and O is coming across (he communications channel. This requirement
Appendix C provides inrormnlion 011 IIIC RS-232-C :II1d V,2’IIV,28 !ltcans [hfl( a mutlml lime lmse or a “common clock” is ncccss:!ry bclwccn
interfaces, which are reconlmenc.ted standards used (o connect DTEs, [he receiving and [rans milling devices.
 .’ ,’.’ ., .,,, .. .
— L._. .. —
.. W,,.,.

22 Inkoduclion10Compulm Nelworks Chap. 1 Chap.1 SynchronizingNelworkComponents 23

In [his sense, machine corllmu[licaf ions MC analogous IO [bc comrnu. ~inc [oclmngcits stulc very often. The bes[ clocking codcs:,re those in which
nications belween people, For example, during 3 PUHY where mony people the SM(C of the line cb;hngcs lrcqucn[ly, bccausc these slate changes (for I
arc conversing infcrmi[[cn[ly anlung mld bclwccn (hcmsclvcs, Iwo individ- c.vamplc, VOIIWWshills) ulluw the rcccivcr (o conlinuc [o readjust i[sclf to
uals (say, Mr. Dictz and Ms. Jones) must firs! rccognizc lhcy orc 10 csl;jblish (be signal.
communications with each other. If Ms. Jones” back is furncd to Adr. Diciz, The “clock” simply provides a refcrencc for [be individual binary Is
he musl first send a preliminary signal, such as “Hello,” or “Ms, Jones, ” and 0s. The idcfi is [o Ihave a code with regular and frequent level (transitions
This, in effec(, establishes a common time base be[wccn ille two individuals on the channel. The transitions cfclinea[c the binary data cells (Is and 0s) al
that wish [o converse. If an individual simply began the convcrsa[ ion the rcccivcr, and sampling logic continuously looks for the state transitions
wi[hout previous notification, it is quite likely the receiving individu:d would in order to delineate (he bit streams. Receiver sampling usually occurs a[ a
miss (he first parf of the transmission; i.e. , the firsi parl of ~he first scn[cnce. higher rate ~han the data rate in order to more precisely define the bit cells.
Since Ms. Jones is busy and occupied with o[her m~tters, Mr. Dictz mus[ Figure l-l I provides an illus~mtion of several common binary coding
inlerrup~ her current ac(ivity 10 get her a[tent ion. schemes used in Ihe industry. We will discuss each of (hese briefly and
In the same manner, a (ransmit!ing machine mus[, firsI send [o tbe dcscribc [heir ;dvan[ages and disadvantages. ‘rhcir itltroduction here is
receiving machine an indication Iha[ il wishes 10 “talk” wi[h i[. If [he ncccssary 10 an understanding of malerial in the subsequent chapters. (Be
lransmit!er sends [he bi[s down (he channel withou~ prior no(icc, the aware (hat (he signals are not as sharp and square as Figure l-l I sugccsts.
receiver will Iikcly no~ have sufficient iime [o adjusi ilself to [lie incoming bi[ Figure 1- I I(c) depic[s an ac[ual signal.) All Ibese sipnals exhibit one or
slueam. in such an event, lhc first few bits of the transmission v,ould be Ios[, several of [he follow!ng four characteristics:
Consequently, like Ms. Jones, the receiving DTE must bc [cmporwily
in[errup[ed. t, (),,;pckv CWdc, NO sigual below zero vollagc or no signal above (i. e.,
This mocess is mm of a communiczdion orotocol and is ccncmi]v
. . :i!gcbraic sign dots not clloilge: O volts for I, 3 volts for O).
referred to as syllclironfzatiotl. Short connections be fwccn machines oftcr. ● Pokw code. Sigmd is above and below zero volmge (opposite algebraic
I use a separate channel, or line, to provide (hc synchronization, This Iin: signs idcniify logic s[:dcs: +3 volts and –3 volts).
Iransmits a signal lhat is turned on and 00’ or vwied in accordance with
● Bipolor code, The signal varies between three levels.
preestablished conventions, As [be clocking signal coming across [his line I
s Al!cI’IIo!e mflrk invcrsio,l (AMIJ code. Uses allernate polarity pulses to
changes, it notifies the receiving device tbal it is 10 examine the duta [inc a[
encode binary Is.
a specitic lime. II may also desynchronize [he receiver’s clock so lhat Ihe
receiver s[ays very accurately aligned on each incoming dotz bit. Thus,
clocking signals peflorm two valuable func[ ions: (1) [hey synchronize ihc Figure l-l l(a) shows the non-re(urn-[o-zero code (NRZ), Notice the
receiver in!o the transmission before the data actually arrives, and (2) they signril level remains stable throughout the bit cell. in this case, ~he signal
level remains low for a bit I and goes to a high voltage for a bit 0. (Opposi~e
keep the receiver synchronized with the incoming data bils,
voltages are also used in many devices. ) NRZ is a widely used data
communications coding scbcme, because of its relative simplicity and low
Syrzchronlzatlon Codes
cos~. The NRZ code nlso mokes very e~lcient use of bandwidth, since it can
When there are long distances be[ween computers and [erminals, i[ rcprcscn( a bi~ wi[h cnch baud (signal change), However, it suffers from ~he
makes more sense economically [o incorporate (he (iming into the signal lack of self-clocking capabililics, since a long series of continuous Is or 0s
itself instead of using a separa(e clocking channel. This is known as a would no! creale a signal stale lram,i [ion on Lhe channel, As a consequence,
self-clocking code, Non-self-clocking codes presenl a problem in lhal the the rcceivcr’s clock could possibly drift fronl the incoming signal and not
I
clock and the da[a can be altered as they propagate through scpamta sample the line at [be rigll[ time; the transmif(er and [he receiver might
channels. The clocking signal speeds up or slows down relative to the dam ac[ually lose synchronization with each other, The NRZ code can be polar
signal, which means the rccciver htis dioicully “locking” onto (Iw data or bipolar, depending on Ifle :Lc[ual inlplementa[ ion. NRZ is widely used in
signal, c~mmunications becwse il requires no encoding or decoding and it uses a
A self-clocking code is one in which [he receiving device can periodi. ch:mnel’s bandwidtfl very e~ec(ively.
tally check itself to see that ii is sampling the line a[ [he exric[ [ime :{data bit The rclurn-!o-zero code (RZ) usually entails [he changing of the signal
,, is ~rommating into the receiver. This requires (under ideal conditions) the s[~te o! lcas[ once in every bit cell, This scheme is illustrated in Figure
 (ulflsmissintt, m componcnl~ in Ibc .syslcnl h:Ivc no way (u syrwhronizc
II will] zero Ii! cells bccm!se (here are no cbongcs in [he stn(e of [he line. Wc
;O: l/.,,,,; ~;,o;
1 will sce i“ Choptcr Nine tbol corricrs have olher nlethods to ensure that
(a) NRZ I Ihcm is n signni slate change on (I1C Iinc pcrimlictdly. even though a long
\ series of zcws moy exis[ ill [he dala strc: ml. Finnlly, F@I’c l-l l(e) shows
I an 2cIu;]I dc signal Is it exis[s on the cllannel.
I
(b] RZ Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmlsslon
1
1 A great number of computers and ternlina\s communicate with each
other :)wI with DCES through the non-return-to-zero (NRZ) code. Conse-
(c) h!,”ch,,,a, q~hen[ly, cfocking bccomcs a major consideration wi[h fhcsc dcviccs. Two
da(o formatting conventions are used 10 help achieve synchronization. These
IWO methods arc illuslralcil in Figure 1-12. The first npproilch is called
c].~y,lcljrr>t![,l(.r form~tt king, Willl lhis apprmch, each dolo byte (cuch chnFoc
-
(0) !3{,01,,,4!,4, tcr) has s[:wt and slop signals (i. e., synchronizing signnis) plflced m-ound i[.
The purposes of these signals are, first, IO alert tlle receiver tha[ datn is
arrivi[lg, and second, 10 give Ihc rcceivcr sullcicnl lime to perform ccr[oin
liming functions berore (be nex[ by[e arrives. The start and S(OP bi[s ore
(e) Actual0;0.,,,
P“lltstream really nalhing more than unique and specific sign~ls which are recognized by
(I2Crccciving device,

1-I I(b). Since RZ codes provide a Lransiiio\] in every bil cell, ibcy have very
good synchronization chwac[eris[ics. The RZ code’s primary clismlvan(tlgc (.) A,”OchrOncw,
Form,l
is ihal it requires (WO si.gn81transitions for each bit. Conscqlic[l(ly, an RZ
code would require twice the baud of a conventional NRZ code. We find this
lYPe Of cOde in some of Ihe more sophisticated systems denling with IOCaI . s“., 6YI, N .,. Sy:e3 Byte2 0“1, 1 Sync --
area ne[works (Chap[er Six), Iigh[wavc [cchnologics, md op[ic fihcrs,
Figure 1.1 l(c) illustrates anolhcr very populxr cede found i,? n>;,”y
lb) $.y”ch,onw,format
communications systems today, the Manchester code. This code provides n
signal s(a[e in every bi[ cell, Consequently, it is a good clocking code,
flor+cvcr, Iikc (be RZ code, ii requires (wice (he bolrd for (I]c bil ra(c. in
- C.”t,.l Err., Check user001s Lo. Con,,.! w. -
acldi! ion, the in[ctiacc devices u.$ed to achieve !his higher baud arc consid-
er:lbly more cxpcnsivc [Il;t” {he NR7+ ill, c~,lces, M;\{l,-llcstcr ~.clc is
commonly I’ound in mogne(ic tape recording, op(ic fiber links, c&xiid lines, [c) A T@cd Sy”d,ron.w?rmwni$d.n
and local area networks.
Figure 1.12. Formals
Figure [- I l(d) shows one code used by AT&T, (l~c Rell C)pcm(ing
Companies, und o[hcr carriers, l’his WZISoripi!mlly c;!llcd (IIC Ilcll Systcm
Asynchrowmls (Mlllslllissioll is Widely L1scd bcc:msc tbc io[crfilccs in
PCM Code. This signslling strllcture is an exanlple of bipulor AM I whcmin
lhe 12Tizs nncl DCEs [Ire inexpensive. SinCc (he syncbronizo[ ion occurs
alternate polarily pulses are used to encode logic [. This p:tr[icular code
belwccn Ihc tmnsmilting atld receiving devices on a characler-by-chamclcr
presenls some problems when a long series of zeros arc locolcd in (he
bnsis, somc allowance cnu he m:dc for inacct)racics be!wccn llle [mnsmi!ler
.-
 ,“: ‘)
Cllnp. 1 1170Cornnyl!llcollons
Porl 27

3(IJ receiver because [he inaccuracy cnn Ihe cowecte(l wilh II ICWCX{arriviog Ilowcvm, fOr lbc prCSCnl, wc are perfectly accllrnle ill using [hcm inlCr-
byte, A ‘sl<)oser” li(l)ing [OICCIOCClrn!lsl:hfcs to lower COIIIPI)UCIII C<ISIS. cho IIKc:d>ly (which wc will tlo IInlil wc hove pu, viclcd cm,llgh Iwlckgmuwf [0
A more soplais(ic;itcd process is .syt!rl,rw,,,t,.r (r;!nsmissi<)n, which uscs dcfi IIc lhc III). l:ot’ cor!sislcncy. [IIC [crmJidIIIc will bc used un(il wc deli IIe
separate clocking channels or a self-c [ocking code. Synchmnoi!s form:~(s (heir dill’crenc es,
climina(e [he inlcrmillenl slartlslnp signals around each cll;\r;lcler, The All frnnlcs do II(II conl:lin user dn[a. Nclwork pm!ocols require the
preliminary si~ntlls am msu;)lly c;lllcd sy,lcllrc>01i7;lli[>lt or sydc Ihylcs. ‘I”hc CXCII>l I!L!Cof Immcs :Irllotlg D’I’lis. Delis. 1)s[:s, :Illd CCIIIIWI Cclllcrs 10
more modem systems call them flags. ‘I’heir principal function is to :Ilcri Ihc ell’cc!ively nlanage Imllic I1OW.difignose problems, and perform day-Io-cfay
receiver [hat user cfuta is orriving, This process is called fmming, 1[ CONhc opcwl ions, !!1 rnct, ;] subslonli:d amount of network tralTc is non-user,
seen (hat a long synch rwmus (kI(o message without itl[crmil[crtl sIo Itls Iop (lvclhcild fmmcs, ‘rflt purpose of such ovcrhcnd is 10 pcrfOrnl (I1c ncccxsnry
bi[s could presetl{ problems because (I1c rcccivcr could dril[ fronl [hc siBmll. pl(l!OCOl UMI intcrrncc rLl!lC[illllS to support user d;Ilo fvnnles.
We discussed in the last section (WO rnelhods to deal wi~h (his prohlcnl: (1) The idcntiiicslion (ID) field USWIIIY provides a name or number for ihc
provide a separate clocking channel, or (2) provide n sign;!i code thnl is rcccivcras WCII:Is for lhc [t’onsnlilt cr. Eilhcr lhc ID orcon[rol Iiclds co!ll ain
self-clocking, such a$ re!urn- lo-zero or Mwlcflesler code. ‘Tflc I:\![er $Ip- sccIucncc mlmbcvs, which orc mscd (0 fuvthcr idcn[ify (IIC specific fmmcs
proach allows [he receiver 10 develop its timing rrom Ihc Iine:[ransi[ioms. rroln cacfl scmler,
We now have enougll in[ornmlion on COCICSand rurmals 10 nlovc [0 ‘lf]c error-check field is :ippcndcd hy Ihc Ir:!nsmi[iing silt. IIS w!luc is
o[her componcn[s in the network, f{owcvcr, we will COIIIC b[!ck to (his dcrivccl from a culcul:l{ ionon Ihc con[cnl$ or Ihe elfjcr fickfs. A! lhc
subjec[ several times, 1[ will be more evident in Ialer sections thnt [I!e receiving si{e, an icfenlical process compuces another error-cllcck field. The
knowledge of codes and signaling slates is important 10 gfiin on umfwsIand. (WOarc Ihen comp:!red; if !llcy s!re consislcn[, the chances arc very good [h~!
ing of other aspects of nclworks ~od protocols. [flc p:lckcl was Imnsmilbd crwr-free. ‘f’llis process is ci!llcd lhc @ic
rrdrljjd(!ftcy check (CRC), and the field is coiled Lhe Jiio]!je chcch’ SC9111>11CC
(Fcs).

Message Formals

A more realistic depiction of synchronous formals is shown in Figlire The Communications Port
I-12(c), Data transported lhrough a compu[er network usually ccm{ain a
minimum of five park, ‘Mc illuslra[iou in Figure [-[ showed [he connection of a DTE into z DCE.
A DTE cm also crmnec[ or inlerface directly in(o another DTE. A very
● sync bytes common ;!pproach is a conlpll!er conncc(ing directly to a gmphics device, 3
● con[rol field(s) which implement(s) [he protocol; !11;1(is, marmgcs clle prin[ cr. n tcrnlitl:il, or mIo Iltcr computer. L:]ler, we will also ext!mine
movement of (he data lhrough the ne~work sys[cms in wliich DCES in[erconoccl directly to each other. Regardless of
where [he conucctien is nl;lde. [hc inpu[lou[pu( conlmunicaf ions channel
● an identification of tlle dala (al a minimum, lflc rcccivcr or lmnsrnil(cr
in[cvfoccs in10 !hc DTE [hrough n cOlillll llllic:lt ions IXJII.
identification)
Vendors and technicians llave olhcr names for porls, Some commonly
● user data (the application process alma)
tiscd (erms arc: comnl!!oicn[ ions nd; !p[cr inte!focc, serifil POI1. serial board.
● an elemenl [o ctleck for a (rsrlsnliss ion error, [ypicolly c;,llcd an Imwd, USART (univcrs:d sytlctlrollc,\lslasy tlcllron[>\ls rcccivcr Irmrniltcr).
error-check field, I We dcscribc lbcsc [crms mot’c Iully in ofhcr P:IIIS uf Ihc hook. A[ lhc prcscn[
[imc. wc Inccd only 10 Ilndcrs[ond 11)0[ :t purl is usu[dly n smell micro fwO-
Before cxplt!ining (hcsc live parts in nlorc llcl;!il, il shoIIld prove ilscful ccssllr wi[h ils owtlscp:lrotc chwk, memory% rc~islcrs, Hn,l, oflcn, :1CCIIIKII
10 describe four terms: me,~.~[lge, block, ~romc, amf p<wkr{. ‘fhcsc terms pwccssing uni[ (o r~iwocdgcd microcompulcr), ‘1’f>citllcllipcrlcc of [hc porl is
have no clear definition in the indws{ry, ln(fecd, fhcy nrc M[etl msed highly vzvi:lhle, dcpcndi[]g on the fypc of in(crfacc nccdccf. Obviotlsly, the
inlcrclmngcahly, Al this poin( in our ;in;dys is, it is su~lcicnl 10 dcscrihc lhcm OIOVCsc@lislic:l!cd on im[ividll:ll porl is, !hc nlorc cxpcn~ivc i[ is. The moin
all a?: c1Self-cnn[ainc[f ;l!K1ildcpeodcnl cnlily of conlrol ;[mllor !,scr <I;tin. ptIIp<lsc 01 Ihc clllllllllltlic;lli{>lls pot[ is l<) i!l!cr~lcc lhc cl,lltlljllllic:ititltls
Generally, a user packel, message, fmme, or block con[s!ins al a mi!tinlum channel in[o Ihe DI’E and provide for [Iw [uocl ions of nlOving dn[a into and
[he five en[rics shown in Figure I-12(c), Lnler we will define lhcsc lcrms, oul of IILCdcvicc,
 -. . .

,,
,’~
2$ lntmd.clion10ComputerNelworks chap 1 chap. ! AdditionalNewmk Components 29

To O(I>WDSES,DTEs
Additional Network Components DCE’,,”<1
Nctwatks

The ne!work configurations discussed (bus fnr II:IVC consisfcd of a fcw

chnnnels ml devices In llmny c~1g;it1i22t{i(>r1s,
IIIC s[rutlurc is simiklt (0 IIIC
conliguralion in Figt!rc !-13. We have added sevcml o\hcr con)pc>[!cn(s [o il
communicalicms sys[cm. Firsl, tbe ~r~ (the compulcr) is conncc(cd
Ihm!IRh various kinds ofnor(s (o o[hercomnu{ers, tcrmimls, disk files. Ianc
tiles. ;nd devices such os’prinlers and g.raph’ic plo[lers. (hle ri];tj{w diflercn~c
betwtcn (his piclure find previous illustrations is the connection of [he
co mpuler (0 a fro f[f. c)td proces.mr,
The purpose of the rron(-end processor (which m>hyor mny not hc ilscd
in your organization) is 10 oilload communications tilsks from Ihc mainrrome
hos[ computer. Many or (I1c communicnlions protocols rcsiclc here. The
rroni.cnd processor is cspcciolly designed (0 do a very Iimilcd num[mr of
runctions but lo do Ihcm qui[c clficicn{ly. Forinst[!ncc, il mxy bc responsible
for handling errors will] the devices allached to it wi!hcwl interrupting lhc
hos[ computer.
Several or [he devices in Figure I-13 h:ive been discussed previously. I
I
F,ool End I
I
Remember, [hc !I!o[I(,I17.T ~c( as an in[er[;$ce between lbe digil:tl “syslcms :)IMJ I
!he analog facililics, In mldilion, scvefid other dcviccs wc lmvc nvl’ YCI’
cliscusscd are cxplxincd bciow,
The md/ip/e.rer (MUX) is a device found in alnmsl nll insl:lll:tlions 11s T,l,nho”es
PBX computer
primary rune! ion is to OI1OWmultiple DTEs or POIIS [o slmrc one cnnlmuni- andDTE%
ca(ions line. uswdly a telephone chanucl. (’I’hc specifics nf u)ul(iplcxing !=
.techniques, are covered in later chapters .)1’bis pmclicc assumes II)e ch;IIIncl
has sullici.snf capaci[y [o nllow i(s shfireci USC. lfI this ill~lstrn!icm, the
{elcpbone line is a priva[e, leased channel devoted exclusively 10 (bc ILSCor
u,,, F(lc,
(hc IWO attached mul[iplexers, The use of mulliplexers cnn rcdt!ce suhs!an-
Ii:{lly Ihe number ofcommunicnlinns cbanncls required. ‘1’hcircos{ is usually
more lhan OITSC[by [he rcduc[ ion of line costs. Mul[iplcxcrs drc :\lso very
msefu in a local (non.telephone Iinc) environment bcc;luse they con rcducc
El Dataswitching
Ewlprnmt

!he amount of cab[c pulled [hrmbgh a Ixlikling ror cacb lcrminnl’s conneclio!l Multblexe,
m
10 a cornpul cr. No!icc tb:i I u muitiplcxcr is used :1[ et!ch cnd of[llc ch;, nncl.
Ano[hcr comnlon componcnl I’ound in d{!to c(>lllllltLrlic;tli<l[ls systcins ❑ Modem
lodzy is (he tt(lfn semirr 1(!!(/ (DSU). This device provides o digiltd chonncl
from end 10 end. Slalccl 8n01hcr way, (he chan!lel is nn( ;II1 :tIInlng chxnncl, ~ .8taSewicc”ni!
fm( n cligi[al facility tmnsmilling Is and 0s as discrete digilol forms from ooc
DTE [o ltle o!her, There are sevcrnl significant advan[agcs in (Ising t DSU
inslead nf n nlmfenl, which we will oddrcss in Ch;Ipter Nine,
El clusterCm!r.lkr

A JOIO .rwifc// ([) SE) is IIlso illuslm[cd ill ~igurc 1.13. ‘I”l!is swilch is Flg.re 1.13, A TypicalComp.lorlCommunlca!
ionsS!uJclure
really the hw’kbone of a cumpl!tcr communic:tlious ncfwwk. Whiic it is
shown Ihcre as a ve[y simple armngemcn[, much 0( (his b<t<lk is dcvotc(l !0
[he discussion or I1OW Ibcsc swilcbcs can hc IISC(I IO hllild complex
cmn1m[[(7ica (ions networks. Conseqtlcnlly$ we will nol :]ddrcss lhis topic in
 ...,,.bit..:.,=,=.. ,,...:.,,. ,<.,,, ., ..,,,,> ,,.,. ,,. .

:1 :, .) ‘- }
Chap. 1 Conclusion 31
30 lnkodw!lm to Comp.tw Nolworks Chap. 1

Also illuslmlcd is a pri!wtr /?rtIIIc/I r.rc/rrtIIA,r (l)llX), ‘Ihc pviv:!(c
lelcphonc switch which is luc:t[cd in m;!ny o~lccs nnd is 1ploying N!?
increasing role in computer networks. PIJXS are covered in ChaptcrTwclvc.
Fin:llly, the cl!ts!er cot, frollcr (CC) is used to manage a group of (crmin;lls,
The cluslcr controller rcccivcs commands or ditto from Ihc host compk[lcr
and directs messages 10 and from the remote (crminals. This orrangcmc!ll is
similar (o !hc mul(iplcxcr, but (he mul[iplcxcr s[ruclurc uses x like colIIpo-
ncnf a( each end of (he line, Cluster controllers are explained in ChnpIcrs
Four and Eleven.
LCC, I:sm,k l{, “’1’clcplt[>ftc’~llcc,ry.Prirlciplcsond l’c!clicc,’’ AllC,!f T/, rTc/crlr~>9tr,
Illil,<,is: l-cc’s Al$CtI~l lIc’1’clcI~lI<It!c, I<)?.i.
McNmnara, lolln E, Tccl,!tic,!l,txt,<,<!.r I,J’IMI<I C,,!t!,!!!rfti<rt(i,,r?[211dcd.), Dipital
[;qltip(ncrt[ Corporolion. J982.
R;,mchm,i, ‘A Shmt Wolk ‘[”I!I’oIIJJ,Ihc I.ong P:!ths or!h. IIis[ory orCommunicw
Ii, ],),” (I, r>pt!l>lisbcdV1llcr.)\V>tsljitlglon DC: Amcric:t!l Ut\ivcrsi!y, 1979, p. 22.
Slmrman. Ketmctb, 11,,!,! Co!,I,,t,(tI;c,tI;,IIr.r (2mJ cd.), Rcslon, VA: Prentice.t{oll,
],IC,, 198S.
“Spccificn(iuns orsigndlit?g Systems Nos. 4 nnd 5,” Volume Vl, Fasciclc VI,2,
CC177 Rcd Book, CC1’l-~ Plemwy Assembly, Oc!ober s-19, 1984 (Malagw
‘1’orrcmolinos).

ii Conclusion rim, SYJIrm.Y.fIIr Cc>t,,,,ttt,!i,,)li<,,!s(5th cd). Ncw Jersey: BcII TClCPhOjle

7’r.mnli.r.
Lzhorzlorics, l.c., 1982.
This chapler and [hc firs[ three appendices are in(endcd to give the reader n “IWO Dymmic Occndm Clmngc the C<>ttrscnfCor,, mt5nicnlions industry. ” Cwlt-
general, basic unders(aniling of the key lerms and conccpm assucio(cd with !,tu!riw!
ion Ncw.,v,ScpIcrIdMX [984, PI>. 70-75.
both communications systems and conlputer ne!works, The subsequent
chapters will expand the malerird in Chapter One and Appendices A, B, nnd
c,

I
NOTES

‘The communications path between DTEs and DCES is idenlilicd by sevcml

nnmes: channel, link, Ii”e, or bus, These terms are synonymous, nltbougb bus
generally refcm 10 a path in a local environmcn( (wilhin a huiklir, g,rot cxtunplc),
‘7elccoIIIII!III! ;cn!;o?!.r:An I)ttrodtwrio)f 10 (he Nrlwwk, AT&
’1’ Public ;!tim
#5009J3, December 1982, AT&T, Morristown. NJ 07906.
‘Channel capacity nnd bit rale are whject to other limiting r:tctorssuch as cahlc
simlquality, channel Icmgth,and channel noise, Sm ‘.lmpairme[; [s to I)aln Comnw.
nicatio”s Inlegrity” by Uyless Black (Pennsauken, NJ: Auerhach Puhlisbers. Inc.,
1984), and S)o!n Co,>$,,,!,,zicn(iort,raud lJi,{/rih(, /cd Nefw.,k,r hy Uyless Black
(Resion, VA: ResIon Publishing Company, Inc., 1987).

SUGGESTED READINGS

E)]Rirrtcri,)g ”)tdoper<t(ic,, t,tir! //Ieuc// .7ysIe,rI(2ndecl), Newlcrsey: A’l”ck’[’OCO

Labmmmies, 1983.
“General hfai”tenancc Pri”ciplcs, )dai~(matjce of Iotcrno[io!ml Tronsf])issiarl Sys-
!ems and Telephone Circuits,” Volume IV, Fasciclc IV.1, cC17T Red L700k,
CC ITT Plenary A$semhly, October S-19, 1984 (h!nlaga:rnrrcm,tli! los),
“ln(crnntimal Annloguc Carrier .$ys(mm, Tmnsmiwirm kfccli;t.Cl,an)c[cris(ics, ”
Volume ill, l;;tscicle [11,2, CCll-~Rcd Il,,,,k. CCl'l.i' l>lc!]:!ryAssc"~l>ly, Oc!ol]cr
S-19, 19841Malaga.’rorrcmolinos],
“ln[clnalioml Tclcphnnc Service opcmlion, “VolI!mcll, I;:isciclc 11.2. (’CJ77Rrd
Dunk, CCI’H Plcmry Assembly, oclobcrS-19, 1984 (hinl;,pt~l’[>rrct?]<> li[lc>s),
 chap. 2 Trafficf’s- ?6 Accountability 33
}
0,””,,
CHAPTER TWO
/+
/
/
Communications Between and o______m!, @ Data
_- _-—_
Among Computers and Terminals Swi,ch

%s,0,s, @- “s” ._ Response

—------ -— —_-—
‘. ---- -“’0 a
nolpon% Dal),, At),”,,
S,” F,mcixo

Introduction Figure 2-1. Traflk Conlml and Acmuntabifity

This chapler provides a geneml Clcscr:ption of how Dr.Es cxchangc data.
The term profocol is used lo describe the procedures and logic for ~his one importan! aspccl of the process is i“ event 2, where Da[IaS SendS an
process. (See Chapler One and Appendix A for a definition of prolocol.) acknowlcdgnlent of the dala received to the San Francisco terminal. This
Typically, several ditTercnt prolocols cooperate to manage the communica- acknowledgment means the Dallas site has checked for possible errors
tions. For example, one protocol is responsible for controlling (he flow of ~he occurring during lhe transmission of the frame, and as bes! the Dallas si[e
traffic on each channel; a second protocol usually SCICCISthe best cbannci can clelcrmine, [he dakr hxs been rectived without my errors, It so i“dica[es
(among several) for the firs[ protocol 10 use. The first protocol is cktssificd as by [mnsmi!ting mro!herframc back on the return path indicating acceptance.
a li)]k or line protocol (also a dala.littk con(roo. The second protocol is called The Ma communications industry uses two lerms [o describe lhe
a $witcking or rouf;ttg protocol, Additional proiocols are also involved and even[ 2 response. The lerm ACK denotes a posi[ive acknowledgment; [he
arc explained in later chapters. [crm NAK represents a negative acknowledgment. A NAK usually occurs
The more experienced reader may wish on}y to review Ihe ma[erial in because the transmission (i.e., the signal representing lhe data) is distor~ed
this chapter, since it is meant as a tutorial. Whatever your cxpericncc level, due LOfaul[y concli[ions on the channel (Iigh[ning storm, etc.). The frame in
the protocol classification tree in Figure 2-5 should be examined, since i[ is cvcn~ 2 to San Francisco will either be an ACK or a NAK. In the event of
used throughout the book. WI error in ~hc transmission, [he terminal in San Francisco must receive a
negative acknowlcdgmen[ (NAK) so il can retransmit Ihe da[a. It is also
essential thtit the processes shown in events I and 2 are comple~ed before
event 3 occurs. If Dallas immediately transmitted [he da[a 10 AI[a”[a bc~ore
Traffic Control and Accountability
pcrfrrrming the error check, Atkm~a could possibly receive erroneous
LCI us begin by studying the arrangement shown in Figure 2-1. This example dt!l~. (ACKS and NAKs are rcpresen[ed by the codes discussed in Appendix
illustrates several imporlant poin[s about network communica~ ions. Figure A.)
2-1 shows that a [erminal (DTE) at San Francisco is [o transmit &L& [o a lf (he San Francisco site receivc~ an ACK i“ ~vc”( 2, it a~~”me~ the
remote compu[er (DTE) located in A[lan[a, The transmission goes through data has been received correc[ly in Dallas, and [he communications system
an intermediate poin[, a compu[er loca[ed in Dallas. The Dallas silt performs in San Francisco can purge [his message from its queue, (The application
routing and switching functions since it also has lines to Denver tind process oflcn saves a copy on disk or Iapc for accounting, audit, or security
Houston, and thus fits our definition of da[a swi[ching equipmen[ (DSE). The reasons, )
~~
nlost common approach in network communications is 10 pass lhc d:~~a, Iikc Continuing [he process in events 3 and 4, a~~”me lhat a“ ACK is
a ba[on in a relay race, from site to site until it finally reaches i[s dcs[ino[ ion. rclurncd from Atlim[~ to D;dlas. The end user in San Francisco may assume

32
,. ,
,..
I

)
34 Communimliomfle!wam and AmongComp.lem andTwminals chap 2 chap, 2 Wide Am and LocalNetworks 35

through cvenl 2 !hal [be da[n arrived in Atlflntn, A fn[sc sense of’ sectlwi[y Wide Area and Local Networks
could result, bec:{usc evenl 2 only ind; colcs (Irttt (I)c <1:,(:[:[{tivcd s;,fcly ;(J
Ddkts, If Ibc d;Ila is 11)s[ hctwccn !hc I)JIIM :tnd AllwIl;I silts (i[ c,!]! The previous discussion cxpl; bins i!l gcncml Icrnls lm\v (I,c mu conlmLI.
tlappen), ihe S:\n Francisco lernlin:\l t~ssumcs Ino prohlcm exists. Ttlis rlic:lfc direclly. llc concern wifh errors is cvideol, m use Or crrur-
scenario provicles no provision ror an end.lo-cnd :lcktlo\vlctlgtllc ll[, lrau crtrl chccking fecbniques and AC KSINAKS tire necessary to ensure [he intcgrily
user wishes to htive ;Ibsolu(c assumncc lb;!{ I(W CI:!IO:Irrivcd U[ lhc WI)>,)(C or user dala.
site, event 5 is reqllireci. Upon receiving event 4 i~[ the [): Ill:Is silt, l);~tlm Pmc[icdly speaking, [hc user d:l[n nlay INO[w:trmnt such corcrul
sends another acceptance (ACK) to Snn Francisco, In other worcls, evcuI 5 olicnii cm;each do{n cht!mc~cr moy no{ lmvc (o arrive error.free, A one. bit
SayS thii( A[l Jnlu liSO zlCCcptS Ihc dala, error in [bc [mnsn>issien or :1 husincss Ictlcr (clcc!mnic lm:lil) would dis{c>r[
Em-to.cnd pro[ocols add overhead aml costs, Conseqt,cn[ly, cnd ONIYonc cb:lr:tcler orthc entire Ictlcr—bcllcr [ban (I1c pcrrornlmlcc of mosl
users may nol choose [o have end-[ o.end ncknowl cclg[lle[][.willl Iow-pviorily, Iypists. Moreover, rfepiclcd in Figure 2- I assumes [he cammt!.
!lle scenario
unimporl;lnl lmlfic, Ilowcvcr, ir lht d~~l:t is import:tlll ((or insl:, ucc+ a nical ions cb:mncl is {Inrcli:thtc. cxpcricncit!g rrcqtlm crrcms. Such is Ihc
[ransfer of $20 million 10 an Allonla b:!nk over;! fun[ls-lraj!srcr network), :1 cme wilb a conventimml voice-oricn(cd Iclcphonc Iinc, hu! u[bcr communi-
pruden[ user would want to have absolule assuronce [11:11Ibc rllllds arrived co[iorls channels nre of’ hctlcr qumlily nnd are more reliable. For example,
and were posted [u un accmIfIl, In ltlis cnsc, lhc IISCI w<>tlld w:knl cvcnl 5 10 optic fiber chfinncls :trc ohignificmllly I!igllcr qlt:!li[y llmn mc’loltic cirwils.
occur. If the user dots not require c$kch clmrnc(cr lo bc rcccivcd corrcc{ly
The preceding sk+lemenh point OUI anulher aspect or o d;![n commu. :md/or [be conmlunicalions cbannc) is relitrble, the expense to perform the
nical ions sys[em, Even Ihough it USUNIIY provides rOr nll tivc of the cl;lboratc rune! ions dcpictcd in Figure 2-1 may not hc warmnl cd. Tbc issllc
transactions, Ihe aclual pos[ing of ttle runds {mnsrer 10 a b;lnk accoun[ is inlpOr[an( under lhe sinlplc arrangenlerll in the figure. II is cquillly
ordinarily is IIO! performed by tbe commuuica [ions scf[wnrc, The applica- impor[;m~ whe!l the user Iics in{o a more complex network wi[h several
tions process is responsible ror (he pos(ing and di!!x hnse updxtc. Thcrche, layers or protocols such as [he !I,iiir mm IICIWWA’ WAN I in ~iwre 2-2.’
be aware lllat event 5 means {be communications sys[cm in Atlanla received This ne[work consists of DSES (swi(chi!lg computers) conncctcd
the data correclly. 1“ turn, it passes the dfit~ [o an applications process ror lo~c!hcr by high-speed, leased chtiunels (ror example, 56 kbil/s lines). Each
the da[a base upda(e. If a dala base preblcm or an applicg [ions soiiw;lrc DSE uses a protocol responsible br routitlg data as WCII m providing
railure preven[s [he ru”ds trnosrcr rrom beinc pos[cd, ii is the rcsponsibili[y support to [lie end-user cmnpu[crs and lcrnlintlls nttncbcd 10 it. Ttlc DTE
of the applications process (o send an indicnlor bock to II)C terminnl user ill support function is orlen called a PAD (pocket n.~se)jlbl~lclisasse! t!bly). The
San Francisco. It is mrely (hetesponsibili[y or the communications system DSE acts as the PAD into and OUI of the network b’ Ihe DTEs. (This
[o perform the applicmion.!o-application nccounfahi[i[y or Imffic, dcfinifion or a PAD is accepInble now. In CIMPtcr Eight, wc exp~rld the
rlcfini(ion [o include other suppor[ functions.) The ne[wrk conlrol center
(NCC) is responsible for the etTlcicol, reliable operations of the network. In
Checking lor Errors
smnc sys[ems, the NCC con ftols the routing pcrrot’mcd al the DSES.
The most conlmon method used Iod;iy ror error chccki!lg is cy[lic A porlion or Figure 2-2 is expanded in Figure 2.3. Notice Ibe DTEs’
rcdf{t!clamy clrecki{jg (CRC) (olhcr mc!hods nrc expl JiImd in Clmp(cr viiricd conncc (ions inlo [bc PA D/swilcb:
Eleven), The technique uses a cons[ant dcrivecl rrom ;! CRC polynomin;tl [;ln
A A user-site computer is cm>ncctcd 10 Ibe DSE kbrough an asynchro-
algebraic expression consis[i”g or [WO or more [erms: (.r - f) x (,rls - x -
l)] lo divide [be comIarIt into n bin~ry represent alien ora d;tIa ticld (s, Ich as nous protocol, wi(b dinl-[ip analog lines in[o a DSE dedic?, [cd port (a
a cbaracle r), I“he quotient of Iht? alit,ision is discarded, but Ibc rem;!imlcr is
port reserved exclusively k>~ (IIC user).
re(nined and used aI the receiver (o clleck ror Imnsmiss ion cwors, II A user-site I’rent-end processor is connecled’10 fhc DSE lhrougll a
A[ the receiving end, (he (mnsmiilel CRC field (USU:IIIY 16 hi(s) is syt]chrormus prolocol. wilh dedica(ed 56 kbi[ls digilal lines using dala
comp:trcd (0 lbc ;nnswer Or an idcnlic>ll CRC c:llclll:\[it>fl. Ir Ilwy mc service uni!s (tXUs).
consistent, [he rramc is considered 10 be error- rree. CRC is expl; lined i!) C A user.sife asy”chmmws terminol (or personal compu!cr) is conncc[ed
more dcl;til in Ch;>ptcr Four, to (he DS13, witll di;ll-up N[):IIIw lines info ;I DS1: nondcdica!d port.
 \

—
.

}
.!
 ,,,
,., .
I -,
,,
)
38 Communications
Be[vfeenand AmongCmnp.lers and Terminals Chap. 2
- ., ,l.if J;- L:cA-
* Channels we rcl; divcly error.prone (if ttsing convcn[iolutl [CICI, IK,NC CONNECT\ONOnlENTEO
!,IIc- NoCo.mclim
circuil s),

The Iocni own rtcfwork (LAN) is signilicanlly dilTcrcnl fmm it wide Co””ec,
ionE,mbli,llod

a
are? network. The LAN is one of lhc LM[CS[ growing SCCI<MS in Ihc
communications indus[ry and is (outed as !hc ne[work (of- !lle nuiom;!{cd
o~lce, The LAN is noted for [he following charac(erislics: DataTransfer
-
● Channels are usually ownccl by ttlc user org:!nizution,
connection
Rdc*5s
● Channels operrde on very high-speed lines ( I Mbitls 10 400 Ml,i!ls),
f)TfZs are a[[ached (o ne[work with lower speed channels (60(1 biUs to
56 kbi[/s),
1o11,
- NOCmnm,;.n
0 DTES are located closely together, us!!ally wifhin a building or PIWII, A
13SE is used for switching in sonw configum[ions, hul 001 ns Imqucnt!y IACK,,HOW
CO.tmb,
mot recwew)
as in a WAN,
9 Channels are of betier qm]ily than WAN channeJs. CONNECTIONL6$S
MI, - N. Coonec,mn
I
Because of (hese mnjor (lilTerenccs hetwecn wide cut:) :mcl Iocol arco
networks, their topologies orten iake dilTerent slmpes, A WAN s[ruc[ure
lends 10 be more irregular due to [he need 10 mu[lidmp andlor mul[iplex
Icrminals, compulers, and swi[ches onlo the lines. Since Ihe chmmcls nre
[cased on a monthly basis (a( considerable expense), a user orgnni~i(ion
slrivcs to keep (he lines [ully used, This requirement of!cn crea!es [he need ~
\NoACK,,no1!0-,0”,,.4 noerrorcontrol]
10 “srlake” [he channel through a geogr:tpl> ical area, con[lec(illg the varic>tl~
DTEs, wherever they may be located, to one chnnnel. Conscq!wn(ly, a Figure 2.4. Connection.orienledand CmneclionlessNetworks
WAN lopology of[cn has an irregular shape.
The LAN owner is not m concerned with mnximurn u[iliz:!lion or IILC bcIwccII (I1c (WO DT13 is in :\n idle s[a{c. 1!1order ror computers orierminals
channels, which are inexpensive in comparison 10 thcirbit. mfec;lptlci(y (rind [u cornmunic:lle through ? c<trl{lccli[>n. orienlccl nc!lvork. !hcy must gO
LAN bo(tlcnecks usually occur in the software, anyway). Consequently, {hrough connection es(:lfJ[ishnlcnl, whi Ch is c;li!ed a “hlndsh:lkc. ” ~ncc
clever mul[icfrop pingnnd mui(iplexing schemes nrc no( fis cri(ic;ll in :1 Iocnl n connection is csiablishcd, the dntn-lransier sla(e is entered: the user
environment as they are on a wide area ne(work. Moreover, since loco] d;)in is cxcll:!ngcd through a prc-cslablishcd protocol. The DTEs subse-
networks usually reside within a building, the topology inherently tends IO quently pcriornl a connection rclcnsc, :lf~er \vllicll (lW’ rcll!rn ~0 tht idle
be more ordered find sfmc(ured, faking sLIch shapes os [he bus, ring. or s(ar condi [ion.
conlipuralions. [Chapler Six provides nmre inform: ttion on spccilic LAN m c<~ntlec(ic>ll-oricll!cll nc!~vO~k provides a sllhs(flnlial fimOunt Of
systems and standards, ) c:trc for Ihc wscr &Ila. The proccdor’c requires specific :lcktl[>\sflctlptllcIIi lhot
the connection is cslobiid!cd or (IIC network inl’orms IIIC rcqucsling DTi? i(
the conncctiot) is nol cslnblishcd, Flow control (i. e.. rooking ccrloin that ull
Connection-oriented and Connectlonless Networks (Iw d:tlo iirrivcs corrccllyq in order. nnd dots IN{)!snlumtc IIIc l)Sf?s onct
f)Tt7s it]lhcvarious jxws of !hc network) is also rcquivcd of Ihc nc(work.
‘rhc DTEs in Figure 2-2 and 2.3 crmlnlunicatc IIiroogh Ihc nclwork Error checking is performed as 18cII as error recovery. Connection-ot’ientcd
DSEIPA D by me of Iwo lcchniqlles. ‘[”Iw firsl lcchniqllc is llJllllvrl;oll- llclworks m;tinmin o globid WI continuutls NWWCnCSSof 011 lYr~-[1>-D’fll
orirj}fed; the secoml Icchnique is c:(71tIIec/i~~~i/c,r,t,As ill!!stralcd in Figllrc sessions. ;md :IIIcnlp[ lo ;!ssurc II1o[ user d;)t;! is no[ IOX! itl !IIC nctwock. The
2-4, n connection-m’ienlcd tnetwork is one in wl\icll [no logical connection C:IVC provided by (his type of nc!work tcquires considcmblc overheid
inili[mllyexists IICIWCCII(I!c I)TI;s ;tncl the nctwcwk, ‘1’hc nc(u,<wk c<muccl inn occ:l(]sc of the molly silpporl fhtnc lions.
,:
 ,’ }

40 Cmnm.nica!lons!3ehwen and AmongComp.lem and Torn,lnnk chap. 2 chop. 2 Classillc.3U0n

01CommwticalionsPro(ocok 41

Tbe contlccii,llllcss (dlso c:!llcd ,I(!IoxI’,,J?!) uclwo!k goes directly (mm 1[) “push’s error conlwl up into the applico! ion rwwccss (or ;{ llighcr Icvcl
;in icllc cond il ion (Ilic [wo [)’1’11s ;~rc not Illgic; dly corn,cclcd t,} CIWI) {)IIwI) pmlcwt,l), instcod CI1’il;tvillgIlw hl\vvK-level c[,l)ltlltlllic:,[icllls PI<>!C,COISdc:ll \vilh
info a da(a-lran.?fcr mode, followed Jireclly by Ihc idle condi (ion. T]]e m;~or il. An crmr-pmnc tlct\vork slmuld !WI plcsctd cu’cmccms doltl 10 (I)c application.
dilTercnce is the absence of n cnnrlecl ioll.cs lnl>lishmcn[ ph;, se ond n bcc:l!!sc [IIc ;opplic:iliotl rrcq!lcnlly is forced [o dcvu(e rcsouvccs 10 (he error-
conncc(ion.release plmsc, Moreover, x cor]ncclionlcss nc(wo!k I,as n,, cowcc[ioo Iosk, I IOWCVCI’.ir mu’s arc mrc, Ipklcing error.cowcclion c;bpd>ili-
nclwork-wide acknowledgments, flow control, or error rccovcry, :tIIbOUKb Iics in Ibc ;Ipplicnl ion obviotcs bnvittg tbc Iunc! ions in IIw cltllllll\ltlic:\ticltls
these services are provided on a Iink.by.link basis, obviously, the con- sysleln, wblcb transl~ltcs 10 a simpicr, less expensive network,
neclion less nel!vork involves less overbcnd. Sevcrul nc(works tmkty :trc designed to usc conncc!ionlcss prolocols
Connccliun.orien!cd nc[works arc oftet) comp:!vcd conccptu;tliy (o IIIC wi(bitl (IIC nc[\vnrk old in rckty SYSICm S hCl\VCCII tlclwolk~. [~lld-10-clld
(elep hone sys(em (ei[hcr dial-up or leased lines), The c:!ller k!lows W,IICIIn in(cgri(y is provided by logic [an upper Inycr) ou[sicle the ne[work, This Ifiycr
connection is made because he is talking [o snnlconc fit [!\e oIhcr cnd ofthc is C:IIICCIthe [rnnsporl layer, These connec! ionlcss-mode nelworks and [he
Iinc, The connectionles$ nclwmk is cmnparnble 10 m;,ili!)g ;I Icllcr. A Icllcr lmmpor[ Inycr arc dcscrihcd in lmorc dc(nil i!l Ch:tpicvs Six :tml Eighl.
is placed into (be pos(d systenl with ttle assumption it will awivc a[ its
deslinnlion, The Ieller uswdly arrives safely, but llle Ictlcr wri{cr never
knows i[, The pos[ olficc sends nolbing hnck to ICII !hc Icllcv, wri!cr 11,:![(I)c
Classification of Communications Protocols
Iellcr arrived, ‘The end recipient of [he Ieller musk iniliafe a rcsporlse
indicating acceptance, usually in !lle form of another Icl[er, which, in DTf?S cornrnunicafe wilh c<lcb ojhcr by file techniques depicled in Eiwe
cammuni calions parlance, is cnllcd n l,i~l,cr ICI,C1prolocoi, 2-S. The DCE, PA I), nml t)S~ NISOuse these mc(hods to communicate with
Tbc tradeotTs be[wcen c[)nnec [ion-<]rielllctl and conncc[ionlcss nc[- cocb other and the DTm. TIW “cltls.ri~c~lfir~lt WCC” ill ~isllrc 2-S will bc
wo!ks cenler around overhead required versus functions provided, A used lbroughou[ (be book 10 assist (he reodcr in unders(xnding conlmunicn-
cotlt]ecl ion.orictllcd nelwork is rich in func[icms, ye[ [hesc (~!nc!ions ndcl to [ions protocols, z The ck!ssiiica! ion tree i,r Imf mca
II/ [O /,? [jll-,,ttcot!tpo~sittg,
[he cos[sof (he sys[cm, [n conlrm,t, Ibcconncctionlcss nclwork rcqllires Icss lml is used to pmvidc the vender n sttuc(ilrc fr[;m which 10 g:iin an
ovcrhed because i{ is Iimi[cd in (he suppor( it provides [bc user applic:l!iun undcrslondiug d cotllmunicnliuns tccbniqilcs.
process, Tbe issue is really one of deciding wllcre [ransnlission and The majority or [be protocols depicted in the figure are called Iitte (link
reception in(e~rity is assured-within or oulsidc of [he network, or ~iI,IIIIIPI) pro/or,d.v or dwlf i;))k row~(JI.~ (DLC). TbeY are so nnn~ed
Connection-oriented networks have dominated compu(er wide nrca because !hcy comrol Ibe tra~c flow t~et\veen sfa~ions On One PhysLc~I
ne[works (WAN) because of the inherenl error-prone nature of the tele. communications channel. [n later chapters we examine o[her higher level
phone system. Consequently, sys[ems using tbe Ielcpbone clmnncl perrornl protocols tbnl provide mldilimml services 10 the DT13 and application
many functions [o ensure data integrity is mainlaillm{ between [be commu- process. Our gonl in [hc rcmoindcr or ibis clmpfcr is 10 provide a genernl
nicating devices. A connec [ionless nelwork m[lkes nlore sense with a Iocnl description or each of ltle protocols silo\\, n on the classificn! ion tree.
area ne(work (LAN), A LAN channel is usuolly wilbin one b,!ilding nnd Dale-link prolocols nlon:)gc :!11coulm\tnicn[ions [mfic on a channel.
privalcly owned, Llased on its [ecllnology, a LAN is mtbcb ICSScrmr-prone, For cx:tmple, ir a colllrlltlrlic:ll it>tls port bad scvcrul users xcccssing il. lhc
1[ is relo[ivcty unusual for da[a (o be dislorled on n LAN challncl. A Iypical OLC would be respcmsiblc roi’ ensuring all users bad Ibcir dalo transported
[clcpbone chunnel coI1nccIed with a WAN cxpcticnccs on ctror I;)(c in (Ile crmr-free to lhc receiving Noclc on the cbanncl. The DLC is gencmlly
approximate m“ge of l:f O1 10 l:lf)~--une bi[ in error 10 every 1,(1(10 10 undw:lrc llml Ihc dala 011 the cll:ltlncl is r~<,ttl mulliplc users,
IOO,MXIbils lransmi!led, A LAN lypically experiences on crmr rntc 0[ t!pprox- O;![wlink CWIII’OISfollow \vcll-ordcrcfJ s!cps ill nvlnngins it comm!lni-
imalely 1:Iiln, Tlle cmm peflormancc hc(wccn I! WAN ;!IId o 1,AN dillcrs by c:l[imls chnnncl:
several orders of magnitude, , Conscqucn(ly, il m:ly nl:tkc Iil!lc SCIISC in o
connec[ ionless network (especi;dly if it is a LAN) 10 perr(mr Ibc expensive a L;,!k o,<!<)i>li,vi!,,l<,],t, once lhc DCll II;IS ;i physic;!l cwlncction 10 Ibt
overhead op(ions or nOiv control, crrov control, :Ind rccovcry, hccausc (he rare mmolc DCE, (I1c DLC ‘Gh:!ndsbakcs’” wilil lhe wmolc DLC logic lo
occurrence of an error is nu[ wOrltl :111(he cxpcrlsc 0[ nvoiding il. ensure 1>0(11syslcnls orc Icody 10 cxchnngc ~lscr d;lt:l.
Of course, a v:~lid response to [his m[ionole cutzld bc, “Ycs, Ilml nmy he * l]t,[<lrlll,tiiml
IVIIII.Tf,<t, User di!la is cxcb;tngcd across (I1c link bc(w’ccn
true, but on the rate occasion (1>:,[[be error dots occur, il IOmyhc c;, [m[mpbic {be two mncbincs. Tbc DLC cbccks nll d:!la ror possible tmnsmission
‘(0 (be mgarlimtiml. “ ‘1”[,:Ilhw, r~~ (Ilis corl(ingcncy, <WCImtclicol :Illcrwtlivc is ctrors :IIUI SCIILS >IckIII>LvlctlgIIIcII(s hock (o (IIC [rnnslllil(i[\g machine
 ..’-
,,.,., )

chap. 2 P01ting6eleclio.Syslems 43

“She 1)1.C rcli!lqttisllcs cor\lr<ll <J IIw Iillk (cllwlnc

* I.;Jlk Icrfllilltlfi(lll. l),
whicl) means m> CINI$ICZIIIIw ImuslcM’cd ~ltl[il (I1Clink is uccsi:khlishcd.
Typic ully, a D1.C keeps a litlk :Ictivc M long :1s (IIC user conlmullily
\vishcs 10 send dolo ~lcmss i[,

A widely used. nppmach 10 nmuaging the comnlu!lica[ions channel is

[Imxrgh a IJvitIIc/ryt.rrcotr<lctry (some[imcs c: IIIed mas!crlslave) pru~ocol, This
[cchniqllc dcsigm{cs onc 1) ’1’11.I)CI1. or 1)S[; :Is Ihc prim;)ry site on IIIC
cll:\nu cl. mlc puim;w y si[c (usu;tlly a compulcr] controls ;III Ihc olhcr s!:tl ions
ttnd <Iic!nlcs wllcn and ir [hc rlcviccs can cnn)munic;) (c, Primury/sccOnd try
sys{cms arc implcmct> {cd with scvcfid specific lcchnologics dcpiclcd in
Figt!re 2-S. Wc discuss (hcsc tcchniq!ics gcncritlly irl lhis clmptcr ;N1din more
tlclnil in Iulcr ch:iplers.
The SCCOIICI!lul.ior approach is through a prcr-tll-pcrr pro[ocol. This
[cchniquc has no primory sile nnd [ypicnlly provides rer equ:Il st;t(us [o iill
siles o!] Ihc clmnnel. klowevcr, nodes may no{ h;lve equsd access to the
nc[wolk, since they cnn have pre-esmb} ished priority over o[hers. Neve~
(helcss, Ihc absence d o primary site USUAIY provides (’or an equol
opporttlnily !0 use ne!\vork resources. Pcerlpeer syslems are of[en found in
local t!rcn nclworks (LANs) \vifh ring, bus, and mesh topologies. and in
cerlain hybrid syslcnls as dcpiclcd in the figure.

Polling/Selection Systems

The tirsl example oia primarylsecondary sys[em is polli!lglscleciion, usually

shoIIcIIcd 10 polling. 7’1tc, cmtf@rnfion in Figure 2.6 shows a host compuler
nt si{e 1 ,nllcl 1 !ernlin:ll 0{ site 2. llcrc could bc ninny other c[>nrlgumlions
(for example, a nlul[idrop line or o ri[tg !opology), Pollingkelection works
the s:imc conceptually willl compu!crs Iinkcd 10 olhcr compu[ers; i[ is
possible 10 hove pritll:~rylscc{l!lcl;lry cctmplllcrs, m well ns lcrmin:tls
Pollingkelecliw sys[cm revolve around [WO commands, Poll and
Scl<,c!. l-lw purpose of the Poll commsnd is 10 tmnsmi( data to Ihe primary
si[e, The purpose or the Sricc! command is jml Ihc opposilc: [o Imnsmit
— data rrom lhc prinlary si(c to [he sccondory si[c, Sclecl cOnlnlands arc no
longer needed on !he newer protocols, because !he master sile reserves
rcsrmrccs ond buiTcrs ill the rcccivcr dtlring iink eslnblishmcnl, ihcrcby
sending d;![a al [hc disc fc(icm of (he nmslcr nude.
A hicmrchical nclwerk lypicrdly cxisls as on ordci’cd form or a
prilrl:lry/scclltlcl: try vcfoliur!sllip, /’0// ;[nd Sclrcf ~IKClhc pvincip:]l commumls
Inccdcd to muvc d:il;i to mIy si[c oil i! ch;!nncl or irt (I1c tw[woi’k. LCI II<
cxan)ioe how IIlis is [!ccomplishetl, referring 10 Figure 2-6(fi). Firs[, a Pu//
cnn>n)nn<l is sent from lhe tnwstcr si[c (n second:lry site 2. The poll says, in
clfcct: “Sccondllry silt 2. I1:IVC you d:ll;t ~or me’!” The pclll is scnl 10
 — . ,.. ,

,. }
,. ,’
44 Comm.nica!lmm13mvmn and AmongComp.le,s a“d Tor!ninals chap. 2 chop, 2 POlllnglSolocllOn
Sys!ems 45

dill:! 10 send !1) (he primory silt, lhc p<~llisclcclion sys[cnl h:{mllcs (he
PN,I1[CIH hy [I)c prim:wy silt inili;lling N poll. which ~llloxvs ~hc sccl~nd~lry site
H+ ‘ “ ICI SCIK1d:tltt :I!KI. clcur ifs lwllcrs.
The 10s1 sequence of opcmtions 1Figure 2-6(d)} shows what huppens in
POLL S6L (IIC pcdlinglsclcc{iwt nclwcwk when ;] poll is issued (o [hc secondary site and
DATA NAK
ii responds ncg:itivciy. [N IIlis ci!sc. lhc syslcm UISCSN NAK 10 indiculc o
l!egolivc response [oa poll. Simply stntcd, it nlcans: “Sccond:lry silt 2, Iluve
ACKDATA POLL
YOUd; II;tlm mc’f’s ‘me NAK nlcnns: “No, 1 do nol. ” In newer sys[cnls, [hc
EOT DAT4 - i,dic:\lioll of’!i williugncw to reccivc 01 lrollsuli[ is coliwl o Rcceivc I<cwly;
(a) ?01!sequence ACKDATA unwillingocss is CUIICLIu Kcccivc No[ KCWIY.
EOT : A disadvant:!gc orn pollinglsclcction systcm is the nl!mbcr of negative
SEL rcspc~nscs [u polls, wllicll c:to Cl>msllnlc plccil>bls rcsc,~lrccs ,>,1Ihc cbonncl.
1,) Potlls,le<!SC”,,.”,, This ovcrhcnd is cspcci>llly cvidcn[ irl systems IV;IIIIJI,[ ul!,lliplcxcvs or
ACK
lcm)irml cluster controllers, These devices can :Icccpl a ~cl,ur<ii poll [0 any
DATA ?OLL ~ dcvicc, sc:!n lhciu :I[[nch ccl dcviccs for nn :tchivc rcqucs(, ond ir;bnsmi[ [0 (IIC
ACKDATA NAK primwy,
EOT Anolher opproach 10 decreasing [he elTcc[ of polling overhead is 10 usc
:iyn:l!llic pollinglsclcc( ion Icblcs. If a ternlin:d con[inucs (O bc polled and
(b) SelectSewmce [d) NCW!(WR,,!,”,,,, ,. Po(1 dots ncl( respond :Irmr ;I ccrt:l ill UIIIIIIICCof :tf(cmpls, its plimily is nlclvcd
Figure 2.6. POlling/Seled10.Systems down within a polling [Mc. Thcrcforc. il is scrviccd ICSS :\nd polled fewer
[imcs. The nonrcsponding slalion is dropped to a lo\vcr priority, rind [hose
secondary si(c 2 und ifd:llu is wxilirlg 10 bc Imnsmillccf, il is scot l~ack [u IIIC dcviccs which hnvc been responding posi(ivcly (0 tbc poll ;Irc nmvcd up in
polling sile. The primary site checks forcrrors an(l sends an ACK if the dalo :hc priori(y tnble. I( is also conceivable [o dcsisn (be [able to provide
is correct or a NAK if il is incorrc c{, These two cvcnls of dolt! and “:,l[(iplc ~ll[ric~ ill II,C table by (IW some dcvicc. S[otion A mi~hl bc Polled,
ACKINAK may occur m;]ny limes unlit [he sccondory silt !}:!s no more d:![n IIICII sla(ion C, IIICN A ;tg!lin. hccausc A Ims been busy aml responded
10 send. The secondnry s[ttl ion must then send an iodic;~lor IIMI il hns positively [0 polls, Oynamic pollinglsc[cc[icm clinlinn[cs some d !hc ovcr-
comple[ed its transmission, such as the enc[-of-[ransmissi<)n code’(EOT), or hmd found in tbc conven!ivnal s[atic pollinglselcction systems.
a bi( in a control field. Figure 2-7 sllOws (1W pollinglscleclion sys!cm used 10 montlgc [r:tfic
The Sr/ec/ command is iliusi rated in Fig!lre 2-6(b). ,$c/ecf mcnns: hct\vcco IWSOOTEs on the swnc clu!nncl. DTE U wishes to communicx(e
“Secondary si(e 2, I am selccling you becouse [ have data for yet!, Can you with DrE A, In order [or this transmission to take place, even[ I requires
receive?” The ACK 10 {he SCICC[ mc:ms: “Yes, I am :bvoil:lhlc :knd rc:ldy [0 thnt Ihc prilll:lry site poll DTE 11, The d:![a is no! sent 10 A directly, but 10
receive your clala, ” TIM (fola is Irammi( [ccl, chcckcd for errors. ood Ihc prinlary site, lhc dnln is cltcckcd for errors, ;!II acknuwlcdgmcn[ is scnl
ackmwlcdgecl. (As sIt!Ied earlier, newer sys[cnls reserve rcsmlrccs ;tl Iiiik i!l cvcnl 3, ond :!n EOTis scnl in CVCN(4. When [hc duta arrives ill [IIc nlas[cr
establishment and assume Ilm receiver catl iodecd rcccivc Ihc data, ‘l’hcrc- silt, it cat! then bc relayed (onto [hc mmc clmnn cl) [o DTE A. This is
fore, no sclcc(s arc required wilh (his npprooch, ) Ihc process cm repeal accompli stlcd will) C,ls yell c:!!! pro[mby guess) Ihe select, (Ilctncnimr. Ihc
itself. Eventually, an i30Tcon[r01 indicator is [ransmil (cd, meaning: “I I)z)vc poll muves cIOI1 intc the 110s[, the sclcc[ moves d:)lo oul of (IIC host.) Evcnl
no more trailic [0 send. ” 6 shows the SCICC(is ACK’d, lhe dala is senl across the link in evcnl 7, and
Figure 2-6(c) sllows Ihc cmnplcxilics of p~lllillg/sclccl i~lll, it is c;illcd il is ncknowlcdgcd in cvcn( 8, ccmlplcliug (I1c :Iccmtl]lnhili [y. TIIc user dn[a
[IIc sclec[lpoli sequence, No(ice [he sclec( is (r;!rmmi((cd 10 sccomktry silt 2, in cvcul 2 is lhc some copy of Ihc wscr d:)ln sho\vtI in cvcnl 7.
1]111the silt responds with a tmgxlivc response (N AK) [o (he SCICCI, This Tbcsc cxomplcs ilfmtmlc once Dgain lhc bicrarchicnl mpcc[ of the
cli~th>gt!c mcarls: “.Sccmd:try silt 2, 1 Imvc dnl;) for yotl< c;bn ym! rcccivc’)” pcitll;\ry/sccu! lcl;lry systcm. All lmflic COMCSinto nml goes [ml of lhc prinmry
“l’he response is: “No, I cunnol. ” ltlcre nrca rluml>cr(~(rc:ls(>lts wily (hc silt hvs[. The hicmrchicnl IopoIugy prcscn[s some polcnli~d bc,[ilcllcCk PVLTb-
cannot receive, II may bc busy doing olher Ihings or it nlay I1:IVCDOmemory Icms$ since oll Irtdlic is mnnsRcd by OIICdcvicc. Tllc config~lm[ion idso 11,1s
11>,IKc.T<nnc-p) nv;,il:tl,lc 10 rcccivc d;lIa, As ar,<)(l)er c,x:!mplc, it ,,>:,y II;,VC some rcli:!bility prohlcrns—if(hc primnry si(c goes do~,n. fhc crttirc nc[work
 ~~ ) )
46 Cmvn.nlcelions Belwem and AmongCwnp.lw and Terminals Chap 2 Chap. 2 Pol(ing/SekwlionSystems 47

POLLD
—,
DA7A
2P
ACKDATA ~ Slop-and- Walt Pol/ing/Selec l/on

E07 One of [he simplest forms d pollinglsclccliorl is Ihc .r[(>/>.c!l>(l-\ll!il

4—
(cchniqi!e, ~( is so n;lnled hcc:!usc a DTE [mnsmi[s a frame and wails for a
—. reply, II i,! inhcrcnlly hnlf-duplex (two. wuy :Il!cnmfc) bcc;wsc the lronsm is-
Conmwnic,t;
on, Ch,nnal 0,1,.’ sions ;ire in hulh divcc [ions, but only in onc direction n{ a [inlc. SIop-:uld-
Primary Ccr’n”,.”kati.”’
Site Cl?mnel, wnit is ;, widely used approach because il is rc]fllivcly inexpensive: [he
.=} so flwure is simple, willl Ii[(lc logic iuvolvcd. [Iowcvcr. pttrc slop-a nd.wai(
I
hits n deficiency: it hns no sequencing. Consequcn{ly, anothev al[ernn[ivc is
l., .-~_.7+
I[lc s[op-and-wai[ scqtlcnciog sys[cin, in whick slalions use .sequcnce
Scored,,” j S.mnd,(” I numbers 10 n); \inlain Itccounl:d>ili(y :md to conlrol Ihc flow 0[ Iv: IITc.
sit, --- Sit* ~
B Figure 2-8 shows i] si(un(ion in wllicll CI;IUI is trnnsmitlcd wilh :1
:“
L. —-_-! sequence nu!nber of O from Wdiori A (in Vancouver) 10 s!alion B (in
“~oronto), Sequence numbers arc added [n each transnlission. Recall [rem
SELECTA [Ile discussion of I’rnmc formats [Imt seqllencing usunlly exists inside (he da[a
5 slrc:lm, perlmps in n Ihcndcr. As illtfs~ralcd in [he figure, lhe dala is checked
ACKTHESELECT in Toronm; the computer rcspomls with an ACK (cvcnl 2). The ACK uses
8
OATA van. . . . . . Toronto
7
ACKDATA ~
8 1

Number,1-8 Indic,,, thesequence

01events
ACK, SEf3NRO
Figure 2-7. POlllng/Selec(
ion Cmnblrw.d i
2
is lost. Hierarchical sys(ems should provide for some fornl of brick-up in [he
cve”t (he primary si[e is lost.
More eoicien[ primary/secondary networks are exnnlined in Ch:ipter
Foor. The reader will hc exposed 10 the newer technologies, such as (I1c
inlcrnn! ional s[nndlrd lll)LC(higlplcvcl dola.link conlrol) :Itld IHM’s SI)LC
1ACK, SEONR1
(synchronous

Selectlve
da[n-link conlrol).

and Group Po///ng

n Frame
10,,
~
1
4

.$elec[;vr is Ihe technique we have jus[ exami”cd

pollilt,g :ond is a - 1~1 ,D.,licwo,m”,m

common mechanism [or mu[[i drop communicatimrs links, Grollp po//;! IA,is 5
more common oft a ring or loop l*p*]ogy, or o,, a ]i)lc ,~illl CILIStCr
controllers, Bo{h techniques use a primary node 10 issue lhc poll command. ACK: SEONfl ! I
The mtdtidrop topology lhas each P“II addressing :! specific s!ation on !hc
cl];tnncl. “The station rc,?po!td,s wi[h d;!la or a ncgn!ivc rcspm].sc IC1lhc poll, 6
The ring con flgur;!!iorl uses a group or browlc:lsl poll 10 :!11sl:tlic>ns on II)C !e XWC.C. .1 went,
Nt,m!ws 1.6 hdic.
r-!i~..pt Fm,-h qtn!inn can IIW (h? rmll and rexpon,l acrordine!v. rmssinc the
Flg.re Z-e. S[opa.d. Wail Seq,,encimj
 .,. ,,
. ..!.’.... ‘... ...-_ ..--. _ ,,.,.... . .. .

-’ )
48 Communications
BWcae. and AmongComp.ms and 1,, ,ni”rds chop, 2 Chap.2 POlti”g@elect,.
j +Syslems 49

a O in (I1c header to :!ccol#n( for lhe cI:I1:ISC(TIlo il. UpC)u mccip[ 01’II, c ACK,
s[:!l ion A in VaNcouvcr [hen (r:!nsmils anofhcr d;tt;{ lt:tmc. ;tnd Iilis tirr>c i(
ch;ingcs IIIC scqucrlcc number to ;I I (cvcnl 3), ‘I”l)c d;i[:l is chcckcd l{)rcm,)rs
a! T“oronlo and an ACK of I is scnl.
Sonle protocols do not nc[unlly require (lie sending sl;t(ions [0 imscrl :1
sequence number. Ru[hcr, Ibc scqucuce mrrrrhcr is infmtcd, :titcrmt(ivcly
changing from a I 10 u 0. The [ridnsmi[ting s[:\[ ion simply “[lips” ;I cuunttr
from I 100 as i[ sends a frame, and [hen looks for (he ccwrcspot{diog ACK
of I or 0.
The reason for [hc sequence number can be seen in (IW next datn flow,
TraOic cm! be IOSI in (be network because of complexities or the Imilic
pa!tern, logic problems (“bugs”), or fnilcd comporlcn (s. ‘Tltc d~t(n m:ty ;dso
he lost hccausc fbe fmmc is d:uu;!gcd cl) rou[c. fur CXN!NPIC, by being rwtlcd
over a microwave communications link lhrol!gh a rainstorm. “fhc frame whh
ACK I can be distwlcd so severely (bn( the VNncouvcr si(c rcccivcs
“noise” on the line und Ihc? tmilic is irldcciphcmblc,
In such an even[, (he Vancouver site performs ;L tintco!fr, A tinlcout
nleans thal Vancouver, af[er not receiving a reply to its [rnr!sn!issiml wi[hin
a given period, re[mns!ni[s (I)c IJ:I[a, Tbe d;IIx lr~!nsmiilcd itl event 5 is
exaclly Ihe same copy as in eve”( 3. [in scquetlce nt]mhcr did not cxis( (u
identify Ibe duplica[e (ral%c, Toro”lo nmy no[ delect IIIC duplicnlc fmmc.
Indeecl, (he Toronto si(e migh( send llle duplicalc Iransrnissiou [o a du[a
base, in which case a redundan[ updale COIIILI be npplicd (o (IIC da[o,
however, Toron[o is expecting cfilTeren( sequence number, 00. Thercfotc,
Toronto discnrds the duplica[c da[a and uetransmi[s IIIC ACK I to complc(e
[tie accountability (cven( 6),
Continuous ARQ (S/lding Windows)
Another exanlple of primary lsecond:\ry pol]ing sys!cms is Ihc c-,,,,!ilj-
!:o!ts ARQ lechniquc, Continuous ARQ is so !nomcd bccausc a sla[iun is
allowed to request aut Onlalimdly a rc(mnsmission fronl :,nolhcr s(xlic, n, ‘l”l)is
approach can utilize full.duplex (two-way simL)l[nneous) transmission,
Lv)lich il[ows lra”srt)issi o]] in boll] clircc! ions bclween (IIC cmnmurlicnling
dc\ices. Lleca”se Confin[loh!s AR(> has scveri :tdv;knlngcs {/vcr (I,c slop-
rind.wail. half. duplex system, it has seen increasing me in !Ile induslry
during [he pnsl several years, We iolroduce !he topic of continuous ARQ
Ihcre; Chapter Four provides more dc[tlil :Iwl specific illllslmlions of lllc
!echnique.
Continuous ARQ devices use (IIC conccp[ oltmnsnli[titlg :lnd receiving
$wi!)<low.r.A window is cs!:]hlisbed o]) COCI1link (o pmvidc a rcscrv;i(io!, n(
resources al lboltl mf;~, ‘flWSC resources nwy bc [hc ;Alc,c;\ti(ln 0[ spcciflc
cnmpu!er resources or Ibc rescrv;,l ion of bullcr space (or (he [mrlsnlittillg
Ofll in nlosl syslcrn~. !hc window provicles bo!l) b~llI’cr sp:\ce atld seqtfenc
ing rlllcs. l)uling II)c inilioli(>ll 01 ;) Iil}k scssi,, n (lmt\dslk:,kc) lwl!\, cc!l Ilw
LY1’l;s, n \vi!ldow is csloblisbcd Ir 1)”1’11A ;!!KI 1)’1’}; 1) :Im to c[)n>nll!rlictlte
will, C:LCI!c,!lwr, 1)1’1; A rcscvvcs :1will<lc>w Ior 11, dml II rcsc Ives :! !\,itlclow
lor A. ‘1’hc \vindowi!lg CC)!)CCP[is ncccssory 10 fid-d~lplcx IWOIUCOIX bccuhlsc
lhcy cnl:lil a continumts llo\v of frames iillo Ihc rccciving site urilllou[ lhc
in!cm>i!lcn[ stop. oml-\\,ni[ ;lckrl<l\vlc<lglllcllts. Conxcq!lcnlly. the rcccivcr musl
1,:,.. n stlllicicnl ,\lloc:ll ion of sIxtcc l<, lmncllc (hc c<ltllirllmtls inc(>luitig lr:lllic.
The windows ;II (Iw trnnsnlit(ing Nnd receiving silt ore controlled hy
,rr,!(c, r,(ri,[hlc,~, which is n!mlhcr [name rov a coi$nt cr. The transmitting si(c
m:]ir]l;!ims ;) .svml .sIcIrc !Sriri,!i>lrIV(S)I. II is (I1c scqucncc number of the ncx[
I’mmc to bc [ronsnli(lcd. The rccciving silt nlaint:\ins n rocciw .{I(I(c wdrif,[>lr
I V(R)], \vbich cunt;, ins (I1c nu!llhcr tht!t is cxpcctcd 10 bc in thc scq~lcncc
I
nblnlhc! of Ihc ncxl I“mmc. Tbc V(S) is incvcmcntcd with c:wh fromc
Iransnlillcd snd plncccl in (bc send scquencc field in tbc frame.
Upon rccciving !bc fmmc, IIIC rccciving site checks ior n tmnsmission
I :::;;:J~;~;;~:/Jsclllclcc!l,ll)~r:villtilsV([~)lftlcfn,cistcccp,;l,lc,
) by orlc, plnccs t{ !nto ;) vccctvc sm)llcncc nbkmbcr Iicld i!l
an ;Icknowlcdgmcni (ACK) fmmc, and sends it 10 Ihc originol lmnsmitling
silt 10 complete [I)c nccnunl:lt> ilily fOr (IIC Im!lsnlission.
I
If Ihc V(R) dots m)t mulch Ihc send scqt)cncc numhcv in (I1c fmmc. llr
an error is Llc[ccl cd, sOnlcibitlg bns gone :Iwry, nnd ilf(cr o [inwout occurs,
o NAK [with (he receiving sequence number containing (be value of V(R)]
is sent 10 tbc original transnlit[ing site. Most pro(ocols call [his NAK a
Rcjccf Oi-n Scleclivc Rejccf. The V(R) VOIUCinfornls (he iransmi[ling DTE
of lhc next f!rame [Iml it is expected to send. Since the transmi[{er has
;ilrc:!dy sen( a fmmc will) [his wduc, ii knows something is \wmng nnd must
I tllen rcse[ i[s V(S) nnd rclra!lsnli( (be fmme whose sequence lnurnber
nm[chcs the value of V(R).
M:Iny sys[cnls usc the n~!tnbcrs ofo lhwugll 7 for V(S). V(R). find the
scquencc numbers in (he fmmc. CMce Ihc sl;)[c v:]ri;lhlcs ;Irc incremcnlcd
il!rough 7, then tbc mtmbcm are reused beginning u<ith 0. f.)cc:)usc the nunlbcrs
are rcmcd, (I>c mm III(ISI not he :xllmved to send a fmrnc with n sequence
tn!Lnlbcr lhal Ims noI yc[ been ackno\vledged. For exnmp!e, Ibe protocol must
\v;li( for fmme m!!nbcr 6 [o he ACK’d before it uscs a V(S) of 6 again. The
fwoccss is shn\vo itl Fipilrc 2.9, l;rwllcs 6 Ihrot!gb 4 arc mll ycl ocknoulcdgcd.
Ifa!no(hcr fv!mc WM scnl wilh ~!scqwmcc n[msl]crof6. IIw cor!cspomli!lg ACK
of 6 would not indica(c which fmmc 6 was acknowledged.
Tlic mse of n!lnlhcrs O-7 pcrnli[s seven frames to be out.$tanding hcf’ore
[Ilc wiudow is “chwd,” I<vcn llwugll (!-7 gives cighl 5cq11c11cctllltnbcrs. Ihc
V(R) cun!nins ([w W?IUCof fhc !!r.v( cxpcc fed f’mmc, wl!ich linti[s (IIC NCIMII
o~l!slnn cling r~alllcs h 7.
Wimlo\v si7,c is 5!!1 inlporl;ln[ [lcsign corlsidcr:!fic, tl. ‘I”l!c lnrgcr (he
\vimlo\v, Ibc more frzmcs th;il C;II1bc transnlil(ed !vithou[ o response front
{hc rcccivcr. Yet the liirgcr window size :Itso nlcons [h:tf (IIC rcceivcr must
I
 ) “’ 1
50 Commu.icalicnsBe!wwmand AmongCompulorsand Term ,11s chap 2 chap. 2 PollingKm!.wlior, 8!8,,,$ 5i

W,!,,,”w ,vill\ cllicictll [Ktj~s,),issi,,o, ll;l[:\ Il<tw, :IIIcI rcsp,, [\sc [i!l,c lwlwccn ilsclf :IIKI
St,, -7
F,,,.,, no, W, ;$11IIIC sccund:tvy silts O[[;lcl)cd [<I il. ‘1’lw prill\ovy Iws( 1111)s[rlutinl:\in o
k, !m”tmml Mil)dow rorcvcry Cil;lrlllcl wilh which ii Ims n c~nncc lion. II nlust ensure lha[
—.—
G II)C wij]dows sloy LWCI)oml m;t]!:)gc lmllic il! :) m:llmcr [o keep IIIC clmnncls
7,
0 os busy bts possible, ‘I”his is NO soixli r~:lt, Coltsidcring (IvIL pc>llinp ;Ind
It wlcclioll sys(cms fm~tyhnvc Itundwds of tcrnlillnls or conlputcrs a([achcd to
2, ;! o}:w(cr cmnp!llcr.
3
4 Cunl InumIs AR(J IWOIOCOIS.irusillg u winclo\v ul’seven. wq~hirc ;\I IC:M[
IILCCC[lils [0 provide (hc wimlowillg and sequencing opcmlions. (l:or
cx:t!nplc, IIIC bimwy nuntbcr I I I cqu:tls 7 in lmsc 10.) Scqtlcncing is required
lo]. Ilwsc syslcms I]ccousc nwrc limn onc l’ronlc !Imy bc ohllsloncling on Illc
cl)xuncl 3( any onc [imc. lhcrc[ure, ~he receiver tmus( indicule to [he
!r:msnlil(cr [he posilive acknowledgment (ACK) or the ncga!ivc acknowl-
cdgmcn( [N AK) O( cnch specific frnmc. As nu(cd cn!’licr. [IIc acklmwlcdg-
IIICIIIis ;lccumplisllcd (l\wugll [he usc of scqucncc nunlbers. Furcxnmplc, ir
Ihc (ra!ls[ni[[ing silt SCMIS (mmcs 1, 2, 3, 4, nnd 5 [o the receiver. the
rcccivcr is requited 10 iudic:ttc Ii]rough ACKS nrul NAKs (I1c specific fr~mcs
Ilml were received corrcc!ly or incorrectly. .
In this regard, Continuous ARQs provide several nolable odvan(ages
OUTSTANDt
NG: Fr,me,6 !l,mwh 4 aver IILCslop. ond-wnit sys[cms. One oclvanlagc is cdlcd ifrrlll.ril,c nckJtrm4-
Figure 2.9. Wndow Manngemenl c,,lg!IIc(I{. l.si!lg the :!IWVCexample, lhc rccciver could send ~nnACK of 5.
ACKS O( 1, 2, 3, find 4 arc nol [ra!lsmil[cd. The ACK of 5 mecms, “l have
a!loc ale more resources ond larger bulTcrs 10 handle Ihc incollliug lmnslnis- rcccivccl :o!)d ocknowlcdsc cvcrylhing [1P [o find irlcluding 4: lhe ncx[ f’rame
sions. ‘fhc line pro(ocols used in [hc imluslry (odily lypicillly ollocalc rI :xpcctcd shmild Imvc n 5 in ils send scqucllcc field” II is evidenl frOnl Ibis
ivindow olsevcn a[ sessi Oil.itli[ia{i Oll [imc, wllicll nlcmls !Iwt a tronsmil[ing simple cxal))plc tlwl continuous ARQ pru[ocols wi[h inclusive acknowledge.
DTE is allowed [o scm.1 seven frames willlou[ rccciviog nn :Ickuuwlcdgmct)l ImCn I can rcducc consitlembly (he ovcrheml itlvolved in [he AC KS. In [llis
b~ck to i[. However, in !he event [he seven immcs arc sent without:In cx;!mplc. 00C ACK ocknowlcdgcs 4 fmmcs, co!lsidcmbly bc[tcr Ilmn lhc
I
ackno\vlcdgment, Ihc {rnnsmilling s(fi(ion’s window is closed l{; i[s scssiwl slop-a ncl-wnit syslcms. in which ;In ACK is required for every tnlnsnlissiotl.
parlncr, [he receiver om WimlOw closing is lncccss;)ry 10 prevcnl tllc I’olling Coillitll!o~!s ARQ PWIOCOISxrc USCIIex(cnsivcly wilh wide area
[ransmil(ing sla[ion from s:l[itra(ing Ihc rcccivcr lcspcci;llly o lilllilcd- Ilc[wolks (WA NS). Couscqucutly, error control is an imporlzn! feature in
capocity lerminal), which could ovcrflo\v bu(l’crs J!NI ICSUII iu Iosl llal:L. Ilic syslcms. A collsidcroblc :N1munl of Ihc logic fuuml in polling Cwlinwus
Window closin~ also provides [he mas[cr a Imc:los 10 scrvicc Illc o!hcr ~ARQs is dcvolcd [o error dclcctio[l d resolution. Conlifwous ARQ uses
sessions on [he clmnntl. one or IWO nlclhods [o dclec[ and rctra!lsrnil erroneous dala, The first,
\Vhen (he rccciving station lransnli[s a posilive :tcktlo\vlcclgrl) ctll .$rlrc fire RrpcoI, rcqt!ircs’ (Im( ONIYthe erroneous !rans!llission bc rc(rans-
(ACK) to (he (ransmi(tcr, (IIC transnli[[cr’s windo\v is opct:cd. For example, n)illcd. The second approach, Go.lJor’k-N, requires thal no[ only [he
if (I1c rcccivcr [r:tnsrmi[s fuur ACKS b:tck 10 ihc Iwnsmillcr, IIw81 !he CWOOCOIISlmnsmissioo bc rcpc; llcd, lwI ;Ill fmmes lha[ \vcrc [mnsmillcd
[:ansmi[tcr’s window is vpencd by ruur frames, bchild it w well, Sclcclivc Rcpc;l( ;md Go-lltlck-N wc i]lustrolcd in Figure
The goal of lioc prolocols is 10 keep [Ile wiodo\vs open for oil user 2.10,
sessions on ~hc Iinc, l!) so doiog, lllc lmnsrlli(ling :Ipplic:tliol) :Irld rcccivilql [IO(I1lccltuiqtlcs h;!vc :ICIV:!NIOGCS ;tmf disadvnul:!gcs. Sclcciivc Repeal
npplicolion are more Iikcly (ocxpcrictlccf:!sl rcspomsc Iill,c, ‘1’llcCfll!lillil{]tls I>lovides hcllcr Iillc IIliliu(iwl, since lht crrc)umu)s fr;lillc is the only
AR(J protocols OISO are dcsi~ncd 10 keep {he cxpcnsivc conl!ll~ll\ic:!lioils !rctra!lsrtlissiom Ilowevcr, ns showti in l:igure 2- I(l[b), site II musl hold
cl!anncl as busy as possible,
The conccpls of sliding windo\vs vrc rck!livcly silt]plc. YCI il SIICNI:<II]c
I rl:llilcs 3, 4, and 5 10 aivoit lhc rctrarrsnlission of fmmc 2, Upon i[s nrri\,nl.
fronlc 2 mlls( bc inscrlcd in(o Il)c prmpcr scqiicncc hc[orc Ihc d;lla is p;lsscd
realized [hat under a prinlarylsccotl[ l:lry sys Icm, ille prittulry !YI’E is t~lskcd [u (I1c cnduscr applicoli on. TIIC llullling of r~illlcs CNI1consutuc prcciuus
.,, . . . .. . . I .,
 —. ‘.

,,”) ““ ) 53
Chap 2 chap, 2 NOnpOlfing
Sysb 3
52 Comrn.nlcalionsBelweenand AmongCompu!ersand Tel,. reals

I. W(P1N to SC1ldICICOr 10 SCIId (Rwcrs);

2. XL)llIXL)IL
3, (imc division mulliplc ;Icccss (IDMA).

(.1 Frame,1 Tlmwh 5 Ttan,mlt,,d w!(1Io, Error in Fran>.2 ‘I”hc fiisl Iwo Urplwbw Itwcrs ml XmI/XOIT, :IIC mlhcr simple:
[hc third appro:!ch, ‘I’DMA, is mm’c sophislic:ltccl, used in scvcrul so[clli(c
sysicms.

Request to Send/Clear 10 Send

Rcqucsl to scndlclcor [o send (RTS/Cl”S) is considered o mlhcr low-

ICVCI ~,pproocll 10 PVUIOCOISnmi duIiI c(]!!\!lltltlic;\tt<l[ls. NC)IICIIICICSS. it is
widely used hcc;!!lsc of ils rclu[iuusbip nnd dcpcndcltcc up<m (IIC widely
,lSe~ physicni in(crfi!cc, RS.232-C. (Irunl’amiliar with RS.232.C, [be rc~dcr
SIIOUId review Apocndix C.)
The usc or I<S-232-C lo CIICC[cl>ll][i>t]!]ic;tti[]rls hc!wccm 1)’1’lk is nwsl
common in a local cnvironmcn[, because RS-232-C is inherently a short-
(Iis(nnce interface, [ypicnlly constraining (he channel to no greater than a few
hutldrcJ feel, As shown io Figure 2-1 l(n), devices can control [he conlnlu-
1 tlicn (ions between cnch other by mising and lowering [he RTS/CTS signal on
I [c) Go.Back.N
Ihc RS-232-C chonncl (pins 4 and 5. respcc[ivel y). A common implcmentu-
lion nr this lcchniqklc is tlmnil in the altacbmcnl of n lernliml 10 a simple
Figure 2.10. ReWmsmisslon01Errors multiplexer. The terminal requests use or tbe clmnnel by rnising i(s RTS line
(4). The multiplexer rcspomls 10 the req,!est hy raising !he CTS line (5). The
terminal [hen sends i[s dola [o [be multiplexer (brough the [ransrnilled dala
burrcr spnce, espcci:dly if(tle DTE has Iimi[ed memory av:jil;lblc nncl several Iinc (2)
~ctive links.
Go- Back-N is a simfdcr tccllniqtle. Once M crroncrms [mmc is Xon/Xoft
detccled, the receiving station discards all sl!bseqUerll fmmcs in [he scssiml
Go.lMck.N rcc]uircs no fr:llllc A!lo[her witlcly used primary/scclmd:lvy nonpolling Iechnique is
un[il il receives the correct retransmission.
queuing nnd fmme rescquencing at (he receiver. Ilowcvcr, its lhlotlghpu( is XON/X”~ ISCC Figure 2-1 l(b)], Xon is an AN SI/IA5 lransmissiotl charlc~cr
not as high as Sclcc[ivc Repeat, since i! requires the rclm!lsnlissiorl of (SCC Appctlllix A rot’ ANS1/l A5 code). ‘Ihc XW1 clmroclcr is uswdly
frames thal may not be in error. implemcn [cd by DC I..TI!C XOIT clmrnc[er, also on AN SI/ISS character. is
In subsequent chaplcrs, !he [nllowing pri[ll:]ry/sccollll; iry pollitlg sys- reprcscnlcd by 13C3. Pcriphcml dcviccs such :)s priolcrs, pr~phics [crminnls,
[cms arc covered in more detail: hirmry syncl>rono~]s (bisync), II I)LC, I. Al’, or plo(lcrs c;ln usc lllc X1mlXMT :Ippw;wh 10 cnn[wl lmllic conling inlo
LAPII, LAPD, LLC, LAI’X, tind SDLC. them. The nlw[ev or Ix’imtlry slo(ion, typic filly n computer. scmls do(a (o Ihc
remote pcripllcral silt, which prints or graphs (he d:ttn on~o an output medi~.
Since [hc plollcr or pritllcr is stow rcl;llivc 10 (Iv2 lmrlsrllissiorl speed d (I1C
Nonpolllng Systems I chaoncl ;INd IIIC lmnsnlissiOtl speed dfbc Imnsmilling cumpulcr. ils bull’crs
“MY bmw rllll. COnsequcIIIly, m prevent ovcrllo\v. i[ lmnsm its b~)ck 10 [he
Lc[ us conlinue o~lr {Discussion nn[l clmsificatiorl of nc[w’ork ,commtlrlic:l
- comptllcc :111X[)IT signnl, which mcnns slop lmrlsnli[ling or “lmmmil oil’.”’
tions pro[ocols by bmnching in o!!r clossific;~ [ion [ICC (ill I’igll:e 2-5) 10 lhe
.,.,
 .,.-.~...
,. .,. . . .. .

54 Comm.nicaliom Between and Among Compulefs end Turmlnals Chap. 2 clap, 2 Nonpolti.g Sysloms 55

T/me Ditdsim? Mu/fiple Access (TDMA)

A !morc clnhom[t nppwmcb 10 pri!~lary/scco! ld;\ry nonpolling systcnls is

Ii!nc divisiotl mul[iplc Mcccss (’I’I)MA), This Icchniqt!c! is u sophi.slic; !lccl
u ltIIm (If (ir$!c divi$iot! multiplexing (T1)M) inlr,>d~[cml in (be I;ISI scclit,n O(
L ~xpl,n,, ion
—.—
Cbop[cr One Ind discussed fur[bcr in Ihe rollowing scc(ion. Figorc 2- I2
RTS(41 — OTE A ,e.uw, t. ,md
-— CTS15) DTE Qo<,,)!, m,rni,%io.
pmvidcs on illus[rnliml ol’fi T1)MA snicllilc llclwork. Site C is dcsignnlcd as
DATA(2I — D,,, lr,n,ml,w! on ,,!. 2 :1 Inmslcr sl:)t ion (nllcn cllllcd tbc rc:liwm,, ,sI,JI;,w {Rl; l:l), ‘1’bc wspmtxibil -
-– --– CTS[5)OII DTE 8 ,urnsP!n501i ity d (be rc[e]cuce slu[im is m acccp[ rcqucsls from lIIC sccoml;wy stations,
0ATA121 ----- DTE A ,!.”, ,ran,mk, ion
which nrc au indication (11;,[the sccomlnry station wishes to use (he channel.
(, I Raw,,, to Send/Cla.r (o Send The rcqucsls arc scn[ M pur[ Or Ilw ongoillg (mnsmissioms in a spcciitl
corltrol field, Pcriodicnlly, Ibe refercncc s[otion lmnsmi(s a control (r;lme
inclicnling wbicb s[n[io,ls can lIsc Ihe clmnnel during a given period, Upon
cccciving lhc permission fromc, Ibc sccond;lry s[ntions ndjus( !bcir liming to
lmnsnli( willlitl [IN prcdcsign;llcd slot.
I
I T13MA does no[ usc a poiling selec(ion system. Nonetheless. it does fi(
in[o our classification of ’primarylsccomlary networks, because tbe TDMA
I DATA(2I — 0,,, t,a”,mlt!edo“ “!. 2 I rcfercr)ce s(alion has lhe oplion or zssig!ling or nut assigning stnlions 10 a
-— XO!KII OTE 0 ,end$.tmmrnissiono(P, m pin 3 I —
OAT.4(21 ----- DTE A ,ummd, t,m,m!$, ion

~
0ATA[21
-—
————
x..(a)

(b) xon/xolt
015 B X.ds ,,lt..%mis%
OTE A resume,tmwnimion
ion on,,
I
f-J--!H l\

Figure 2-t 1. simple Nonpolllng Syslems

------
Upon receiving (he Xoff, (be compt,ler ceases lran.wnis.siun
It 1101{1s /\
ally dala,unlil il rcccives on XOn sign;li. This indica[cs (11:1((IIC pcripbcml Control (Req.,,!,
andAs%immmlsl
device is now free (for instance, its buffers now have been clcwcd) ?nd is ----—--—-
rcwly [0 rckeive more dn[a.
As (he reader can WC, (he XonlXofT apptio~ch ii ql]i!e simple; i! is MO UserT,,llk S1.[ t
UP ma Down
fflirly low level, generally using Ibe RS-232-C pin conncclions, a V,24, or _.= ______ ____ T,anm+<%io”S1.,,
I
o[hcr interface. For example, pins 2 and 3 con be used [o support Ibis !
lh U*er Traliic S1012
prolocoi. The da!a is [rnnsmi(led across pin 2 from Ibc cornpuler lo lbe t
peripheral device and (he Xon/Xoff signals are (mnsmitled back 10 lbe
cornpu(er (hrough pin 3,
An inquiring reader might qucslion why RWCTS ond Xon/Xofr nrc
included in a classification of network pro(ocols. Aller ;)11,onc nligl~t say,
these sys(ems are too basic to be considered a protocol. Tbe answer to this
L---------------------\
qucs[ion is simply (bat {hese sys[cms arc mscd cx(cmsivcly ill om oml
I
DC,E communications, especially wi[b mul(iplcxers, modems, priutcrs, ;tml
plo[(crs, so the render should hc aware of (hem. Ii is likely tlml your
I
instal [ition uscs these ;opproncbes fur some or yollr in[crfnccs. While IItcy !
may no[ be as complex as a Continuous Al<(.), lhcy ZICCquilt USCI’U1~Itld
:,l. J.. ,,c; ”# ~ Figure 2.12, Time Divisio!, M“l!ipleAccess(TDMA)
I 1
I
[
‘1

I 56 CommunimlimsElelwem and AmongCompulersand Terminals chap. 2 ~ Chap.2 NonP,!o,dyS@ems 57

I
Ch;inllcl, Tllc ;migm!lcl)ls, m;ldc in Icsp<l, tsc I(I Ic(\l!csls, :)(C Il:l\ ccl [1!1 Illc j
relative priori[y 0[ (IIC sl;!lim] LX lhc lypc 01 lm[lic I’u.1111
is discussed in more detail in Clmp(er Pive.
!IIC s!;IlicIII. ‘I’l)kl A
d
--”-%5-TFT=---
I

Nonprlorily Systems
.,
T/me DJvk/on Mu/1/p/exfng (TDA4) or S/ol

We now turn our n[tenl ion 10 (IIC second umjor cl:lssitic:llion 0( I

ne[work protoc<!ls-(t!e: pcer-![>. peer tcclnniquc. ~irs(, III) cxwniwiliot] M ~
--- 1 ---
peer-to-peer nonpriori[y systems. ‘rime division multiplexing (TDhi) is {
probably ihe simplesl example of Peer-to.peer nOnPriOril Y”sYslcrlls. U1lJcr:1 ‘
TDM sys[em, each s[u[io(l is given n slot of iimc wl (IIC commutlicntiotls
channel and (he slots are divided equ>tlly among (IIC users, ILIc I1user 11:1slhc
(III Channel
Idle,A andBhtwmptms.:ze
full use of (he channel during that slot of (ime, TDM is actually a simple furm

----Q----
of TDMA cliscusscd in the pt’cvious scc[ioo. The TDM :Ippro:Ich is fou!>d in
both local area ne[works and wide arc;! syslcms. Some vcrdors migh( Fml
clmsify a Ti)h! m a prolocol; mmethekw. (he TPPIO:ICh is used ill lhc
networking of computer nnd tcrmim!ls on LXIIII bus IIml ri!)g lupulogics. I
I

f?eglsfer /nsert/on
I c1 c1 c

(cl A Trm,mit, and 00,1,,,

D

A number of ring-bnscd nc[works use Ihc rcgisicr-i!]scr[ ic~rltcchuiqm ~

to control traC1c. Any sta{ion can [ransmi[ \vbcncvcr :1!1idle slute exisls on : Figure 2.13. CarrierSense (Collision)Systems
(be link. If a frame is received while lhe station is [ransmi[ting, (Iw fmme is
held in a regisler and !ransmit[cd behind lhc s(o[ion’s frwllc. This approach ~ Figllre 2-{3 is an illws{ralion of n carrier sense collision “e{work.
permi Is Ihe “piggybacki”g” of mu[liple fmmcs on [he ring. Regis[er inscr. .SW!iom A, Ll, C, and D :)rc al!achcd 10 a bus nr clmnncl (prnviding a
I hurimntal lopology) by bus inlcrfoce units (tll Us). Le( us assume slfi[ions A
[ion is a snphislicaled form of 3 slot!cd ring
( nnd 11wish totrnnsnlil; ho\vcvcr, sl;klion D is cttrren[ly using [he channel$ so
(I1c lli Us 1( s(u(ions A nnd II “lis(cn”’ and defer IO the possitig fmme being
Carrier Sense (CO///On)n) Systems
Imnsrnillcd from slalicm D, Upnn (I]c line going icllc [I:igurc 2-13(b)}, sl~!tions
Carrier sense (collision) nc[wnrks are :\tlo[hcr cx:bmplc or peer-lc)-peer ~ A nnd II al[emp{ to sciT.c the channel,
nonpriori[y syslcms, This approach is UISO widely used in local nc(works, Carrier sense nclworks provide scvcml mc(hods (W channel seizing.
Several implementations use [his iechniqttc wilh !hc l~lhcmc[ spccifica(ian (JI1C (cchniquc, [Ilc lr<l)t[,<r,vi.rl<,!l rxrricr sense tcchniquc. pmvidcs (IIC
and IEEE 802.3 standard discussed in Chnpter Six. A c:lrriet scI1se nc(work ~ f:lcilily [nr all sliltions [0 (musmil immcdi;l[cly upon sensing the idle cbonnel,
considers all sttil ions cquol, so !bc st~tions con[cnd for (IIc usc Clrme chonncl k will) no arbitration bc(orc [be (rammissirm [n [he event lbc channel is busy,
on an equ;\l bu$is. (t{owevcr, i! is possihlc to inl!wdtlcc pt-iotily lhrough !ht sttll ions vmit o mm[om pcri{xl of !inlc before sct!sing tlw clwtlncl ;!goin,
dilTere!!t h:tck-dT limes for di~crcn[ dcviccs. ) IIcfnfc (rons!llitting, !hc ! Anolhcr (echniquc c!sed on slollcd systcols, the p.prr,ci, vtc,ltl c;lrricr sense.
sl:!l inns arc required to monilor tbc cbanncl to dclclmlinc if the Clla!lnd is provides a wailing ;dgori[bm ill c:,ch sl:lliun (p slonds fnr pwhl) ilily), I;or
I
active ({hot is, if anolber slalion iS Sc11di11i2lI?lIzI W lbc ctl:$nctcl). lf fi,c ~ cx;ItNple. st~(hns A :Iml II do HOI lrn!lsmi[ i“, mcdi; i!cly up<ItI se,, si, ip :, Iir\c
clmnncl is idle, any s(ation wilh dola 10 lmnwnit csn send ils frame 01110Ihc I @w i[llc; ra~hcc, C:ICII s[~tli[l!l i!lvohs :1 rm![inc 10 gcncm[c II rnn~u[nizcd
channel, If (Iw ch:!nnel is nccupicd, lhe st:tliony nltlst dcf’cr [n Ihc passinp ~ u;,il, [ypic ally a few nTicrosccoflds, If a s[;, tion senses ;I busy channel, il
$ional, i wtlils a slot ([imc period) ond lrics ;Ig;lill. II (ronsmils [0 ml idle ch;intlcl \vilh

s .,
—

‘“”) ,,

58 Cornrn.nicallonsBe[weonand AmongCompulotsand Twminals Chop.2 chop 2 Nor,prio,;~ jysi!m 59

a proh:! hilily p N!lLIwill! o pvolml>ility 0[ I - I, it dc{cls to (IIC ncx( sIc+(. YCI Ili IIlc cvco( of :, collisi<ln, {hc sto[ions h:tvc :1 f:\cilily !0 dclcc[ lhc
unolllcr lcchniquc, l-p(,r,rf.rlc~tt c:micr, I)ils ~i sl;tl ion lmns]nilling i!llruc<li- disl, >llcd d;llil. I{;ICI1 Sl:di,ln is c;, p:vl>lc <>Vlr:!ns!t]illillg ;!()(1 Iis[citiflg (<1 !I>c
a(eiy upon sensing an idle cha!lncl. When acollisiun occtlrs, Ilw sl)tl ions w;hil CII:IIIIICI silllc] l!;t]lc(>t] sly, As [IIC IWO sign:!ls c“lli de, !hcy creuIc vul!xgc
a random period before sensing (he channel. TIIC rnclllod is czllcd 1- irrcgul:!ri[ics on Ihc clmnnel which arc sensed by (I!c colliding slations. [lo[t]
persis[cn[ because Ihc sl$!lion [mnsmi[s will) o pro bt!hili[y 01 1 wl)cn a sltll ions IIIW ,m lhc Imnsmission, :Iml :~1’!cr o r,~ncl{mliy.cd wit pcri<,d
channel is sensed ;!s idle. ,! :Illclllp[ 10 seize [hc ch;tnnc[ :l~<lin. The rnndon)izccl w;~il prcvc”ls (I,c
collision from recurring, since il is unlikely lhat (he cornpcling slations till
TABLE 2.1. Carder Sense Networks gctmm!c IIw mmc rnndornizcd wnil lime.
C:lrricr sense Syslcms :Irc explained in dcl;lil in Ch;~plcr Six,
COnd!llon NonporsMenl ppersisten[ 1.pwskmn!

Channel Idle transmit Imnsmit with g transml! Token Pass/rig

immwlaloly deler with 1 - P immetialely
Channel busy mndomlzed wall !ransm(l wi!h p, conllnua((y Token pnssing is anu[her \vidcly used method for implementing both
& sanse deler wilh 1 - P sense peer-lo-peer !tonpriorily and priorily sys[cms, The priorily syslcms arc
Colllslon ra”dmnlzed randomized I fa”domlzod discussed Iotcr, The lcchniq!lc is I’ound in rnmny 10C:II:Ircn networks. .St>mc
rel,anwnlssion relransmlsslon refr.a”smisslon [okct)-pnssing syslcms arc illlplcmcn(cd with :! lmrizoll[;tl bus [opo[ugy;
vthcrs are implemcnlml with a ring [opology,
.,
Ttle p-pcrsis[cni lcchniquc is designed to mcc( ;I I-pcrsislcn! gonl of Tokc,f l{irl~, ring iopology is ill!ls[ri!lcd ill l~ig!lrc 2.[4. “1’hc
The
sl;l[ioms :irc cooncclcd 10 0 conccntvic riog lhtough n ving inlcrfi!cc umi( ,,
reduced idle channel lime rrud a nonpcrsislcnt goal of ucdtlccd collisions.
However, p must be set to a low vnlue to ochicve proper performance. ([<l U). EtIcli RIU is responsible for monitoring !hc do(n p:lssing !hrouch i[,
Perhaps su~risingly, 1.persis(enl is fmvorcd by nlany vendors, and st:!ndlrds as WCII os rorregcncraling (Iw lmnsmi. ssicm and prosing il 10 lhc nexl sl,a[ ion,
groups (discussed furlher in Chaplcr Six). If (hc nddress itl the header or Ihc transn>issio!l indicx!cs [ha( Ihc da[a is
To continue the discussion, we assume lhal slnlion A in ~igurc 2-13(c) clcsl ined rOr a s!alion, the inteticlce unit copies [he Jala and passes tllc
seizes the cha!>nel before station D has an opportunity 10 finish i{s random- in formolion to (he !tscr LSI’E or IITES attacbcd 10 it,
ized wait, A short time later, m%r 11’s randomized lhrcs hold Ims cxpil-cd, il 1[ (he ting is idle ((ha{ is, no user dm:I is occ{gpying Ihe ring). a “ftcc”
token is passed around [he ring I’rum node to !Iodc, The [oken is used 10
Iis\ens and determines iha[ A has [ransmilted and seized Ihc chnnnel.
Consequently, it must con~inue to adhere [0 one of the three lcchniq!les I’ur
busy conditions un!il the channel goes idle again,
Since A’s transmission requires time (o propagate to s(alion 11, ska[ion
D may be unaware lhal a signol is on [he channel. In IItis siluxlion, clmnncl
D may (ransmi( i[s frame even (I1owI) chanocl A bm sl!pposcdly seized (IIC
channel. This problem is called the colli.rio!f wimlow. The collision window
is n factor of [he propagation delay or lbc signal and Ihc distxncc bctwcc II (IIC
two competing st;)l ions, For insmnce, ifA :md U ;Irc onc kiloinc(cr :Ipnrl (,6
ofa mile), i( (akes approximately 4.2 microseconds (or s[alicl!l A’s sigwd 10
rc~ch sf~fion B, During (his period, B tins an oppotlunily 10 Imnsmil, which
resulls in a collision wilh sln[ion A.
Carrier sense nclworks nrc usutdly implcmc!licd OHloc:d arcn nclworks
hecausc the collision window Ieng( hens with n longer, wide area channel. “0””0
“The long chonncl gives rise (o more’ collisions and Ycduccs thr’otlghpul in the (a) Tokm lEmIv(y)CirClc$Ring (III A Seizesfling
network, Generally, n long prop~ga (ion dclmy (~ hlng dclny bcf’orc OIIC
m Ri”o1“,,,1,,, unit [Rlu]
sto(ion knows [hc o[hcr is (ronsnlif(ing) gives rise 10 t! rwe;tlcv incidence or
collisions. Longer fmmcs ciln milirytc (IIC clrcct of long dcl:!y. Figure 2.14, Tokm Ring
 -.

~,lj
‘.. _.’

‘2
 -.. ,,,

Cl>ap 2 Chap, 2 Conclusion 63

62 Commu.lcalions Balwoon and Among Compulom and Tcrmin*ls

nlcn!ed >vith lcchniqk!cs rcscmb]ing (be priuri[y slol netwo!k, Ar\olhcr Conclusion
approacll is 10 provide on wldiliun:d fnciiily in ltlc oclwork collccl :1 rillzcr vr WC II:IVC ijllr,)ducc<l iljc sys!c II)s ;IIICI prtj[(,cc,ls dcl, ictc{l i]] IIIC nc[!v<>rk
,lr/}ilrr, l’his dcvicc dcfcrnlincs wlrcn ;t sl~tlkm c:ln Iritr]slllil willtlwt d:]ngcr Cl:[ssi(iv:l(i<>u [ICC. C:lcll Im;t(wh ((tctlc ckwc’ly i,l Ilw f,dk>wirlg
Wc cx; ,miltc
of collisions. The timing is determined at each s[o(ion, with no n}!lstcr silt (o clI:Iplc13. The rc:kdcr need oIIly Imvc o gc!wml undcrst:lnding vi t:igurc 2-5
supervise the use of the channel. UI [his poini in our discussion. The next chop[crs will an;dyze [he specifics
Each porl hm a prcdc(crmincd [inliog Ihrcshokl, When IIIC li!ning or [Ilc Sys(cllls.
(hreshold expires,
the por( uses a Liming pxmmeter to dclerminc WIWII 10
lransmi(. (Simillr
in concep[ [0 “seizing” n [oken.) The !inling can bc
established on a priori(y basis, wilt! Ihe Itighc.sl priori]y p[>rl Iwving ils li)ncr
NOTES
expire firsl. If this port chooses not [o (n!nsm it, [kc CII; IDIICI reomins idle.
The next higkest priori(y stnlion senses [he channel is idle.’ Its Iin)cr lllg,, rc 2.2 is :, con, p,milc U( several “ctworks. ‘Ihc lwckbonc “ctwork
indica [es if is within z lime threshold 10 transmit, so it nmy ibcn seize ihc (swilchcs and Iincs bciwccn lbc swilchcs) is an CXWIIPICof Ibc Fcdcrd Rcscrvc
SysIcm’s !>riv:\!c nclwork, l;l/CS.W, ‘I”lw PAI>s in l?guw 1.3 ;IW cxt!mplcn [If
channel.
supporI functions from scvcrd pul]lic daln networks [discussed in Chapter Eigb[).
The higher priorily stations, if [hey do not Irnnsmit, creole un idle
condi (ion on (he clmnncl, wkich :Illows [be Iowcr priorily .slzi[iur]s 10 msc lhc 2UYICSSlJlack, n taxonomy prcicutcd for In form:,[ion Engineering, Inc.,
Arlington. Virginin, J:mtmry 25-27. 1984,
channel In conventional slot networks, Ibe idle time (r:tnsl;~[cs inlc waslcd
transmission opportunities. However, the collision-free network uses (he
~rbi[er [o OIIOW(he nex[ highcs( priori(y s(a(ion on the link 10 seize Ihc idle
SUGGESTED READINGS
time ii i( has dala IO Imnsmit, This ;bpprw\ch rcduccs considcruhly (Iw idle
time on the channel. “D:I1o Comtm!nicalion Networks, “1’rnnsmission, Signnlling :md Swi(cbing, Nc(work
A.?pccls, Main! cmmcc nmJ A!Jministrnlive Arrangements,”’ Volume VIII, Fascicle
Vlll.4, CCI~Rcc/ Do,,k, CClrr I>lcn:,ry Asscmhly. Octoher8-l9, 1984 (Malaga.
TOkerr-pass/ng (Pr/or/ly) Systems
Iorrenloliuos),
The Iasl example of peer-lo.peer priority systems is an enh;tnccd Fischer, WdlcrA, “Takit18[hc Mystery Out of Protocol Am$lysis,’” Trl<>c,,,,t?z[!(t!i.
[oken. passing schcrne, in \vhich priorities are odiled [o a (okcmpassing c<)li<mt, hlwch 1985, Pp. 73-80.
system, usually a token ring, Eactl system attacbccl 10 ~ cokcn nc[wouk has “Intcr!m!imml “1’clcphmw Scrvicc, Network M,,, I;IgcIIIcIII, “I”milk JhlKinccril, g.’”
a priori[y assigned [o il. Typically, eight priorities arc msigncd. “Ile ohjcct Volume 11, Fnsciclc 11,3, CC17T’1{ml L200k, CC1’J_Sl>lmwy Assembly, October
o[{tle loken-pmsing priority scheme is (o give each st:\tion on oppurluni(y to S-!9, 1984 (Mah!gwl’orrcmolinos).
reserve [he use of lbc ring for Ihe ttc.r! transmission arottlld the ring. As (IIC Marti!,, Jmlcs. 7rlrc,>f,!!1!!( >!ic,t!i<,!!,~,r,,</!ltc C,,r,t/,,t!cr (2n,lc<l. ). Etlgle~vood Cli~s,
loken nnil dala circle the ring, each node examines !I)c !okcn, which conl:) ins NJ: Pre!!(ice-Jl:ttl, Itlc.. 197(,).
a reservation field. Iflhe individual node’s priori[y is higbcr tb:ln the priority Trumnbmtm, Ar]drew S,’ AChf C,,!, !r,,,ti!tg,7t,ri, cy.<,%Nclu,ork Pro!uml s,””13. N0,4,
number in the reservation field, il raises (he reservation fickl nt!mbcr 10 its 1981
level, thus reserving [he !oken on Ihe next round. If ano(hcr node does 1101 ‘I”:,mobaum, AmJrew S, Co!up, (Icr NFowwk,%,Englewood Cli17s, NJ: Prentice.l!all,
m?.ke [he reservalioo field higher, Ihen Ihc s[n[iou is allou)c(l 10 usc the loken I,IC. 1981,
OIICIchannel on the ncx[ P;ISSarouncl (hc ring,
The sla[ion seizing Ihc loken is required IO slore [he previous rcscr-
valion value in a Iernporxry storage ;Nreaal ils location. Upon rclcming [hc
(uken when it complcics i complc!e loop around Ihc riog, the sl;b[ion
rcslorcs [he nc[work to ils previous IUWCSI priori(y rcq IIcsl. III (his
manner, once (he token is m:tde free for Ihe next round, (IIC sl:tl ion will) lhc
l~ighcs[ rcscrv:t[ ion is ;ollowcd to sciz,e (IIC token. ‘1’okcn-p:kssitjg priorily
SYSICJIMare widely used in local atca networks (LANs) :IIId ;IIC expl:!inccl i!l
]more dc(ail in Cbnp[er Six, which lligl)ligh(s IIIC II;IIC 802. S \okc!l-rirlg
“,,, ,l?l,,,,!
,,.
 )
Chap, 3 NetworkDesignPmbloms 65
..

CHAPTER THREE [hc [crms msoci:ltcd with layered protocols are abstract, once we
understand the terms, we will find the concep[s simple,

In fairness, it should be stated that some people believe layered

Layered Protocols, protocols
performed,
incur excessive overhead. However,
whe[her or not they are layered.
the funclions must be

and the 0S1 Model

Goals of Layered Protocols

The modern compulcr nc[work is designed around the concept of layered

pro[ocols or functions. These techniques were developed over the past 15
years LOmeet the following goals:

● provide a logical decomposition of a complex network into smaller,

more understandable parts (layers);
Introduction ● provide for standard interfaces between ne~work functions, for exam-
ple, standard interfaces between software program modules;
The previous chapters provided a general foundation in understanding how
network components communicate with each other. in this chapter, our goal ● provide for symmetry in functions performed a[ each node in the
is to gain an understanding of [he conceptual framework of a computer network. Each layer performs the same functions as its counterpart in
network. This understanding is needed before moving into a more Je!ailed olhcr nodes of the network;
discussion of the classification tree. The 0S1 (Open Systems lnlerconncc- . provide for a mcmrs to predict and control any changes made lo
tion) model of tbe International Organization for Standardization is used as network logic (software or microcode);
a basis for our discussions. The first part of this chapter explains the ● provide a standard language to clarify communications between and
rationale for the usc of layered protocols in networks. The second part among ne~work designers, managers, vendors, and users when discuss-
discusses the relationship of layered protocols to the 0S1 model. Let us ing network functions.
begin with a general discussion of layered protocols.

Network Design Problems

Rationale for Layered Protocols
Networks require [3c writing of hundreds of soflware programs, entailing
Some confusion exists abou[ the benefits and functions of Iaycrcrl pro!ocols. tbousmms of codilj~ statements. Invariably, such complex sys[ems have
We will attempt in this chap[er 10 provide a clear definition of klycred ‘“bu~::” (logic errors) in the code which are diflicult and sometimes impos-
pro[ocols as well as to provide a rationale for [heir widespread use in [he si~c to find. During the past several years, as networks have grown in size
~ndustry. and complexity, the supporting communications software, hardware, and
A knowledge of layered proto~ols is useful for !hrec reasons: m;crocode have assumed more tasks and have grown in size and function.
Network m~inlenance ([hrough software and microcode changes) has often
1. The major standards organizations [hroughout Ihe world are endorsing experienced serious problems when changes were made that resulted in
the concepts of layered protocols (several of these organizations are unpredictable consequences.
discussed later in this chapter.) Moreover, many networks have evolved without any standard by
2. The major network vendors, such as lf3M, Hewlctl f%ckard, Xerox, which to design (hem. The components within the neiwork system some-
DEC, and Northern Telcom, are implementing layered nelworks. rimei have had poorly defined interfaces. It is not uncommon in some
3, Layered protocols simply make good sense. Tbcir foundation, while networks fur a change in a program at one site to adversely affect a
(8’ (I!ic. Althou ,h mrmy of seemingly unrelated component at another site in the network.
 ,!
)
}
66 Layered Protmols, Networks, and the 0S1 Model Chap. 3 Chap, 3 CommunicationBetweenLayers 67

The vendors’ approach [o designing sysIcms has been wrrrthcr mnjor

‘eq”HiO
problem in networks. Un[il recently, each vendor had i[s own approach [o
(a) designing ne[wor!is, (b) developing the logic for [he ne~works, and (c)
establishing how end-user interfaces were imcgmted in~o the networks.
Since each vendor provided a different and unique approach, a user often
had to incorporate mufliple vendor protocols when integrating the different
{containingOne to ManyFunction,)
vendors’ products at the user si[e. CerMin major organi~alions (for cx:mlp!e,
IBM, General Motors, and AT&T), h~vc established dcfttcto standmxls SAP: ServiceAccess
Point
because of their dominant position in the industry.
Notwithstanding these informal shmdards, the lack of a cohesive (al ServiceProvider
approach among [be di~erent vendors has left the user holding [hc protocol
bag (or more apdy, many bags). The dala communications industry has kiggcd — ——
far behind other industries in vendors coming together to support Ihc end user.
Paraphrasing an industry leader’s statements, it is philosophically inane and
economical] y ludicrous for each vendor to build its own “railroad gauge. ”
The basic idea of common standards for layered protocols is to develop
a core of approaches among all vendors and provide a reasonable point of

.**
departure when the core approach does not meet all needs.
The next lwo sections provide a more detailed explanation of layered
prolocols. The reader who does not wish Ibis detail should skip to the

l-’
section on s[andards organizations.
*.3V
-----------

Communication Between Layera

In layered protocols, a layer is a service provider and may consist of several
(b) ServiceProvider
service functions, For example, one layer could provide service func[ions
for code conversions such as fn[ematiomrl Alphabet #5 (IA5) m/from Flgum 3-1. Communications Through Layered Prolocols
EBCDIC, TELEX to/from ASCII, Videotex to/from EBCDIC, and calendar
dales {o/from numeric form. A function is a subsystem of a layer (an actual . Response. Primitive by service user to complete a func[ion previously
software subroutine in a program, for example). Each subsystem moy also invoked by an Indication at that SAP.
be made up of en(ilies. An entity is a specialized module. ● Co@rm. Primitive by service provider to complete a function previ-
The basic idea is for a Iaycr to add a value to (be services provided by ously invoked by a Request at lhat SAP.
the layers below it, Consequently, the top layer, which interfaces dircclly
with the end-user application, is provided with the full range of services Primitives usually have additional parameters to convey information to and
offered by all the lower layers, The ac[ual services invoked are dic~atcd by from lhc layers.
the upper layers to the lower layers. As shown in the figure, a user application or terminal invokes a service
Figure 3-l[a) shows the standard terminology for interfacing with a provider function by sending a reqtw$/ to the next lower layer. This service
layer or service provider. Four transactions, called primilivcs, are invoked request is alTbmed by [he service provider returning a confirm. If the service
to and from the layer through service access points (SAPS). (Some sessions is going to provide a function for another user (in [his case user B), the
do not require all transactions.) service provislcr ,musl send an imficafiou to B, after which B is required to
provide a response, Assuming the service provider is a layer, it connects to
. Requcsf. Primitive by service user 10 invoke a function. users A and B lhrough layer service access points (SAPS), A and B must
● [rdicaliofl. Primitive by service provider to (a) invoke a function or (b) know the associated SAP to receive the specific service from the service
.,,. ., ,., ..,, ,. .,,.; .,, .,,,,, r>!,:,? access rroi!tf (SAP). provider. The SAP contains the address of the specific service function.
 ,,,..... . . ., . ,.., , ,,

68
;“ J ~hap,;
LayeredProtocols,Networks, and the... I Model Chap, 3
‘)
A Pragmal, -, ,uslralion 69
..
Figure 3-l(b) provides ano[hcr view of [tic process. ‘rbc scrvicc / La”,,,
provider is in [he middic of (I1c diagram, wi[h users A and U on each side. ,! — I
IN+l
The request is senl to (he service provider, which sends user B on indiczdion. ~ ml
User B provides a response, which is transmitted through the scrvicc

‘%;
provider as a confirm to A.
PC1 Sou ICI ~
Theprocess provides acommon [ccllnique forthelaycrs lo:' P~lk'' 10 b
each o]her, even if [hc layers arc implemcnlert cm rfitlcrcnl vcndorsysmns. ;N
Remember that [he service provider could bc a Iaycr, a function, or an cn[iiy POu ICI /
wilhin[hekiyer, and [hcproccss ismercly establishing a common mc:msof
communication among and between the layers.
I
In much the same way, humans have a common approach to interacti-
ng wi[h each other: (a) establishing communications will] a grec[ing, such as
“hello”; (b) adhering [o an accepted convention of talking (mrd occasionally,
listening);
“goodbye.”
(c) [crminating the communications with a farewell,
The purpose of such a ditdoguc might be [o ask a service
provider (for inslance, a telephone operator) [o connect us to a Iong-distance
party. The service provider (operator) may invoke several service func[ions
or entities [o adhere 10 our request: (a) greeting us, (b) asking what we wish,
such as

+
Et,

SDU ServiceDataUnit
IN-’
(c) obtaining our number fhrough information, and (d) dialing (he number. Pc{ Pro,.sw,l
controlInfoml,,ic.”
PDU Pr.a:.xolDataUnit
The service provider may even invoke more esoteric scrviccs, such as
iDU Intetlwe Data Unit
language conversions—upon hearing us say “fluenas dim,” the operator ICI I.twt.m Control Information
invokes the English to/from Spanish scrvicc entity; e.g., [hc opcmtor
Figure 3.2. C.ammunkstions B@wee” Layers
performs a translation for us.
Just as humans must have conventions for asking for services from each When the lDU from layer N + 1 passes to layer N, it becomes the SDU
o[her, so [00 must machines, The standard terminology used for Payercd [o tha~ hrycr. In turn, the ICI is broken out in layer N, performs its func!ions,
networks [o request services is provided in Figure 3-2. In this illustmlion, Ihrcc and. is discarded. The SDU at layer N has a PC1 added to it, as well as
layers are involved in [he communicz-dions process: Iaycrs N + 1, N, and N - another ICI, to become the IDU to layer N - 1. Thus, a full protocol unit is
1. The lettering and numbering of the layers is relative. In Ibis illustm[ion, Iuycr pnsscd lhrough e~ch l~ycr. The SDU has a PC1 added at each layer. In
N is the focus of athm(ion. Consequently, the layer above it is dcsigna[cd N + ctTect, this is adding a header at each layer. The header is used by the peer
1 and the layer below il is N – 1, Five components arc involved in the leycrs layer cn[ity at anolhcr node of [he network 10 invoke a function. The process
communicating with each olher. Their functions are as follows: repeals i[sclf through each layer.

● SDU ($ervice daIa u~lio. User data [ransfcrred h’ansprircntly by krycr

N + I to layer N, and subsequently [o N – 1.
A Pragmatic Illustration
● PCI (profoco/ con[rol i@r/~lti/io/]J. Information cxclmngcd by peer
([he same) entities at different si[es on [he network [o ins[ruct an enlity The process may be more easily understood by redrawing Figure 3-2 as in
to perform a service function. figure 3-3. In Figure 3-3, we remove [he abstract COnCeptS Of pcls a“d
● PDU (profocol da(a unit). The combination of the SDU and PC1. SDUS and simply use lhc words user data and headers. As each unit
lmverses through [hc layers, il has a header added to it. This becomes the
● ICI (imerface co flrro/ it~ormafiof!). A temporary paramclcr ptrsscd bc-
user dam unit to the subsequent lower layers. Finally, the full profocrd da(a
lwcen N and N – 1 to invoke service func[ions bclwccn the two Iaycrs.
unit is p~sscd onto the communications path, where it arrives at the
● IDU [inlcrface data twi[), The total unit of i[lfornmtion Wmsfcrrcd rccciving site, coming up through Ihc [aycrs in Ihe rcvcrse order as it Went
across [he Iaycr boundaries; it includes d}c PCI, SDU, and ICI, The through [bcm from [hc scmfing siic. The headers added at the peer layers at
lDU is transmitted across the scrvicc access point (SAP). [hc hansmil[itrg site are used 10 invoke symmetrical and complementary
,. ...

(lapeaH) IOd aql ql!mS.O!W.3 uaddns 6.!AOA.I l-c amfi!d

r IW.W3 ..!=!~su*J1 n

..-.
-N

----
N

----
+N

,aA,, ?,!s6u!u!uIwe1L

---

‘1 ti--- ! I
I

I
.

I
=
.
r I I I

I
 .,. . .. .

?2 Layer8dPfotocols,Nelworks,~. he 0s1 Model Chap. 3

the receiving node,

convert (decompress)
lbe bcadcr will bc USCLI to ins(ruct
(he code back LO ils original form (al[hough
particular function could be petformcd without the use of heaclcrs).
tbc N

We can now examine an i[[uslra[ion of the use of [he ICI in Pdyered

this
- 1 Itiyc!’ 10

m
1 1
““
nelworks. As sta~ed earlier, [he lC1 is used only between adjacent Iaycrs al t
Intem,timal
[he fame node. The ICI provides ins[ruc~ions to bc performed by (Iw Iowcr Telecomm.nicat!om
layers going out of the sending node silt and the upper Iaycrs coming in(o (IIC union [mu)
rccciving node site. For inslancc, [hc ICI might provide an instruction [o (I)c
lower layer thm it is to provide expedi[ed routing through its l~ycr. In Figure t
1s0 Ccll”r
3-3, when the N -1 layer receives the ICI instruc~ion, it knows (hut i[ must
go through additional functions [o incrcasc (he throughput of the d~ta it is
receiving from this user. Consequently, one approach would be to actutdly
send OU1multiple da[a units in parallel, i.e., pclform muliiplcxing opcmlions
I
to expcdi(e the transmission through the Iowcr Iaycrs.

Q D
National Natio.,1
S1anda,d, Telec.mmunicatims
Introduction to Standards Organizations and the 0S1 Body fAN51j L%die’(PTT,
AT&T, S1,1,1
Standard

The Open Systems lntercormcclion (0S1) Iaycrcd pmmcul model has been
under development for several ycm. 11 cncomp~sscs all tbc idcos and Otha
(IEEE, EIA, NBS, NCS)
concepls discussed in ibc prcviou$ scclion of this cbaplcr. 0S1 is supported 1 I
by the major standards organizations, klecommunimtions mdministmtions, Figure 3-S. StandardsOrganizations
and (rade associations, The swucmrc of tbe nwjor stmdards groups is
depicted in Figure 3-5. A brief description of the organizations is provided in The European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA) is dedi-
the following paragraphs. ca[ed to the development of standards applicable 10 computer and commu-
nico[ ions technology. II is not a lradc organization, as the name migh[ imply,
Standards Organizations
but a stttnrlards and technical review group. Several subcommittees within
The In[crnational Telegraph & Telephone Consul~tdivc Commiuce ECMA work ac[ivcly with CCITT and 1S0.
(CC1’TT) is a member of [he ln[ernational Telecommunications Union (lTU), The American Nztional S[andards Institu[e (ANSI) is a national
a treaty organization formed in 1865. The lTU is now a spccializctl body clearing house and coordinating aclivi[y for slandards implemented in the
within (he United Nations. CC1’IT sponsors a number of stwkwds dealing U.S. on a volunlary bmis. In addition to being [hc U.S. member of the 1S0,
primari~y with data communications networks, telephone switching s[tm- ANSI is active in developing slrmdards forda~a ~ommunications for the 0s1,
dards, digital systems, and terminals. The State Dcpartmc[lt is the voting as well as for encryption activities and OITce systems.
member on CCITT from the United Sta[cs, although several ICVCIS of The ElccWonic [rrdustrics Association (EIA) is a national [rade asso-
membcrsbip are permitted. For example, the recognized priwlle opcraling ciation which has been active for many years in the dev~j~pmen~ of
agencies (RPOA) are allowed to pariicipatc at one Icvcl. This Icvcl includes standurds. 11s bcsl known standard is RS-232-C (described in Appendix C),
organizations such as AT&T and GTE. The ~lA publisbcs im own stancJards and alSO subnlits proposals to ANSI for
The International Organization for Standardization (1S0) is a voltmlary pubhcation :1s U.S. na[iorml standards.
body. 1( consists of na[ional strmdardiza[ion organizations from cacb mem- The InsiituLe of Electrical and EIcclronic Engineers (IEEE) has been
ber country. The activities of 1S0 arc principally from the user committees invohwd for many years in standards acclivities, It is a well-known professional
and manufac~urcrs in contrast 10 ihc carriers Ilmt arc rcprcscntcd in CC1”IT. society with chap[crs located throughout the world. Its recent etTorts in local
The American National Slandards Insti(u[c (ANSI) is Ibc primary U.S. area networks have rcccivcd much a[tcnlion (see Chapter Six). The IEEE
organization on 0S1. aclivily mldrcsscs load tirca nclworks and many o[her standards as WCU.
 , .,. .... .... . .. .. . .. .... ..:.

i i
74 Layered Prolocols, Networks, II,. ‘he 0S1 Mcdel Chap. 3 Chap. 3 In!rod\.’ ‘m 10 Standards Ocganlzatlons and lha 0S1 Slandard 75

.,
Scvcml govcmmcn[ Orgunin[ions Imvc impwl:tnl roles in developing The gods or (IIC 0s1 I11OLCI:11’cl+s rolh)ws:
in[erna[ ional standards. As mcn[ioncd cttrlicr, (IIC SIa[c Dcp:lrunctl( is (IIC
U.S. vo[ing member of CCITT. The Natiomd Communic~tions System ● provide standards for communications be[ween systems;
(NCS) is a consot-lium of federal agencies IIM[ have large telecommunica- ● remove any [echnicnl impediment [o communication be[ween systems;
tions capabilities. The NCS works very closely wi[h o[hcr or~~niz:l[ions
● remove concern wi[h description of the in[crmd operation of a single
such as EIA, 1S0, and CCI’fT. One of i[s jobs is to develop fcdcrnl inpu[ [o
Systcm;
[he in[ernationd standard orgunim [ions, The Nti[ion:d f3urci1u of Stamfords
(NBS) is also very ac[ivc in in[crnu[iomtl smnd;mls cotn”)il[ccs. C“I’r.UIly,
● dclinc Ihc points of in(crconncc[ion fur the cxchm?ge of information
it is working on [hc upper k~ycrs of Ihc 0S1 shmdard (SCC Chtiplcrs Seven bclwccn systems:
and Eight). ● !Imww [hc optinns in cmlcr [o incrcmc (IIC abili[y to communicate
wi(hout cxpcnsivc conversions and h-tmslutions between products;
The Layers of 0S/ ● provide a rcasonublc point of dcparlure away from the standards in the
:;,. cvcn[ IImt they do not mecl all needs.
!.
The Open Systems [n[erconncc[ion (0S1) layered pro[ocol model is a
seven-layer standard. The s[ruc[ure of [be layers is shown in Figure 3.6. .
flue 10 Ihc witlc use of these s[nntkmls, several sections in this book
0S1 and CCITT have developed [hc 0S1 basic rcfcrcncc mmfcl 10
are dcvolcd to explaining lhcir at(ributcs and chardcteris[ics.
define layered networks and Iaycrcd pro[ocols. The model has rcccivcd
The IOWCSIlayer in the model is called thephy$ical layer. The functions
worldwide a[tention and has been implemented in many vcnclor products,
wi[hin this Iaycrare responsible for activating, maintaining, and deactivating
a physicol circuit bctwccn a DTE and a DCE. There are many standards
m published for [he physical layer. The mos( notable ones are RS-232-C and
P,,,,.,,, ).” V.24. (Appendix C explains [his and other physical layer standards in more
Layer dc[ail.)
Session The &rfa-/i)lk k~yrr is responsible for (he lransfer of da~a over the
Lay,, channel. 11provides for the synchronization of data to dclimi[ the tlow of bits
Transport from the physictd layer. 1( also provides for the iden[ity of the bits. It ensures
Layer that the cfn[a arrives safely at [he receiving DTE. It provides for flow control
Network 10 ensure {hat [he DTE does not become overburdened with too much data
Lay,, at any onc time. One of its most important functions is to provide for the
0.!. Link dctec!ion of [mnsmission errors and provide mechanisms to recover from
Layer lost, duplicalcd, or erroneous duta. The majority of the [echniques described
1;
Physical in Clmplcr Two wc found in [he data-link layer (see Figure 2-5).
Layer The mm,ork hjyer spccilies the interface of the user DTE into a
Pm, p~ickc~-switcllcd ne!work, as WCII as the in[erface of two DTES wi(h each
other [hrough a packcl nclwork. 1! also specifies ne[work routing and
+AUI the communications bc[wccn networks (in[ernetworking). The layer is
qui{c dc[ailcd on(f rich in func[ion. The X.25 specification is included in this
Port
Inycr.
DCE
The !IWIISPOVIIoycr provides [he inlcrface between the dat~ communica-
Port tions network and IIIC upper three layers (generally located at the user
premises). It is [hc l~ycr [hat gives (he user options in obtaining certain
MDl
Icvcls of quali[y (and cost) from [he network itself (i.e., the ne[work layer).
AU1: A,,achmm! Unit ln, wface
Chmmd MD{! Medium Dep.mde.! Interface II is d,csigncd to keep lhc user isolated from some of [he physical and func-
o )
!ib!ml WPCC(S of Ihc picket nc[work. 1[ OISOprovides for end-to-end account-
Figure 3-6. Layers 01 Ihe 0S1 Nelwork Model
[ibilily.
 —

)
76 LaynredProtocols,Networks,and the 0S1 Mcdel Chap. 3 khap. ‘S Conciuslm n
. ..

The sc$sicm Iflyer serves as a user intcfi~cc into the transport service Physical Iayec Chapter One, Appendix C
layer. The layer provides for an organized means to exchange da[a bctwer.~. Data-1 ink Iayec Chapters Two, Four, Five, Six, Nine
users, and the users can select the type of synchronization and control Network layer: Chapters Six, Seven, Eight
needed from the layer, such m: Transport Iayec Chapter Eight

1. al[ernate two-way dialogue or a simultaneous two-way dialogue; Session Iayec Chapter Thirteen

2. synchronization points for intermediate checks and rccovcry for file Presentation Iaycc Chapter Thirteen
transfers; Application Payen Chapter Thirteen
3. aborts and restarts;
,.
4. normal and expedited data flow.
SUGGESTED READINGS
The session layer has specific services, primitives, and protocol data “DaLa Communications Networks, Open Systems Interconnection (0S1) System
units which arc defined in 1S0 and CCITT documents. Description Techniques,” Volume VIII, Fascicle VIII .5, CCf TT Red Book,
The presen(crfio}t /uyer provides for the syntax of data in the model, CCTTT Plenary Assembly, October 8-19, 1984 (Malaga-Torremolinos).
that is, the representation of data. It is not concerned with the meaning or Foley, Jerold S. “Business Data Usage of 0S1,” Proceedings of The IEEE, 71, No.
semantics of the da[a. Its principal role, for example, is to accepl data types 12 (December 1983), 1442-1445.
(character, integer) from the application layer and then negotiate with ils Foley, Jerold S. ‘The Status and Direction of Open Systems Interconnection, ” DakI
peer layer as [o the syntax representation (such as ASCII). Thereafter, its Comnm!ticotions, February 1985, pp. 177-193.
functions are limited. The layer consists of many tables of syntax (teletype, Rosenberg, Robert. “Closing in on Open Systems, ” Electronics, MaY 1984, PP.
ASCII, Vidcotex, e[c.). The presentation layer provides for virtual terminal 78-83.
display and also provides for services such as resolving the reccipl of an “Special issue on Open Systems Interconnection (0S1) Standard Architecture and
electronic message from [he application layer and negotiating with hs peer Protocols,”’ Proccedi!ws of Tile IEEE, 71, No. 12 (December 1983) pp. 1331-1466.
layer to give to the other application layer a specific page image layout (e.g., “Telecommunications Standards,” IEEE Conmunicol;om, 23, No. 1 (January t98S)
for [typesetting). pp. 1-8o.
The application layer is concerned with the support of an end-user
application process. Unlike the presentation layer, this layer is concerned
with the semantics of data. The layer conlains service elements 10 support
application processes such as job management, financial data exchange
(ANSI x9); programming language send/receives (ANSI J-series); and
business data exchange (ANSI X12). The layer also supports tbc virtual
terminal and vir[ual file concep[.
The affac/tmenf unit i)fferfacc (AU1) is a cable. or a circui[ cord
connecting [he DTE to [he DCE. The most common connections at lbc AU1
interface are RS-232-C and V.24. The medit~m depcmfen( inlerfnce (M DI)
connects the DCE into the physical channel. The physical channel may be a
pair of wires, coaxial cable, microwave relay, optic tibcr, or,olhcr kinds of
[transmission channel technologies.

, ‘, Conclusion
The bo(tom three Inycrs of (be OSI model m’c now wefl dcvclopcd. lbc
fourih layer (transport) was approved in 1984. The top three Iaycrs nre under
various stages of dcvelopmen~. This book addresses the Iaycrs in the
 .
p

Chap. 4 MnaV Synchronous Control (sSC) 79

...

CHAPTER FOUR BSC is a half-duplex protocol. Transmissions are provided two ways,
alternately. The protocol supports poin!-to-point and multipoint connec-
tions, as well as switched and nonswitched channels. BSC is a code-sensitive
pmlocol, and every character transmitted across a BSC channel must be
Polling/Selection Networks decoded at the receiver to see if il is either a control character or end-user data,
As stated previously, code-dependent protocols are also called byte or charac-
ter protocols, and they are further distinguished by the fac~ that the control
fields usually reside in variable locations inside the frsme.

BSC Formata and Control Codea

The BSC frame formats and control codes are shown in Figure 4-1. The
control codes have several functions which depend on the particular line mode
at a given moment. (Line modes are explained in the next section.) The figure
Introduction
does not show all the possibilities for the format of a BSC frsme, but is just a
This chapter expands [he primary/secondary polling syslems introduced in sampling of some of the major implementations of the BSC frame format.
Chapter Two. The material covers in more detail the protocols on !he Ief[ Since BSC is a character-oriented protocol, it has a problem in
side of the pro[ocol classification tree in Figure 2-5, as well as the hybrid delineating user data fields from control fields. It is possible that a code
branch. We describe and define [he most common standards as well as some recognized as BSC control could be created by the user application process.
widely used vendor products. Subsequen[ chap[ers will comple[c the For ins[ance, let us assume a user program creates a bit sequence which is
description of the protocol classification tree. the same as the ETX (end of text) control code. The receiving station, upon
It should be no[ed that many of [he functions in these protocols arc encotmlcring the ETX inside the user data, would assume that the end of the
implemented with communications codes. A description of !he prevalent transmission is signified by the user-generated ETX. BSC would accept the
codes is found in Appendix A. ETX as a protocol control character and attempt to perform an error check
The polling protocols in use today are either characler-oriented (also on an incomplete BSC frame, which would result in an error.
called byte-oriented) or bit-oriented. Most character protocols have control Obviously, control codes must be excluded from the text and header
fields that reside in nontixed locations in the frame. In con[rast, the bit fields. BSC addresses the problem with the DLE control code. This code is
protocols’ control fields usually reside at fixed locations. Most impoflan[ly, (he placed in front of the control codes STX, ETX, ETB, ITB, and SOH to
character pro~ocols are code dependent in that the specific code (EBCDIC, identify these characters as valid line control characters. The simplest means
L45/ASCIl) dictates the interpretation of the control fields. The bit protocols are to achieve code transparency is the use of DLE.STX or DLE.SOH to signify
code transparent because the protocol con[rol meaning is derived from individ- the beginning of noncontrol data (user data) and DLE.ETX, DLE.ETB, or
ual bits; they do not rely on a specific code for the interpretation of the protocol, DLE.lTB to signify the end of user data. The DLE is not placed in front of
We will see several examples of these points in this chapter. user-generated data. Consequently, if bit patterns resembling any of these

1, control characters are created in lhe user text and encountered

receiving station, the receiving station assumes they are valid user data,
by the

! because {he DLE does not precede them.

I
Binary Synchronous Control (BSC)
,, The DLf3 places the line into a transparent Ie.rI mode, which allows the
In the mid 1960s, IBM introduced [he first general-purpose data-link con[rol transmission of any bit pattern. This capability is important when BSC is
to support multipoint or point-to-point configurations. This product, the used on different types of applications. For example, engineering or statis-
binary ~y~[chroncws co)lfrol (BSC) prO1OcOl, has fOund widespread use tical departments in a firm often use floating-point notation due to the need
throughout the world; many consider it to be (I1c most widely used for large magnitudes in numbers or very precise fractions. Accounting
synchronous line protocol in existence. Practically every vendor has some departments usc fixed-point notation in order to provide for accurate
version of binary synchronous control implemented in a product line. Some fractions (two decimal places for cents). BSC accepts these kinds of numeric
people use the term bisync (o refer to the protocol. representations wi(h(he use of DLE.
,..,
.-
j
Chap, 4 BlnmySynchronousControl(BSC) 81

from Ibc ?, M[ions. Upon rccciving an invitation [o send da[a (a poll), !hc
slave sla[ion transmits user daia with either an STX or SOH in front of the
data or heading. These control characters place the channel in the message
or text mode. Thereafter, da(a is exchanged under [he text mode until an
EOT is received, which changes [he mode back to control. During the time
the channel is in text mode, it is dedicated [o !he exchange of da!a between
[WO stations only. All other stations must remain passive. The two-station
text mode is also called lhc m+rc/.ho/d mode,
The polls and selccls are initiated by a frame with the contents:
Address.&VQ (where address is the address of the station). The control
(master) station is responsible for sending polls and selects,
A select performs one of two functions: (1) it places the selec!ed station
into a slnvc mode, and (2) il places all other stations (on a mul[ipoint
channel) into passive mode. The STX or SOH initiates the passive state, The
sclectcd station mainlains the slave mode condition until it receives an EOT,
ETB, or ETX. The pirssive stations maintain the passive mode condition
until they receive an EOT.
WC Cmtrol Character:
BSC also provides for confcnfim operalion on a point-to-point circuit,
Ch.meter F.mtio.
In this situalion, one of the stations can become the master by “bidding” to
lhc other station. The station accep[ing the bid becomes the slave, A
SYN S,nchrmousIdl. (keePschmnml ZCIivel
PAD FmTe L!ad(the Ii){b+tn’een
tr..mlwiorn) poinl-to-point Iinc cnlcrs the contention mode following [he transmission or
DLE Dal.N.k,*MM [used [08chiev8‘=40l,MllD=UKY) rcccp(ion of the 130T.
ENO Emw!rv(wedwilhcalld!dcct,m4 tidd
sol+ sue.1 h-c%v The ENQ code plays an important role in BSC con[rol modes. To
STX S,.* 01,,”, (putsIi., t“ !mt ms.w summarize i[s functions:
lTB Eodof l“termuiiat.block
ETB Endof trammimionbleek
ETx Endof text ,, . Po//. Control station sends with an address prefix.
EOT Endof trm,mhslon[0.1%!UneIncontrolmode)
BCC Blockcheck..””,
● Se/ccI. Control stalion sends with an address prefix,
● Bid. Point-to-point s[alimrs send [o contend for control station status,
Figure 4-1. ESC Formatsand Con!rolCodes

f?SC has a rnfher unusual way of indicating if i!s control frames are
The DLE presents a special problem if it is generated by the end-user selects or polls. The lower-case code ofa station address is used 10 indicale
application process, since it could be recognized as a control code. 13SC a SCICCI, and the upper-case code is used 10 indicrde a poll.
handles this si[uation by inserting a DLE next to a data DLE character.. The
receiver discards the first DLE of two successive DLf3s and accepts the L/ne Control
second DLE as valid user data.
The headers illustrated in Figure 4-1 are optional. If they are included, The transmitting station knows the exact order of frames it transmits,
the SOH code is placed in front of the header. and it expects 10 receive ACKS [o its transmissions, The receiving site
tmnsmits the ACKS with sequence numbers. Only two numbers are used, a
O and a 1. This sequencing technique is sutlcient, since the channel is
line Modes
inherently hnlfduplex and only one frame can be outstanding a{ one time. An
The J3SC channel or link operates in one of two modes. The control ACKO indicates the correct receipt of even-numbered frames; and ACK1
mode is used by a master sta[ion 10 control the opcm(ions on the link, such indicntcs the receipt of odd-numbered fmmcs. (The reader might recall from
as the transmission of polling and selection frames. The mrssnge or IC.TI Chap[cr Two [hot [hc stop-trod-wait sequence uses the ACKO/ACKl tech-
. ...1. :. !.. ,i ~.,r .,, .:. . 1i“ n’ an informn[ ion block or blocks to and nique for uccountabilit y of tratTlc.)
 .:: .,. ,:, ,, .. . ,. ,. ,.,
,
)
82 PoVing/Selsclion Nekvwss Chap. 4 Chap.4 The3270Family 83

in mldilion [o [he frirmc.[ormal con[rol ~odcs in figure 4. j, DSC ~l$c$

Other 8SC Systems
several other line control codes:
IBM is not the only organization [o have implemented BSC, although it was
ACKO Positive acknowledgment to even-sequenced blocks ofclu[a or one of (he pioneers of (he approach. Due to IBM’s dominant posilion in the
a response 10 a select or bid. industry, many vendors have insti[uled BSC-like systems to interface wi[h
ACK 1 Positive acknowledgment to odd-sequenced blocks or daia. IBM’s products. Several shmdards have been published which are closely
WACK (Wait Before Transmit—Positive Acknowledgment) l<c- related to BSC. For example, ANSI published X3.28, a standard for a
ceivirrg sta[ion [temporarily umrbte [o con[inuc processing or byte-orimrtcd pro[ocol, in 1971. The standard was upda[ed in 1976. It
receive transmissions. Signifies a line reversal. ,A.lso USC~ iIS specifics a group of protocols and control codes to manage the tratlic across
a positive acknowledgment of a transmission. StaLion will [he communications channels. These procedures use ten communications
continue to send WACK un[il it is ready to receive, control characters provided in Ihe ASCII code set.
RVI (Reverse Irrfermpl) Indica[es s[alion has data to send at !hc The 1S0 has also published a byte-orienlcd protocol standard, 1S0
earliest oppormnity, This causes an interrupt of the transmission IS 1745. The European Compu[er Manufacturers Association (ECMA) has
process, provided anolhcr standard, ECMA-16. Moreover, many vendors besides
IBM have standards for byte protocols. Hewlett Packard, DEC, Burroughs,
DISC For switched lines, forces a discOnneclio”.
and o[hcrs have byte-oriented protocols which are available in the market-
TTD (Temporary Text Delay) Indica[es smrding DTf3 cannot send
place. These examples represent a fraction of the many byte protocols
data immediately, but wishes to main[ain control of line (for
available today. Most are oriented around IBM’s BSC.
examples: its buffer is being filled or its card hopper is empty).

A code-depcmden[ protocol can create dual meanings in line control

The 3270 Family
irrlerpretalion. Table 4-1 provides an illustration of how .SWIWof Ihc.$c d[MI
meanings can occur in BSC.l The meaning of a p~rticular control sequence In the data communications industry, 3270 is a “buzz number” to describe
depends on whether [he sequence is sent by a master or slave shtion, :Ind a collection of printers, keyboard terminals, and CRT display s[ations tha[
whether [he line is in control or message mode. communicate with a mainframe computer or a cluster controller. The 3270
These byte-oriented protocols are being replaced by bit protocols for family of controllcra and displays was developed by IBM. The 3270 family
four reasons: (1) dual interpretations of codes; (2) the necessity [o usc [he is one of (he most pervasive lerminal-orien[ed prodtrc(s in the world; IBM
DLE to provide cortc transparency; (3) ~hc tlcxibility rmd etliciency of bit has stated Ihat over three million units bad been installed worldwide as of
protocols; and (4) Lhe overhead in the byte protocol. (Bit protocols tire year-end 1985.
discussed later in this section). The. most common 3270 [crmirmls are the 3278 monochrome terminal (and
(he lower cost 3 178), the 3279 color terminal, and the 3290 tla[ gas panel displa y.
TABLE 4-1, BSC t40de Interpretations
The 3270 clus[cr controllers (notably the 3274 and 3276) connect to their
Line Mode terminals with coaxird cable (RG62AU). Data is transmitted in bipolar form with
Message
a half-duplex vendor-proprietary pollirr~select protocol (see Figure 1-13).
Transmitted W Control Messaga or Text
The con[rollcr can be attached to (he host computer in one of two
SYN SYN ENQ Master Am you ready 10 Repeal your last ways: lord and remote. The local arrangement uses a direct attachment into
receive? Iespo”se (hc host [hrough onc of the control urtitpositiom on the host-system channel
SYN SYN ACKO slave I am ready to receive Even b!ackaccepled in[crfacc. The best channel microprocessor provides (1IC cluster controller
SYN SYN ACK1 Slave Not used Odd bloc\ Z,ccep!ed wi[h dida and control signals needed by the con[rol unit [o direct the
SYN SYN NAK Slave I am “of ready to Retransmit 1ss1 openrtion of ils altathed devices (printers, display stations). The controller
receive transrnisdon can also perform code conversion, format conversion, and flow control.
SYN SYN EOT Masler Reset tineto control End messagemod% The remote arrangement uses one of three approaches to in[erface the
mode
host-system channel and the cluster controller (1) a channel-connected
SYN SYN EOT Slave NegativeresponseIO NAK last message and
poll(mullipoino
transmission conlrol unit; (2) rr communications adapter (using BSC proto.
reset (0 camml
..,. COI); or (3) a front-end processor (using BSC or HDLC/SDLC), The remo[e
 .
-.
\ ‘)
Chap, 4 Chap.4 Problemswith BSC 85
84 Polling/SelectionNetworks

HOST REMOTE HOST REMOTE HOST

arrangement typicidly uscs DCES (such as nlodcms) find cwricr (Iclcphonc)
_ (Rwmll/EOT
lines.
The 3274 family has undergone several chmges. Recen[ enhanccmcnls ““’’’’’”’’T:’”
L ~~!-j ~,oc~ - No Resp — ENO .ndl hostanlwers
provide the following capabilities:
ACK 1/0 —INext BLK1/EOT
s interface into an X.25 network (see Chapter Eight) T , NAKIEOT— (Repeat Blmkl
c enhanced tcx~ edi[ing ::81U: AR”, _ EOT
SwciricPoll—
● response [ime monitoring from terminal to host to terminal WriteCMD ,- No Rem—ENC!IEOT
. network diagnostic tools. COPYCMD ACK1/O— (NextCMDLWxk)
EraseCMD
- WACK—EOT
Two common misunderstandings surround the 3270. First, some
NAK — (RepeatCMDIIEO1
people assume the 3270 family operates only under BSC control. However, ‘f%”
‘- EDT — E.pccifi,Poll)
il operates not only wilh a byte-oriented protocol such as f3SC, but many of (
the recent versions also opemtc under bi[ con[rol syslcms sllch us SDLC (to — tRePentCMD1/EOT
be discussed shortly). The second misunderstanding concerns tbc difTcr-
s“”’~HK&%’cMD -&%
ences bc[wcen 3270 clusler controllers and mulliplcxcrs. As rlcscribcd al [hc
}_- ~“, — (Smclrii Poll) N. Re,P— ENQIEOT
end of Chap(er One (Figure 1-13), (he cluster controller is conncctcd direc~ly
1--- No R,,P _ (Remfec,)(EOT
to the hos! computer or front-end processor, with one cluster controller on
Solld line%Indicatenormal reqwn$es,dashedlinesabnormal
the channel. in contrast, the multiplexer arrangement provides for Iwo
mulliplexers, one at each cnd of the channel. Figure 4.2. BSC Data and Control Flow Sequences
Another widely used tcrminrd/controller fanlily is (IIC IBM 5250 and
5290 product line. These systems arc used wi(h the ubiquitous Systcm 34, The Read command causes the buiTer of the remote device to be
System 36, and System 38 compu[ers. The 5251 cluster controller commu- tmnsfcrred into the main storage of tbe computer. The Read command is to
nicates with its host computer through SDLC. 11 can suppor[ UP tO seven a local environment what the Poll command is to a wide-area environment.
devices wilh cowsial cable, or in some manufacturers’ models, RS-232-C (see In these configurations, reading is normally accomplished by the specific poll
Appendix C). The 5294 uses SDLC or X.25 to communicate with the I1os[. It sequence depicted in the figure.
supports up to four devices through such diverse op(ions as RS-232-C, X.21 The
. COOY
–,. command is used by a Iimiled number of BSC devices. It ‘S
(see Appendix C), or AT&T’s DataphOne Digital service (DDS). used to transfer data from one device to another, both at(ached to the same
Figure 4-2 depicts a typical DSC 3270-oriented protocol data flow. The clus[cr con[rollcr. This obviates transferring the data to the host.
illustrating should be read from Ief[ [o right across the p~ge. 1( shows [hc The .fZrasc command is used 10 clear buffer memory al [he remote
sequence of operations emanating from the host, the remote sta[ion, tbcn the device and to perform other control functions such as unlocking the
host, then tbe rcmo[e, and so fotih. As indicated by the tiryrc, several possible keyboard and positioning a cursor on a screen. (You have probably
commands and responses arc transmitted be(wecn the stations, and [he 3270 encountered instances in which your terminal or personal computer key-
devices vary in how the commands are in[erprctcd und used. Most of the com- board will not accept your input because the keyboard is “locked.”)
mands and responses were explained previously in this chapter. In addition, Other systems use BSC. The weU-knOwn 3780 RJE (remOte jOb entry)
several host-oricnled commands which emanate from the selec[ control func- sys~cm uses BSC transparent mode transmission. BSC is also used with
tion are also illus!ralcd. Tbesc commands are issued by host software stored at ASP, HASP, JES, and RES products.
the central conlpu(cr. The command’s elTects wmy with a specific product.
The Wri/e command is used 10 Imnsfcr data aml Alilionzd control
messages from the nmin stomgc of a computer. to (be 3270 remote device.
Problems with BSC
The Wri(e command also provides options to XIIOWthe initiation of certain
device functions, such as skw[ing the prin[cr a(tachcd to a chrstcr controller. In our discussions of BSC, sevcrd deficiencies nf the protocol were
or resetting a keyboard on a terminal wllich is attached to the controller. It discussed. In summary, the llalf-duplex, code-dependent, mLrltiple-fOrmat,
can also be used to interrogzzte a dcvicc about ils chmctcristics. and mulliplc-line modes of BSC present significant problems. Consequently,
 ‘) 1-
86 Chap. 4 HOLC 87
PCitin9/SelW410nNelwo,ks Chap, 4
.!
other line pro[ocols have been replacing bisync systems. Even !bough lhc ● The sccomky slalion acls as n slave to the primary station. It
3270 architecture remains firmly entrenched in the induslry, many of these responds to the commands from the primary station in the form of
devices now use the more etlcien[ link controls discussed in the following responses. It maintains only one session, that being with the primary
section. station. It has no responsibility for conlrol of the link.
● The corrrbimwi station transmits both commands and responses and
receives both commands and responses from another combined sta-
HDLC tion. It maintains a session with one other combined station.
As discussed in Chapter Three, scverd orgarriza]iorrs htive. publishcrl data
communications standards during [he past tif[ecn ‘years. Onc body, the S[ations communicate with each other through one of three logical
International Organization for Standardization (1S0), is a specialized agency states:
responsible for establishing standards for nclwork protocols and o[her
activities. ● The Iogica//y dlscomiecled sfafe (L.DS) probiblts a station from trans-
HDLC (high-level data-link con[rol) is a standard published by 1S0 mitting or receiving information. If the secondary station is under a
[hat has achieved wide use throughout, [he world. The s[andwd provides for lzormal discomtecfcd made, it can transmit a frame only after receiving
many functions and covers a wide range of applications. It is corrsidcrcd a expl’icit permission from the primary station to do so. If the station is
superset to several other protocols, as was shown in Figure 2-S. lt fks our undw an asyncltrotlous d;sconnerlfd Jnode, the secondary station may
definition of a Continuous ARQ (sliding-window) protocol, HDLC has initiate a transmission without receiving explicit permission to do SO,
several options which make certain parts of the pro~ocol more of a hybrid but the frame must be a single frame, indicating the secondary station
between [he pure primary/secondary and peertpeer schemes, bccausc they status.
diminish the use of polling commands a“d eliminate select cOmmnnds, ● The ini[idizafioti state (fs) is defined by specific vendOrs and is Outside
Further explanation of these options follows. tbe stmsdards of HDLC.
This seclion addresses the main functions of the superset IIDLC. [~ ● The it~ormariou transfer state (ITS) permits the secOndarY, Primary,
also covers some of the more important subsets, such as SDLC, LAP, and combined stations to transmit and receive user information. Tbe
LAPB, LAPD, LAPX, and LLC. (LAPD and LAPX are discussed more information transfer state can be changed by the issuance of disconnect
extensive] y in Chapters Nine and Thirteen, respectively.) The reader is commands (discussed later).
encouraged to check with specific vendors for fheiractwd implemerrtalion of
the HDLC structure, Most vendurs use HDLC, but they may not implcmcn~ While lhc stations arc in an information transfer state, they are allowed
Iheir products in exact accordance with the HDLC specifications. to communicate in one of three modes of operation. These modes can be set
This material provides considerable de[ail on bit.oricnled pro[ocols. and reset at any time during the session, thus allowing a considerable
Those readers wishing an overview can skip to the scc!ion entitled “The amount of flexibility in how stations commrsnicatewiih each other.
HDLC Transmission Process. ”
● Normct/ response mode (NR&f) (primary/secondary classification in
HDL C Options Figure 2-5) requires the secondary station to receive explicit permis-
sion from the rximary station before transmitting. After receiving
HDLC provides for a number of options in its implemcnta[ion. It
supports both half-duplex and full-duplex [ransmissio”, point-to-point and permission, the. secoridary station initiates a response transmission
multipoirrt configurations, as well as switched or nonswi!ched chmmcls. An which may contain data. The transmission may consist of one or more
HDLC station is clossificd as one of three types: frames while the channel is being used by the secondary station. After
the last frame transmission, the secondary station must again await for
explicit permission before it can transmit agnin.
● A$yJJchrm/toI/s rcspo~l$e mode (hybrid classification
(ARM) in Figure
2-5) allows a secondary station to initiate transmissions without
receiving explicit permission from the primary station (usually when
thechanncl isidlc). The transmission may conlain single or multiple
 . ,..
I “’ ‘“’

88
) ) 89
POINng/Selection
Nelvmrk$ Chap. 4 Chap.4 HDLC

frames of data, or i{ may contain control infm’ma[ion rclfcc[ing sl:t[us tmmfcr s!:dc, lhcy rspctzde in onc of three morfcs: normal respOnse mOde,
changes of the secondary slation. ARM can dccremc overhcml bc. asynchronous response mode, and asynchronous balmrced mode.
cause the secondary s(alion does not need a poo @qt.IenCe in Ordcr I. Finally, the HDLC link is configured in one of lhree ways: an
send data. unbalanced configuration, a symmetrical configuration, and a balanced
● Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM) (hybrid classification in Figure configuration. These configurations are often labeled unbalariced normal
2-5) uses combined stations. The combiwxl stfi[ion may ini[ialc ~~dns. (UN), unbalanced asynchronous (UA), and balanced asynchronous (BA).
miSSi OnS without receiving prior permission from Ihc O~h~r ~Ombin~d
station. HDLC Frame Format

HDLC uscs the tcrmframe tO indicate an independent entity Of data

Thus far in the discussion we have seen [hat [here are three kinds of
transmi~ted across the link from one station to anolher [see Figure 4-3(a)].
~faliom in HDLC opera[ing wi[hin three /ogica/ sfafcs, and that within the
Three types of frames are allowed.
information transfer stale, the stalions opera[e within !hrce modes. In
addition, HDLC provides for three ways of configuring the channel for
c The it~forma/ion fornutf frame is used to IranSmit end-user data
primary, secondary, and combined s[a!ion use,
belween the two devices. The information frame may also acknowl-
edge receipl of data from a transmitting statiOn. It alsO can PetiOrm
● An unbolonced configuration provides for one primary station and one certain Iimitcd functions, such as a Po// command. We will examine the
or more secondary stations to operate as point-to-point or multipoint, functions in the information format frame later.
half-duplex or full-duplex, or swilched or nonswitched. The configura-
● The supervisory format frame pefiorms cOntrol functions such as the
tion is called unbalanced because the primary stalion is responsible for acknowledgment of frames, the request for the retransmission of
controlling each secondary s[a[ion and for establishing the mode. frames, and the request for the temporary suspension Of the transmi$-
scl[ing commands. siorr of frames. The actual usage of the supervisory frame is dependent
● The tymme/rica/ configuration was in the original HDLC s[andard and on the operational mode of the link (normal response mode, asynchro-
is used on earlier ne[works. The configuration provides for two nOUS balanced mode. asynchrOnOus resPOnse mOde).
independent, poin[-to-poim unbalanced station configurations. Each ● The Iit]t]t:!?lberedforr?rar fmme is also used fOr cOntrOl PurPOses. The
station has a primary and secondary sla[us, and therefore each station rramc is used to perform link initialization or link disconnection and
is considered logically [o be two s[ations: a primary and a secondary other link control functions. The frame cOnlain$ five bit POsitions,
station, The primary s[a[ion transmits commands to the secondary which allows for a definition up to 32 commands and 32 responses. The
sta!ion at the other end of Ihe channel and vice versa. Eye” though [he particular type of command and response depends on the HDLC class
stations have both primary and sccondriry sta[ions as separate entities, ‘of procedure. (Commands and responses are discussed shortly.)
the actual commands and responses are multiplexed onto one physical
channel. This approach is not used very widely today. We mention i[ The frame consists of five or six fields. All frames must start and end
in passing to complete the classification scheme of HDLC, wilh the jJirg jielrh. The stations at~ached to the data link are required to
continuously monitor for the flag sequence. The flag sequence consists of
● A balanced configuration cons;sls of two combincrl s[ations cormectcd
01111 I 10. Flags can be continuously transmitted on the link between HDLC
point-to-point only, half-duplex or full-duplex, switched or non-
frnmes. Seven continuous Is can also be sent to indicate a problem on the
swi[ched, The combined stations have equal sta[us on the channel and
link, Fifteen or more IS keep the channel in an idle state. Once the receiving
may send unsolicited lraffic to each other. Each slation has CC@
station detects a non-flag sequence, it knows that it has encountered the
responsibility for link conlrol,
beginning of the frame, a problem (abort) condition, or an idle chmrnel
condition. .Upon encounterin~ [he next flag sequence, the station knOws it
TO summarize HDLC to [his point, [he Iogictil s!a(ions may consis[ of a
tms found the fill frame.,, The flog peflorms functions similar (O the BSC SYN
primary, secondary, or combined stalions. The sh\!ions muy opcr~tc under one chmctcr.,
of three s!ates: the logically disconncc[ed s!a[e, lhe ini[iatiza[ ion stti[c, and [he The odrh’’’.r.r~dd idcn!ifics the primary or secondary station involved
information [mnsfcr s[ate. Once [he s[a[ions have en[cred (he infornxuion in ~hc purticuhw frame trmrsmission. A unique address is associated with
,... ,-’ . . . . . . ,. .,, , ,. ,., ,,.. ....z. .,, ,,, ... . .... .. . ,: ...
i.-’ ““
I
\
]
Ghap,4 Chap.4 HDLC r 9f
,

,irtlt.~
FIw Add,,$$ C.. #rol Information FcS F,aB The informatiotl jiehf contains the actual user da!a. The information
field only resides in the frame under the information format. It is not found
in the frame when the frame is a supervisory or unnumbered format,
The frame check-sequence Jie/d (FCS) is used to check for transmis-
sion errors between the two data-link stations. It is similar in function to the
BSC BCC character. The transmitting station performs a calculation on the
T,m,mi, ted ,1234~~ user data stream and appends the answer to this calculation as the FCS field.
78[
In turn, [he receiving s[ation performs an identical calculation and compares
0 N(S) P/F N(RI Inf.armati.mFormat its answer 10 !hc appended FCS field. If the answers are consistent, (he
chances are quite good the Imnsmission occurred without any errors, If the
comparisons do not match, it indicates a probable transmission error, in
,~ Supervisory P/F which case the receiving station sends a NAK requiring a retransmission of
N(R) SuWIV;,ory Format
Code,
the frame. The FCS calculation is called a cyclic redundancy check and uses
1 the CC1’fT V.41 generator polynomial of X16 + X12 + ~ + 1.
,1 Un”umbe,ed ~,~ “nnum~e,e~ The following rules apply [o the cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
Code, UnnumberedFormat
Code,
operalion:
(al HDLC Frame Format
● The frame contents are appended by a set of zeroes equal in number to
the length of the FCS field.
● This value is divided by the generator polynomial which contains one
?,irmry Secondary
mom digit [ban [he FCS and must have high- and low-order bits of Is.
A Unbdmcu!
0 (The dala is actually shif[ed through an Exclusive OR regis~er.)
1
● The remai~tder of tbe division is placed in [be FCS field and sent to the
receiver.
● Tbe receiver performs a division with the polynomial on the frame
!
contents and the FCS field.
. If [he resul[ equals the predetermined number (a zero or, in some other
sys[ems, some o!her number), the transmission is considered error-
Rewm,e (Add,,,, A)
free.
JJ

1 (b] HDLC AddressingRule, The CRC can detect all possible single-error bursts nol exceeding 16
) bils, und 99,9984% of all possible longer bursts.
Figure 4-3. HDLC Formalsand AddressRules

each station. In an unbalanced configuration, the address fields in boih Code Transparency and Synchron/zatlon
commands and responses contain the address of the sccondrmy s[ation. In
HDLC is a code-trcmsparent protocol. It does not rely on a specific
balanced configurations, a command frame comains the destination address
code (ASCII/lA5 or EBCDIC) for line control. In addition, the bit patterns
and the response frame contains lbe sending sta[ion address [see Figure
of control fields usually reside in fixed locations wi[hin the frame. The
4-3(b)],
eight-bit flag pattern is gencra[ed at the beginning and end of the frame to
I The corifrolfield contains the command and responses as well as [hc
enable the receiver to identify the beginning and end of a frame. In addi[ ion
sequence numbers used to maintain the da[a-tlow accoun~abi]i[y of tbe link
1 10 the unique flag sequence of 0111 I I 10, two other signals are used by
be[ween the primary and secondary station. The format and [he ~o”te”~s of
HDLC, The aborf signal consists of at least seven but less than fifteen 1 bits,
(he control field vary, depending on the use of the HDLC frame. We will
and [hc idle concIilion consists of Ilf[een or more 1 bi!s. The abort signal
examine (he ac(ual conten(s of [he conh-ol field shorffy.
tcrmin~tcs a frame. The transmission station sends an abort when it
 . .. .. . .. .... . .,, ,. .. . .. .. . ,.. “..

‘) )-
92 PollinglSeleclion Networks Chap. 4 HDLC
93
Chap.4

I encounters a problcm lhot rcqui!-cs i( 10 [tlkc rccovcry ac[ion. Flogs mt:y bc

sent aflcr an fiber{ trwrsnlission to keep (I1c Iinli m’fitw so (hut ;I trmrstnission Begin
c~n conlinue. The idle signal idemifies the channel as being in an idle sta[c,
One use of the idle state is for a half-duplex session to detect the idle ~

P
rlemi.e 0 Bit
pattern and reverse the direction of the trwrsmission in order for it to
andS Contln.o.s
tmnsmi[. The time between (he actual transmissions of frames on the 1,
channel is called i)tfctfmme (ime J//. This [imc fill is accomplisbcd by
Iransmi[ting continuous flags between the fr~mcs. Tbc ffugs m;ly bc cigbl.bit
mul[iples or they can combine the ending 0 of {hc preceding fhg with Ihc
s(ar[ing O of [he next flog,
A reasonable ques(ion a[ this point is: Certxinly there will bc occasions
when a flag-like sequence, 011 I 1110, is inser[cd inlo [hc user di]l:t stream by
I the application process. What happens? This si[ualion can and dots occur.
To prevent the flag from being inserfed in[o the user data shwom, lhc

$ ,r~cl’l
(rammiffing site inser[s a O bil after it encounters Jvc conlirmous Is
/oC6nt Continuous1s
anywhere bc[\veen the opening and closing flag of [he frame. Conscquenlly,
the O insertion applies IO the address, control, inform:~[ion, and FCS fields.
This technique is called bi( s/,,~,rg and is similar i“ fun~(iOn [~ [he BSC DLE
character, Af[er (he frame has been stuffed and the flags have been placed
around the frame, the frame is transmitted across the link 10 !hc rcccivcr, %
The receiver continuously moni[ors [he bi[ stream (see Figure 4.4). Af[cr Figure 4-4. Bit Stuffingand FlaglAbal Checking
it receives a zero bi[ with live continuous one bim following, the rcccivcr
inspects [he nex[ bi[. If it is a zero bi[, it pulls this bit out; in Mhcr words, i[ are the mode. scffing cootnmnds. HDLC requires a balanced or unbalanced
“unsluffs” the bit. Hcwcver, if [he scvcn[b bit is aonc, lhc reccivcrinspcc[s ihc configuration to be established with one of three modes. The illustration also
eighth bi[, If it is a zero, it recognizes that a flag sequence of Ol 11 I I IO has been shows some functional extensions of Ihc basic s[ructure. This represents the
received, If i[ is a one, then it knows an abort or irllc signal has been rcccivcd full HDLC repertoire of commands and responses. Several subsets of
and takes appropriate ac[ion, In this manner, HDLC achieves code and rfabi HDLC use only a portion of the commandlresponse repertoire. The next
transparency, The protocol is not concctmed about any pm-ticulw bit cvdc section explains the principal functions of the commands and responses
inside the data stream, Its main concern is [o keep [bc flags unique. F@rc 4-4 depicted ii the figWe.
provides a logical flow than of the bit-checking Icchniquc, The actual format of the control ticld (information, supervisory, or
unnumbered) determines how the field is coded and used. The simplest
. ffDLC Control Fie/d format is tbc information format. The actual contents of the control field for
this format are shown in Figure 4-3. The information frame control field
Let us return to a more de[ailecl discussion] of tbc conlrwl ticld, bccausc contains [WO sequence numbers. The N(S) (send sequence) number indi-
[his field determines how HDLC controls the communications process (SIX
ctilcs the sequence number associated with a transmitted frame. The N(R)
Figure 4-3). The control field defines [he function of the frame, and lhcrcforc
(rcccive scquencc) number indicates the next sequence number that is
invokes the logic to control IIIC movement of [he [m~c bctwccn lhc cxpcctcd a[ the receiving site. The N(R) serves as an acknowledgment of the
receiving and sending s[a[ions. Recall that the field can bc in onc of [brcc
previous frames. For example, if the N(R) field was set to 4, the station,
formats (unnumbered, supervisory, and information), The con[rol lichl
,,
upon receiving N(R) = 4, would understand lhnt its transmissions of frames
identities the commands and responses used 10 con[rol [he lroffic flow on tbc
0, 1,2, and 3 had been received correcdy, and that the station with which it
link, These commfincls and responses arc rlcpictcd in Figure 4-5. The
is communicating is expecting the next frame 10 have a send sequence
il]uslralion sho\vs [be commands a“d responses used i“ co”j””ctiot> with II)C
[hat
numbcrof4 in il. The N(R) Iicld provides for inc/mive ackrwwledg~nenf;
unbal;mccd or balonced Ii”k con figufi~tio”. Notice tIl:lt ~ac]l of IIIC boxes
is, the N(R) of 4 could inclusively acknowledge more than onc message \hat
contains lhree commands: SNRM, SARM, and SABM. These commands
had weccdcd it. The concept of send [V(S)] and receive state [V(R)]
 ● ☛

,-
m

/-

— —

,. %

_.—— — .- —— - ——— .. .
,.:
(1JO1 s! anp2A.
 ,. ,,. :,
w.

‘) ) “ “’

90 Polling/SelectionNetworks HDLC 99 ,,
Chap. 4 Chap. 4 ,,
1’
I
The commandslresponses for the unnumbcrml format arc: ● the rejcctcd frame was a command or response

UI (Unwtntbered Informa(io!l), This commnnd allows for [ransmi~. ● the con[rol field is invalid I
sion of user data in an unnumbered (i.e., unsequenced) frame. ● [he frame was (mnsmitted withan unpermitted information field
1,
● thcinformation field is !oo long i:
RIM (Request lrrilializution Mode). The RIM frame is a requcs[ from
a secondary station to a primary station for an SIM commmxl. ● the sequence numbers are invalid. I

I
SIM (.Se/ /nifia/lzcz/ion J40dc). This commcmd is used to initiirlizc the RD(R@q/{e~tDiscO,l,teco. This isarequest from a secondary station 1’
,.
primary/secondary

SNRM
session,

(Set Norma/ Respome

UA is [he expcctcd response.

Mode). This places (hc sccomhrry

to be disconnected
XID
and placed
fESC/IWI+V SIalio}l
in a logically
hfenlticalio~t).
disconnected
This command
state.
asks fOr the
,::
I
,,
station in a NRM (normal response mode). The NRM precludes the identification of a secondary slalion. It is useful on switched facilities to
secondary s!ation from sending any umolici[ed frames. This means ~hc identify the cislling station.
primary sta[ion controls all message flow on the line. ~ UP(U/lt~t{J?!bercdPol/s). (This frame will reexplained Iater during
I discussion of loop configurations.)
DM (Di$comwcl Mode). This frame is Irmrsmitted from a secondary
sladon to indicate it is in the disconnec~ mode (inopcra[iomd). TEST (Tc$fJ. This frame is used to solicit testing responses from the
I
DISC (Disconnect), This command from the primary station places ihc secondary station.
secondary station in the disconnected mode, similar 10 hanging Up a Iclcphonc. SARM fSeI Asynchrono~(s Respotlse Mode). Sets mode :0 allOw I
This command is valuable for swi[ched lines, UA is [he expec[ed response. secondary sta(ion 10 transmit withoul a poll It from the primary station.

UA (Unnumbered Acknow/edgmenf). This is an ACK [o set mode places (he secondary station in the information transfer state (IS) of ARM.
commands (and SIM, DISC, RESET). UA is also used [o report Ihc end of Since SARM establishes /wo unbalanced stations, SARM must be issued in
a station-busy condition. both directions on the link: I

FRMR (Frame Rejecf). The secondary station sends this frame when DTE A sends: B, DISC
i
it encounters an invalid frame. This is not used for a bil error indicated in the DTEB sends: B,UA A, DISC
frame check-sequence field, but for more unusual conditions. The informa- DTE A sends: A,UA
tion field contains the reason. !,
DTEB sends: A, SARM
An FRMR response frame is used under the following four conditions,
DTE A sends: A, UA B, SARM
(This level of detail is necessary to distinguish X.25 from X.75, rfiscusscd in I
DTE B sends: B, LfA
Chapter Eight.)

The DISC commands are sent to ensure the link is completely

1. receipt of an invalid command or response con[rol Iicld
reinitialized.
2. receipt of an information ticld which is too long
SADM (set Asy~lchronous Ikzlanced Mode). Sets mode tO ARM, in
3. receipt of an invalid N(R) field
which stations are r)cers with each other. No polls required to transmit, since
4, receipt of unpermitted information field or a supervisorylunnumbcrcd
et~ch sta[ion is a combined staiion.
frame of an incorrect length,
SNRME (.Se/ Normcd Respo,Ise Mcxfe Ex(edt’d). Sets SNRM with
HDLC provides considerable sIalus informirlion with the FRMR (WO more bytes in control field.
frame. The information field is used to provide the following: SABME (SS’I Asytlchronom Balanced Mode Extended). Sets SABM
with two more bytes in control field.
““ ● the rejected control field
UP (Umtrimbcrcd Pr~//). Polls a station without regard to sequencing
● the current value of {he receiving station’s scml [V(S)] :md rcccivc or ncknowledgmcnl. Response is oplional if poll bit is set to 0. Provides for
,,, ,,, .,.. ... ,,. P,.. , . . . . . . . ...1 ,. ,,!
 ‘)
100 PolllnglSelectionNetworks Chap. 4 Chap. 4 HDLC 101

RSET (~e$cf). Transmi[[ing s[a[ion rcse[s i[s N(S) and rccciving [<l<, SNRM, SABM, REJ, SREJ Commands and responses.
station rese[s i!s N(R). The command is used for recovery. Previously P/F Poll/lirMl bi[ is set to 1.
unacknowledged frames remain unacknowledged.
Rcmcmbcr that the receive sequence number indicates inclusive ac-
HDLC also utilizes the timeout (T1 timer) (discussed in Chnp[cr Two),
knowlcdgmcn~ of all JIMIc Wrnsmilted and accepted. Tbe number in the field
which is started with the [mnsmission of every frame. TI is USCIJto initiate
is actunlly a value of 1 grealer (ban the last frame acknowledged. For
a rc[rans mission if i[ expires. Also, (he N2 counter dchx’rnincs the m:txi mum
example, R = 4 means frames O, 1, 2, and 3 are acknowledged and the
number of re[ransmissions [o be performed upon [he cxpimlion of TI. The
receiver cxpec!s Ihc next frame to have a 4 in [he transmit station’s send
TI and N2 variables are also used with (he Iink-establishment com-
sequcncc field. The P/F bit is discussed (where relevant) in the process
mands/responses, such as SABM and UA,
depictions.
Each figure is accompanied by a short description of the events in each
The HDLC Tranamisslon Process
period of time. The reader may note the use of station address (A or B)
Thus far in this sec[ion, we have discussed muny terms and concepts. va!-ics in the illustrations. As discussed earlier, HDLC has rules as to which
Let us now piece some of this material [ogether with actual examples of lhe address (the transmitting or receiving station) is placed in !he address field:
communications process be[ween/among DTEs. Figures 4-6 through 4-10 Commands usc the receiving peer data-link layer address, while responses
and Figure 4-12 depict the following types of communiczdions: use the address of the fransmiffing data-link layer. Thus, for a station with
address A, if the frame received contains an A, it is a command; if the frame
● Asynchronous Balanced Mode wi[h half-duplex data flow (Figure 4-6). received con(ains a B, it is a response. [See Figure 4.3(b) for a review of
● Asynchronous Balanced Mode with full-duplex data ilow (Figure 4-7). [hcse rules.]
With the exccp(ion of Figure 4-12, tbe addressing conventions for the
● Go-Back-N error recovery (checkpoint) (Figure 4-8).
illus[mlions conform to (he HDLC subset, link access procedure, balanced
● Go-Back-N error recovery (reject) (Figure 4.9). (LAPB), This widely used protocol requires all 1 frames to be command
. Selective Reject error recovery (Figure 4-10). frames. As a consequence, they conlain lhe address of the receiver. While
● SDLC with multipoint full duplex (Figure 4-12). all [hese examples are not aRowed in LAPB, a consistent address scheme is
used to keep the illustrations simple. LAPB is explained in more detail later.
First, let us review the symbols in the figures (using Figure 4-6), The Following are tbe times and events for tbe process depicted in Figure 4-6:
channel has “logical” snapshots taken of if in specific in[erwds of[ime (n, II
+ 1, and so on). The symbols within [he time slot indiade the contents of the n Sta(ion A transmits .SCI Asynchronous Ba/a/iced Mode (SABM)
HDLC (or a subset, such as SDLC) frame trznsmitled by stations A and B communal with P bit set.
at a specific time. n + 1 S[ation B responds wilh an Unnt(mhered Acknowkfgmet!f
It is qui[e unlikely [hat [he (WO slaticms would transmit at cx~ctly [he (UA) response with F bit set.
same instant in lime, but the symmetry provides for cm,icr cxplamdio”. For )1 + 2, 3 Station A sends information frames O and [, sets P bit.
example, A’s ,1 SIO[ could be depicted as being longer than B’s I! sIo[, which
n + 4, 5, 6 .Na[ion B acknowledges A’s transmission by sending 2 in
would indicate a longer frame being transmi[ [cd by A, but the uneven SIOIS
[he reccivc sequence number field. Station B also transmits informa-
unnecessarily complicate an already complex topic. If the rc>tdcr occcp[s
tion frames O rmd 1.
this small anomaly, [be principles illustndcd by [he gmphics arc sound.
11””
Also, the full-duplex illustm[ions show some lime slots when (hc ch:lnncl is
-. “ .+, “+2 .+1 .+4 ..5 “+8 “+7 “+8
idle 1 n!s may or may not h:lppCn, depending on how busy the stolions arc.
5,,,,.. A &1 8,!, P A,RR.Rj
F
The symbols mean [he following: ,,,”,”,,,, B,5A,., P S-o, n.o S-,, R-O
i
$!.!1.. , 0,,,:2$ A,1 A.f, P ,,,,., ; ,
A, B Slalion address in [he header of !hc fmmc. ,!,.,,.,,,
8,u.. F S- O,R-? S. I, R-2
1 An information frame,
S = x Send sequence number x. Figure 4.6. Asynchronous Balanced Mode wllh Hall-Duplex Data Flow (using
“?=, 7(,,( :!/’ ,(,,1 (:.,:1, .1 ..\.l (,. ,. PIF Ior checkpolnling)
 (&3.osdI n.w ot $ss0 si!q 4 w d) (1.!0dxMq2) .@WOStl JOJ3 N-x3E8-05 %+ .m6!~

“.!ssas6“!06”0 “e saM,,snfII w “6!,

z-n f-u nyus”e,~

4’IJH’E j’nn’s s .0!1,1s

W++)
* .dy,”~e-s t’. n’o. s *= U’L. S ~“ti’~-s *=;.:-s t- H’L-S +=;.:=s ~!~’””’l
1 ‘n 1 “8 d’l”d v u.!,els
1 ‘a
I I I I I \ I I I I
8+. t+. 9+. 5+. *+U c+. 2+. 1+. .
W!L

(mq s3ep
dois 10Usaop lq d) - Slea xeld~-un~ ql!Mepow puepq srwu0Jqsu4s+ .L~ am6M

m
“uR,, *n.apaJ*“, m “w ml *POWP-WI*E S!w.owutiv =Umw N*! 4

2- M’C. S 2-8’2-s SI!U$UWA

I’v Iv 9 .O!WIS

-
8+. L+u 9+U s+.
C-u’z-s

+
1 ‘s

*+U
.UIIL
f+”
-l!Lk.E
2+. t+u “

-..

— ———__—— —.——— ._.. ________

. ....——.
—_-. ——_.., . ...... . ...... .. . ... ... ... .. . . . .
 . .. . . . .. . . . . ., ...,.. .. .. .
‘. , !,, ‘n
) “)
104 pOlling/SelOclion Networks 105
Chap. 4 Chap.4 HDLC
1
permissible sequence number. During [his period, shition B detects an II + 6 Stntion U ncknowlcdgcs frames 7, 0, and I wilh a Receive
error in frame 7. In n + 3, station A sends a poll bit to act as a Rcrufy and a receive sequence number of 2. Nofe: For full-duplex
I checkpoint, i.e., to solicit a response from station B.
n + 4 Station B returns a Receive Ready (RR) with a send sequence
systems, the P/F bit is usually not employed to stop data flow, since it
inhibiis throughput.
number of 7 and a final bit, This means station B is expecting to receive
frame 7 again (and all frames transmitted after 7). Following are the times and events for the process depicted in Figure 1,
n + 5, 6, 7 Sta[ion A retransmits frames 7, 0, :,”d I and sets tllc p bit 4-10 (no~ supported in LAPU):
for a checkpoint,
n, n + 1, 2 Station A transmits information frames 6, 7, and O. Station
n + 8 Station B acknowledges frames 7, 0, and I with a Receive
U dc~ects an error in frame 7 and !ransmits a Selecfive Reject of receive
Ready (RR) and a receive sequence number of 2, and sets the F bit,
sequence 7. Station B rfoes not require an RR, RNR, or REJ since tbe
The exclusive use of the N(R) receive sequence field to NA K a frame frame in II + 2 is not a command.
is not recommended for full-duplex transmissions. Since frames arc flowing II + 3, 4 Station A retransmits frame 7 o)dy and transmits frame 1 for
in bo[h directions across a link, the sending and receiving sequence numbers the first lime. Since this is a Sc/ecfive Rejecf, frame 0 is not retransmit-
from the stadons often overlap. For example, assume stalion A’s frame 4 ted.
[N(S) = 4] is transmitted at abou[ the same time as B’s frame which contains u + 5 Svd(ion B acknowledges all remaining frames with a Receive
N(R) = 4. Station A could assume falsely that its frame 4 is incorrect, when Ready and a receive sequence number of 2.
station B was indicating only [hat it was expecting frame 4 nex[.
i’
A better approach to error recovery is [o indicate e.rp/icit/y the Time
erroneous frame. Figures 4-9 and 4-10 show two !cchniques to perform “ “+1 “+2 “+3 “+4 .+5

explicit NAKs, B. I a, r, P
Static..
,,an,mi,,A S.::. a s ;:;,;,; 4 S=:,’:.4 s.~;.a s.l, R.4
FoUowing are the times and even(s for the process depicted in Figure 4-9:

n, n + 1, 2 Station A sends information frames 6, 7, and O. S!ation B 0, RR, F

Station B B, SREL F
detects an error in frame 7, and immediately sends a Rejec( frame wi~h T,m,rni!, R-7 R-2
a receive sequence number of 7, Station B does not wait for a
checkpoint solicita~ ion, but sends the REJ as a response, wi[h the F bit FiQ.re Illustrates m 0n5.olngsession
set. If station B had sent the REJ as a command (that is, with Ihe
Figure 4-1o. Selective Reject Error Reco.wV (SREJ)
address field containing an A), station A would be required to respond
with RR, RNR, or REJ. However, since [he REJ is a respo”se, SI:II;on
A immediately retransmits the erroneous frame, Hf2LC Subsets
tl + 3, 4, 5
time 5.
Station A retransmits frames 7 and O, and se(s the P bit in The acceptance of the HDLC superset
foundation from which to implement subsets of the HDLC protocol. Several
has provided a cohesive
I
1:
subsets :!rc now available in [he industry. These subsets are illustrated in the
-rime
4
n “+1 “+2 *+3 ,7+4 “+5 “+8
net work classification tree in F@re 2-5.
The HDLC superset structure provides for bit-oriented protocols to ,I,
station A
Trm!mie
I
S=~’l ‘4
I
‘~~~,~”
I
S. O,R.4
‘“

I
S. 7,8=4
‘“
,
S= O,R.4
‘“
1
B, 1. P
S=l, R.4
!
I
I
recognize and use the same procedures
tions. Applications
of commands
among different tYPes of applica-
require different modes of operation and different subsets
and responses to perform their activities. For example, tbe
Station B B, REJ, F B, RR, F ,Iccds or multipoint, interactive applications differ from point-to-point.
Tr,n,mtt, R-7 R.2
mnintcmctive systems.
For purposes of clarification, a DTE conforms to an HDLC class if i[
Fig”<, illustrate,an ongoing,mslan
implements all [hc commands and responses defined for the cltiss. As stated
Fl”rtr.. d.~ C “.!4,rk.N F,,,,, R(?CW,TJ fFrF,ll onrli.r. the three basic closses of HDLC are:
 ,..

‘}
108 PottinglselecllmlNetworks K17
Chap, 4 Chap, 4

● Class UN (unbalanced normal response mode)

● Class UA (unbalanced asynchronous response mode)
● Class BA (balanced asynchronous mode).

HDLC provides a set of optiomd extensions to the basic ~IaSSeS. These

extensions are used by vendors and HDLC users to provide more variety [o
the basic class structure. Again, the options and the HDLC superset are
I-+%&l}
““’L’”’’’’
depicted in Figure 4-5, The subset classes are designated by acronyms, such Figure 4-11. Lcgical Link ConlrOl (LLC) w
as UN, UA or BA, plus oplional extensions [O HDLC, designated by the
specific number of [he option. For example, a protocol designated as a BA-4 services digital network (lSDN). LAPD and LSDN are covered in chapter
would be a balanced asynchronous pro[ocoI providing for the sending of Nine, which deals with digital networks.
unnumbered information (Ul), Wilh this classification scheme in mind, let us LAPX (L.Af’Ll extended) is another subset of HDLC, used in terminal-
examine some of the major subsets of the HDLC s~arrdard, bmed sys[ems and in [he emerging Teletex standard. 1[ is a half-duplex
LAP (/ink access procedure) is an earlier subset of HDLC. LAP is rcndilion of HDLC. LAPX is discussed in Chap[er Thirteen.
based on the HDLC .Ser Asynchroncw$ Respon$e Mode (SARM) command
on an unbalanced configuration. The link setup with LAP is a bit awkward
SDLC
since it requires both stations to send SARM and UA before the link is
established, It differs from !he widely used LAPB, which is discussed next. SDLC (synchronous dara-/itA confrol) is IBM’s version of the HDLC
superset. SDLC uses the unbalanced normal response mode. In addition, it
LAPB (/irrk access proced~,re, ba/ar!ced) is used by several private and
public compu[er networks throughout [he world. LAPB is a subset of the uscs several options of the superset. Its classification scheme would place it
HDLC commands/responses repertoire. In lmcr chapters, we will see LAP13 in UN-1 ,2,4,5,6 and 12. However. the term “suPerset” becOrnes b]urred
when discussing SDLC, because it uses severs] commands wh]ch are nOt
used to support the widely accepted packet network protocol, X.25. LAPB
found in HDLC producls or standards. These commands and resPonses
is classified as a BA.2,8 subset of HDLC. This means thal, in addition 10
using the asynchronous balanced mode, it also uses two functional exten- provide the ability to establish a loop topology and perform loop or ring
sions, options 2 and 8. Option 2 provides foc simultaneous rejection of polling operations. COnsequendy, SDLC prOvides s“ppoti ‘Or pOint-tO-
poi”t, multipoint, or loop configurations. The latter topology uses the
frsmes in a two-way transmission mode (see Figure 4-9). Oplion 8 does not
permit the transmitting of information data in response frames, This presents group-polling features discussed in Chapter Two.
Because of IBM’s position in the industry, we will examine the
no problem, since in an asynchronous balanced mode the information can bc
similarities md differences of SDLC to the HDLC superset structure.
Vansferred in command frames, and since both physical stations arc logical
(Please note that IBM has several product$ that are specifically designed to
primary stations, bo[h can transmit commands.
operate with HDLC systems.) AIso, an examPle Of the HDLC functiOns
LLC (/ogical /im4 cortrro/) is a standard released by the IEEE 802
used by IBM is provided to show a different mode of operation. The specific
standards committee for local area networks (LAN). The standard permits
ditTcrences between SDLC and HDLC are as follows:
the interfacing of a local area network [o a wide area network. LLC uses a
subclass of tbe HDLC superset; it is classified as BA-2,4, 1[ uses the
● HDLC provides m option tO extend the 8-bit address field by the use
balanced asynchronous mode and the functional extensions, op[ions 2 and 4, Of extended bytes. The purpOse is tO address mOre terminals Or mOre
LLC is designed to be placed between a local area network Iaycr and a wide groups of terminals and devices in compu~ers. SDLC implementations
area network layer, The arrangement is shown in Figure 4-11. The media OnIY support a single-byte address field.
access unit (MAU) contains [he LAN protocols and [he LLC provides (he
● HDLC permits the controi field to be extended as well, Under the
intecface to the upper layers, f30(h sublayers are discussed in more detail in cx[ended-format option, HDLC systems may have the control field
Chap[cr Six, cxlcndcd 10 16 bits. This prOvides fOr extended sequence numbers fOr
LAPD (link acce~s procedltre, D cftanttct) is anolhcr subset of Ihc (IIC N(R) and N(S) Iiclds. IBM supports only the basic 8-bit format.
HDLC structure, although it has extensions beyond HDLC. LAPD is This becomes an impor[anl consideration when using satellite links
intended !n bI: II:td I: ,,: . .’ ,,l. .,,’ ‘,, . :’. ,, .. . ‘. . ( , lT.:lrlcr FNc).
 .._

.
EZ.u
dWJ %

[1+.
z .,IJ,38. s

c-u
d%U ,3

ZL+”

>
. ———-— .—. ., . . ..__ _________
 .“

..

—-. .——.-—_
 ...,,,.., ., .,...,
“)/. ,. ‘)- CHAPTER FIVE

Satellite Networks

Introduction

Mm-mwle wtclli[es have rcvoh!!ionizcd communications and, in mtiny

imlances, the slmpe of world poli[ics. For example, !he graphic, live images
of the Viemnm War, conveyed by satellite [o the Amcricun public, had a
dramatic effect on [he public’s opinion of ihc war. The slartling satellite
brcmdcas!s of Ethiopia’s Pdmine shocked tin o[herwise uninformed world. On
a Iigh!er side, {he Iivc broadcasts of sporls events, such as the British Open
golf classic mad the French Open (ennis tournament, have added significmtty
10 [he fmrs’ enjoyment of these sports.
[n 194S, Arthur C. Clark, with uncanny foresight, described in {he
magazine \Vire/c$s Wor/d (IIC mtellilc technology as h exists today. Clark
predicted s:lfellile communic,!!ions would crvt[c a communications revr.du-
Iion m profomd as llml brought about by Ihe telephone. While satellite
Technology nmy I1O[Imvc had such u profound clTec[, i! certainly has al[ered
considembly Ihe way in which we communictite und the way in which wc
perceive (he world.
In Ibis chap[cr, we discuss in gcncrd Ierms why stitcl[ile technology is
widely used, ils wlvamflgcs umf disadvan(iigcs, and how salcllhe communi -
cmiona facilities provide for computer and lerminal networks. We will go
in[o grcwcr dclail la[cr in (he chapter to describe o[her protocols of the
ch{ssilicat ion Ircc in Figure 2-5.
St[clli[c :omnmnicatirma use microwuvc frequency antennas !0 re-
ceive radio signals rrom lmnsmitling slwions on Ihe earth and to relay the
signals bfick down to ewlh stu[ions. Figure 5-1 illustrates Ibis process, The
Welli[e serves as tin electronic relay station. Ear[h slation A transmits
sighds of n specific rrcqucncy (up link) 10 lhe s:llelli~e. In turn, the Sa[clli[e
receives lhc sign;ds aud rctrmwmi[s [hcm back down lo ctir!h slalion B on
Ihc down link frequency. ‘h down link can be rcccivcd by ony sltition [ha!
Mls within IIIC radiated signal. The signals may bc voice images, data
[ransmissinns,, or Iclcv ision video sigmds.

113
 Wp, 3 :.>s.“..., $.4,
((~ ““
ti,mlres for Ihe
) ““WII
cuslmoiw, us cncry piion devices (see Clmptcr
Thirlecn).
The cost of lransmi!ting the signal is independent of d}e clisumce
bdween [he two earth sites. II is immaterial if the two sites are five miles or
I thousand miles apmt, If {hey arc serviced by lhc same transponder, the
mnsrnission cost is cons{aa!, since ihe sigmds tmnsrniited from the tmn-
\pander can be rcccivcd by 011s[titions regardless of iheir cfis!ance from eticb
other.
Communications mtellites prOvide the oppOrtunily tO design a
oritchecl nelwmk wilhoul physical switches, In order [o establish switches
IDSES)in a kind-based syslem, an orgmimtion must Icase carrier lines and
inwface these lines into physical components, sach as was il~ustmied in
Fignre 2-2. In conlrasi, since the earlh s[ations communicating wilh the
wtcllite Imnspomler tire sending and receiving on (IIC same ~wo chtinncls,
Figure 5-1. .%lelli!a Cammunicatbns
Ihey need only )istcn to the down link frequency lo delermine if the
transmission is Axtincd for lbcm. If it is nOL they simply ignOre the sign~l,
The sa[ellitc rcccivingArfirlsmi! ting cfifmhility is sopported by a device
!! ii is their tlala, tbcy copy lhc sigmd and present it 10 the end user, This
called a franspotlclcr, Tbe sa(elli(e wmspondtrs operiite at very high
t,oaffcns( captibllily cm Iranslale inlo significantly reduced cos~s when
frequencies (see Figure I-8 for a review of the frequency spectrum),
compared to the lmrd-hsed network fhat m.es numerous physical commw
lYPicallY ifl Ilw gig;ihurlz mrrgc, The omjority of Ihc sa[clii[cs Io&~Y USC nicalions Iincs and switches.
frcqiicncics in the r;lnge of 6J4 gigaher!z. ()[bcr w!cllitcs use a higher
Sa[cllite communications ore not without problems. AS sttiled ~~rli~r,
bandwid[b wi[h Imnsponders in the 14/12 gi~ihcrtz rtdIIge, ,4s shown in
sccnrhy ctm be a problcm if tbe signal is no! scmmblcd or encryp[ed. Poor
Figure 5-I, (I1C signal is Iraasmiltcd Iron] lbc Car[h slalion at n di~crenl
weulher conditions con inlel-fcrc with the signal as it traverses up and down
frequency Ihan lhc t’req~wncy of saiclliie tronsmil!er, “Ilis approach prc. ~he~ol”n, unic;li ions ch;uzncls. 1[ is no{ unusual for heavy rainstorms !0
vents [he IWO transmissions (the up and down signnls) from interfering wilh
ifllerfere with a signal. Also, since (be signal is transmitted over a very great
ench o[her because they are opcm[ing in ditTeren! frequency ranges.
Jiwmce (usually 22,300 miles each way to and from the satellite station), a
dchy occurs in Ihc rcccp[ion of [hc signal fit Ihe ear[h s[a[ion. In some
Pros and Cons of Sate///fe Networks inskmces, tbe delay can prcsenl significmt problems with line protocols and
tcsponse time (ibis subjec{ is discwec! shorlly).
Conlmlmiw(inns satellites provide sevcr;d tillrac!ive fc;jlures. Nrs[,
Periodically, the s(m, tbc e[lrth ~t*tiOn, imd the s~[elli~c are dircctiy
each sa[ellile bas a Iorge [mnsmission capucity. Since the satelti [es tire
aligned with each otbcr. The sun’s rays Imvel direcily into the earth slation’s
operating in the brofid band\vid(h range of tbe gigaberlz level, o satellite Can
antenna, creating a stilt transie)tt: excessive [hermat noise in rel~lion to Ibe
support Scverd [houmud voice-gmde chaoncls Fur CW\,IIplC, o[)e COmmCr.
received signal, Conversely, a scalar ec/ip$e occurs during the spring and fall
citil satellite tivtiltible [orkry has [en transponders, eoch cilpahle of operating
when the earth is between !he sun and Ihe satellite for a fe\v minutes during
al 48 million I)ils pcr second. ‘lhe overall bit cnpxily of this stltellitc is
a23.day period. During Ibis lime, the solar CCIISon the salellite may depl~~e,
;!lnmsl one-l,:d[’ (,ill inn hi(/~,
u4)ich crmlcs Iw+cs of power 10 lhc sulcllite electronic components.
The communic:oions signal from the stiteliite may also interfere with
uther rmlio signals from hmd.based systems. Consequently, a careful
;dkmtion of I’rcqucncy spcc! rum is ncccssary to prevent such inlcrfcrcnce.
Fimdly, a Iinitc wnotmi of frequencies exist for the 6/4 and [4/[2 01 Iz
sa[clli[cs, and a lini[e number of salcllihts can be plzzced in orbit. While
1’ $pW’lml :tnd orbit sp,ice Ims not been a hindrance 10 the technology i“ [he
Ii pas!,. il is becoming a prohlcm :!nd will require incwtiscd coopcriilium of (he
~munynulions Ilmt ore usilvg ct>lllllltll]ic;lti<>l)s stltcllitc Technology.
 Wef H/story Todayi [he lnlcrnj,’; : ‘ J Telecommunications Sateilile OrgidniZaliOfl
)’” llNTl?LSAT) is Ihc d, L.,hi ctirriw of internolionfil comnwniculions,
Before discussing how sMetliIc curr}[}l(t[tiwtfi,!its arc used, in ccrmpa(cr bmdling more [I)i,n 60 pcrccnt of all trmssucetinic tra!Tic. lNTELSAT
and Ierminal nelwor!s, it shnuld prove meful 10 discuss some of (he major
furnishes more than 135 courriries foil-time ch~nnels for a variety of ILIla,
I;[tldm:llks in s{lleltile C(jfittifiltltllitit(i< rrls. The inlercsf ill satdlilcs @ppcrred mice, and video scrviccs. III (IIC U. S., COMSAT uses [he INTELSAT
~d[hcr suddclll Y in i9-$7, \vhcn Ihc ltussiwls Iutmchcd lhe Ii,moils Snut”ik $yslem ml has tdxwd 25 percen[ ownership inlerest in the interntdiontif
inlo 5p;Ice. The incident spurred the fJ. S. wtd CwrmhI (and hdcr Europe) 10
organiziriion. Controversy hJS i[lcr~~sed reg*rdiflg the confin~led use Of
increase their cllor[s in [he sawlli!e conmumic;~iions field os well as in
lNTELSAr. Some countries h~ve formed some offerings Competitive lo
rtJckcl-l;ltll]clli{tg fccbnology. AII ijllcresfin~ ;lside 10 IIWSe C~WIyinciden(S is JNTIILSAf, even cou~lrics llml arc members of lhc org:miz~tiun.
ihe somewlvai misconceived notion ihm U.S. technology was inadverlen[ly
log~ing fm behind {he Russians, While [he U.S. was behind, it W:IS beciujse
[he U.S. hud made !he lirs[ breakthrough in nuclear wurfw’e, and did noI
Using Satellites to Communicate
lhin!i it necessary [o spend {he necessary research money 10 develop the
large Iauncll-cafrdcily vehicles neccssnry for wwfwc missiles (and Iuter, 11x
Converskna/ MuR/pfaxing
salcllilc coolulunictllio”s [Ield). NOIKIIICICSS, Unilcd %dcs
11X soon fot.
lowed lhe Russium with [he Iimnch of Explurcr 1 in Jwruw-y 1951L Comrnunica[ions between the salellile and lhe c~rlh s~a~ions can be
Neither Sptltnik “or Explorer had CO,nmUt}j~aIj~nS fd~ilj[ie~. The comrolled in a number of ways. One approuch, jkptettc’y diuixiwt mu//i-
united SI;ilcs Army is ct’cdimd wi[b IIlC firq ~ollll,,ll”icu[io,,s s:llelli,e, pk.xi~lg (FflM) is used on sevcrd syslems. Tbe en[ire channel speclrum is
launcbcd in December 1958, The Ihmous liwly ISird, Ihe world’s Ibsi divided into subchunnels, md users are tissigncd the various subch~nnels to
commercial satellite, wds launched from CJPC Kennedy in 1965. transmil mry lmtfic [hey wish within !heir prescribed spec(rum sptdce.
These earlier sa!clliles were frussivc—lhc sigmd was merely trunsmil- Frequency division muhiplexing has two significant drawbacks. Firsl, much
ted up Jud I’CIICC(WIbuck down m {he ewh. As Ilw wchnology improved, as of the tiwiltthle b~ndwidth his [o bc u!ilized as u gu{lrdbund 10 prevent
rockcls bcc:jmc more puwcrful, and M smaller and Iighlcr electronic adjacen( channels I’rom interfering with ench o!her. Second, if Ihe users are
Cnmpnncms clllcrgcd, it I,cc;lltle pnssiblc [0 i,ls[~ll] ~i!,lplificrs i“ the sfi[el. MX tdi (rmsmit[ing rcgdtirly, dl~n mtjcb of the subc~~nnel bandwidth is
Iilcs, Impmvcd lcclmology pcrmiltcd Ihc sign;d 10 bc Imnsmitlcd, received wasted hccmlsc of Ibe idle chunncl conditions.
m the smeilite, wrrplikl, find hansnlillcci buck down 10 earth. Anmhcr appmtich is Ihe use of Iimti tfii,i$ion mdliplexing (TDM ) in
Tbe earlier s:]lellites hul elliptical orbits. They were Immcbed usually which Ihe time spectrum is divided and users share lime SIOM on the
no higher Ih:)rj 6,()[)() nliles above (Iw earth. The low orbit resulted in [he communications chunncl. The major shortcoming of lime division muhiplex-
Saletlile moving around [he etirih,s harizon fas(cr (hi,n 111~~ard,,s rota[ ion, ing is simifur 10 Ibal of FDM. Since the ciipacity of the channel is
This presenhed tmcking problems between (IIC etti-th stations and [he sateili[c predocatcd m each po]eniifil user, the channel is wasted if Ille user is nol
bec~use of Ihe smellite’s frequent di$;lppcarunce over the horizon. 1[ is wansmi(ting regularly. (We address this problem sh~rlly when we look at a
eslirrmlcd Ihol the North A[[imlic regiol, ido”c would h;tve required 50 form of mullip]cxing c~lled time division mulliplc uccess [TOMAI.)
,
elliptically orbiting satellites for continuous Coverage.
Today’s so!elliles tire in a gensynchromms (or gcosta(ionary) orbi;. PO//lng/Selectl0ir
These stilclliles ;Irc latbncbtd 22,300 miles above [he earth md arc positioned Sak?llile communic;llions can also be controlled by a conventional
on a plane perpcndiculnr (o Ihc equ;lior. l’hey nre designed (o uchievc a
prirmwy/sccoodary rckitionship using pnllinalselec~ion techniques (see Fig-
mlxling spcwd uround Ihc c;mlh of fI,879 milus pcr Iml,r, lInd the gr;, vilal ional uro 2.6), ‘I”hc primnry (mlk is managed by ;In eur(h sltit inn (designated as a
pull of (he c;wth, coI)I1lcrl)itl:itlccd by {he vchrcity of the stwllite, gives (he
primary si[c) scmling pcrlts und SL4CCISIJp 10 [he smellite 10 be reltiycd back
satellite the appearance o!’ being stationary irelative [o the c;irth’s rntatio”. dOwfl to secomkmy cwth stations, An idkwrnte approiich (not used nlucb) iS
Consequently, the e;u’th st;i[inn’s an{emfi, cut) renti,in in ;, relt,tively fixed
10 have (be stl[cllilc s!alion provide (he polls and selecls to control lhe
pusil ion (which is c; IIIwI ;III mhilal slot), sincu llw sulcllilc’s mntion is fixed nclwork. I.CI IIS examine boIb ;ippruachcs [o dclcrminc IIIC wlvwr{agcs ml
reklive to Ihc enrII,’S position, The gcosy”c]lro”olls stl[clji[es ~lrc ~f[e”
distddv;mldgcs of pol)ingklcc[ion in wlcllite syslcms.
launched in ~rmlps of three, These si!lcllites, positioned 120 degrees tipJrI,
First, we assume a sti!ellite computer performs the polling and selec-
achieve ncnrly wnrldwidc covcmgc,
tion, Since Ihc su!cllhc is IOCVIICLJ
22,300 miles ubovc ihc cwth smd ihe sigtml
 ,,.
!,”
sa,*u,,* #4*,w”,~~ L.tliql., Uw+l,o U,l!lw ..”.. !!!,.. .. -.,, ,,,.., . ,..
~.
propagates al a rate of 186,000 miles per second, it takes a ,,,,, )
(ton of IZO
Iransr:issions and acknowledge,... ‘, across a full-duplex chiutnel and cim
milliseconds (ins) for Ihc poll or selecl to retich m earlh sta[ion’(23,000 miles
subslan!ially reduce (he amouni m delay incurred in [he polling cycle. For
+ 186,000 rnps = .1 N see). 1[ requires mm[hcr 1.?0ms for the response I. (he
example, one sm[ion cnn be polled, and while the poll is being lransmi[ted 10
poll and se[ec[ 10 reach the conlnlunicalions salcllile. Consequently, each
Ihat sw[ion, yet ano[her’ slolion cun lmnsmil dolti on Ibe return channel.
polling and selection cycle lakes 240 ms, Assuming t~ users are 10 be polled
Confimmus ARQ also has problems. For example, if (he system is
sncf selec{ed wilhin (he nclwork, o full polling sad selcc[ic~ll CYCICwo”hf take
ksnsmilling 1,000 bit frames and ihe chtinnel is operaling at 50,000 bits per
,?40 X n SeCOlldS. If’ 100” users were “sing Ibe $~llcl]i[e system, i{ ~ould
second, IIw ch;mnel provides (he speed for mul[iple frames lo be senl on the
require .240 X 100, or 24 seconds, for ~ fuO polling/se leclion cycle 10 ta~e
up and down links in succession hcfore wry response or dalu is lrunsmi[(cd
plnce. Obviously, [he deloy, presen[s some rwher serious response-lime
back. High-speed channels ac~uall y increase Ihe effect of propagation deltiy,
problems, Ifn ground sl:ti(iun corrlrols {he pulls and selects, ihc performance
because h !skes less lime [o send each frume up and down the channel.
is even worse, since the poll or seleci is scm up 10 the sl)tellite nn~/ down I.
Consequently, ibe window CIUSCSfasler with high-speed channels and short
(he ear!h station. Consequently, wilh 100 users in [he network, a ground
blocks of d;~ta. This problem is illusirsted in Figure 5-2.
station controller \wmld require 48 secunds for [be full polling/selec[ ion
In order (o preven( {he channel from becoming idle l~s” in Figure
cvcle.
SXI)I, [he conven!icm:d ARQ window Of seven is often exp~nded. The
The delay is alsrr evident for n session in which only IWO stations are
window exp;msion prevents ~he msnsmittinrj side from closing i[s window
using the channel. If user A fronl one ststion sends i) fmme Ua the yJ[ellite
while swmiliag :lckno\vle@menls. Sume systems use the Hf)f.C extended-
channel to user B at another site, user A mast psuse and wai( for an
seqoencing oplion ond expand the window 10 127; th~t is, 127 p~ckels can
acknowledgment (sssuming [he usc of a s[op-and-wnit, hell’-duplcx proto.
be trwmni[[ed in succession wilhou[ any acknowletlgmenl from the re-
COI). If [he IWO ([SCM wc sending mul(iple fmmes (o each other (as in a
ceiwm. The expamfed window fillows the system [o compensate for !he
fib?-lransfer ba(ch Transmission), [he accumulated IIelays creMe M e~lended
prnpsgnlion dcltiy lsce Figure 5-2(b)] sntf provides for more cfficicn[ chtinncl
lime to complete (I1c process, which reduces [hc cffcciivc uliliza[ion of [be
ulilin[irm.
channel, ‘fhe widely usctl Imlt’-duplcx hirmry synchronous control protocol
Expmled windows present some additional problems. In the evenl of
(BSC or hisync, discussed in Ch:lpter Four) experiences considerable
an error, the Go-Back-N lechniquc discussed in Chapters Two anrf Four
u[ilizm ion degmdalion on J satefli[e channel. Assuming a 9,6 kbit/s cbanncl,
necc!si(a[es [he re[ctinsmission of one or more frames. For exnmple, if s
the RSC link efficiency is m SIIOWJIin ‘f’A)le 5-I.
lransmilling si[e sends fmmes I through 40, ansf frame 6 is in error, then
frimcs 6 Ihrmugh 40 must bc r’et!-unsmillesl. Wifh the al(ernafivc me!hod,
TABLE 5.1. Channel Ut,llza,,on
%feclive Repeal, fhc receiving sttition is (asked wilh queuing ond holdins
Block(Frame) size 10 ms delay 38 ms delay sevc,.,1 fr;!mcs to tsvmif the retransmission of the single frame. [n oar
S00 ma delay
40 byte, ex;timplc, Immcs 7 lhrough 4(1 must hc held td lhc rcceivcr sife until frame 6
78,9% 46.7% 6,2%
132 byles is rc!mnsmittcd, bccmmc Ihc I’ramcs must be rmssccf lo fhc user in scqucn -
91.7w 74.3% 18,0%
516 byles Iial rrdcr’. Conscqucntfy, even (lmlinuous ARQ expcricnccs problems wilh
97.7% 91.9% 46.2% Ibe propsgulion delay of ltw stitcllile channel. Lster in the chapfer, [he
satellile dckly unit (Sf>U) is in[r’uducwf M u me[bmf to rcducc the efTec! of
The larger Ihe block or frame size, IIIC bel!cr !hc channel u[ifization,
delay.
becnust the Ixrgot hltwks mwk the dckiy CIYCCIof’ IIW loagdislsnce circuil;
Half-duplex dcltiy does nu! creotc o pruhlcm un shurt-disti)gtcc channels with
shorl dekays (of [0 ms, for example), It is more cvictcnt OIXcircui[s of several Nonpollhrg Peer/Peer Systems
hundred miles (4o ms dchiy) to scvcrsl tlmussml miles (500 ms dclny or
A[.OIIA. In Ihe curly’ f970s, Norman Abramson, at the University of
murc),
IIawoii, devised 0 [cchaiqw for uwwxxiinulcrl users 10 cffcc[ivcly compcle
The use of a full-duplex Continuous ARQ pro[ocol (see Chtip[ers Two
for :1 ch:mnel. The [Ipproach is c:dlcd (he ALOI IA sys[em; i! is so rmmed
and 12011r) in SIC:ld of i! slop. aml. \vl\il pulling system call dccrc~ise the
hccmme Ihc word ALOHA is an IItiwaiian greeting wifhuul rcgsrd to
wspuaw !i!lw i!nd il\cw:bsc IIW [Ilvtmghpi](. As IIUJ fuhlc shuws,
Slllclli(e whc(lwr’ it pcrsun is w’riviog ur dcpsrliag. The original A1.011A lechniquc
dcl;!y using pofling/scfccli:)n is especially evidcn~ Ilsing the Imlf’-dllpfex,
useds gruuad-hsscd rudio pwkci systcm, rstlwr tlIiI II wtllcllilcs, blIt flw idu.ls
slop.; )nd-w; til ;)ppr,):t cl). ‘1IIC Con fia!lous ARQ nllows Ihc uvcrlapping of
src spplic; lblc LUuny ctmoncl avxlia when users ure conlcmling fur its use.
 As clepic{ed in Figt~rc ‘,”, ALOHA is considered 10 be a peer-lo-freer
system. Sevcml vari~tions 01 ALOI 1A exist. One crpproach fits the carrier
sense collision-dehx{ protocol (Rwt<lom A LO/fA). Arm[hcr vwixliorr can be
used as a priority slo~ s ysusm (Slo(ft.d ALOI/A), We will use ALOHA to
inlroducc peer-to-peer syslems, even lhoug.h mosl satellile protocols have
implcmcn{cd mom cllicicn[ lcchniqucs ([hesc will hc discussed Iutcr in this
chaplcr).
The premise of ALOHA is lhti! users are oc(ing on a peer-to-peer
bssis—[hey all huve cq!od access 10 [he channel. A user slation Iransmils at
will Whenever il h.ls &,Lpi [0 SWd. Since Ihe ChJnnCl iS nO[ u!!OCtild by tiny
primary/seconrltiry slruclure, ii is possible (md pmbablc) thti~ users will
occasionally transmit ut trpproximmcly the same lime. Simukaneous
transmission resul(s in (he signals interfering and disfor(ing each other
m [he sepordle sigmds propa~~(e up to the salellile transponder. (The term
10describe scvccal smfions {mnsmiliing on one frequency fo one station is
tmrrowcn$fit[g. “l’he Wmumission of one s(trticm ([he salellilcl to winy
stations is culled brrrndcrw~ing, ) These “packet collisions” necessi~afe [he
rdransmission of Ihe damaged packets. (The term “packet” is used in
place of “1’rame” unrlcr Ihe ALOHA scheme.) Since (he users of the sa(ellile
link know exaclly wha( was transmitted onto the up-link channel and when
it was irmrsmillcd, !hey only need listen to [he dnwn-link channel a[ a
(S) Limited WindowS;,, prescribed Iime [O dc[crmine if [he broadcast pricke[ urrived wi[houI
Limage. If Ihe prrckcl is damaged due to a collision, [he stations we
required 10 retransmi!.lhe dmnaged packel. In essence, (he idea is 10 listen
10 ihc down-link chmmcl nnc up-and-down delay lime after [he packet was
sent. If Ihc pticlxx is destroyed, [he lransmittirrg site is rcquivxl to wui( a
shorl random period tiud [hen retransmit. The rwwlomized w:li! period .
diminishca the chtrrrccs of lhc compe[ing slutions colliding again, since
Ihe wt[i[ing times will likely dilh’ tmcl rcsul[ in rc!rmwmissions at different
limes.
Figure 5-3 depic[s a typical ALO}IA system using salclli[e communi-
cations. S[a(irrns A and II are lmnsmitiicrg packels Ut will on a shared
channel. The down-link channel shows IIUI! @cket I from stalion A is
{mnsmiited up acid down safely; packet 2 from statirm B is also transmitted ,
,
wi[hou( crrur, I Iowcvcr, Ihc sccnnd fmckel from A and [he 13rsl packet from
B>lrctrailsnii[[cdilt tlpproxin):]le) ylhcwlmclin~c. As[hc[rmsmissionsof
the two stfit ions arc nwrowc~sicd up into the satellite sta!ion, the sigmds
A inlcrfcrc with e~ch nthcr’, rcsul[icr gina collision.
n
The sulcllilc slaliou is not rcsponsibfc for error dctcclion or error
corrcc!ion; it ~mnsnlits wlmt i[ rcceivcs from (he up link. On the down link,
slalions Aond II note [hep:ickels have collidcd and, upon wailing arandorn
period of Iimc (NSMIIIY a fcw milliseconds), allcmpl to rctronsmit. This
;Ipproac his quit ccti’ectivc wlwn lhc l]scrsarc ilncoordin:ilcd and tire scmling
Figure S.2, Efloc[ cd P,opagalion Delay
lmllic in lmrsts, SIICII as rrom rlaI:I from Keyboard !crmimils.
.,;~.,’,... ..!. ,. ,.
122 SaldliI Vetwo!ks UI lap, i (Alp. 5 “.,, !~ -...,. !,.. .. . . . ..!... ”.,.-...

ms incrcmenl is slcrivcu
‘) m o 5fl,0fWbit/s chmrnel wrd 1,00i1-bit packets
(I ,000 +’ 50,000 = .020 scum(l).
The 20 ms incremerrl is rererred to as [hc packe[ duration, which is Ihe
lime in which [Iw p,tckc! ia tran$mi]lcsl on !hc channel. All stolions are
reqllired 10 lmnsmil fi,l the begiwliug of a slot pcriml. A pwkct ct\nnot be
Irmwmiltcd if it ovetlups more [Iron one slo~.
Tbc S1O[ICIJ A1,OHA approach incrrmscs tbroughpu[ subs[an[ially on

II
41 !he clmnnel, becmlsc if pitckets ovcrk~p or collislc, Ihey do so complcfely;
mosl, only one slot is disnusgesl. I{owevcr, like pure Random ALOHA,
SloIIcd ALOHA IIOCSoll’cr opportanilies for collisions. For example, if two
stations (ransmi! in Ihc some clock period, their packels collide. As in (hc
al
tbe

01
pure Random ALOHA approach, the stations are required [O wait a random
. .. .
D period of lime before attempting to seize a slot for retransmission. I
Another refinement to SloIIcd ALOHA is .S/oIIed ALO1/A wifh
42
up f IVOnoawcr, “f’hc chonrwl SIOIS arc combincsl into an ALOHA frame (Figure
Collision Down f
Sletween 5-4). The ALOHA fwme musi eqaal or exceed the up-and-clown propagation
A2 &81
~g @\
dcl;ly. Consequently, a 1,000-bil packet lasting 20 ms would require a
I
minimum of 12 slots to muke op the ALOHA frame: 12 slots x 20 ms = 240
“ \ (
m.. ‘l’he 240 ms period represents lhc mi)lirrtum up and down propagation
delay ( 120 ms (up) x 120 ms (down) = 24! ins). /.
,
Slotted ALOI{A with Nonowner requires lha[ a s{ation select an empl y

a e2

O
&\
slot in (IIC frame. Once (I1c user has seized the slot, it is reserved for the user
for successive fmmcs unlit Ibc user relinquishes

!mnsmission).
the slot. The relinquishment
occurs by [he slation scrrding a prolocol conlrol code, such as EOT (end of
Upon rcceiviag tm EOT, the nexl fmme lransrnittcd
for flml pm’lictdar SIOI, A user station [hen is allowed to conlcnd for [he slot
wi{h IIIC “CXI subsequent fmme. The only, coOisimrs occurring on ShrItcd
is empty
I

ALOI 1A with Nmrowncr arc when stations pick the same SIOI in the 240 ms
fmmc.
Anolhcr v;wk!l i[m of Slot (IN A LOII A is SIo(tcd A [.OliA with Owner.
The shxs of each frame ore now owned by users. The user h;ls exclusive use
Figure 6.3. RandomALOHAon Salellile Links
of iis slot within the fmme us long as it has data to fransmit. In Ihc event that
Ihc user rclinquisbus Ihc slot, it so irrclica[cs with tn cslublished code. The
Random Al-of 1A experiences considcmhle dcgrwh[ioa of [hroughpu[ SIOI becomes empty ml is tiv;iilablc for uny other user 10 seize il. Once
whtn Ihc clmnncl is hcovily I!!ilizcd. I lowcvm’, it should hc kept in nliml flm[ mrolbcr user hns seized the slot, it has exclusive rights to ihe use of ihe slot,
!VIMI is lm!ls!tlillcd wr,ms IIW CIIIII)IWI is ({// cml. t,scr d;[fx, l)olikc IIW mllil !hc {wigind owucr seizes IIW slot, The righ[fui owner cmr claim the SIO!
prim;, ry/scc,]lldilry poling syslcms, AI.011A uws m] fwlls, selccls, or nqytlivc fit aoy time by Iwgi!luing Iransmissimrs wilhin its dcsignalcd SIO[ in Ihc
trcsponws 1<!PC!IIS.only c“+titser inli,mwi<m is mmsmitlcd. Nwwthclcss, the I’mmc. The rclinquisl)mcni is required whca (I1c righlrul owner (rwrsmits.
pllrc ramlom scheme C;!(I be improved hy ;uklpling u more Miciclll slrllcgy obviously, lhc Iirst Iimc IIw owner lrunsmils in its slot u collision m~)y occur.
l’or using lhc ,Incoordij>;,[ed ch:,nl,ci, ~N[lcd Sl(\[Icd A1+f)l [A. On Ihc subsequent fmmc, (IIC rigbfful owner rctrwrsmits. The relinquishing
Slotted AI.f)l 1A requires th;u common clocks he est:lhlished at the stalion IIwm must hmk for aaolher free SIOI or go to its own slots it’it hds them.
w!rlh sl;!ti,~ns Nml [Iw sillcllilc, “1’lwclocks !Irc synchronized 10 send Ir;dfic U( This refined ;Ippro:Jch of A1.olfA is classified as a peer-to-peer priori[y
spccilic periglcls, I:oc cx:tmple, Ihc clocks m:ty wq[liw tlmt p,tckcts ;irc SIIWCKWC,siacc some s[nlions ctm lx! given priori~y ownership over olhcr
Ir:Lllslllil(c,l cluly <,[120 !11s(.(120 sccor),ll incrctl,cl,[s, {I) [I]is cx:{roptc, (IM 2[) Slaliolls. Thus, it fils into ~hc Cklssificulioll (WC m ;1 priorily SIO[ sys[cnl.
! ...:.’.... .,
IL* ‘“ ‘“ ‘
“.4./1,1. ,,.,,, ”,., IA,+, . IAq/. 5 thh; g J.,.lu,.s ,. .,:,,,,,,.,., . . ..

T13MA on ils Telccom I SII-, 1:! Tl)iscxpla”t*,ionc ovcrsll,espccific S11S

pro~>col.
TOM A ;wsigrrs S1OISai nccdcd. However, unlike [he ALOHA system,
Ihc slots mc assigned by :1,prirrmry slalimr cidlcd the reJcrcw’d (REV). As
depicted in Figure 5-S, (IIC rcfcrcnce slulion accepts requests from ihc other
SI i imls, WKI, hi!scd un the nulurc uf Ihc (dllc and available chwmel
cap:icily, lhc l/!?l: assigns lbcsc rcqucsls to specific fmmcs for subsequent
lmnsmission. Every 20 frnmcs, (he reference s(ation sends the assignments
(o ihc sccondwy stiitions, one rcfcrc.nce station is resigned 10 etch
tmnspomlcr of the systcm. S11S provides fur iIs mmry as (en uc[ive
[rnnsponders per satcllile. ~
l:igure 5-5 also shows; !hc eorth slalion components. The major compo-
20 In, nmts consist of [hc por( ii(h!ptcr, [he sutelii{e communications conmllcr (SCCJ,
/ a burst modem, the tmnsmilircccivc device, and an wrlenmt.
The port mhpler is responsible for inierfocing the user lines into Ihe
earlh stulion, The aditptcr ;wcepts voice inmgcs at a mtc of 32 kbi[/s, ;Ind
&J!a at roles varying from 2,4 kbit/s to 1.544 Mbids.
All digihd inmges nre passed [o the salelli[c communications controller,
which is A soliwure-oricnlcd unit Ibid consulidatcs Ihc funci ions of liming,
smtion assignment, switching, mrd processing of voice md data calls. 1(
rdlculatcs clrwmel requirements b~sed on Ihe number of voice connections,
Ihc numhcr o!’ data ports iivail~ble. and [he number of queued data
conncclicm reqllesls. II Ihcn assigns lhc.se requesls 10 TDMA Irumcs.
The burs[ modcm sends out u 48 Mbil/s signal with 15 ms frames (.015
see) umlcr Ihe direction of the salcllile controller, Thus, each [ranspondcr
______
hts lhc cap;ihility of opcmling nl 4S mcgubi[s per sccoml.
The trunsmi(/rccciv$ tmtcnmrs are responsible for transmitting and
receiving [be up and down cbwrncl links. SDS opemtes M [4 gigaher[z on [he
up link nml !2 gigahctlz on [he down link. This lrwrsmission band was
chosen bccm!se ii is rckrtively I’ree from oihcr s:]tclli!e lmnsmissions, m.! il
F(gure 5.4. S(olled ALOHA olkrws Ihc enrlh Wrlions to opcmle relatively free from the terrcslrinl
n,icro\wivc crpcmtiuns of’ 416 gignhcrtz.
Norrpol)lng Pr/mary/Sacondary Systems CM n 15 ms frarnc, illustrutcd in Figure 5-6, the reference slation (RKF)
ir3nsn1its nn assignment set for cdl SCCS using the lmnspomler. As men-
,;,llccl ~[irlicr, ,Ilis tr[l”smissio” is ~em every 20 f~mes. The assignment sel
!.f,ecifics IIIC .mptwi(y imd position of each SCC’S trotlk burs! 10 tbc
lmnspm]dcr. Rccull that ussignmcnls nre mwlc in response [o [he requests
wccivcd in cm’tier fmmes. Tbe control ficlcl of lhc [mme contains the
msignmcms Imd lIw rcqliests from the compcling stalions. The rcrn<lindcr of
)he frame consists of lhc tl-otlc, which con~nins the imlfic bursls Irom each
SCC [lml wus assigned a position hy the refcrcncc sttitimr.
The lruffic is piwked in S12-hil clumnels consisting of a 32. bit deslina-
,mn nddrcss mrd 480 bits of duto. The 480-bi( dnln I’rame vws chosen lo
;Iccmnmod:hlc (Iw rccplircnmnt b’ a voice lmnsmissiun rate of 32 kilohils per
.
+0

,----

‘\
‘\
\
\
I
\
‘\ /
 120 ““ i..,.,,,,. ,.”,,,.,.= L,,,.p, . G#,.p. a .J”O..!U.I.. $

) )
M“snli,,ing SDU can ~e~eiye, ~n~ b,,o’~~ an
O@-9-F sion. fn fxiich systems, . ..
en[irc fdc before it ;lcliva[es Ihe remole SDU session. Likewise, the

....
s,,,;.” rccciving SDU can bulf’cr the hatch file completely and Ik)i cs!ablish the
A S,.,{.”
0 session wi[fl Ihe receiving OTE.

The Teleport

R
ACK o

0ATA The concept of the Iclcport has rcceivcd considerable al[en(ion in (he
ACK O
indus(ry. ‘f’he telcpnr[ is a sa(cflitc or seveml siitclliws shared by mufliple
users. “rypically, the users are lenmrb in an office building wi[hin m
imfuslrinl complex. The users of [he !eleport are linked to the satellite
I wough c;lblc, optic fibers, ur microw~ivc links. The basic idea is to share the
liigh-ctlpuci(y satcili(c cbtlnnels in order 10 reduce users’ overall cOmmuni-
m(ions costs. The lclcpurt tmnsmi[s all types of imwcs (voice, dl!k+,
facsimile, ancf vidcn) with a wi~fe divcrsily of dam mtes. The digilal
tmnsmission speeds mngc from 45 kbil/s 10 f .544 Mbil/s. Of course, users
have [be op!imr uf lesser dala rates through multiplexing techniques.
The Ieleport industry has boomed in the kisl fcw years. Currently,
:wemy projec[s are implemented or are underwtiy in Jhe U.S. 11 is es[imtited
[h:l! (he industry will reach $fOf) miffiwr in revenue by 1990.
The piim;t~y focus of Ihe Iclepotl is 10 supporl pdvale business. However,
other users we Iwgeted :as welf. Some telcporf companies wc marketing to
residential users in Iflc primary form of closed-circuil television brwadcm[s.
Otf~er vemfurs arc supporting hotel and educatioad orgmizations.
A Ielcpor( pruvidcs several oplions 10 users. I’hc [cleporl can be
foc;ilcd wilhin an industrial compfex or at a user’s site. The users can be
Flgura S.7. Salellile Delay Compe.satlon Units(SDUS) for the Blsyncprolood Ioc;dcd fw tiwuy from the tclcport und communiciite wilh the tcleporl
IIwuugf} microwovc, nptic Iihcr links, coilxid cnblc, or a fclcphonc chtmnel.
error-free. The SDU servicing s[ation B mus[ relmnsmil Ihesecond data The satellite conmmnicr$ions then Ukc (he lfitl~~~nissiOn and lr:msPOr~ i[ tO
fmme, because f? scnl a NAK 10 SDU D. Finally, the hisync EOT is sent o(lier users throughout Ihe counlry.
from Stolion A (o ICII si~ttiun 11i! INIS nn more d;!ta (o [rmsnlit. The EOT is Tbc tclcpori tcchnufogy cmplmsizm the controversial bypass issue.
[transported across [he communic:)[ions ch:lnnel, and (I!C remole SfXJ llypoxs dcscribcs tbc use or local media other thun Ihc lclcphonc companies’
provides lhe hisync l~OT 10 !crmin;$te the Imnsmission process, Iocul or suhsci’ibcr loop: flypass also incfmfes the use of Iong-distnncc media
The s:ltctlilc ,Iel:ty-conlpcnslll ic>ll Ilai[s prnvidc some immunity from o[lwr Ill:m AT&T Comni!micutions. The Dell operaling companies and AT&T
the cumulative CIFCCISof delay on half-duplex protocols. Ifowever, cert:ti,] SI:KCIIMI bypass is >1IIWCMIn Ihcir rcvcnuc hasc UIIII user service. Al Ihc some
prolocols, even [bough [hey mny hc hol(.dupfex, may not benefit from (he tiru$, Ohio Bcfl IMS dccidcd Iojoin the fnruy. ft has purchnwf 20 percent oflbe
SDU cm]pcns;tifi<)n, For example, if Imlf-dup!ex mess: )gcs, such os hisync, Ohio Tclcpu!-t Cwpor:IIicm in order [v pmlicipx(c in bypossing ilsclf.
are sent O]ICU! o /ime for an itrtcmctivc session, Ihcrc is Ino ct!nmlmive cffccl
on the dcl;!y of these [m”snlissions, even thm@l the long delay could he a
problem fur cxtl-cmtly Iligh.speed applications, Ilowcvcr, Iudf’-duplcx sys- Conclusion
Icms which utilize IMICII (mnsmission, such its many uf’tbc Ifl M 3270 f;~mily
The sa[cfli(c induslry cootimws IU grow, Unlif 1986, homeowners were able
deViCeS, can benefit suhslimtially from the use of Ihc Sf)U, bcctiuse (he
scssiun hc(wccn (he fyrrx II SIINlly cncomp:!sscs t!t,t,ty blocks U( tmnsnlis. to receive signals fwm the movie tm(f special.events channefs, und s;!tcliiw
disllus wcw springing up ;III uvcr the country, }Iowcvcr, some of lhese
 .,. ,.. ,.
130”””” ... ,. . . ,,.
?.WAli, 6‘qlwork$ Chap,5

clmnncls ore now scmmlllcd. \vhich Ims soIIIcwlIiI[ d:IIni

) ,cd II,is collage
CHAPTER SIX
imJuslry. Su!llc industry W;llcllcrs IXlitivc hjI@Iwd optic links will *dSO
diminish (he use of s;llclli(es, Pcrbups so, bu! ihcir broadcas! ct,pdbiii(ie$
vir[u:dly ensure Ilwir ptwx in (Iu2 imhlslry for mony yews.

Local Area Networks

NOTES
lEX1ractCd ftonl 7t/<,[())!#!ttt{#lic(ili())!s hf;kg:winc, Atsgtlst 1984, VOIUme 18, No,
8, by special permission of the publisher, tlnrizon IIWSC, Microwtlve, Inc.,
f)ulham. MA,

SUGGESTED READINGs
fJlOCk, victor. “ThreeFirn1sGe6 Go-Aheml Io Compete wi(b lmtIsat,,, TP/@O,,Y, Introduction
AugusI 1985.
.,. (Iw pasl Iwenty years,lbe communications imlus!ry has focused on
~~:kkln, GCLM’6C.“M!dli-Access CompMer NCIS: St>”>c })u$jg” Dcci$ionS,.,
1>”10 syslems which Irmspmt over long disltmccs. The wide area network
hla
C,,,,,,!ltt,!ic,tli,,!ts, f)cccmbcr 1984, pp, 123-136,
(WAN) industry 1)8s now nmlured and is a relatively s!able field. The Iocttl
Jansky, Donald M,, and Jerucbim, Micbel C, Cmntmmico(io!t Saldliws in Jhe
area ne!work (LAN) c,onsti[ules a relatively new arena fOr da[a communi-
Geosfnrif,f!ow Or/,if, Dedbom, MA: Ar!ecbllousc, 1983.
cations. LAN technology begmr to gain at[en(ion in the mid 1970s, and today
Jansky, Dontld hi. lVc,r/,/ Ar/(trof Snfe//i/es, DeJh;lm, MA: Arlcch Hoi]se, 1983.,
it is one of the Fdstest Mrowing industries in ddta communications.
Owen, David, ‘&Sa(elli[e Televisio”,9, Tl!e All,t)![ic h/o,! f/!ly, June 1985, pp.4S42.
This chapter provides a generol background of (be most widely used
Tobagi, FOWWJA,, Binder, Ricbard,rmd Leincr, 13xrry.
“Pncket Rodio and .%tellitc LAN topologies and protocols and discusses some of the major organiza-
NCIWOIkS,,8IE/;/<C,I!,III! (!I!ic(IIi,II!s, November 1984, pp. 244),
tions in dle mwkel. 1[ UISOcovers in more dcmil some of [be emerging LAN
sttmdnrds found in [be lEIX 802, the ANSI committees, the ECMA
(I;uropcan Cornpu!er Mwrufticturers Association), the International Organi-
zdlion for Stmkwdizii(
ion (I SO), ml private companies.
A sepamte disctission of P13XS mrd LANs can be found in Chapter
Twelve. While the PBX/LAN discussion is found in another section, if is no[
mctml 10 imply that u PBX is not a viable option on the LAN. Any serious
considemlions of* LAN should include (he P13X.
The LAN indusiry bas grown at an amazing ra!e during the p~st five
yews. 1( is eslimatcd thut, in [he U.S. nlone, over 90 vendors exist in the
,
indus[ry; [hcsc vendors oll’cr WCII nvcr 100 dilfcrt!nl LAN olrerings, In ,.
. .. . addilion to Ihc LAN vendors, olhcr companies sell individuill network
components. Approximlcly
10CUI orcu networks
250 vendors tire in the business of providing
or the individlltd compOnenls to the @wOrkS.
I
Datapoint’s Al!acbcd Resource Compuler (ARC) LAN hus over 6000
inslulliitions—all from a single company.
The driving force for the use of LANs is to increase employee
prodilciivi~y nnd ctficicncy. This god is [ouled by LAN vendors, ollice
managers, and LAN designers. II is eslimaled (ha! otlce s[atf costs in the
Unilul SINes will CXCCCCI over 1.4 trillion dollars by the end of lhc decade.
ORicc cxpcnscs cnnqh’isc opproxim;ttcly 25 pcrccnt of a comfmny’s cost of

131
 ,.,
., ,,... ,.., ,4 ..,. . . ,. ,, ., ..., . . . . . ,. ,,, “,...
.,”.,,,,,.. c... . . .. ,.,

,
f32 LocnlArm Notwotks ChlIp, 6 ,Olmp.6 IEEE LAN Slandmd!s t33
I
doing business. am!, ns tbc trend Iownwl wbilc-colkjr employees continttes. Broadband and Baseband LANa
il is expected Ilm[ by Ihc cwl of lhc dccndc, olficc cxpcnscs will :Iccounl ror
aPprOxlma[ely 45 Percent of [he cost 0( doing husincss itl:1 (ypic;d comfmny. LANs arc nvniklblc m either Iwomllmwl or Iwsclmtnfl sys[cms. A
The Amerlcsn Telcphooc xnd Tclegrnph Corporrrlion (AT&T) csti. broadband network is cbaraclcrizcd by the use ofanrrlog technology; it uses
mxtcs tha[ 70 pcrccnt of the time or itn oificc cmploycc is spent itl a modcm (o inlrmhtce cm=ricr signals onto !hc Imnsmiss ion medium, The
communicating with someone else. Naturally, any clTort [o incrc;lsc nn dice c:lrricr sigmllsarclbcn motlilicd (tll{~’l~ll:ltctl) l>ytldigiltll sign;,l, IJCCWSC O(
worker’s produc(ivi[y can cnntrihttlc 10 an orgnnizn(ion’s prdi(s :ItId mis- lbc ao:dog nalureof[he nclwork. bromlbrmd systems arcof(cn frequency
sion. Vtrrious cslitm![cs h:lvc hccn nludc rcglrdi!lg (Iw :d?ilily d’:1 I.AN 10 division mul{irdcxcd (FDM), providing (Iw nhili[y [o c:!rry multiple cxrricrs
increase productivity. Some sludics su~gcs{ lh:!l 011olficc \vorkcr’s produc- ;111(1Subcb:lllr)cl,$ 011 (1IIC p:dh. I)rowllwlml Syslcrlls ilrc S(1 II NI1lL$,]hcciltlsc II IL!
tivity may be incremed twofold IIlroltgh (he use of increased automation and analog carrier signal sopera[c in the high-frequency mdio range (typically 10
local communications capabilities, While onc migh( qtmstion silcb a Iwgc la 400 MHz). Not oO analog LANS operrr(e at these high frequencies, in
1 cstimaie, it is generully rccognizerl by most people working iu Ihc imh!s[ry which case they arc not considered broadband sysicnls.
[hat the local area network does assist in increasing eoiciency nnd produc- The bmcbr..ml nc(work uscs digitnl Icclmology. A Iinc driver introduces
tivity within [he olTrce. vol[agc sbif(s onto fhe cbmmet. The channel then OCIS as a transport
The basic idc:] of a LAN is 10 rwovidc easy ncccss 10 1) ’1”1;s~wilhi!l the nlccll:\nisnl by \vllich lbc digi(ol VOII:{RC pulses profmgntc Ihlwugh Ihc
orlce. These DTEs are no[ only computers (persomd, medium-sccrlc, tlml cbnnncf. fi:tscl?ntlcl tlc(%vorks donut t{sc:tn:tl(]g carricrs<>r FDM !ccb!)iqucs.
large-scale), bu[ o[ber devices commonly found in olllccs, such as prin[crs, However, multiple access 10 (he mediunl can be provided by a time division
I plotters, and, increasingly, electronic files and dtita bases. Like the WAN mul(iplexcr(TDM) or protocols discussed in lhis clmplcr.
discussed in pre\,imls chaplers. the LAN is configured 10 provide the Uoscbam” LANs arc quite prevolcnl. lIowcvcr, sonic of Ihc sm;dl
channel and communications protocols be(ween the \vork stnlions and bmchnml sys(ems (fewer th;!n thirty stations) arc being rcplnced wi[h private
, ,. brnncb cxcbnngcs (l’lIX; scc Clmplcr 131cvcn), Some Iargcr LANs (more
computers.
Ib:m I(X) sl:\li[)!ls) gcllcrnllyt!sc llrll:ldbnnd tcchniqucs,
I

Primary Attributes of a LAN

I IEEE LAN Standarda
Chapter Two introduced the conccpl of local arcn nclwrrrks. Following is a
The los(i(u(e of Elcclrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has established
review of some of the major a{lributes ofa local area ne[work:
six commillces [O rfcvelop sl;mdnrds for Iocrd area nc[works. The groups nre
●
collcclivcly crrllcd the IEEE 802 LAN Standnrds Cornmit(c es:
The connections be[ween (he work sla!ions are usually distances of a
few hundred feet, up [o several tbousnnd feet.
802, ! lligber Layers and Manngen,cn[(lfl Ll)
● The LAN tronsmitsrlirla bc[wcen t!sers!;itiotls:tncl conlp!tlcrs (some
802,2 Logicfil Link Control(LLC)
LANs transport voice and video images as well).
● 802.3 CSMA/CD
The LAN lr;!llsmission capacily ist!s~l:~lly grc:llcrlll:l!! (11:!(of:l wide
area nefwork; (ypical bit rates range from I MbiUs 1020 Mbit/s. 802.4 ‘rokcn B(IS
● Tbe LAN clmnncl is typically privalcly owned by [bc org:mizalion 802.5 Token Ring
using the facility. The Ielcphcme company is usunlly no{ involved in 802.6 MelropoJilan Area Nct\vorks (MAN).
chonncl ownership or mn!mgcmetll. Ilowever, lclcphonc ‘cnmpanies
are pursuing ~bc LAN cuslrmrcr with a wide armyofoplimls hnscdon Wi(h (IIC exceptions of 802.1 and 802.6. nil !hc s!;md;!rds lmvc been
, lheir Ccnlrex service. npprovcd by Ibe IEI?E S[andmds Board. IEEE 802,1 is producing zn
● Thccrrormlcona I.AN isc[~tlsi[lcr:ll> lyl~ctlcrlll:!!l:l WAN-oricnlcd ovcrvic\v [l[)cilmerlt ntldcoorlli!laf ingac[ivifies w,il[t(hc lSOand CCITT. 1(s
telephone channel. For ins fance, error rafes in I:IOR :tre not tmcmn- for(hconli ngworkinch! dcsnl:l ycr[opcrnlit inlcrnel\vnrkingof LANs :ltld
morr. (A WAN crro!- mlc mnges from 1:101 10 1:10’. wilh optic fifxr WANS. IEEE 802.6 is in the early stages of development. I( addresses
, , .1 ,.,dr Iiw networks flint fall l>et\veen a local and a \vidc aren nc(work.
;, .,:.,...,<,,,
..... .... ,,.,,.. ...... ... ,,.,, . ,,, .,,,,. .. . ,.: ,. ,. . .—
..
)’ ) r
134 LocalArea Networks chap. 6 ,:hap, 6 IEEE LAN Slrmdmds f35

The IEEE slnndnrds arc g?ining wide acccpl:mcc. ‘[’kc fh!ropcnn TIIC three hlycrs ccmrmunimtc witll [hc cxch:tngc of primitives nnd
Computer M:tlluf:,cturcrs Associ:ilion [ CcMA) volcd lt) ncccpl lbc 802.S !pmlncol d:!l:! !mi[s Ibr’m!gh scrvicc :kcccss poinls (SAPS). (Those lcl-nls !\,crc
Token Ring as i[s s[tmdard (ECMA 89). The Itllern:!liom!l Org:!!!imtinu Ibr cxploincd in Ctmplcr Three.) The convcntio!j for nnming SAPS sre:
Standardization (ISO) is occepling Ibe 802 slandords Ilmlcr ISO 8802. As wc
sh[dl see, vendors anrl user groups arc nlsn using lhcsc sl:!nd;irds. PSAP SAP w lop nf pllysic:!l Inyct’

MSAP SAP N! lcrp nf MAC layer ~~~----::’:

I?e/af/onsh/p of the 802 Standards fo the LSAP SAP al top of LLC layer.
,
LSO/CC/TT Model - B; [:>!-i,,,:; i: (.; /\.
Chapter Three
introduced {be concept or Ifiyercd prolocols MICI tbc Connecf/on Opf/ons w/th LAMs

levels of !he 1S0 network model (Open Systems lnterconneclion, or 0S1). AI IIIC onset of lhe IEEE
802 work, it was recognized (ha! tbe
The IEEE efforts have emphasized the need 10 keep Ibc 0S1 and 8[)2 ccltlncc[ic~n-[~ ricntcll :tspcct 0S1 :IppIwcb
of lhc would liulit lllc scope and
specifications as compatible M possible. To lhis end, Ihc 8[)2 commil[ccs power of :t local :Ircn nclwork. Firsl, runny Ioc;d ttpplic:ttions do not ncccl [kc
split the data-link Ioycr into Iwo suhlaycrs: medium nccess control (MAC) dn(a in!cgrity prrwiclcd by a co!lljcclion-oricl) lcd network. Scconcl, high-
and logical link con(rol (l-LC). As illuslmtcd in Figure 6-I (:11.w scc spccd applic:llioo proccsscs c:jnnnt tnlcmlc the ovcrbcnd in cslnhlisbing aml
Figure 4-1 l), MAC encompmscs H02.3, 802.4, and 802.5. ‘I”hc LLC iuclwlcs discsl:tblishing llle conncc(irrns.
802.2. The problem is parliculorly severe in the local area ne!work, wilb its
The MAC/LLC spli! provides several imporlon[ fcalurcs. ~irsl, i( high-speed clmnncls and k>w crrcrr mtes. Many LAN applicrdians require
controls access (o the sh:werl ch:!nnel mnong (Iw :Iulonomous O“llls. fos{ sclups with each olbcr, Olhcrs rcqllirc very fml collltlllltlic:itions
Second, it provides for a deccn’tralized (peer-lo-peer) scheme IINN recfuccs bc[wecn the DTEs. With Ibis in mind, (be 802 LAN slanrfards commilfees
[he LAN’s susceptibility 10 emors. Third, i[ provides a mm’e cmnplible have included the crmccp[ of conncclionless (dnlrrgtrnm) syslcms within (he
in[erface wilh wide area networks, since LLC is a subse[ of the I I OLC LAN 802 s[andards. (If the idea of cmrncclicm-orienled and cmmcclionlcss
superset (see Figure 2-5 and (be discmsion of II I)I,C ill Clmptcr Four). nctwcwks seems, vague, (he render nmy wish to review [he mn[erial in
Four[h, LLC is indepemlenf of a specific access method: MAC is.prwocbl- ‘ Clmp(er Two. Also, {he discussion ill Clmpler Three and Figure 3-2 provide
specific. This approach gives {be 802 network a Ilexiblc inlc!-1’acc inlo ~ml crn[ additimml inrornmtio!l on the c[>t)tlcclioll-orictlted networ k.)
or [be LAN. The ISO and 802 connection and cmrncctionless modes are compared
in F@rc 6-2. The cmrnec[icm.oricn[ed model of the 1S0’s Open Syslems
802.3 802,4 807.5 !s0/0s1
Jnlcrconncc!ion is dcpic!cd irr Fifwrc 6-2(:1). The Iwo users. A ml Il.
--— ILSAPI --- (I-SAP) --- ILSAP1 --- c: nlnlwlicn[e [brough a service provider (i. e., the LAN) for A and n service
1.,ovider for f3. The ccmnec(ion-oricnled model shows a request coming from
LLC LLC LLC A, transported across the service providers. and received at f3 as an
I
-5. (MSAPI --- (MSAPI --- {M5Apl --- Da!, Link
imlicfition, In (be reverse process. II provides a response. which is lrans-
pmtcd across the scrvicc providers aIId rccciverl a( A m a confirm.
MAC CSMA/CD Token 8.% Token Ring The c(>t)ncctic>n-tllcl(lc tmnsfcr requires an afwcmcn[ hctwccn !hrcc
pi!rtics. In Figure 6-2(;1). users A :IIId II :wc t\vu ol’tllc porlics. Ntnl [hc scrvicc
[PSAP! --- {PSAPI –-– [PSAPI ---
prrrvidcr is the third party. This approach can also be reklic# 10 {be conccpl
Physical Pl,y,icd Phy,icd Pl>v,!c,l of (be Inycrs discussed in Clmptcr Three (Figure 3-3). Users A and B arc [he
J? + I cnlitics. and the scrvicc prnvitlcr is Ibc n cntily.
,I_-__luu -—— ---
The other Ibrce illuslm[ions of Figure 6-2 depict n service in which Ihere
LLC: L..Jcal Link Control
,arc mdy two-party ,agrccmcnls-thtr[ is. A nnd Il. m A and [he service provider.
MAC: Medium Am,,, Con!,”]
LSAP: LLC Sm.iC, Ac.,%, Point ‘Mc scrvicc provider knn\vs nf [hc comlccfio!ls it] Figures 6-i’(l!J :fml 6-2(c). In
MSAfh MAC Se,.iC, Am.,, Poin, Fignrcs 6-2(d), (IIC scrvicc prnvidcr I1:Is 11o prim knowlcdsc or ihc imlividwd
PSAP: Pl>ysicnlAccessPoint
agreements bc(ween A aml f). In the Ilwee modes of[he IEEE npproach, nll the
, ,,,,,, ~,., I I ,lfl; I ,,nd lS()/ 0$1Il,fwence Model C(,rr-,;,,ik<,n itlfnml:\timl recui red to ,clivcr (I1c da!:! unit is nrcscnlcd to the scrvicc
 “! ,q,. . ICCC LAN mamams 137

the se. 1~c provider, no further communication occurs be(ween (he service
provider and the user layers regarding the Pate or disposition of the data
unit. This dots not mean that tbe two parties, A and B, cannot agree
beforehand to establish certain acceptable error rates and transfer rates.
The service provider, or II layer, is not involved in any prior agree-
ments between the Jt + 1 A and B entities, In a sense, the service provider
is a passive conveyor of the data between A and B. Because of this
approach, the connectionless orientation provides for a relatively simple
(.) ConncctimOrientedMcdd
environment bet ween A and B, vis.i.vis the service provider.
The service provider considers the data unit (transmitted to it as
completely unrelated to any other data unit coming from or going to A and
B. Consequently, the data units provided to the service provider will not be
delivered in any particular order. Sequencing is not part of the connection-
Iess data environment. This provides for considerable flexibility, because the
service provider need not become involved in the details of the connection
of DTE A and DTE B.

Cfasses of Service. All 802 networks must provide connectionless

(b! Re”wteSawiceProvide,Canfiun! service (Type 1). Optionally, connection-oriented service can be provided
(Type 2). Type I networks provide no ACKS, flow control, or error
recovery; Type 2 networks do provide ACKS, flow control, and error
❑ -m recovery. Most Type 1 networks actually use a higher level protocol (i.e.,
Transport Layer) to provide these functions.

L
7----------P
(d bxal SmvimPmvlderConfirm’
LLC and MAC

The LLC and MAC sublayers

Protocol

(discussed in Chapter Three) to communicate.

Data

use the protocol

Units

da[a units (PDUS)

The formats for the pDfJs are
shown in Figure 6-3. The LLC unit contains a destination

DSAP SSAP
address (DSAP),

control Informat!o”
Address Addren

DSAP, Oe%thationSW-AS Ames ?.int

SSAP: $c.ur.mServiceAccm Point
Control: Control Field
Information User Data

I
I I (al LLCProt.xolDataUnit

(d] Sec+c.ProdderProvide,NoConfirm
LLC Prom.ml
Figure 6-2. ISO and 802 Connection and Connectionless Modes Starting Frame Dml”atio” source Data Unit (.< ; Frame
E“di”g
“’amble Delimiter control Address Address MAC Control ~ ~:”:”:e Dolimltev
Unltl
provider, the n layer, along wilh the dala, Consequently, destination addresses,
t
protocol information, and error-check fields are all sent as a single entity (b) MAC ProtcmlDataUnit

through the network. Once this information is exchanged between A and B and Figure S-3. IEEE 802 ProtocolData Units
~:’.~~~ :$ “ ‘.’ --, ‘: “~, -~ ‘J, ~,’,. ,.~- . .,.,...!. . . . . . ;, . ... . . . . ..,, .,.,

‘) :

138 Local Area Networks chap. 6 Chop, 6 LAN Topolcglesmd Prohc.ds i39

sot!rcc :Iddrcss (S SAI’), c[mlv<d field, :1!1<1in fm’m:lliml field. The SI:IMI:IMI rcftll innship, Unlike :! wide :Irc:i ttclwotk (WA NJ, lhc I(xwI slruclurc dots
also provides fw (IIC address fichl 10 idcnliry :1spccilic ring (mI o tokc!l ring) not mwm:klly usc it m;tstcr sttlliml 10 m:umgc lhc Imllic 011 CIINIIIICI. Since N
nnd a specific node on I he ring. The conlrol fickl is quite simil:lr 10 [he 111)1X IOCNI orca nclwork has short sigmd propagation limes, high chtlnnel speeds,
cun!rol Iicld dcpictcd in Figu!-c 4-3. :Ind sm:dl crr’or rmlcs co Iuporcll 10 :1 WAN, the 1.AN dots not :Ilways need
The LLC subl!iycr is n subset nl’ lhc I II)LC sl:II1[l:ird disc! lsscd in (IIC cl;thom(c prw{occd owasurcs d’ connection csl:lhlishmctll. p{dliog/sclcc-
Chapter Four. The llDLC-Lype commands nml respmwcs, es(:!blishcd in {he lion, ACKS, NAKs. CIC., csinhlishecl in [he connection-orien[cd Con[i!!uous
comrol field, depend on whether the LAN is Type I m’ Type 2. I’hc ARQ prolocols (Cl~aplcr Two).
ins[ruc {ion scls allowed arc shown in Table 6- I (nolicc Ihc (JI [mmc for
connec(ionless service and SAIIME for connectio!l-oric! !lcd scrvicc).
CSMAKD and IEEE 802.3 I
TABLE 6.1. LLC Commands and Responses
The hcs[-kncrwn scheme for ccrn!rolling ~!local nrc:l nc[work on a bus
Commands Responses st!!tclurc is carrier sense multiple access wilh collision dc[cc[ion (CSMA/CD).
CSMA/CD Iils inlo the nonpriorily. carrier sense (collision) clussificaliun
Type t ul
Xlo XID ( Fignrc 2-5). ‘l”hc mosf \vidcl y used imptcmcwlnl ion of C?+! A/Cl> is round in
the flhcrncl spccifico[ion. The Mhcrnet sys(cm wns dcvelopctl p!wlly from
TEST TEST
lhe ALOHA concepts discussed in Ihe previous chapter. Xerox Corporation
Type 2 (1Formal) I I I
VJNS instrumental in prrrviding the research ror CSMA/CD nnd in developing
(S Formal) RR RR Ihc firsl commercial products. In 1980. Xerox. [he Intel Corpomlion. nnd
RNR RNR f)igi(al fZquipmenl Corporation (DEC)joinlly published n specilica[ion for on
REJ I 13EJ Elhernet local tlelwork. This specification was Io[er introduced to the IEEE
(U Format) SABME UA, FRMR 8[)2 committees ?nd, with some morfificotion, has found i~s wty into the
DISC UA, DM IEEE 802.3 slanrtmd.
CSMA/CD El hcrnet is orgfinizcd wound !he concept of l; ye red
IWOIOCOISdiscussed in Chop[cr Three, Figure 6-4 illustroles Ihc layers found
One f’ormal for a MAC pro[ocol rfa[a ltni! is shown in Figure 6-3(b).
in CSMA/CI). The user Iaycr is serviced by the (WO CSMA/CD layers, the
This unit IIsufilly contnins the I.LC pro(ocol do[n unit as well ns timing and
dx[a.link [nyer and life physical layer. The bot~om (WO layers each consisi of
synchronization fields (prcnmbtc and slnrling delimiter), nn error. check field
IWO scpnmtc c!llilics. (Rectdl rrom ChnptcrThrcc lh;ll fin cnlily is a sc~lrnlc.
(kame check-seqLlence), and Ihc MAC levcl deslitl:lfiOn aI1lf source :Id-
complementary component in a Inyer, nncl seveml [0 many enlitics can
dresses.
comprise n Inyer. ) The dnta-link layer provides the actual logic [o con[rol [he
CSMAICD nc!wrrrk. It is medinm indcpcndcnt; crmscqt!ently. Ihc nclwork
,.
mny IJc bromf band or b:!scbimd; d:lln-link control dots not c:lrc. Thu 802
LAN Topologies and Protocols
.skmdml includes bolh broadband and baseband op[ions.
This scclion covers in more detail the prcvalcu[ Iopolngics ml protocols The dntn-link layer consists of (I1c datn encnpsulationklecnpsulaticm
rOL1ndin local t!rea net\vorks. [1 iS impossible 10 discuss all (he LAN SySICnlS entity and [he lrnnsmi{/receive mcrfia-ncccss !mumgement cn(ify. (The
f’ound itl [he industry in onc cllapter, Wc cover lhc syslcnls tlml arc f31hcrnc[ spccific:ltimr cnlls (I1c mcdin-access mmrgemcn! cntily the link-
illustrative of [hc field. The m:ljor sys(cms used oml discussed are: mtln:lgcmen[ en[if y.) The mnjor func( ions of (hcse entilics nrc:

c cnrrier sense mukiplc nccess wi[h collision detection (CSMA/CD) Lktfa cfrcn/>,r/tlolio)l/dccnp,Ylfl(lfi,>]l:
● lokcn ring 1
8 Iokcn hm. ● cslohlishcs lhc CSMA/Cl) fmmc I(IIc MAC fmmc-scc Figure 6.3((>)]:
provides [he sOurcC and dcs(in[ ilion mhlrcss: calculates an crrOr-
1!1 rcrcrrittg 10 tltc Cl:ts<ific:ll ion Ircc it) Figllrc 2-5, il is cvidcnl Ih:tt dc(cc! ion field nl (lie trnnsnlitting sile and uscs !he field [o cnlcultte an
,, . .. .. ... ...!. :..,. -., ..,-,,. . . ..... . . .... . . .. . .... . .. h,.,...,lm IOrt; ,M, i,, die:, t,, r :,! 11,0 r,-ceiv in. sit. .
 . . . .. . . .. . . ... ,,, .,, ,,, ,., . ,,, ,,, ... ,.

) ) ,
140 Local Arm Networks Chnp. 6 Chap, 6 LAN Topolcglosand Prolomls 141

timi.lg on (I1c clmnncl, znci MO encoding msd decoding, Like {be data-link
F,?,,”. 1:1)r-r, tbc physical Iaycr is composc[l of two major enlitics: the dnla
Pt,,mbl, S18rting D,,!tm,ion source LLC Protcd ~Ao Cl,,,k
Oecinl(lw Add?,,% Add,,,, 0,[” U“;( sequence c!]coc!i!lgldccotling cnlily and Ihc lrunsnlit/receive cbxnncl ncccss (:dlbough
lbe IEEE 802.3 s!andmd combines lhcse entities in i[s documents), The
(al F,,m, Form,, for CSMA/CD major functions or these cmiiics arc:

.-- ——---
user L,w,
_____LLc or O!her Layer
--.-_ F.:;;;-:;;; JWln c,)rco,lil)glclcco<ii]rg:
,,a”,rd, f----
0 provides the sign;ll.s 10 syncbrmtize lhc slxtions on Ihc clmnncl (Ibis

Q
sync sigml is called lhc prcambk): .!
D,!, 0,1,
Encw.,ulatlon 0,.,”,”1 atIon e encades lhe biunry da{n stream to a self-clocking code (M~mchcster I
Da!, Link code-scc Cb:@cr One) al the tmnsmitling site and decodes [hc
La”,, /Medl,
Am,,, Sub!,”,,
Manchcslcr code back to binnry code at the reccivcr,

Modi, l-,.x.,,
Mwgem,n, Ch({ltld (lCCCSS: .“,
]
/“ .:

TI
8 ● introduces the fhysic:il signal onto {be channel on [he [ransmi( side and
/’ --,--- ---– ______ -–-- _-____L___,
II receives the signal on the receive side of tbe in[erface;
,
1’ ; . senses n cnrricr on IIW chntmcl cm bofb Ihc [mnsmif tnd [bc rcceivc
C*rrier/ 1
I
c:lgn / 0,1, side (which indicates the clmnnel is occupied); ‘
S,.* , Encoding
\ ● (fc[ects n collisiori on (he channel on lhe lransmil side (im.lica!ing t\vo I
\

“6
\ i
signols hnve in[crfered will] ench other).
\’
\
\. ~hon”e,
Channel In a CSMA/CD network, each station has bmh a transmit and receive
-.
Ames, 4,,,s, side to provide the incmning/ou(p.oing flow of da(a. The [rnnsnli[ side is
1 I
1
I 0
invoked wbcn a user wisbcs to lransnli[ th!tn (o tmolbcr DTE on Ihc !lc!\vork; I
conversely, the receive side is invoked when data is [ransmi[(ed in(o the
l-----------------l”--------:

o Channel
cnblc 10 the s(Nions on the nbtwork.
Those re~dcrs who nre snlisfwd wilh (his expiannlion
scclion on [okcn rings. For those wishing more Jctail, (be opcra!ion of [he
nlny skip 10 the
1
lb! CSMAfCD Leye,,
IW !smil flml rcccive Inyers is exphtined below.
N.m lE FE 802.3 CombinesDal. Enc.di@Decocl@ and ChannelAmass. , Tbc tmnsmil dcla encapstda!ion cn!ity rcccivcs tbc user dots and }
EthernetSoecilicationKew !hmn%oera.. co!lstruc!s (I)c MAC frame. II also appends the frame check-sequence field
Figure 6.4. IEEE 802.3 Formaland Layers 10 the hi:) and pnsses the frimle to mcdiwaccess matmgcmenl. \vhich buffers
the frwnc until the clmnncl is free. The clmnncl is sensed ns free when i[ sees
14’le[iifl-flcccss Infll!ll,$rmc!t!: a carrier sense signal turned oiT from the Imnsmil channel-nccess cn[ity in I

●
Ihe physical Iaycr. Afler a brief delay, media-access management pnsses the
(ransmits Ihc fmmc into (I1c pllysict!l Ioycr aml rcccivcs frnmc rrom !
frame to Ihc pbysicd layer.
physicnl layer,
●
A[ (be physical Iaycr on (I1c frxnsnli( side, daIa encoding Irnnstnils the
bumcrs Ibe fmmc,
syv,cllronimtinn signal (prcnmhlc). In addilicm, it encodes lbe binary clots 1
b providcf [Or collisiml nvoidancc (Ilmnsmit side),
slrcam In n self-clocking Moncbcstcr code, Ihc sigrml is lbcN passed to
● provides for collisiorl h:lndling (tl:losmit side). I
(rnnsmi[ clwm1cl occcss which inlrmluccs Ihc signnl onto the chnnncl.
The pllysic:tl I:IYCT is mcilitim dctmmlcnl. II is responsible{ for such “I”hcCSMA/CD (MAC) fmmc is transmitted to all slations conneclcd to
!’:.,” ,.,,,.. ,, .,, ,.,,. ‘ , ,! ,.,.,.,,.,:,,., r{! :I\VaV from tbc oripinnlinc node ill I1OII1
 )

142 Local fires Networks Chap. 6 Chap. 6 LANTo@@es and Pro!ocols 1.43

directions to [be o[hcr !nmles. A receiving station senses Ibc prcnmhlc, Ano[her way 10 vic\v collisions is through slot time, the time required
syncllronizcs ilsclf onto the sign:ll$ s11111
fttrns on Ihc c:\rvicr sense signnl, fnr a fmmc to prnfwqwtc Ibmugh the clltirc cbanncl ond [he delay in
Then, receive cbanncl access passes [lx sign; ll up [0 d:lf:t dccmling. ‘TIIc d;tt:ti :!cq[ti,s il ion of fhe CIMMCI. AII Illhcrncl 10 Mbil/s chnncl (Iwscbnml) 1}:}.su
decoding enlity Iransl:l[es [he t.lanches{er code back <o Ihc ~onvcntion;d propngu[ion d.clny of 45(3 hit times (4.SIAS x 10,000,000 = 450). Elhcrnet
binary da[a stream and IMISSCS{IIC frame up lo mcdimacccss mnnagcmcn{. requires i! slot [imc (0 bc kwgcr tbnn lhc sum of the propagolion lime (450
Like i(s counlcrpor[ on the [ransmit side, nledi;t-:lcccss mstm!gcnmn[ hils) :Iml Ihc m:tximun] jnm lime (48 bi[s).
buffers [he frame unlil Ihe cnrrier sense sigwd hns been [umcd off from [f fhc signol is profmga(ccl (0 all pnrfs of fbc clmnncl wi{hnul collisions,
receive channel access, The carrier sense signnl goes off nml lndicotcs Ihti[ {be sl:l(iml (bat bns Itonsmittcd the signal is said 10 lmvc acquired or seizc(l
all the hils have [!rrivcd, Mcdio-:!cccss n>:tin:!gcnmnl CM) m>\v fmss lbc dnto Illc Ch:lnncl. (hcc this occurs. collisions nrc nvoidcd. since :111sl:tlimts Iwvc
up [o da[a decapsulati on. 13iI[a decupsu! ation pet-forms an error cbcck on Ihc dclcc!cd [be signal ;Iml defer to il. llo\vcvcr, in (be evc”l ottbc c{>l[isio”, t}le
da[a to de[ermine ir the transmission process created errors. If not, it checks [ransmil channel access component notices the interference on (be channel
lbe address field (0 dc[crminc if lhc fmme is deslincd for its nndc. If il is, i( (in the form ofvollngc nbnormali(ics) and (urns on a special caltision.detecl
passes it 10 Ibc user Itiyer \vitb (be destinn[ion nddrcss (I) A), source address sign:d [0 transmit mcdin-nccess nmnagcmcnt,
(SA). and, of course, the LLC data unit. Tmnsmit media-occess management performs t\vo functions [o rnonage
(be collision, Firs[, i[ enforces the collision by trmsmitting a special bit
Co[[is{on.$, Since the CSMA/Cll s!r[jcl[tre is :t pcct’-lwpccr nclwovk, scqucncc c:dlcd [hc jam, Tbc Imvposc of tbc jnm is [n ensure (hilt (Iw
all s[ations are vying for the use of the channel when lbcy have CINI:I to durolion of lhc collision is long cnougb 10 be noliced by :111 lhe olhcr
transmit. The crm(enlion can resul! in [he signals from varim!s s(alions being lransmittiug stations that are involved in the collision. The CSMA/CD LAN
in[rmluccd on lbc c:lhlc :it opproxinmlcly Ibc some linlc. WhcN Ibis occurs, rcq(lircs lbal lbcj;lm hc :!( Icnst 32 but not more [Iron 48 bits, This gunrantccs
[he sign:!ls colliclc :!nd dislorl c:ich olbcr. Tbcy c:tnno( hc rcccivcd tort’cc(ly [Im[ (hc dum[iml of lhc collisiol! is sulficicnl [0 cosurc its dclccfim by nll lhc
by [he slalions. lr:!nsmil[ing slafions on !hc nc[work. 1[s Iimi[cd Icng(h xlso cnsm’cs th:i[ (Iw
A centml aspccl of cnllisirms dc:lls will) lhc collision window. This s[:tl ions will no[ falsely in(crprc[ it M n wdicl I’mmc, Any fmmc cnntuining
term dcscribcs [he length cd time rcqtlircd for (I1c sign:ll tn proIwtpItc lhrough Icss lh;llt 64 hy[cs (MC(S) is prcsttmcd to hc n fmgmcnl rcsultiug from tI
the channel find be detcc!ed by each station on the nc{work. For exnmple, collision and is discorded by nny olbcr receiving stolicms ml Ibc link,
[e! us assume lhn[ a nc(work I1OSa cable six ICWI]S nfi! mile long. lfstalions Transmit medin-access management then performs [be second func-
are si!ualed SI Ihc (w end of Ibe cnblc, [hc furlhcst sl:!l ion dist:[ncc is nho!![ tion: A1’lcr lhc ,j:uu is scnl, it terminates lhc transmission nnd schcduics Ibc
six-tenths of ~ mile. 1( [akes approximately 4.2 microseconds for a sigmd 10 transmission for a later lime, based on a random wait selection. The
Iravcl six-lcn[hs ofn mile. When stalion A is re:!dy 10 transmit, i! senses [he Ic!’mina{ ion of frame transmission dccreascs [he effect of a [ong frame
cable 10 dc!ermine if a signal is on [he circuit. If s[ation 13 bad previously collisinn manifcs(ing itself on (I1c channel for an exlended time.
trnnsmi[ted its frame onto the clmnncl, hut it had not hxl Iimc 10 rcncb stwion AI IIICreceiving s!a!ion or stations, Ibc bits resulting from (I1Cco[(ision arc
A, (hen station A would LIIscIY assume tlm[ (he chonncl is idle :oml (ransmi( i[s decoded by IIN? physical Inyer. The fragmented frames received from the
packet, In Ibis silua[ ion. the two sigmds would cullidc will) CW4 other. collisicm arc distinguished from valid fmmcs by Ihc rcccivc mcdi;!.access
Under vmrs[-case comlilions for a baseband network, (IIC arnmm( of m:ln:!gcmcnf 10ycr, 1f notices Ihol Ihe collision fmgmenl is snmllcr Ibon (be
[ime 10 detect Ihc collision (~nd acquire the chotlncl) is twice (he proptgafiml sbcwlcs( valid fmmc and discards lhc rragmcnts, Co!weq!)cntly, tbejrun is used
delay, since (he collided signal must propagale back (o lhc Imnsmilling {n cmtlrc 011tromvntiltin.v sl:l[ ions notice [hc cnllision. nml Ibc I_r:lgmcnlcd frame
s[a[icms. Pmp:]gat ion delay and collision detection is even Iongcr for a is tronsmil!cd to ensure !lm[ any rrccil,ift~ sl;l[ inn igncwcs Ihc Irw)smissicm.
broadhnnd ne[work that uscs (WO cables for scml ~ml receive signals. Under [loll} Elhemel and 802.3 usc :1 I-pcrsislenl [echnique [o nlanogc collisions
\vors[-case conditions, the tinlc I(I dclcct the collision is rour [inlcs tbc nml ch:)nncl contcnlims. (Tbc I.pcrsistcnl Icchniqtlc was disc(lsscd in Chnp[cr
propagation delay. Two.) I lowcvcr. lllis I-pcfsislcnl ;llgorilhnl is :Ipplicd (0 ;111in[cgr:ll mul[iplc of
A collision is undcsirohle. since i[ crcnlcs cl-m’s in Ibc nclwork, n SIOI [imc (5 12 bils), nml lhc scbcd!lling of rctmns!llissioll is pcrkmncd by n
Moreover, if Intlg I’romcs arc transmitted. Ihc collisi[,n lnkcs mw’c lime on con[rollcd randmnizing process called tm!lcaIcd binary exponential back-dT,
the cbilnncl lbarl will) Ihc usc oi !ilwI’I fmmcs. CSMA/Cl) :Iddresscs this AI IIIC L!nd nr o.iwn, IIIC media.:lcccss l;\ycr dclnys lhcforc ot[cnlp(in~ [o
~rnhlcm n[ Ibc tmnsmi[ mcdin-access managc!nclll ICVCI hy slopping {hc rclr:lmnli( a nmximvm or lfI limes, I;:!cb lime. Ihc me:m v;)l!)c d IbC mIId,III I
 1 chap. G LAN”TvlWlos nnd Prolmols , 14S
144 LocnlAria Nolwofhw CIWP.6
.,
Prlorr,
” .3
“’l’hc dclny is nn iolcgml multiple oflhc slol time. ‘I”hcnwubcr 01 slot Iimcs
10 dcl:ty Imfhrc the IV(!I retransmission altcmpt is choscw m o mrifimnty E
distributed random inlcgcr r in !he mnge O s r < Shwbcrc k 7 :niu (!1, 10). ” P
[miu is a runction that selccls the lowest value or!! or 10.)

CSMA/Cf.) performs bcs( under conditions whco nggrcgolc clmnncl

utilization is relatively low (less th~n 307. u[ilizntion), An asynchronous
[crminat-based syslem should perform well wi[h CSMA/C~). However,
alternate LANs are more approprintc ror envirollnlcnls that usc Ibc LAN
network more constantly. For example, (hc next LAN type, token ring,
generally performs better [Iron CSMA/CD umlcr ctmdilions of grcnlcr
channel u[ilizal ion.

Token /?/rig (Pr/Orffy)

The Iokcn ring rpriori[y) uses a lokcn 10 provide priority :Icccss 10 Ilw ... .,
network. This approsch is used widely in vendor producls” Iodny and is I? Priovi!v Ficldol Station UsingTeken
endorsed in [he IEEE 802.5 slnndard. It hm m:my sim;lori!ics 100 convcn. R l?,?scna!ionField
tional token-pnssing ring (discussed in Chnplcr Two) l:or example, N token F: Ftngflclt! loln<licnle Rlnqls8.1v Or Ftee

is passed around the ring, and within (he token is an indicntor if [hc ring is Figure 6-5. Token Rlng(PriOrlly)
free or busy. The token circles continuously around the ring, passing cacb
s[ation. If a s(a[ion wishes to transmit datn, and (he token is emp(y, it seizes bil SC( [oirl~licale tl)n[llle tokcnis busy. Tl]cfollo!\,itlg sequence ofevenls
or cap[ures the ring by modifying the loken to a slarl-of-user-frame indica- illuslra[cs onc appronch 10 priority [oken pnssing:
tor, appending the da!a and control fields [Figure 6-6(c)] and sending lbe
frame around the rinc to (be next slation. SIalion U rcccivcs Ibc fmmc. II has dn[a 10 trnrmmi[. so il places its
Each sta[ion is ~equired [o took at Ihc foken. Upon dc[ci!nining lhol if priority cif2inarescrva[ion field wilhinlhctokcn. I{ then pmseslhe
is busy, the receiving sl~[ion then mus! regenemle it [o pass it 10 [he next token [o C.
sta[ion. The copying ofda[a is only required if the clato is [o he passed [o the I ● Slation C:tls(> dctcrnlincs [l}cri!)g is busy. Ill}: !s[l:]it! loscflcl:ilplnccs
end-user application at[ached to [hat particular node. Upon [hc information
03 in [he reservation Iicld. [bus displacing the 2 which wm inscrlcd by
arriving back al [he original Iransmi![ing si[e, Ihc [oken is once again
st:l[ion B. Sl:t[ion Ctl)cnpnsscs tllefranleto D. Dmustdefcr; il connot
initiated and placed onto the ne[work.
I pl:!ccits priorily of2in\[~llic ficldbccatise apriorilyof3 isnlrcndyin
With the token priori(y-passing approach, lhe s(a[ions have priority
pk!cc, Consequently, it p:mscs Ihc rramc (o I?. which ex:lmincs the
eslablislwd ror occess [o the network. This is ochievcd hy placing priority
rcscrva [ion field. Upon seeing tbc 3 in [he field, it does nothing, since
indicators within [he token. The priority cnpnbilily places the token ring in
its priority is :11s0 3.
a peer-to-peer priority system wi[hin the clmsificalion (me (SCC Figwc 2-5).
● Sl;![ion Areceives lllcfronlcb;ick. IIm[!kcs thcring frccbyresc[ling
The next two discussions focus in on (he opcrntinrts of a prioril y token
ll)ctc)kcn andpossiltg tlletc)kcn~o U.
ring. The firs! iliuslralion prescn(s a general view of z ly~icol ([lkctl ring. The
● 11 is nolallowcd lc}tlsc ll}ctokctl [>ec~ttlsc lhcrcscrvation licld inside
second discussion goes into a more dc[zilcd exnminalion of token rings wi[li
[be 1EEE802.5 protocol. Ihctokcniscqu;d (03—tJ!lc lligllcr [l]:l!ttl)c priori lyof ’11.
I
● C is ollowcd to scim the token, since its ~riori(y of 3 is cqu:ll 10 or
A General View oJ/lIe Token Assl]me a Inkcll ring I1OS live
Ring.
gl-c:ttcr [hot) Ihc priorily imlicntor ill the [okcn. II plnccs its dotn on Ihc
“stationsa ltached[oapriorily ring (rein Figure 6-5), S(o(ion A Iwsnpriority
ring and sends lhc (rnnsmission 10 D.
access of I (Iowcsl prioril y), sln[ions [1 aml D have primilics 0( 2, :Iml
● l>isn[)w:lllowc[l ltJpl:tcc ilsprit,rily of2itll(\ lllcrcscrv~lli(,ll ficltl. II
s[alions Carol Ehnvc pt-inri[ics of3 (highcs~ priority). Wcmsumcs[:! lion A
-,. , ‘,, lI[)CS S[) :Ild wsscs IIIC rr:llll C k, E.
 ,, .,..,. . ,,. .. . .,, ,,, h,.
,,,
,

146 LocalArm Nolworks Ctmp.8 CIIeP. 6 LAN Tap%glm nnd Protocols 147

● E displaces fl’s priority of 2 will) i(s priori(y of 3 :I!KI passes the frame The priority mechanism opcra[cs in such a way lb~t equal ;!ccess to the
(o A. tingis nminlained fornll slnlions wi{hin a priority Icvel.,’rhis isoccomplishecf
hy b;lving Ihc s;lmc sln(ioll llml miscd lhc scvvicc priori(y Icvcl d [h~ ring
● A mmsl defer nny rcscrvalion pl:)ccmcn!, ,sincc ils priority is 1.
(Ibc .slc,[ki]l~ .~t(rrio!l) rc[um Ibc ring !0 lbc origitml scrvicc priority, The Sx
● B must 21s0 forego nny priority :Illocntion, since its primily is 2.
,and Sr stncks arc used 10 pcl-form (his function.
● C reccivcs its lmnsmissiorl h:!ck; it is rcqilircd 10 m:!kc,lhc ring free. 1[ m priority opcmtiml works m follows: WhcII o st:!( ion !1:1sN priorily
does so and transmits the token to D. I_mmc to lransmit, i~ rcqucs[s a priority token by changing (I}c rcscrvatiotl bits
● D is not allowed (o seize (he ring, since ih priorily of 2 is ICSS Ibim Ihc (RRR) as the s[alion rcpmds (hc !oken. If (he priori[y leveJ (Pm) of !he frame
rcscrvc priorily indicutor 01’3. II passes tbc token to E. [Im( is !-cndy I’m’Imnsmissiou is grcnlcr Ib:w Ibc 1/1<17hils, [hc sl:ll ion incrc:lscs
● E seizes (be rinm bccausc its priority of 3 is cquxl 10 or grc:,tcr (!!:!!1(I1c the v:duc of Ihc RRIUickl to the v:duc Pm. Irlbc WIIUC of [hc RRR hils is CCINUI
reservation ind~calor of 3. [o or greater than Pm, tbc rescrwtion bits (RRR) are rcpea[cd unchanged.
Aftcra station Imsclnimcd Ibc !okcn, the s[a[ion tmnsmi[s I_romcs until
As ilh!s(rnted in Figure 6-5, (he token is posscd around from node 10 i{ lms complc{cd lronsmission or uu{il the trnnsmissi~m of nno[bcr I’mmc
node. When [he node receives the data (ha! is destined for n slation at tbnt could not be complcled before n [imcr expires, in which case the station
node, it copies the data for its user stz(ion and passes the frame 10 Ibe nexl gcncm!es n new token for [rxnsmission on the ring.
node. As [he full (busy) token circles the ring, Ibc sit!! ions vic for its usc on If tbc s!ntiou dots not IUIVC m!di[ion:d frames 10 trxnsmil or ir Ihc
the ~!e.rr pass around (he ring. III [his partictllar silun[ion, if all the stations s[nlion does nof have a reservz[ ion reqttcst (con(aincd in regislcr Rr) which
hzve datn 10 !ransmit, the token is actunlly exclmnged e(wry o{hcr pass is grcaler than the prcscn( riog service priority (contained in register Pr), [bc
bc[wecn s[a[ions C nnd E, since lhcy biivc lhc highcsl priority on Ihc ring. (okcn is [rnnsmitlcd wilh i!s priority :![ Ibc present ring scrvicc priority und
However, in mosl situations, the higher priority sla!ions arc no[ Iikcly [o be the rcscrvo~iou bits (R RR) !![ Ihc greater of Rr or Pm, find no further aciion
transmitting with every pass. Consequently, [be priority-ring conligt! ration is taken.
aIIOWS the lower priority staliOns (O seize the ring in tbc evcrl[ tbc highCr However, if [he s[ation has a frame ready for transmission or a
priority sta[ions are not ac(ive. reservation request (Rr). ei[bcr of \vbich is grcaler [ban (be prcscnl ring
service priori[y, the [okcn is gcncralcd with its priority at [he greater of Pm
TIIe IEEE 81)2.S Priority Scheme. The IEEE 802.5 prjori[y scllemc is or Rr and ils rcserva{ion bils (RRR) ash. Since the station hns raised [be
similar, but considerably more sopilistica~cd [!l~ln (he prc~i~)us dcPicfi{Jn. scrvicc priority Icvclof (hc riltg, (ITCs(nliofi bccomcs:t stack ings[n(iun nnd
The IEEE 802.5 slandard provides priority access to the ring [brougll lhe usc mus[ s(orc (he value of (hc ohl ring service priori[y 0s Sr and the ncw ring
of the following fields and registcrs:z service priorily as Sx. Ihcsc vnlues are used I?[cr to lower the service
priotily oflllcring \\,l)cn lllcrc:lrc nOrratlles rmdylotr:losmil on [hc ring
RRR Reservation hits allow high-priority slalions 10 requcsl the use whose priority (Pm) is equnt to orgrea[er (ban the stacked Sx.
of the ncx[ [oken. Upon becoming a stacker, the stalion claims every [oken that it
PPP l’riority bi[s indicate lhc priori(y of tbc lokctl, and thcrcforc rcccivcs IIm[ hm n priority (1’1>[’) cqIInl to i[s bighcst s[ackcd Iransmil [cd
which stn!ions are allowed to tlse lhc ring. priority (Sx). The 1{1{1?bi[s of the token nrc cxomincd in order 10 misc.
Rr S~or~ge rcf!islcr for the reservnlion value. maintnin. or Iowcr !hc service priorily of tbe ring. The new !oken is
Pr Slomgc rcgis[cr for [bc priority wdt!c. Ic!nsmiltcd will] i[s 1>1’1’hils cqu:ll [O lbc V:IIUCof the rcscrvfilioll hils (RR R),
Sr Slack register [o slore tbc wduc of l+. , hu[ ,lolowcr lllilnll)c v:lll,c c)flllcl,igllcst slnc kcd rCCCiVCL! priori[y (Sr).
Sx Stack rcgis[cr to s(orc ~he value of (I1c token II)M wos tronsmi((cd. which was Ihcorigimll ring fwiorit yscrvicclcvcl, ‘rtlis:l pp!-(~;lcll c!ls{ircs [lm[
Pm Priority Icvel of a fr[imc queued and ready for Imnsmissicm. Ihc highest priorily gc[s ncccss 10 the ring.
lf~llcv:tlllc or[llctlc\v ril}gscrvicc pric~ri[y (l'l'l'c[i~l;ili{l Rr)isgrcolcr
The prinlily hils (PPP) ?nd (Iw reservnlicm hi[s (RRR) cont:!incd in (I1c [lmn Sr, lhc RRR bits are (rnnsmi[ ted as 0, lbc old ring scrvicc priority
[okcn give access 10 [hc highcs[ pt’im’ily fmmc (h:![ is rcn[ly for !ronsmissiotl cont:!incd in Sx is rcplnccd wilh n ncwvalt!e Sxcqu:ll to Rr. and [be sla[ion
cm lhc ring, “l”hesc volt!cs :tre s[orcd in rcgislcrs {’r and RI. Tbc ct)mcn( fing con[inllcs its role :1s a s!ncking sl:l~ion.
service priori!y is imlicnled by Ibe priority hits (1’1’1))oml (I]c tokon, wbicl) Ilowcvcr. il[bc Rr value iscqut!l Ioorlcss lbon Ihc VNIUC~lrthe bighcs[
.. .. . , .,.,.....1 ,1,. ,.;,,,, s(:!ckcd rcccivcd priority (Sr). (I1c ncw token is [mnsmil ted nt n priorily
148 Local Area Networks chap. e Chap. 6 LAN Totwlcglesnnd Probxo!s t49

WIIUCof !bc Sr, both .5x ;It NlSr orc tcmnvcd from lhc sluck. :IMI, if no OIIVX nu abort (okcn comi. dit!g only nf Ihc stmti!q! ad cading delimit L.r. This
values of Sx and Sr are s(ncked, (he s(ation disccmlin!lcs its role m n shcking Imnsmission cnn be seat :It any time to abort x previous transmission.
slntirm. This Iecbniq(lc OIIOWSIhc lower priority st:!timls to usc the ring ouce The informnlion-lrnmfcr fornml is illustra[ ccl in Figure 6-6(c). In
[be high. priori[y slw[inns arc lbruugh. :Mli[intl [o Ihc s!:w(ing delimiter, access con[rol, ond cmling delimiter, [hc
The IEEE 802.5 standxrd provides for three possihlc f’ormats f’nr (IIC sltlnd;lrd provides for uddilionol Iiclds. m frumc coolrot Iicld dclincs [bc
token ring. These rormals are depicted in Figure 6-6. The token fornm[ type of frame (MAC or LLC dnln unit) and can be used to establish priori~ies
[Figure 6-6(.)1 consis[s of tbrcc bylcs, lb. sl:,r~ing dclimil.r, Ibc ncccss hclwccn IWO LLC peer cmi[ics, The address fields iden[ify the sending and
control. ml [he ending dclimi( cr. ‘I’hc purfwsc of Ihc IWO dclimi!crs is (0 rccciving sl:l( ions. ‘1’bc in form:tlion ficlf.1contains ascr duln. The FCS Iickl is
indicale the beginning znd ending of (he irnnsmlssion. Tbc ac$css con[rol USCCIfor error checking and [he frnme stnlm ficltl is used 10 indic:lic Ilmi the
contains eight bi~s. Three bi[s are used for a priority indicfilor. tbrcc bits arc rccciving station recognized its address and copied the rlx(a in the informa-
used ror a reservation indicator, and one bit is [he tokca bi[. When Ihc token tion field.

bit is set to O, i! indicates that {he !mnsmission is n Iokcn. When it is SC! [o The 802.5 recommendation provides for mflny o[ber fealures as well.
1, i[ indici!tcs Iha[ n token is hcing trnnsmi[~cd. Tllc I:MI hil in Ihc :icccss For examples, several limers are used to control [he use of’ the ring and
fnilurcs urc bond]cd through vnrimls cnnlrnl fields. s(:li ion reporting rcquirc-
control by[c is [hc moni[cw hi[. This provides fnr :1 dcsigm!(cd s!n[icm 10
mcnts, oml neighbor-nocfc aotificzticm of problems.
monitor the ring for error con!rol and back-up parposcs. Figure 6-6(b) shows
Token BUS and IEEE 802.4
stwtin9 Access Ending

I&F
Dc!imf!er Control Delimiter Tbc (okcn-hm :Ipprouch rccommcndcd by tbc IEEE 802.4 commi[lcc
is illustra(cd in Figare 6-7. This MAC sublayer consists of four major
(unctions: Ibc in[crfncc machine (lFM), the access control mmchine (ACM),
lhe receive machine (Rxhf), ond [he transit machine (TxM). The regenera-
tive repeater machine is another optional component, avfiilable in certain
repea[er stations such IIS a head-end modulator,
PPP; T; M;17RII ‘Mc ACM is Ibc bcnrt of Ibc Iokcn-bus syslcm, II dc(cr!nincs wbcn to
plnce a frame on !ht bus, and cooperates with Ihe o[ber sta[ions’ ACMS to
PP!+ Prlodw Blu

‘-m---
T: Token B;l (0 Token, t: Dela)
M: Moni(or Bit
RRtl: ReservationRits

(,) Token
! I
}

r=T=l
(b) Ahoct Token

@@
------ 1---- .-––-–-A ------
IcI Token and Dal. “
. . . . . . ,,, ,., ... ., ,., ,, (‘1 CI,*,’,C )
 . ..

\ “’
-.. .
Chnp.6 LAN To@@es and Prolocols 1s1

con[rol nccess to Ihc sh:wcd bus. II is olsa responsiljlc for ini(i:lli7,m (ion :Ind I1lcnsurcs 10 pnss mxmnd Ihc prnhlcm stn!iuo hy cs!:lhlislling n ncw sttcccssur.
m:!inlenance of [hc logicnl ring, including error clclcclinu and fnul( rccovcry. l:or more scrinus fmllls. nltcnlpls nre nl:dc [u rccslablish the ring.
II also controls the admission of new sla[ions, nn(l at[cmp[s rccovcry fronl If lhc successor does not Ironstnil, (he sending slotion normally
faults and failures, assumes the succcs,sor is nol oper,nb le. Tbe sender IIW” tr,nnsm its a ‘, who
The LLC fmmcs nrc fmsscd (o (I1c ACM by Ihc in{crf:lcc m:!cllinc follows” fmmc wilb its successor’s oddrcss in the ft’:ullc. Tlw fnilcd sln[ion
(lFM). This compunen[ blllTcrs (hc LLC subl:lyer reql!csts. Thc I1;M maps is bypassed by all st:ll ions comparing this address with the address of their
“quali[y of service” parameters from [be LLC view 10 Ihc MAC view and predecessor. The slntion whose predecessor’s ?ddress matches the “who
performs address checking on received LLC rranms. follows” nddress [hen sends n ‘‘sel successor” fmmc \vilh i[s address. In
The TxM and RxM components have somcwhn( Iimitcd funclions. lhc Ibis mnnncr, the foiled s(nlicm is hricfgcd OUI of lhc nclwork.
responsibility of [he TxM is to transmi~ [he frornc [o (IIC physicnl Iaycr’. It SIalions are added 10 isn 802.4 bus by an appronch called response
accepts a frame from [he ACM and builds n MAC protocol dnl:~ uni( (PI)(J) windows:
by prefacing the frame with [he preamble and slar(ing dctimi[cr (S[)). II also
appends (he FCS and the ending delimiter (ED). The RxM accepfs data from ● While holding [he token, n node issues a ,wlicif-$~(ccemor frame, The
the physical Inycr nnd identifies a full frame by dclccling the SD J!nd f?l>. It adllrcss in the fmmc is hclwccn it nud ncxl succc,mor sl;t[io”.
also checks lhc J>CS r}cld 10 v:llid;!lc :!n error-1’rcc lr:msnliss ion. 11’:ircccivcd ● Token hulclcr wwils onc window [imc (SIOI (imc, CIIIUII I(> t\vicc [hc
frame is an LLC type, i[ is passed from the RxM component (o (IIC IFM. ‘flw encl-lo-cnd propagation dckry),
IFM indicates its nrrival and [hen delivers it [o (he i.LC slthktyer. Once in ● If no response, (IIC lokcn is (mnsfcrrcd 10 IIIC successor mxlc,
the LLC subhrycr, it goes through Ihc nccessnry fl!nc!ioms uf the 1101.C
● [f response, a rcqucs(ing Nude scuds n .rcf-,rttr’r’c.r,vnr fr:!nlc :I!ld token
subse! [o service [he end-user application, or ono(her Inycr provided by ISO
bolder changes ils’ successor node address, Reques[er receives token,
or HIL1 (IEEE 802.1).
sets i(s addresses, a[ld proceeds.
The forma[ of an 802.4 frame is identical to Ihc [okcn Iring 802.5 fmmc
[Figure 6-6(c)], except [hal ii has no access con(rol ml frame stalus (AC)
A node can drop out of the transmission sequence. Upon receiving a
fields. Obviously, the AC is no[ needed, since (his protocol does not usc
[okcn, it sends a set-successor frame 10 (be predecessor. which orders !be
priori(y (PPP) and reservation (RRR) indicnlors.
ncx[ nude to give (I1c Iokcn hercd’lcr (o its successor.
IEEE 802.4 determines tbe /oricf[/ ring of lhc phy.$i(’d bus hy lhe
While Figure 2-5 classiiics a token bus system as n peer-to-peer,
numeric value of nddresses, An MAC or LLC dnla unit provides lbc fncili[y
,mnpriurily network, options do exis[ in [be 802.4 standard (o include cku,r
for [he lowest address [o hfind [he token [o [he highest oddrcss. (See Chnpter
Two, Figure 2-15, for a review of [his protocol.) Then, (IIC loken is prosed Of .rer~’lce. which WOUld mnke the syslem priorily-oriented. The clnss-of-
service option permits sta[ions access 10 the bus based on one of fuur [ypes
from a predecessor sta[ion to i(s stlccessor station.
of dnln (0 transmit:
The token (right to (ronsmi[) is pnssed from slalinn 10 st:ttion in
ilcscending numerical order of stntirm address. When :t sl:)linn hcnrs a token
● Synch ronous-cksss 6
frame addressed to itself, i[ may [ransmit data fmmes. When a slalion has
completed transnlittingda[a frames, it passes Ihe token to (IIC ncxl station in ● Asynchronolls Urgent-class 4
[he logical ring, WIIen ;! s{a(ion has [he tukcn, it m:[y lcnlpomrily dclcgntc its ● Asynchronous Normol-elms 2
righl (o lransmi[ to nnother sla(ion by scmling rI reqt!cst-\vill!-response dula ● Asynchronous Time Avaikrblc—ck!ss O
frame,
Aflcr each slalion I!:is complclcd tn!nsnlilling any dnln f~imcs il nl:!y A Iokcn-lmhling sln!ion is allowed to mnintoin Iuts conlrot pmscd on
have, the station passes the [okcn [o iis successor by sending n lokcn control priurity timers, The [imcrs give more [imc 10 IIIC higher CI:MSCSof [rxlfic.
frame.
After sending (I1c lokcn fromc, lhc sluliutl Iis(cus fur cvidcncc lh:it its Summary of the 802 Specifications
successor hns IICOMI{IICtoken fmmc and is nc[ivc. 11’(I1c scudcr hcnrs:1 v;llid
frame following (he Ioken, it assumes (ha! its successor lms Ihc (okcn nnd is This clmpler hx emphasized Ihe work of the I E13E 802 commil[ees,
transmitting, Ir IIIC [nkcn sender does not hcflr a vnlid fmmc Idlowing its [okcn This is not to say tbtrl ntbcr LANs shmdd he i,{nored. since olhcr systems
. ...” :, . .. . . . . (.,, ... . . . . . . ‘ ,< .. . ,,. . . . . ..,,.,. ,,, ,,, ,,.,,,. ,,,,,, ., .,, ,,, ,, .,. .,,..,, ,’,.,,,,, ,,, ,, ., ..,,...,, ,,, ,.
 .. ,..
.. .4.: _—..—- .

) )“
152 LocalArm Nclwmks Chnp, 6 Chnp. 6 Olhor Sysloms 153

of [he ma.ior I,AN prolncols flml sl:!ndmds, imd Ihc IEEE 802 spccificnliuns ISN con swi(cb up to 48.(100 of [bcsc snl:!ll 18(1-hil pxckcls pcr sccund. This
b:]vc been widely :Icccptcd itl lhc induslry :timl :Im illllslro(ivc nl’ It<lw mtlst cq(l; i[m t,) Ihc 8,64 Mlli[/s HIIL$nf ~111Ihrcc itl(c,rnni sys I.. ms,
LANs opcrutc. Ulhcr syslcms Imvc :!Iso nlndc ON impnct. Wc cover lbcsc llnd.user dcviccs arc :Itti!chcd (Iwougb plt!g-in modules into lbc sys.
networks in tlIe next section and in Chnpters Eleven and Twelve. Icm. Up 1042 pltlg-in modules rcprcscnting 336 IIICNIdcviccs arc s!lppor[cd
by :i ccnlrnl controller. I lnwcvcr. mtdliplc C{mlr<dlcrs c:)n hc ;tlt;tclwd [0
cnch o[bcr. AT&T ck!ims [lm( n fully Iowlcd ISN will supporI up 10 1680
Olher Systems end-user devices. The conllguralion wilh Ibis capability would require cmc
I ccn[ml conlrotlcr willl four rcmnlc conccnlmlors o[lachcd 10 il.
AT&T Informaflon System Network (ISN)
AT&T IIWSt:tkcll :! m;tjor S(CP in{o Illhl’s nmn:! with lhc c!lh;lncctllcnls
American Telephone and Tclcgmph (AT&T) has OISOcntc!-cd IIIC I.AN tlmt provide llSC or SDLC dcvicc x[lachmcnt 10 its ISN, Anotbcr cnhunccd
nlarkc! wi(h scvcrol oil’crinss. Onc is (I}c Inf’unnolion SYS(CIU Nclwork pnck:igc suppor(s [Iic direct n[l:!cbmcn( of 3270-f;mlily dcviccs, AT&T
(ISN). ISN is simiktr (u (Iw time division mul!iplc :icccss (TI)MA) IWUIOCO1 provides lhcsc fcotw’cs, nut only for ihc ISN, bill for its Systcm 7.$ :Ind
(discussed in Chap(er Five on sdelli(e networks), [bus filting inlo tbc Sys(enl 85 PllXs. “Ile supporl packages also allow (hc networking of an lSN
classification tree m a primary /secondary nonpolling syslenl. It is tmscd on with a Sys(cnl 75 or 8S, inlcrfnccs inld TI :!nd I)nl!tphonc f)igitol Scrvicc
a slw topology u!iliy.ing Iwislcd. fmir cnhlc from :1 ccnlml co}ifrollcr In Ibc (11[)S) oOcri!lgs. :ind gntwwys In l?lbcrnc![ or St:lrkin I,WNI nctwt,rks.
ti[(achccl OTES. Moreover, [hc 3270 wlop[crs olln!v users to rcplncc 3270 cot!xiol cubic wi[b
Figure 6-8 illus[mtes [he major conlponents of lSN., The system Iwis!edqxair cable, The producls are being carefully examined by [he
employs three networks inside a central controller. C)nc nctwurk, [he imlus[ry, especially i!l view nf IBM’s dck!ycd cnlry in(n (I1c LAN ticld,
contention b(ls, is clcdic:l( ccl [o handling ncccss [o [bc nc!work. “1’bc other
two subnc[works consist of a transmi! bus and a rcccive bus. All three
IBM Token Ring
sys(cms opera!e at 8.64 megabi(s per second. The purpose of [he (ransmi[
and receive buses is to provide a high-speed interface (o remote con] Po-
lBM provided considerable input (o [be 802.5 lokcn-ring stnndnrd, and
nents, such as multiplexcrs or computers. The [\vo inpu(loulpu[ modl#les
Ihc IBM token ring closely rcscnlblcs Ihc IEEE LAN standard. This sec[ion
I utilize optic fibers for [hc lmnsnlission media. The central conlrollc!’ dircc[s
covers smnc of lhe fcatl!rcs of [be IBM token ring as \\,ell (IS i[s format
the tmtlic inlo and m!! of tbe syslcm through the usc of a TI)MA nrrmlgc-
s[ruclurc,
ment. The DTEs arc allachcd [o ISN through convcn[imml in[crfiiccs, such
The ring is a basebtmd. single token-passing priority configuration
as RS-232-C. The contention bus and i[s associated logic provide Ibc
which \vorks like (I1c IEEE 802.5 standml discussed previously. WC will no(
assignment of tmnsmission lime SIOIS 10 tbe ollnchcd D1’lk. The itc(unl
repeat how it opcralcs, bul will describe addilimml functions IBM hos added
allocation of !he (raffic depends on the nature of the request from (he f3TE
10 i[s ring, The formal for the ring is depicted in Figure 6.9. In order (o assess
and the amouni of trafT1c ~o be handled
lhc similori(ics and diffcrcnccs bctwccn the IEEE s[nndorll nnd IBM’s
[okcn-ring npproocb, lhc reader should review Figure 6-6 nml compore it
wil h Figure 6-9.
The pllysicrd ring consisls of 4 Mhil/s shicklcll lwis[cd.pcir cxhle or

I
Ttan,mil contention
Pl!!g.1” DTEs ltnsllicldcd Ielcphvnc-lypc c:ddc. A ring cnn hc cunncclcd 10 :!!lnlhcr t’ing
{optic Fihe,s) ,“d llecoive 0“s
Module,
Bus (Controlled through n bockbonc of 4 Mbit/s lwisted-pair cnble or 16 Mbil/s optic fiber.
8,64 MBIIJ,
— . The dnla-li!lk Icvcl conlaios the MAC subl:!ycr 8(12.5 pro[ocul. Ho\v-
ever. I [IM 11;1simplcnlcnlcd more functions itl its MAC, Co Nscq IIcmly. n
ns-237-c
n!!livc 802,S MAC device cmmol opcrn(c \vilh Ill M’s chip SCI I’!wthis Icvcl,
TIIc upper Icvcl of [he data-link layer also con[ains [he 802.2 logical link
Figure 6.6. ATkTs Local Area Network
control (LLC) pmtucnl. IBM suppurts nll three uf lhc options in IIIC IEEE
The TIJMA-like conlrrdler olloca(es 50 nlillisccund ((1.050 SCC) linlc 802 model lilbtslrnlcd in Figures (i-2(b), (c) nnd (d)].
SIUIS, ‘fhese SI1OI[ dola bllrs(s intcdcxve many packets in a short pcriml of The IBM Iokcn ring nlso cnnlnins support for Ihc SNA/APPC (ad-
ii . . . ,1....1... ,Ii..fe;,l,:.. I I,. r.l,. mr.oc rif r.m. !., t( i,,. A.1’,QJ,~ <I; III.< !l, ,,1 ;,., !,, ,,,,.., . . . . . . ., ,, ,. ,’.. .!., !.,. .,, ,>,.,
!,., ,,.:.., ;,. . ,., ,!,!... .. . !1, .,- ,. .. :.1.. .
 ).
)
t 54 Local Area Networks Chap. 6 Chap. 6 Other Syslems 155

conseq{mntly, isno(dccipbcrnblca sit circles around lhe ring. Wba(evcr!he

c:msc for llle Iosl lokcn. (he oclivc monitor hancllcs lhc si[uo lion by
nutinl[(ining ;[ (imcrth:tl is I’CSC1upon :Tfree or’ htmy fokcu pnssing if. lf(bc
Iimcr expires before [hc token circles bock to the nc[ivc nlonitor slntion.
(hen IIIC token nlonilcrr isrcquircd toreinitioli,ze the ringhy issuing a. free
tokcnonlotllc nc[w[ wk.

l//fil’s Cah/;ftg Sys(e~n. 113Mhas annm!ncc daczblin gsyslemwhich[he

token ring cmllduse .Tllccahling/wirin gannot!nccment h:tscrcnlcd cllnsid-
Figure 5.9. IBM Token Ring Formal crabtc nllcnlion in the ind!!slry, The idct! of lhc npprn:lcll envisioned by IBM
is to rellilce ()relilnillale tllcexpensc ofrcwiring abuilding or pulling cable
I
wbcn DTEs such as compufers and [crmintds are inslallcd or moved, 1[ is
sonal compu{cr wi!h n bridge inlo an SNA network lllrough OIIC of SNA’S nlctmt to bc ml rillcrnative to dcdicnlcd cwrxird coblc, which is used
logical units, LU 6.2 (Chapter Seven describes SNA nod LUS). In addition, conventionally Ioal(ach remote (ermin:ds to main franle conlputers.
IBM’s Netbios (Ne[work Basic Inpu(/O1l[put System) is provided 10 nllow IBM’s approach in n LAN configuration is 10: (1) minimize the Icngth
PCS using MS-DOS 3.1 aud above 10 in(crnctwork with cnch o(llcr. Tbc LU nf the c;ddc fmllcd through n building. nnd (2) provide fur ccmccn[mtirm
6.2and Ne!bios features provide poweflul fl!nc{ions ft>rtllclll M token-ring points in lhc cnbling systcm or link. Tbc first nbjcclivc rcduccs cosls and Ibc
network. transnlission dislnnce between the DTEs. The second objcc(ive facilitates
Rccrrgnizing[bot network it]legrity isaninlpor(nt}l cnJ1lp[~llcnt oflbc itls(;l On!iml, conligurntion. nnd rccmrfigurntion of Ibc lnpology. Most inlpor-
ring, (he IBM ring (and [be 802.5 prolocol) implcrncn(cd a Icrkcn-mmritor laI1(ly, it facililalcs uclwork nminlcrmnce and simplifm (rm!blcshooling.
func[ion on Ihe sys{em. One ring-interface uni( on each ring acfs m an ac(ive Given (hese[wogotds. If3Msla[es oneapproach is[oprovide a serial
token monitor [o perform recovery nf lost data or lost token<. The only busconnection. asindica(edin Figure 6-10(a). While !hisisquitegoodfor
pmposeoftbe loken-fnonilor rttnclion is 10 providcfortnkcn recovery. It mccling lhc first gonl (very Ii[lle c;!hle is pulled through a building for a scriol
performs no functions for manzging the da[a flow between tbe devices on the b[}s), (l]eserial interconnection isverypoor inmeeting the second goal, [[is
ring. diilicult [o [rol!blesllol>t a serial in!erconnecl ion. nnd it is very dioicul( to
Figure 6-9 shows a monitor count bit flag in the pllysicnl con[rol licld of ~-cconligurc a serial bus. Option t\vo provides for conccn[ralion points
(he frame. The token-monitor stn[ion wws the monitor count flag to detect a iFigl!re 6-10(b)]. In contrast (oop[imrone, it isquite poor innlee[ingthcfirs[
continuous circulalicm of a busy token. When a slfi( ion seizes the ring, it gonl, ll~llqllile goodin mee(ingtbe second.
places [he token header mound the dala. In so doing. lhc token-monitor field IBM”s approach is to conlbinc options one md IWO M depicted in
is set Io zero. When tllebusy token circles nroundtlle ring an{lpasscsbytl1e Figure 6-10(c). The combination provides for concentra[io” pOin[s whi~b
monitor st:tt ion, (he monilor stalion notices (I1c busy token and SC[S (I1c bridge Iincar buses (which nrc acttmlly rings).
monitor coun{ Ilfig. As the busy loken IWIsscs aro!lnd (IIC ringto !bc originat The cabling sys[cm consis[s of wiring CIOSCIS(concenlralors) plnccd in
[transmitting site, i{ is removed by the .sile. llowcvcr, if Ihc origimd votious Iocal ions in (I1c building, Each CIOSCI has n dis(ribu (ion Pnnel. “f’his
[ransmi[ting site has mzlfunc(ioned, the busy token will IMISS [be token panel is used Io connect (he wiring which runs through the wrriouswa[lsof
1 moni( ora second lime. Tbe [okcn moni[ or will observe tbat lhccounl Ilngis the ollices. Eacll pnucl can nccepl up to 64 cahlc pnirs or. st:ltcd anotbcr
s(ill set; it will asuume (bat the original trltlsmit(itlg slntion 11:1smnlfunc- way, 64 individu:d dcviccs, Tbc wiring C1OSCISM Ibcirn[l:tchcd c!!bles fnn
[ioned and will remove (he bllsy token from [he ring. II Iben inserts ond out to spcciml OUIICIS in wnlls, The wiring permanently connected to [tie
issues a free token, rind (he ring con[in!les its normal opcmlions. wiring CIOSCI permits connections [o be made i“[o the m! Ilc Is in [hc offfce
Anc)[hcr possil>ility isroral {>kcnltJllclos(. l!llllis sc!lsc. ’’l(~sl!llcnnsns \v:dls willl:l spcci; !lplllg, ”lllisctJllccpl iscltlil csillli lilrl{> lllcclccl ric:ll{>tlllc[s
th?l a ring in[erf:tce unit (RI(J) receives the token, IN!( nlnlrt!!]ctio!ls before wc lmvc ill ot)rhmlwsan[l oflices. wbcrc if’wc \vish [0 nlO\,c somclhing( for
it hnsachoncc (orel:ly (he lnkcn oul inlotbc ring. Alltllllcr p[~ssillilily is for example, a clock), wc simply tmplug it and II1OVCi! to ano[hcrouflcl i“ (hc
[he loken 10 be d:lmoged due (o :~n elcc[ricnl prnhlctn on Ibc circuit and, wall.
 - ....==--—-— .......—
—,. . .––: .:
*

f6cqcdol Pm fiu!wa N~ 01 WEOJddV s,w91 .014 aJn6]j

m
.

❑
A –: z ..!l-!qo + : , ,ND.3!W3
 . . . ... ,

458 Local Area Norwwks Chop. 6 Ctmp,6 Other Syslams 159

CIOSCIYadheres in (I1c 802.5 convention. I lowcvcr, since I IIM permits it III or&r 10 nlnmlgc lralTic across the bridges aI1d through the nntl[iple
multiple loken-ring nc[work, data is transmitted and rcccivcd IWIWCCNrings Iokcn.ring nclwork. Iogicol link control (LLC) dctccls wbcn tralTic is
I fhrough a concept called so[(rce ro{(ti?tg, This [echnique permits lbe inlcr- bccon!ing 11.MvY.This nu[omntic congcs[ion de(cc[ion will [hen clumgc (I1c
I networking of multiple rings and the (rnnsmission of dn(:l between (I1c rings. size of the tmnsmit window dynamically, For exnmple, m lratTc conditions
The routing logic for source rou(ing is provided by the inscrtinn of bccumc Im:ivicr (or congcstcd), I,LC will dccrcnsc the siT.c of Ihc tmosmi[
rouling information in [bc da(a before it is transmitted bclwccn lhc rings 81A window. Tbc CITCCI d lllis decision mc:lns lha[ fc\vcr l’mmcs \vill he
bridges. This relieves tbe bridges and intermcdia[c nodes of having to store outstanding al any one time. For eXam Pie. if an error ~ccurs “r ffilmes are
and updalc complex routing t:lblcs, which irl ttlrn gives !hc bridges mmc out or sequence, only a limited number of frames have to be transmitted.
latitude to perform other necessary functions, such as nc(work mwwgcmcnt. (Jmvcrscly, whclj tmlfic cumtitions nrc Iigh( and lhc mX\vwrk is nul
Source routing is performed in [he IBM token ring heluw Iogic:ll link control congcs! cd,
lhc wimiow is cxpmnlccl to pcrmi( n Iurgc number ur rmnlcs to hc
(LLC) 802.2. trimsnli[tcd and OuK[mlding at mly onc Iimc.
Data is [ransmi[ted across [kc rings lbroc!gb (kc hridgcs in onc of two A tmnsnlit window is clmngcd i( o lost fmmc is confirmed i!i IIIC
methods. First, the transmitting table can maintnin a rontirrg tnble at its site. lmnsmit(er. When the lrn”snliltcr de[ecls that t]le N(R) or [he received
Typically, the routing t:lhlc mninli!ins the routing mfdrcsscs of those slations frame is out of sequence with its expected trnnsmit state vnrinhlc, it reduces
tha! (he transmitting sto[ion :tcccsscs frcqucn(ly. T’hcsc rou{ing l:ddcs arc its window to OIIC. As n cuwscquctlcc, i( con mdy send one lromc at :1 time,
loaded into tbe transmission frame as part of (he Information (1) fichf and are [i mus{ rcccivc lbc :tcktlo\vlcclgsllctl( back bcrnrc it scmls nnolhcr frwnc, III
[hen used by the bridges to decide I1OWto relay the tralTc across (he vnrious effect, LLC becomes a slop-and-wait protocol for a brief period. However,
multiple [oken rings. With the sccoml me[bod, if a [ransnli(fing sl:dion cocb successful transmission {wherein the trnnsmitler receives back Ibe
wishes [o reach a new station, it sends out a query through ils local ring 10 N(R) numhcr correctly], cmmes [be trmrsrnitter [o i!~crcnse its windo\v by
de[ermine if the station is on [lie ring. If it is nol on [he Iocnl ring, then a one. fhcb incrcmc evcntmdly brings the window size brick up to [he original
general query is sen[ througll {he entire network, The response [o (his query maximum value, which continues 10 be in clTecl tm!iJ problems occur or a
contains the needed routing information whicll tlle lransnlitting station uses lost frame is dclecled,
and inserts into (he frame, As stated previously, this informnlirm is used by
the intermediate bridges to delcrmine bow to route d!c lmtlic through the ANSI Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
nc[work, The routing information conlfiins the Iisl of bridges that will be
!!sed in relaying the (rallc across [he multiple token rings and througll (be ANSI ((he American Natiorml Standards Insti(ule) has developed a
backbone stntions. spccitication for local nrea networks and optic fibers. The standard is called
The transmitting station has four options in developing rouling direc- FDDI (Fihcr Dislributcd Dn[it In(crfitcc) nlld ,t,:ls \vri[(cll I,Y ANSI C(llll”li(.
tives in the frames it transmits. (ce X3 T9.5. The use of optic fibers in local area nct\vorks caI1 provide useful
funclions, and sevcml. reasons exist for placing DTEs on ontic channels.
● Ring .segmc!ff I>rom[co.yt. TIICSC rrnmes are Iransmi(tccl only withitl the First, conlputcrs ;pera(e m very i!igh s~eeds. When computers nre
net\vork and are not relayed by any of tlle in~crconnecting bridges. Iinkcd togelber, lhc slow path bcl\veen tllenl can be a bottleneck, Conse-
●
qucn!ly, [be high-speed optic tibcr can be a complementary path (O (he
Limifrd I)romicost. Frames can bc nlso sent where they are tronsmiltccl
high-speed compl!lcr, Sccund, the improving mchntllogy or disk units will
only once onto each ring in [he network.
provi(fc rcml/wri[c speeds $ipprmwhing 40 to SO mcgnhi[s pcr sccoad. This
● Grncr<Il fmondcos(. These frames cau be transmi! ted so tha! mull iple cxfmordirmry captrbili[y can be hmnpcred by (be stow clmnnel bctwee” (he
copies may flow over the nclwork. They nlusl appcnr on eircll ritlg disk unil ?nd [bc compul cr. and optic fihcrs can rclicvc this tm[tlc”eck,
segnlent at least once. I Iowcver, (I1c list of bridges con :bc cxpamlcd Third, digili?.cd voice convcrsnlions rcqllirc o grc:llcr b;lndwidll) than [he
such tllot multiple copies can bc crcof cd. This concept is qttitc similnr [ypicol [clcpbonc clmnncl prnvidcs, cspccinlfy if the convcrsntioos arc in aII
IO pzckcl flooding round in some pfickct-switch nc(wurki. interactive. rcid. [imc mode. Optic fthcrs pmvidc the bandwid[h capability 10
“, ● Poi!!f-fo.poi!tt m!(ting. This fmmc IYpC C:I!I hc Imnsmittcd such llml :wcommod; ltc rc; ll. linlc voice lrotl.snlissimls.
frames lmvel specifically from onc stntion to nm)lhcr over n dcsigmllcd m spccificntions fur (Iw fWDl ;Irc as fol)nws. ‘llc nplic-tibcr chartocf
rol!le. There is no hromlcnst aspc.ct to point-lo-point r,outing. only operates ?[ 100”Mbi[/s. Up 10 1.000 rwdcs ca!l bc placed on onc oplic-tibcr
!, ,. rin !. The nodes c:I!l hc s WCC(I :1s far us 2 kihmlclcrs n wvt. ;Iml (I1c rin :
 . . . . .. .,, . !....,.., ,,&,.
,,, ,,..
+...,,
.>. ... ,.:, . .,,.,..-,”,.
.,
-,
..,.
.,
.--
..
’.,..:.’..--.-. .?.’A~,,. . . ..’.: ,.., ... . .... “,.;. ;....,.. ... ..
} 1-
Local Area Nelworks Chap. 6 Chap. 6 Other Systems 161
i60

Ibcsc dcviccs cost well over :1 humlrcd dnlbws, Ligh(.cmitling dimlcs now
circumfcrcncc cnn bc up (o 200” kifmmc{crs. “I%cse limits, un!o lbca)sclvcs,
may not make sense to the uniniiialed, yet they arc inlport:!nl in or(lcr 10 coI1 do tbc snmc Insk for I!mlcr ICII dolhtrs c:Ich. r;DDl stipohttcs :1 s(omh!rd
minimize lfilency; that is, the (ime it trikes Ibc da[o (or sigfml) to (ravel optic Iigb(wave of 8.50 nmwmeters.
wound (he ring. 1110 building or plnnt, severed channels are not uncomnmn. Fig!lre 6.12
Ff3Dl specifies a topology in which two indcpcndcn(. counlcnwtxting depicts s possible rcconfigurnlicm in the evcnl of N IUSI clwaucl or cl,;tnncls,
III the figure, !he chmzrzcl bc!wccn devices 3 m]cf 4 is lost. FDl)l provides a
optic-fiber rings are in place (see Figure 6.1 l), which prrwidcs for an overall
rcconfigumtion by chmrging llle loops tllrough devices 3 and 4. As can be
bi( ra[e of 200 megabits per second, with each cbmmel opemling nl 100
MbiUs. The figure shows that the components (DTEs, sLtch m terminals, seen fronl (I1c iigurc. Ihc nc(work rcnmins iotac[. All dcviccs ll:lve nccess 10
compulers, work stalions, or graphics stations) :{re (ied toge!l~er through R lke net through (he recordigumtion of the itmer and outer loops from [he
wirin~ conccntmtor to devices 3 nnd 4.
wiring concentrator. The concentrator acts m a reconfiEuratirm nnd concen-
tration point ror all op[ic wiring and dn[a OmlTrc. The ianer clmnncl connects
only certain devices. These devices, which I)nve inner and outer rinfis I I
rtttachcd (o thcm, nrc classiticd as A devices. The D cfcvices rrrc co!mccted 131A
by one only ring. “1’hc Mtmclive nspccl crr this spccific:ilion is Ilml il :IIIOWS (-,

*’
a user kcility 10 designate those crilicul slo!ions which nc&l :!dditiumd +---
ChannelLost
back-up and higher channel speeds as Class A stalions. The other. less
imporl ant DTEs, such M isola{ed work slalions or low-priority Ierminnls, 1’
t
can then be hookwf up as Class B slolions, a: a lesser CON. ; \
40
Figure 6.12, FDDI System Reccmfig”v
Wc a!ion

If a station malfunctions and goes down, FDDI also stipulates (hat the
node cm bc byposse~; In essence, a mirror directs the lightw~ves through an
nllern, ?live palb. In Figure 6-12, if device 4 were to malfunction mzd become
\ inopcrnhlc. (he signals cm bc diver[ed away from (he device by using [be
\r
// ~, same channels and Ihe mirrors.
FflDl stipulates o very unique approach (o liming find clocking on [he
network. The rcmfer nmy rcc:dl h’om previous discussions (Chopter Onc nnd
C.ncmtrator Appendix A) that the best code to bc USA in a network is one which
Iwc) provides f!’cquent signnl stn(e changes. The changes provide (he receiver
willl the nbili[y 10 continue to ndjust onto the inconling signol, (hereby
C!as,: A !nnerand Outer Rings mssuring (hat Ihc transmitting device and Ihe receiving dcvicc we synch ro-
c!,,,, 0 only 0“1,, Ring
WC: kl.b !. connectstations I Reco.liwration ..0 Back,,P: !@@M& nizc[f wi(fl cnch other, The Manchcs[er code (SIX Fig”rc I. f I) Used in (he IEEE
802.3 slmxkwd is only 50 pcr’ccnl cN!cicnt, bcc;)mc every hil requires a two-
Flgwe 6.11, Fiber Dislrlbu(edData lnlerlace (FDDI)
slnte lmnsition on Ihc Iioe (i, c,, two baud), Using M8ncf1eslcr cocfc, a 100-
nlcgol~il lmnsmission mlc requires 200 nw~nhits or bnndwidtfl (a 203 M}rz m[e).
Tbc wiring cmrccnlr alor ollows n facili[y (o COI1!ICCI S[olium and
In other words, Manchcslcr cmlc requires twicc thc tmml for its I mnsmiss ion.
provide for reconfiguration. 1( tilso serves to isolate [rouhlcshoo(ing [brough
ANSI, recognizing Ihnl Ibc 200 Mllz ralc would ctcutc tl]orc expense
the concentrnlion point, which is one of the key tenets of II)M’s ioken
in mmmfactu ring the inlerrnces and clocking devices, devised n code cnlled
network (WNl cabling syslcm). FDDl does no! specifically rcqtiirc that xII [be
4 fJ/511, in which n four.bil code is used 10 crcafc a five.hil cmlc. For every
..channels be oplic fibers. “Fhe wiring conccnlm(or could provide :tn intcrfacc
fom hils lmnsmitlecf from a DTfz, FDDI crextes five bils. Tflc five bi(s
in which a \!scr instnlls op(ics in one porlion of fhc LAN :tnd uses coxxi~l
prm,idc clocking k)r IIIC signal itsclr. Conscqucn[ [y,tbc 100 Mbit/s mtc on
cable or twislccl-p;!ir wiring in nnolhcr por[ion or (I)c nclwork.
1:111)1 rccluires only 12.SMllz of h:md, The 41)/.$1) code +Iruclurc is sfwwn in
The cmrncclors in!<) tbc tcrmin:tls and wiring cmrccntmlor :Irc I:mcr .,, {,
 )
162 Local fima Nelworks chop 6 Chap, 6 Conclusion 163

TABLE 6-2. 4B15BCode Structure (I1c ring, nnd the token is placed hebind Ihc [Inf:t. Howevc.r, when Ihe s[n[ion
4B15BCODE
sci?.cs {he lokcn, (I1c rin~ is mmlc idle ror n bricr period or time \vhilc tbe
USEn DATA
p: fckc( is being SCI up. ‘This Mows f(!r mnrc (imc hc[wccn (1w I)TE nm[ (I!c
Binary Hex Code , Symbol ring inlcrfuce unit (o stmctmc UMI move the pocket ncross (he interface,
0 11110 0 This rckrlive simplicity lmnsla!cs in[o a less expensive in[ctfoce. Second,
0000
since Ibe token is Imnsmittcd immcdiolcly arter lhe packe{. another smlion
0001 1 01001 1
down 111.2line cotlhl :)1s0 usc the token if the token ro[n[ioll tinle and
0010 2 10100 2
pt’cncgotia[ed Imgel lime fall willlin [be established parameters. This ap.
0011 3 10101 3
prwrch provides for much more efficient utilization for, large rings \vhich
OICO 4 Ofofo 4
might Imvc much ]:!lency in [mnsfer around Ibcm. Third. lhe FDD] op[ic ring
0101 5 01011 5
provides for priori[ics by establishing Illc parame!crs in [he Tl<l’ ~“d prr
0110 6 Olflo 6
vnriants,
0111 7 01111 7
1000 8 10010 8
Genera~ Motors’ Manufacturing
loot 9 10011 9
Automation Protocol (MAP)
1010 A 10110 A
1011 B 10111 B Gcncrcd Mo[ors (GM) INIS mmte o major inlpnc( in the LAN industry
1100 c 11010 c with Ihc Manufaclurin~ Automation Protocol (MAP). 1( reprcscnls one of
1101 D 11011 o the Iir.sl significant LAN standmds dcvclopcd by a user ond was designed to
1110 E IIIW E give nnc imcdhcc rcquircnlcn[ to tbc nmuy diverse vcnduvs (lull sttppor{
1111 F 11101 F GM’s I:!rgc aulomtllion r:!cililics, Ouc 10 GM’s size :II1d inflt!cncc. MAI> has
oecotlle one O( lhc prevtilcnl LANs in the indus[ry.
The MAP physic:d Icvcl is based on the IEEE 802.4 token-bus
Ff)Dl uses I multiple taken-passiog protncol, Tlle (nkcn ciicles (IIC slnndatd. Al [hcdntmlink level, il uscs lhc IEEE 802.2 [.ogical Link Control
ring behind the lnst [rnns!ni!tc(f packet from n device. Any SInlion wishing 10 (LLC) standard. Since 802,4 and 802.2 have bee” discussed i“ dclail i“
trnnsmi[ daft scims the token, removes (Iw lokcn. pkaccs lhc pnckc! or C{lllicr sccfions, [hey \vill no[ bc rcpc:lfcd llcrc, kfAP also uscs Ihc 1.S0 &173
packets on (he ring, and [hen issues (he new Iokcn dircc[ly bchiml the dn[a ne(work ktycr protocol ror conncc[ionless. mode net\vork service (discussed
slream. This is in conlr~sl 10 IEEE 802.5, in which only mm s(alion uses the it} Chaplcr Eight),
token,
The Ioken.pnssing scheme is prcclicatcd nn lhc need for r~!l-lime The Technical and Office Products System (TOP)
applications on [lie network, so the iinling is s(ruc(u red suctl tha( a nmfc has
assurance of get(ing a [oken wilhin a cerlnin time. As the packet circles the TOP is anolher widely USCC!pro(ocol, developed by Boeing Computer
Scrviccs. II is similar 10 MAP, bu! uses CSMA/CD 802,3 at i(s lower level.
ring wi[h [he token behind, each station rc[imes and regencrolcs lbe p~!ckcts.
The conlpnrisotl of MAP and TOP in Table 6-3 revenls (heir sinlilari[ies and
Like many LANs, {he nc(work uses a /imed foke}l approach. E:lch
dill’crc[lccs, (The upper level protocols ure lliscussed in Chap(cr Thirtee n.)
node me~sures [he (ime it lakes for [he token 10 return [o i(, cnllcd token
rotation [imc (TRT), I! lhcn compares lhc time IrTa prcncgoliolcd l:)rgcl linlc
(PTT) for i[s arrival. (f the [okcn comes bzck sooner (h6ri fhc lbrcshoid in
Conclusion
Pl_f, (his indicates, in all likelihood, a light load 011 (he network. The node
is allowed 10 transmit as Inng as i[s full transmission slrctrm does nnl exceed AS slo[cd M the beginning cd’(his clmplcr, (I1c LAN imlus[ry is q[!i(c diverse
PTT, However, if [he lokcn cmncs brick I:,[er [Iron P’L’T, iodic;!ling tbc :Iml lllis brief chnplcr prccludcs clomining :dl 0( lllc syslcms ;Ind fwoducts.
probohility of heavy network 10NI, then n nmfc is only Itllowcd 10 lrnnsmi( AT&T, I IIM, and Cicncra[ Motnrs \vcre llighlighted duc [o (heir posi(ion i“
lligh-priority lrniT!c. L.nw-prinrily [mllic musl bc dcfcr!cd uotii Ihc load on lbc induslry. In CIIOP ICI’Elcvco, we will also cover LANs for pcrsono(
[he network becomes Iighl cr. Cnlllputcrs.
TWO poinls SI1OUICIbe e!nph~isizccl with lhis Iwn[ocof. I;irsf. :!s s(nfcd I..AN vcndorx somc!imcs m:tkc cknims fnr Ihcir ptmh,c[s wbicll dO noI
... , .,
 .

● ☛☛☛☛☛☛✎✎
 ‘ )
Clmp. 7 Tel@,cmo Swilcl,lng Syslrmm 167

micvocmlc must bc Mldcd 10 a circt!it swi[ch 10 provide ror lhese

cHAPTER SEVEN
v;llt!c-added functions,
]
Ch:\p(cr Onc in(rodtlces !hc Iclcphonc syslcnl (Figtlre 1.6) ad dis.

Switching and Routing in Networks cusses lhc lrwlcoll’s ~lr Ic; wcII (mm.di:ll.tin) :ond diol-tt” circtlils. The rc:dcr
my wish to mfcr b:!ck [o Cht]plcr O!lc 10 mvicw lhis mu(criol.
?’he lclepllone switching systems todfly nre classified as ci[hcr c/ccfro.
tl!cchotliv(,[ or ,rtorrd pm~rr,,,rt mw!rwl (S PC). Elcctronlc ch2nic:ll syslcnls
\
:Irc con[rollcd by wired circui (s, The elect romcch,anicol swilches are mo(or
driven, elcc[r(]mecllnn ically opcmled, or driven by electrical impulses. In 1.
wired logic syslems. routing logic is designed in!o the lmrdwwrc. Stored
pvogranl con(rol (SPC) syslcn>s usc sof[\vorc ror lbc swi!clling logic. The j,
,1 program controls [he Sequencing Or opern[ions to cs.lablish [he telephone
coil, In this scclion, \vc discuss lllcsc Iwo [Cchm,lopics nnd provide :) Sher[ I
Introduction hislury O( (heir IJcvclopIMcn[. I
Imagine (he efrec[ the te[ephonc swi(ch has on our ~.bili(y 10 cotnmllnicale Figure 7- I illuslm[es a typical telephone call belween people or
wilh practically nnyone we wish, Wilhcmt such z swilching syslcnl, a hc[wccn OTIZS lhrough a dial.!lp fi]cilily, (Mony cumpu[crs and {crnlimlls
~“
point. [o.point [clcphone line wotIld have to bc estahlishc[l [O every single I);tvc :ttllonmlic di:!l-llp f:lcililics. ) ‘1’hc llo\v clmr! is self-cxpl:lnolury \villl Ihc
number we wan[ed 10 did, including banks, business associ:!l es, rclolivcs, inclusion of [he following definitions:
and friends, Swilching is also n vilnl clement rOr computer and lermin:d
communications, Ir we wish [o use a conlputcr in a rcmo[e ‘mr[ of Ihc Omhook. Tclcphonc or DCI1 is 110[ rcqt!cs(ing n cnll,
coun[ry, we Iirs[ connect to some form of swifching opp:iral us, LIlus I
OJF/took, A call request is being mmle to Ihc cen!ral oflicc (CO). A
obviating a scpara[e point- [o-poin[ channel. This clmpler provides n general I
person Iiils IIW phone olTits cradle, or a DCE electronically performs
cliscuss ion or swi(ching syslcms with a more tlcloilcd view or packe[. ,n similar runct ion.
swi(ching protocols. i
Rc#i.r/cr, SIoGtgc :Ircn r[~r IIIC diulwl number, (Number is ;dso cnllcd
1
(IIC mkh’css.)
It frraoficr (lll[ror.vc/l(tlrg<, ). Gill \vilhi!l some ccnlr:tl ollice (cx.
Telephone Switching Systems
cllanges),
The telephone Iinc is a com!rmnly used chxnncl to connecl conlp!!ters aII(l I,rlrr{!@cc (/)rtere,rc/tcrt! R<,), C;ill belwcen cenlml offices (cxch:lngcs).
tcrmina [s. The telephone ne(work uses a technology called cfrrIIiI .rII,iIcl)iIIx
l!;cr(trch),, Telephone nc[\vork slructure, (See Figure I-6.)
10 connect communicating DIEs. The major charac[cris[ics or circ!li[
swi(ching are: Trunk gronp, .%1 or li-u”ks (channels) with common rou[i”g a“<]
con!lcclion clmr:!clcrislics; c:!n be used inlcrch:!ngcahly.
● Once a call is established, Ihe users have a dircc[ pn(h tl!jough [hc
swi[ches in [hc network. The direct path is cquiv;llcnl to two wires Private, nonswilchcd Iincs do rwl reqllirc [he procedure shown in .
connecting the users. Figure 7-I, ‘l-he sinlplcsl clnss of privo!c line 11;1sno sign falling services
● The swi[ctles provide no in[crmedi:l[e slorage capability (such m disk pcrfom]cd by [hc lclcphwrc network. “rhe DCE (such as a modenl) provides
units). ,, lhc ~Icrti!lg function will) n signal [o the receiving si[c, For htlmxn ‘arece iv.
● flecatlse or[hc ;Ilmcnce ofs(orngc c:!p:!hility :c1Ilre swilchcs, hh,ck age CIS,” [he migin?fiog si(c ~I,wmlly scmk ;I sign[tt IO (1,c tcmtitu[(ing cnd This
is fmssihlc ou :1 circuil swilch ($I b!lsy m cngngcd cotldiliorl). ,!f,l,ur!,,!ir r;,!g.dowfl (;1 loop closure :Illd ;12[1 1Iz signol) nlcrls Il)c rccciving

● The circuit swilch pmvicles litrlilcd valim-;lddcd (!bncl ions. For ex:lm. OCE or lltlman Or n call w n privalc circui[.
pie, line prolocols such :!s [I]osc disctlsscd iu (lh:lptcv T\wI :IIC The m;~or circt!i[-s)vilcll itlg sys(cms dcvclopcd dltring lhc P:ISI rclv
.enrmll” nnt avail;~hlt on [hc circtlif swi[ch. Adclli[ln:kl s[flworc o! dcc;,[lcs ;Irc:l
 .,, .. .,, ,,.

} )

Chnp. 7 Tolopl,ono Swllcl,lI,g Sysloms 169

L/<,[lr{>lllr(lr<rrliv(jl
A
“n

$
S\vilcbho:lrd
S[cp-by-Step
Co.s...’ No. I :ln[l No, 1A Crussh:!r
1(”<[.< T,,,(!k
St,,.,
@--PEl””
~~ A“”llalh

Y.,
Crossbor Txnllcm
4A Crossbar
No. 5Crosshm
S<*ZOa

b
@ ‘o ‘$’ 1,::: .po,:c, Srmw/ Progr<r,lr Cmrowt (.$/’C)
% No. I17SS[IMI IAESS
No, 21XWw1d2All
SS
Tan!<>.!,
r>,
Co. SC!!,,!
, No. 3ESS
.W”k,,
No. 4ESS
No. 5ESS
D8,813G<”,. DMS-10
,. ,,,,”,.,, !.$
Co. DMs-loo/2oo

S,,” Line.1 E/ecfromechan/ca/ Systems

G--- Rmem”l.g s:,,
,.,”,,,,”,

Q
..”,,,,, O,,,w Tbc earliest s\vilcllcs were :Idaplccl from telegraph (cchoology. Con-
b, u,,, OFoCC 8
sisting or brass slrips [lint kwkcd Iikc door hinges, Ihc “hinkc’” conluc(s
provided [be swi[cb bctwccn IWO channels, The first [clepbone st,,ircltboord
wasdcvelopcdin 1878 hyChndcs Scribner or Wcslcrn Elcclric, Hcdcvised
lhc sockc(s nndjackstmcd in early priva[e branch exchange (PBX) swifch-
bcmrds, The switching syslcm W;M a person, who scrviccd cigh[ iincs and 2 I
sul]scrilxrs. Tbc fnmiliar Icrms tip and ri!!g rcrcrring 10 IWO parts of the
swilchhcmrd plllg nrc slill used 10 clcscribc 3 lwo-wire rwir (lip is (I}c grouml).
The .ffcp-/Jy-.cpcp (or S(rowger) sys[cnl wns first installed in Knnsas
Ci[yitl 1892bya mor[iciorl nnmed S[rowger, who, nslcgend hasit, inven!cd
I“,cf.lfk,

d
II)c devise 10 prcvc!l( (bc lown opcro[or rronl mnntl:tlly rm![ing po[cn(i;ll
0,,,1” bt!sincss !ohiscomnc(i(o!’, “1’bcfirsl commcl-ci;\l switchwms insl:lllcd in La
,.,,,,”0 Porie, Indiana, in lk93. 11s usc nowis nlinimnl, The modern s!cp.by.s[cp
Syslclll is a I>rilxrcmil,c co!!/ro/ sys[cm and gels its ntlnle r!’om lhc vmy i(s
clcclromccll:ul ic:ll swilcllcs arc tlclu:llcd pv<>grcssivcly :)%c;wh digil or IIIC
StoreD!g:,,
h 0.,9. !., callccl nurnlwr is dinlcd by lbc cltstmllcr. For cxanlple, lhc number 3 Iirls o
R,,!,kr
Slmwgcr switch (IP n rack hy !brcc positions. The syslcm is called a <{ircc(
progressive conlrol system bec;luse Ibc di;, [ pulses dircclly control lhc
sm. b< slcppi!lgswilchcs, Dcpencling otl!llc lypeoro~ce, lllestep-by-s(cp sys[cm
(tiltT<mk con :Iccmnmod:Itc r]{ltll 100 tn 10,000 cttslonlcr Iincs.
I)llrioglhc 194(ls, tllci&lcvc:tsc< llr:lflic vlll\llllc ttl:lclc ilvcry<lilfic!lll ~<,r
hum:ln opcmlorsto ll,a!ldlc lclcpllonc tlctlland. h(orcover, the mclhod orn
c sttllscri(>cr clialitlg:Lncl corl[rolling conc1cclionsan1l network se[ups was wry
?
.,, ” <f itIII! ItI/ wos dcvch)pcd to WI11OVC
S[,IW, ‘1’hc conccp( [3rr(,,ci.v/cr-/, v,~,vr(,.v.<i,
,, ;,

170 Swllcl,lnga,,d 17cwlil>{>

c.:,
1(1Ndwot.=: chap. 7

IIIC s!lbscribcr as a bo[llcncck, Tllis SYSIC III rcqiiircs IIIC s(, (,scrihcr
[hc nunlbcr [o a con[rol mech;lnis!n, wliich s[orcs it r~>~USC, lni(i;Llly, [IIC IICII
designers lcarcd lh~l sulxcribcrs would Ibc rclucloot 10 give UP (I1c usc of
VC41>OI c017]n1ttr:ica{ic>tls will! m1 opcw[<]r, I>bll s(uclics rcvc:llcd [II!II ulclw-
poli[un subscribers actt]:tlly prcrcrvcd IIIC diiccl-di:!ling nwdc. ;
AT&T/Bell did ml begin using lhe slcp-by.slcp SYSICI!!S unlit 1919
bcc:busc [hey \\scrc no[ economically allrac live. ‘I’IIc A\tl(lmolic Elcclric
Cump:lny inilitilly inslollcd Il)c systc!ns. I.:llcr, ill 1926, A’1’.k’l’lllcll dcvcl-
opecl ils own design [or [he slcp. by-slcp swi!ch.
The No, / crms/~ar was firs[ used it, 1938 in Brooklyn. Ncw York. 1[
was dcvclopcd r~w usc in large nlclmpulilan areas [0 handle c!llls wilhin the
Iclcphonc ncfwork. Allbough slill clcclronlcchanic:d, i{ was tl)c first swi!ch-
ing syslcm [0 usc cnJII~Iloll cwflrd dev;cm, i.e. , !nnny funclimls
performed by shared elements. Also, Ihe cnlicc number is rcccivcd bcrorc
swi[ching logic is invoked. 1[ SC(S up C:IIIS fos[cr [IWII i[s Iwcdcccssors
requires less mainlcnance, As of Jnnuary 1, 1983, 180 sys[cms still remainccl
in opera (ion (serving four millio[l lines).
Cro$sbar swilchcs dirrcr considcrnhly rmm sIcp-l>y.sIcp SYSICN!S.I’hc
crossbar is a mz[rix of cross poin(s established by vcrlic:ll find ho!izontd
bnrs Iha[ close by “hold magne!s” being ~clivnlcd 10 SCICC(s crosspoinl,
l“hc crosspoinls (or col]lncls) arc Ibc swi[ch polhs. “1’hc c:lrlicr crossl>:!r
swi[chcs allowed [en calls to pass Ihmugh ! swilch sill!!lll:ltlcc>!!sly, ill
contrast [o only one call in a step-by+lep s\vi\cll.
l“hc cru.rslx!r [n:!drm wos first used in 1941. The landcm syslcm is Iiscd
primnrily in src~s where ccn{ral o~ccs (COS) hnve SICP.bY-SICP or No. I
crossb;!r s\vitching equipment, In clTcct, a [andcm pcrrorm$ ruilctiuns lhal
other switching cquipmcn[ cannu[ do Among [he runcliom it pcvfornls nrc
Ihe recording or calling inrormatiun for Ihilling, serving :Is an “imcrprclcr”
bctwccn difrcrcnt [YPCS of COS, md cen[r~li7.im the wliPnlcnl IICC@l ro~
public announcement scrviccs, such as weather nnd [imc itlrovm:tlio !?.
Tlle No. 4 cro$s/~ar was first USCIJ in 1943 in I’llilwlclpl!i:t. ond is
dcsignc J 10 es[ubish connections on a natiOnwillc b:lsis. II is czp:ll~lc Or
ro,.]ling a cn[l aul Omalic:llly over * “first .cll Oice” mule or OIllcr prcdclcr-
mincd altcrna[e roulcs (discussed in Choptcr One). “Sl)c No. 4A cmssh:!r. on
enbanccmcnl or No. 4, \vm the first s\vitching ssstcln 10 sc~:lr;ltc [IIC
[ra!lsmit pa[h rrmn IIIC rcccivc path ((o rcducc Ihc clrcct or CCIIO). I( is
somc[imcs C:IIICCI ‘(row-wire.” T1lc in[ruduc [ior or (I1c 4A ctmsslmr syslcm
rno[lc clirecl dis~ancc clialing (l)~L)) possible. ‘1’hc 4A crosslmr syslcm 1]:!s
been rcnlaccd ror the mosl part by Ihe Tic\v No. 4ESS or n similmr digilol
switcl]ing syslem
“U1c No S crmrrlmr \vo~ firsi used i$l 1948, A ru!lhcr :KIWIICC in lhc
cross lx{r sys[cm, (he No. 5 crossblr swi[ching sysicm cnn scwc NS :i
cornh innlion C() ;tn[l l:lrltlcnl oficc, and sonic sys[cms cntploy CCITIICX2wJ
comnlon contrul ([liscusscd lolcr). I’IIc No. 5 crossh:tr W:,S dcsigocd [u
[o diitl I):tt)dlc Imlfic in arcm mnging rr{lfll stlburlmn rcsidcoliol arc:ls 10 smnfl ci[ics
where nm],y rolls nrc coonplc [cd wi!l,ill Ihc some CO. “i%c INSI ncw No, 5
cuosslmr \v:Is ius[allcd in Novcmhcr 1977. in {he lY711s, i[ served lnmrc [h:ul
4(I ,)CICC1lI d the ATxrmcu tctcllhlCS,
Sfored Program, COolro/ Sysfems
I)u!i!jg llIc 195(is :IIld ;;IIIY 1[)6[)s. Ilcll 1..:!1)s dcvclopcd clcclronic
swilcllitlg systcn)s [0 n)cc[ g!<>\ving dcllm!lds r(lr klstcr, more rcli:\hlc, :)IICI
lnmrc Ilcxiblc swilchcs, These SYSICIMSusc Ihe stored progranl control (SPC)
COI)CCPI in!wduccd at Ilm beginning or lllis cli:!p[cr, The first Irial or
clcc!rut!ic switching look plncc in 1960 in Morris, Illinuis. \vi[ll [hc firsl llSS
xrc s\vil cl\ culover in hlny IY65 in Succwwonn. Nc\v Jersey.
The No. l&SS \vm dcsigrmd ror usc in mclropoli(nn arcus with hcuvy
owl [mllic, Like :!11ESS s),s[.w!s. IIIC No. I liSS complctcs wnncc[ ions bcl\vcc!l
customcvs raster Ilmn the clccfrulllccllntl ictll swi[ching systems and dues il
\villl a rckl(ivcly stnall nmount or cquipmcn[, The ioitiol No. IESS could
IINII<IIC 100,(JofJC:IIIS in (I1c 1XM%I1ou(, Like oll clcc[mnic switching. it is
dircclcd by compu(crs old pmgrnms.
Amotlg llle fcatl]rcs provided by Ihc No, IJ3SS are local s\vi[cbing wilb
:nnncclirms 10 ;111lypcs d swilcltiug fncililics and spcci:il services such as
\VA’1’S, ccII!rcx (cci!lrolizcd f’lJXI, nid lhc cus[om c:!lliug scrviccs: c: III
wwi[ing, call ror\\mrding, lhrcc-\vny cidling, speed c~lli[lg, and conrcrence
c?lling, 1( filso records billing inrorma(icm.
The No. 2ESS W:M firsf usccl in 1970. II WM dcsi~ncd for usc in
subt!rb:lu rcsidcnlitll COS mItl pro\~i[lcs fc;l!l!rcs sinlil:lr [o the No, I ESS, bul
hNndlcs rcwcr iincs (2,000-10,000). The sys(cm is designed rOr simplicity,
\vill, di:(gnus(ics :1(IcI(csli(lg Immllcd rcmolcly.
The No, 3JLSS WM Iirs[ used i!l 1976. It was designed ror usc in !wml
orcns sewing rcwcr tlmn 45OO lines. II is similor (o (he No, IESS in tha[ il is
n s(orcd prugrom CUN(CUI(S PC) dcvicc, M with newer cquipmcn!, The No,
3ESS NSCSbc[lcr Iccht]ology (Icss cxpcnsi.c computer. fi,slcr p]occssor).
‘1’IICNo. 4,5SS \vas first used in IY76. II is a rour.wire (/i#i((l/ swilching
sys IcfIt. (See Figtfre 1-11 :{(![1 CIWPICC Nine r[,r J <Iischmion or [Iigit; d
SYSICIIIS,) 1[ pcrrort,~s IIIC S:IIIIC b:}sic rutlcliu!)s :1s IIIC clcc!rc)tB1cc lli!!lic:tl 4A
crosslmr s\\, i[cl]i!lg sys[cm ccmnccli!lp irunks 10 trunks, bul il handles more
lII:I!I r(!t!r (imcs as m$!ny cnlls pcr hour m (IIC No. 4A crosshnr,
[1] !I[ldiliun, (IIC 411SS \!scs !Im [A comI~tI[cr IWOCCSSW[(, cktwy over
550,000 h\ Isy-lN1ur cnlls, In [hc clcc(romechanical No, 4A crossbar sys[em,
caclI c: III II:N1 n dcdiculcd, continuous pltysic:ll connection lhro!tgb Ihe
swilcl, ing cqtlipmcn[; hIII with Ihc No 41X5, II>Cs:!mc convcrsn[ ions nrc
con,mc(ccl OIily inlcrmil[cll[ly. I;:tcl! conllcc[iutl is cullllcctcd ;Illd discun -
JIcclcd II)o])sands ortimcs pcr xcco I1d. The PIPS arc 100 sn>oll 10 a[~ccl voice
!I>l!]s!]>issic)o; yet IIIC, No 41;SS c:tII usc IIICSC [i!ljc g:tps [u s:implc oll)cr
 . . -..

) ,! )

172 Swilchlng and Ihling In Nclworks Chap. 7 chop. 7 Mos$agoSwllchlng 173

c:!IIs. Tllis process

is called lime division (digits!) switching, :IIILI is discussed SYSIC!JJ[TSP. S).The scrviccs we take for granted today were made possible
in more clc[ail in Cl]ap[cr Nine. TIIC 1A prnccssor II:IS Nlso IWCII II SCII 10 Ihy lhc compulcr :~nclslorcd progmm control (Sort ivare):
enhance (he I liSS syslcm. ‘Ihc CIIIM!ICCLI vcrsim] is c;Illcd I A 11SS, NIKI
serves 130,000 lines. IIIc IA is also used will] 2DSS, which [Ioublcs ils lImllic ● opcm(or-ossis(cd cvlls (wilhmrt m:l”ual cords)
c:, plci[y,
● gtlcs(-[]rigirl ;lfc[l C:IOXfrom I, OIC]S
‘1’hc N<I, S/;.SS$ysIcIn, :1IOC:II digil:ll swi[cliing SYSICIII, W:IS i!llr<xlt!ccd 1
● inltllcdi:llc billing, if ncccssnry
in }981, It is designed for uw in local ofrlces 10 handle 10[)0 10 [00,000 [incs,
Figure 7-2 is o simplified view of this SPC syslcm, The in(crfficc modules ● ob[sining billing inrorma( ion for credit calls,
tcrminalc Ihc Iincs :Incl lrunks inlo the syslcm. A mmlIIlc SIKCCI,IS~ligit$ll [jr
analog signals and adds ci~h( hits of conlrol information for swilclling, ‘1’hc power d IIIC connpulvr is ;!1s0 cvidcnl in (IIC Iclvpll,,nc !wlw(wk’s )
rou(ing, ancl control [uncl ions. <Il{fomr{t;c itrlerc’cpl ,r),,rtcnr (A 1.$), This systcm uscs 2ESS Nnd hec:kmc
;iv$,ilal~lc in 1970, Whc” you make n call to a ch;lngcd, un:, ssign ccl, or
u,,, channel! disco nncc[cxl numhcr, 21!SS rmflcs lhc coil to an opcr; tlor <w :tttlomalic
/r————T answering dc.vice. Iloth usc l~,rgc d;]to Imscs (o Imck down on ;Inswcr for
you A large metropolitan nrcn has over 500,000 records on line and
cxpcricnccs m nmoy :M 18,00[) chnngcs pcr CI;IY--O gnrg;]nluon t:isk Ilmt ,

:———’k—————m
r-----1\ would “ot be possible willmu( lhe compulcr nnd electronic s\vi[ching.
of course, wscr conlputcrs and tcrminn!s (DTEs) often usc the [ele.
1

“a
-J \ “ A<!m(t,islrat
iv. plm,,c nclwcwk dircc[ly (o conlm!jtlic:!lc wilh each olhcr (Ihm!lgh swilchcd
rim. Me,,w MO<lCCIC 1,,,,,,,/0!,,,,”, ——
!.,,, !,., — Mul,l@,,d ~witcl, or nonswilchccl Iincs). III ;t<lclilicm, IIWIIY orgo!liz;ltitms :1{[<1ollwr lypcs Or
Module Pm,,,,.,, Prow, mr ——
S.v;,<h {3020) — swi!chcs [o [he telephone nelwork [o provide rorsptcilic services to [he user
l~~l<s. These “v:zh!c-nddcd” switches arc clns.sificd M mcssngc or packc(
[

u
swilcl!cs mILl arc dcsig!lcd to SIIppUrI dal;t tr:llfic ins[c:tcl or voice ltmflc. The
Comm”nlc.,ion, Ad,nin;
,,,a,!ve vcmaindcr Or this cfmp[er mldwsses fhese sys(erns from [he standpoint or
l“,,, !,,0 Mod”1, Mod,,10
Module how lhcy support end-l]scr systems, and in some instances, lhc telephone
nctw(?vk :1S WC!I,

Ftgure ?.2. StoredProgramControlSwilchingINO. 5ESS)

Message Swltchlng
The ad!ninislm[ive module provides rm![ing contrul :tud ndminislm[ivc
f[!nctions. 1( consists of Iwo Western Elcc[ric 31120 cotnptl!crs. I’IIC admin. In [he 1960s and 1970s, the pcrvmive nlc[hOd for swi(ching dala cOnlmt!ni.
is[mtivc modtde 81s0 ccm[n ins the inptltloulptll proccssom, which provi[lc C:l[ivrls lrn~lc W;lS mcssngc is S(ill w[~ely llScd in
swilchi! lg. TIIC tcchno[ogy
access [o {crmirl:\ls mul olhcrpcriphcrnl devices 10 Icchniciams opcroli!~g lhc ccrl;) i!) applications, such M clcc!rot, ic mxil (SCCClmp[cr Thirlcc n), Figtlre
swi[c l!. T’lIe comm!ln ications mmltllc hrmscs lhc switcllillg fi!cili[ics. A 7-3 ilh!s!mlcs a message s!vi[cl), The swilch is Iypicolly a spccializcil
rnessagc swiIch in ferfaccs (he adminis(ra{ivc mod IIlc will> llm conlmll!lica - complllcr. II is responsible for accepting lra~bc rrom Ierminnls and cOmput-
Iions mOdLllc, The “rkts (Iimc tmltlliplcxcd swilch) ccmnccls ltscr ch:IIIIlcls crs :Ill;tclIc[l [0 i[ Illrough di:ll-\lp <,r lrnscd Iclcphonc Iirtcs, It cxnnlincs [hc
(voice or d:Iln) fronl OIIC io(crf;lce moclulc [0 anolhcr.z n[lclrcss in {hc hcodcr of IItc mcss;)ge aml .s\vilcl]cs (ruu(cs) Ihc Irnilc [0 (llc
m D141.?.10 was first in[mdtlccd in 19X1. “lhis Iocol digil;ll s\\ilclling receiving [)TE. Urllikc circuit s\vitchitlg i!l (clcp hones, mcssnge swi[ching is
facilily is prndt!cc(l by Norihcrn “~clccom, I.ld., :!!,d ,Icsigncd for 10C:IICos, 8 ,vl<)vr-otrc{:fc]rt<,frcl fcchnohl Fy hccause or (IIC s(omgc copnbil,ily n! IIIC
II has a capacity of!lp [o 6,000” lines and cnn proviclc scrvicc 10 n 13,000 C:IIIS swilch, usually in [hc (’or!n “f(lisk unifs. Since lhc dol;t is t!su:!liy s[orcd, (I1c
pcr hm!r pc:lk. [n 1983. the /)MS /fJfU2fJ0\vss sl~!!ldortliz,cd Ii!f ATcW’/llcll IrnlHc is nol considered [0 bc inlcroc(ivc or rc:tl.lime. t{owcvcr, trafic CXII
usc aml is :Ilso in opcr>lt ion. hc scn[ Ihrough a nlcss:lgc swilch ;II very I,igh spcmls Ihy cstobtishing Icvcls
Llcc(ronic switching CIIICI
sl<lmd IPrcwmm control w:ts :!1s<1IIWd ill OIIICV d priori(y h <Iilrcrcnl types d [mlfic. nigh-priority luIOic is qtIcIIcd for a
parts of (he Iclcpfmne sys[em, rIcIlahly (he 1o11 services pc!romwi by ,shorlcr period [hnn Iow-priorily traiIc, This appro:tch can support inlerfic -
. . .. !!>/.() !,,. < .,,., ,,<,.,, ,,, ;,,, ”1.,,,.,,, ,1,. ,,,, //;,. ,;,.,,; ,.,> “,)r; ,j,,,, !i. r. :,rmlic:,limls.
 .

174 %41ching and Po,,lir,g l,> Nrmvorks Cl\ap. 7 Packol Swllchl,,g 175

mI( of [he nlcss;~gc switch. Conscquent]y. m:!ny organizations provide for a

{Illplicotc (d!lplcxcul] mcss:Igc swi!ch in which [hc sccxmd switth osstrmcs (IIC
I’mtc(ioms CJ Ihc firs! swilcb i!) IIIC cvcn( of btilt!vc, ‘rbc Sw’mld !ll:lj{w
deficiency slcnls (wm the hub arrongcmcnt of m:!ny mcssogc swi[chcs,
Since nll Imllic IIwsl go [Ilrotlglt fhc swilch, lhc .swilch ilsclf i.? a polcnli;d
bol!lcncck. I>cgm{lcd ICSPOIISC li!nc :tnd [ICCW:ISCLIIIIroLIgb pIIt C:III ICSLIII
from such UII armngcmcnl, Third, mcssage swilchitlg (IOCS nol u(ilizc tl)e
co!llnlun{c:l (ions Ifncs as c~!cicn fly as olher Techniques discu,;scd in {he next
sccliun,
II
II
!
(
Packe! Swltchlng I

! I
{ Audit Became of [hc Frohlcms with message switching, tbc industry began (o
1 1owe, 01Trilic T,,!( move toward a dilTcrcn( daia communications switching structure in [he
ii 1970s: packc! switching. l%ckc[ switching distributes [he risk to more [hnn
!!

❑✍
silo, IL!,,, ,..,,10”,, r),,,,
OIIC swilch, reduces vul[ler!tbili{y [o nctu,ork fail!lre, and provi~cs better
Illilizal ion of Ibc lines Ilmn dots nlcssagc switching.
1 Pnckct swi(chiog is so namc~ because user d:Itn (r’or cxnmplc. mcs-
— . Sw;,c],ed o, Non$wi(chulLine,
sages) arc broken (fown info smaller pieces. These pieces, or pnckels. have 1
b
Figure 7-3, MBssage Swilch
o ““”[’’”’’”’’”’’’”
1 protocol i!lformnlion placed around [hem and are routed through lbc
!nc[$vork :1s indcpcmlcot
A pnckc(-swi[ching
entities,
nefwork is illustm(ccl in Figure 7-4, The Iopology is
ohviou sty {liTercnl from message switching. Firs(, more switches allow Ihe
The Qtlcuinc onto disk also nrovidcs :1 IIICIIIOCI 10 SINOO!II [mlfic IIY nclwork low! to bc dis(rihu( ccl 10 m!!ltiple switching si[cs, Sccon cl, addi(ion;{l
queuing the lower priorily [mfic dtlring pcok pcri(,ds, ‘1’hc q{tct, ing nlso con!municalioms lines arc oIt;Ichcd In the swi(chcs. TIIC arw!l~cmc[ll prtl-
(lccreases !he chance of blockin~ lrx~c in Ibc event ccrtoil? rmrlions or Ihe vi{les che opportunity 10 perform allerna[e rou[irlg arrangements around
network are busy, The Ira Gc czn bc storctl tcn?pnr:trily aIId Ia(cr roulcd 10 Lli!cd or busy nodes an<l channels. As a conscqucllcc, n p?cke[.swilching
si(es when lhey are free [o nccep{ il. hicssagc swilchcs C:III ~tlso [Iw I:*PC files ttc[work Ims high avnik!bili!y IV cnd I]scrs.
[o perform bock-ups of disk files for billing rccnrds :u)d attdil [r:iils of Packcl swilching goincd interest initi~lly m o means (o provide ror
(mnsaclions proccsseil by llw swilcb, secure voice [mnsmissioms. [luring lbc 196(Js, research uas conduc(ecl by
The mcssngc-swi(ching {Cclllloklgy ws[mlly opc,zlcs wilh o the Unitccl SI:llcs I>cpnr!mcnl Or l)cfcmsc willl (hc intent 10 develop a
mzs!erlslave relationship. Typic nlly, the swilch pctfurnls polling and sclcc- ne!work to switch packets cootai”i,lg voice convcrsa [ions, 1( \vas bclievecl
[ion [0 mannge (lie lro~c coming inlo NI1d gc>ittg0111d il. For example, in ;![1individtl:!l voice conversation. hmken info snlall picccs, could be routed
Figure 7.3 wc assume user [)[’1; A has d:IIo ror user 1)1’E C. The swi!ch (Ill (lilrcrcnl Chwlrlcls lhl’l@lWI [hc sys IcI1,, 111Ihc Cvclll ;,,, :,(lvcrs:lry
performs a polling cycle of {he al(ache[l sites. UPOII polling A, tlIc dnla l:Ippc[l a particular comrllu!lications line III(I W;IS oblc [o discern the aclu;(l
(message) is [ransmilte<l to (he swi[ch. Bnscd on ils p,iorily. it is slomcl in iulclligcncc of the voice image. the cunversa lion would only reveal a piece
one of several disk queues, f)cpcnding on nvcmli lrxfic condili{?m and IIIC of lhc crllirc convcrsnti on. .Sincc lhc f!lll co!lvcrsa lion was “packctizcd”’
message priorily, the swi!ch de-queues Ihe mcssxgc :II1d SCINIS a SCICC{ onto dilTcrcnl pnllIs, nn imiividu; ll line wOu[II 110[ rcvc;Il [hc r~lll in[clligcncc
command 10 C. A( site C, an ACK is scnl [o lbc s\vi[cll~ond (11?mcssngc is of [he cOnlnlunicntiotl.
transnli!tcd 10 C. II was soon t’ccognizcd lh;Il packck swilching !VOUICIwork WCII with
Wltilc nlc.vs:lgc swlicl]inp II:IS served IIIC iudl!slry well, it SIIIICIS rl[lt]l <I:!tn cc>[ll!ll!t!lictlli[l!ls (rxllic, hcc:It Isc njnny dc$,iccs, sIj L’h ~s kcybo;]rd
tllrce dcficictlcics. Firsl. since il is inhcwn!ly n Im:151cr/sI:Ivc slrtlcltlrc, lhc !crnlin:lls, [mnsmil lmilic i!l hursls, “Ilc dala is senl on, [hc chnnncl, which
, -.. . !.. !...., :, ,,$. .,,,; ,.1, r.,;(c .it, r-. :,11~r:,{lir mrml ,!o i,! i!ml
is (hen i(tlc whiien tctmin:tl !tscrinp!lls more d;Il;l inlo !bc let’minnl “r pnt!scs
., .
 ... ,,. . / .,..,.... ... ,, .,. ,.._’.,,

176 Swilching and Routing In Networks Chap, 7 chap. 7 P8ckol Swifchl”g 177

ch:lr:iclcris tics by inlcrlcnviog SCVCWI uscm’ burs(s of lraffic (pnckels) on[o

,OIIC clmnncl. [of course.
IIICSC Icchniqucs nre ;Ivail;tblc Ihm!lgh lime
division mtllliplcxitlg Iccbniqllcs, llowcvcr, wc will scc lb:,! p:Ickcl swilcb.
it>g dots nwrc lb;In sintplc mlllliplcxin g,)
Slmlics Ib:ivc :IISO rcvctllcd 111:11 col11t11!ttlic2a(iv11s
[mfic is often asym-
metric; !l: (1);1(is, corllnllr llic:lli[ltls occor more in otlc direction bc(wccn two
l)~l~s Ih;tn in (IIC olber, A good ex;, mplc uf:, symmclric;tl c<>ll]rlltl[lic:~[ic,ns is
in cc>r]lpls(cr-1[>-[crn1in8tl (m flic: IIIC lerminal oflcn transmits Icss d:Ila tlmn i[
rcccivcs from (he computer, Ikckct swilcbing provides o facilily to smoolh
[Itc :lsymmclric;~l flow :Ici’oss (IIc cb:tnncl by in[cvlc:tviog mul(iplc {!scrs oIl[o
!Ilc cll;ttlncl, Fur insl:, !lcc. in Figure 7.4, \.1):,1 lmiglll bc o compu[cr ;~[ [] ;incl
~ Icrrninal M G from one user session could be reversed by bavi”g another
IIscr sllnrc Ihc same Iinc wilh lhc opposi(c slruclure: n tcrmin; tl 0( B and a
co!npt!lcr ok G. P;ickc( swilcllinp Imlonccs (IIC [wllic ocross nx!ny clmnncls
by swiicbing Ir;\lrlc umollg Ihc m:Itly users 10 dccrcasc (IIC nsym!l]c[ric:l
;tspeci of (IIc [mllc flow,
P:tckcl s!vi(ching :IISO provides an :I[lractivc fenlurc for connecting !I!e
I)TR Iogc[her rOr n session. In a circui!.swi!cbed telephone slruc[urc,
conllcct Iimc is Oflclt sh~w. Rcc:Ill fronl codicr discus si[]ns itl Illis cb:lplcr
III; II ;I swilcbcd Iclcpbooc c;dl lcquilcs Ilml o iItItIIlwr Iw di;llcd anti tlml ;11[
circui(s bc SC[ up ror [hc c;dl [o bc rou(cd (o [he dcs(i!u! (ion. However, wi(h
Figure 7-4, Packe!Switching
; packet-$witcbing sys~cln. de~ica[cd leased lines [Ire available for muhiple
!;scrs !0 inlcrlcnvc Ibcir dnl;I Imlfic, ‘rbq Iincs do !Iol rcqllirc :lny circuil
10 (hink abouf a problem. The idle channel lime Iransl;iles inln w;Is(cd Iinc sclups, since lhcy arc pc!’mancnlly co!l!lcc!ed lbrmlgh Ihc Sys[cnl, The
csfmcity. Onc O( Ibc cowxpls of pockc( switching is to in(crlc>lve mulliplc !ccltniq[lc CIIII improve [be slow CO!I!ICC[ time ;!ssoci:tlcd wilh mul(iplc
transmissions rrom ,scvrrdl tcrIIt;IIcIIT ontc nnc ch;t!lncj< in cfrccl ;Icbicving lclcpbo IIc circt lit swilchcs.
lime division mul(iplcxing across a communiczdious line, “I”bis opproacb
provides belter use of (he expensive communications channel.
When ant/ When Nof to Use Packet Swlfch/ng
Packet switching goes QIIC s[ep fur[ber III; III simple mllltiplcxing of(hc
communications lines. Packc[ logic can also mul[iplcx mt!l(iplc mscr sessions
Wbcn tfocs an) cwg;tniml ion know wbcII (, I USC, ur I1OI [O USC. pzckcl-
onto a single conlmunicatiOns port of the conlp~i(er. (Cbs)ptcr Olle lli$c~lsscs
Swilcbirlg sys[cnls? Will] [he prccmfing discussion in mind, one way 10
(he port conce pt.) Inslend of clccfica[ing a port 10 otle user. the syslcnl
:,[ICIICSS this q!!csliotl is 10 compare rut!r allcrnnlives for connecting DTf R
interleaves the burs[s of (raT[c from multiple users across OIIC port. “1’hcuser
(see FiEurc 7-5):
perceives a dedica(ed port is hcing used wllcn (I1c user D’FE or Iproiyom is
actually shnring a port with olber users.
● Pirblic lelephonc clial. upsys(cm
J’orl nnd cb;mnc] mt]llip]cxing arc rcfcwcd 10 as n I;,III(ZI cI!,l,II!PI ov
● [plivalc. Inmlswitcbcd lclcpbotIc ch;III!>c[s
rirf(,olc;m-r! it. “Vir!ual” means tlmt a user tbinks il has :1dcdicii[d resource
when, in fncl, [he resource is sbarcd. j * pt]blic packet !le[wcwks, or private circui[-swilcbeci networks
“f’lle I)cparlment of f)cfense (f)Ol)) coIId IIclccl n stIItl), scvcml yc;lrs ● p!ivolc p:lckc[ !tc{works,
~so on (he nolt!rc ofda[a (non-voice) lr;!~lc. ‘llle SIIICIY rcvcalcd 11101over 99
pcrcen[ of dnlo lrn[lsmissiotls are sbor(cr lh211 voice [rtlnsmissions. Tllc org:illimlions wilh rcln[ivcly low dolwlransfcr m(es bcnefil from using
l)f.)1~ slutty showed 11)2( 2S pcrccnt of dal:t (rnmsnlissions 1:1s( Icss (ll:ln onc pl]hlic <Ii;]l-up Iincs, Ir sessions lwl\vcctl IYr[:s :,rc s11{911 :Incl (I1c Cor,]wc[iom
second. 50 fmrccn[ Ias[ less 111:111 five seconds, :Iml 9(1 pcIccnl 1:!s[ less !II:II! hcl\vcctl IItc l)~lls :NTCIoc:tl. IIm di:ll-t!p :Ippwocb m;)kcs good sense. ~f’(be
cc,,, . . . . ...1. l..,. t.., ,,; <,1,il, i.. !.cl, nnln. v i< tlf.. in,>p, { (n ;>C\t\l’tS?, these r,<c.r ,1,,,-< no! nlind Ihc ,li:ll-t!n (Ic I:Iv :Iml ;It> rrcn~inn!!l lTIISV si~nnl, ,Sincc
,,
 } }

178 Wilchlng and Flou!l.s In Networks chap. 7 chop. 7 Packel Swllching 179

—
High n cnrcflil :Irl:llysis of lhc opl ions vis. J-vis n conlp:lny$s needs, Moreover. (I1c
\
vnhlc-; lddcd nSpCC[S or p:lckcl llcl\volk S (SllCh :1s X.3 PAOS ;llld the ,X,25
connection oric!ll alien discussed in C[mplcr Eigb[) CONIII alter a user
cl[g;l!1i7.:l!it]n’s decisions (o k\vor [i p:lckcl nclwork :Il[crn:ltivc,
I’:wkc[.swilching Icchmdogy h;ts c!).j{~ycd ;,m;\7.
ing stIcccss i!l [hc 1:, s(
ICI1 years. Pocket sys(e!lls arc inlplcmcn[ed i!l practically Nll indlls[ritdizcd
countries loday. Scveml studies imlico!e pockc(. switching hardwore and
sorl\vwc s:dcs will incmasc to n lc~’cl or over S90(1 million by 1991. The
sludics cslinmlc by the ycor 2000.” [hc packc(-swi(ching l~atcl\varc/sorl!vare
itxluslry will Ihave sn!cs in cxccss or over $2 billion.
[n summary, (I1c major gonls of pnckc{ switching nrc:
1.,,,,.,; .,, 0,,,1>, File
Trm-, tion. Traffic Twe
Or;,.,,d ,,I
Orlen,ed ● PrOvid C ror mtlltiplcxing capabilities or lhe chnnnel and the port
Flg.re 7.5. Oplions for DTE Communications . smoolb (hc xnsymmclricnl lntllic NIll<Iflg mulliplc \lscrs

. prmvidc rOr frost rciponsc lime lo nll users Or Ihc r:~cilily

dinl.tlp charges arc l.msed on time nnd dis[nn cc, inrrequclll ~nd shorl - . provide for high avail nhility or [he network [o nll users
dist;!nce trmsmissions (ovor the usc of [hc ptlblic Ic[cphonc sys!cm
● provide ror dislrilw! ion or risks and sll:i ring of VXOUICCS,
Privote Icased lines arc a vi:!hlc op[ion for organiz;llions Ih:I{ cxpcri-
cncc heavy, consl:!nl [rnflic Ihrougho!lt ;! 24-I I(NIvpc!iml :Ind/or c;!rl!l(>l
tolerate !hc dclnys or diol.tlp. “1’llc organization can IISC Ihc pcrm:lnclllty Packet Routing
connected leased lines continuously. tdorcover, companies tlm[ cslnhtish
Ne[\vo!k rou(ing en[ails the use of logic (so f[ware, h:!rdware, or
mul(idrop connections on [heir privale channels usually benefit fronl using
microcode) fi[ [he swi(ches to move the daln pnckcls through Ihe network to
[he leased cht!nncl option, hccnuse the multidrops pcrnlit n !morc cll’cclivc
{hc cd dcs[ioi!li [m, Nc[\vork muling IINS lllrcc ptim;lry gonls:
sharing of the cbznncl.
Public pncke( networks (several of\vhich orediscusscd io Clmptcr’~ctl)
1, provide for (he shortest possible delay nnd llighest lhroughpu(
are sometimes called value-addcc! cnrriers (VAC) because Ihcy provide
2. IWIIC Ihe pockc[ lhI-oIIgb (IIC ncl!vork n! lhc Ieos! cost
value .addecl services to their c!!stomers. For exanlplc, VACS bmsc Iincs
rronl (he [elcphone c?rrier, add packet switches and PAIIs to II;C Iincs, :Ind 3. pmvidc C:ICI1p:!ckc[ \vi[h !hc tlt:lxinlt]m possible scct!ri[), und mli:!bil.
sell the service to xny customer wil Iing (o pay the fees. Organ iz?licms \vi[h i[y.
low (0 nlcdiurn tmtlic volumes can wsually bcnclil rrmn sulmcrihing 10 n
public packet nc(work. The public tnclwork can accomm<xl:llc ovgani~.a(ions Nc[\vork routing is c:t[egorizcd in a nttmher or \vays. One approach is
wi[h occasional (rz~]c kw lrans!71ission. Also, ror org:t!liz:l lions lhol arc cc,!rr((lizcd or (Ii. $!rilmlcd muling. Tbc ccnlrnlizcd routing nct\vork provides
spread out over a Iargc geographical area, lhc public packc( nclwulk IM:IY hc ror onc network cnnlrcd ccn(cr (NCC) to dclernlinc Ihe rou(i!lg or [be
better economically, since mos[ or Ihc pubtic p:tckc( corricrs cllnrgc on pockets {hrrmgh the nclwork. The pnckc( swilchcs are nol as inlctligcn[ as
rol!(mc or tra~tc, not dis{ance be(\veerl I)TEs. [hc ccnlf’:!l silt, which con lmnslafe inlo decreased COSIS of the switching
hiany org:miza[ ions lhn~e cslabished p!iva!c packc[ [Ic(w,orks or nodes, I Iowver, centralized control suNers fmm the vulnerobili !), of one
privale circui[-swi[chcc! syslcms, ‘Yhcrc ;Ire severnl Icosc>ns r<>v priv~llc ccmml silt [o possible foilurc. Collscquently, NCCS arc usunlly duplicztcd
syslcms. For mcdiunl (0 l\igll lra TIc vol~!mcs, private nclivolks ;nrc mom cosl (dtIplcxcd), l)islribu[cd routing requires more in!clligcnl I1OCICSin the
cflcclivc IIu!n dc[lica[ed privnlc lines, Klomovcr, ir on llrgonimtioll hns [nc[wmrk. Ilnwcvcr, it provides more tnctwork vcsilicncy. hcc:l use each node
“hursly” (m(lic con[liliotls, a p!iv:!lc pockc[ nclwork USIIOIIY provides bcllcr tm:tkcs ils <NVII rvu(ing dccis(om withou[ rcgord (o > ccntr;)liT,cd ncI!\mrk
and more ccc>nnnlic:ll scrvicc that) (I1c dcclica[ed r:lcili[ics. ~ con!rol ccn[cr. Oislrill{licd muting is :)1s0 nlow complex. as \vc \$,ill scc
Fi~ttre 7-5 provides n gmpbic dcpicli[m d~hc ltodcdls hcl\vcc I1[Ii:ll-11[1 Shotlly,
lil~cs, privalc litlcs, p(ll~lic p:!ckcl nctwotks, mIIl priv:llc pxckc( nc{works.’[ Ilcfnrc discllssing lhc :IcI(I,II rmlling Icchn,?lt,pics. il is ncccsst!ry [0
,,, , ,,. . .,,..:... ,,(>.,.;,le. .,,,,( ,.f,~,]e pr.,,,fi,.,, (Iclinc some lcrms.
 ,,

“1 “’ “’ “’””’“’
180 Swllchlng and t?oul!ng!. Nclworks chap. 7 cl!.”, 7 PacketSwllclI1.g 181

lproccss is colicd dic.out {or p:!ckcl kill), nnd suhslan[iol[y rcch!ccs “rME.
I’uckcl cwpics gI;IdtIJly dis;!ppmlr ;)s Ibc pockcls m;tkc lbcit \v;!y Iow:Ird (I1c
end cicslin; dim].

Rnmfom RoulinR. Rmldom wu[ing is anolhcr Icchniquc USCII rOr

oclw,cwk rmckc( swilching. This :tpprmch rcq[tircw Ihc soilu,;wc al C:ICII
Most packet nekworks perrorm rouling by the usc or:! rm!ling directory swilch 10 randomly select atl oulpul cb:tNncl, Under n pure mmlmn.routing
or [nble. The direcfory con(s ins the directions Ilwt :OSIVUCIIhc s\vi Iches 10 p:]l[c!n, the OUIpIII channel may include [he paIb over which [he packet was
transmi! a packc[ [o onc or several possihlc OUIP!I[ ch:tnncls :11IIIC swi[cll. mccivcd. [r, ror example, R p:!ckel swilch h;td IIIrCC CIL!tpU[ ports, it
Packc[ nclwork directories arc organized wound (hvcc ;,pproncl,cs. “K\nd<lmi7.cs” t~~C;ICI1Or IhC po14s, Conscqllcn[ly. 33 pcrccn[ of (I1c time it
SCICCIS port A: 33 p~rcenl, port 11; n!ld 33 pcrccn( port C. Less logic is
‘ ● Fi.rrd (or .r!<I/ii,) Jiwclory Cl];lnges n{ systcm gcncm[ion [imc only, ! rcq!tilcd n( (IIc swi(chcs to pcrrotm roodom rouling ond tmITc is, on [hc
Remains static for PVC-KY
user session. ;Ivcmgc, dislribu (cd 10 :1[1 swilchcs, Ihmfom rou[itlg provides for Iuml
,,
● Ses.fiolf-orirfll(,(l dircc(ory. Cllnngcs wiltl r(lch user session. Swiic for Icvclling ocross the entire “ctwt)rk,
an individtl:\l session. I lowcvcr, mndom r-cwfing has serio!ts disadvsnlagcs. Firs!, !hc IIJ!;d
● Adflpli~,e or dSIIOIIIiC directory. Changes uIfrltiII C:lCII user session. PO(II 1111’ouglIIIW tlc[\$’ork is(OH IhC :IVCMICC) considcr:thiy Iongw !hnt) wi[k
olhcr Techniques, Also, [he IJclay througi] tile ne[work is kmger, whicll
The dircc!ory sys[cms nre rurtllcr clmsiiicd ;m parti:!l.p:!ll] <Iircctory or grcltly alTcc[s a nmjor gonl or packet swi[ching-lo reduce delay. Third,
{ull. path dirccfory, A /xwfial-IMI/! <Iircclm’y con!;ji!]s II!IIY (IIC OCl,I;ICCIItIIOCICS while IIIC packc{ “wundcrs urmlml” the nc[uwrk, eventually findi[lg i[s
[o a particl!lar swi{ch, i,c., those nodes conncc!cd dircc[ly 10 lhc switch A dcstill:ll inn, a Ihitc clmnce cxisls [lm[ [he packcl nmy never rcacb its
,fII1l-p.tll directory contains !1,. .ntire sel Or inlermedi;tle nmlcs ror the destinolirm. Fourlh, becnusc Of IIW ‘{wan dering, ” ra”donl rol][illg experi-
p:lckel to tmversc 10 its fini dcs[in:l[ ion, I cr!ccs (IIC fr:!fftc mulfipticn lion eflcc( (7’ME). Conscquenlly, !his lechnique is
The rm!lin~ lcchniqucs dcscrihcd in this scclior illt!stmlc lhc wide nul IIsccl much,
diversity or mc!hods used by network designers. Some or these tecltniqtbcs
IIirccmry Routing. As slnlcd earlier, [he more widely used rou[ing
nrc used ex[cnsivcly, oild o[hcrs :Irc IIscd OIIly occasiomlly or ;Irc rcsc:lrch
!ccllniqt!es e!llploy o direc! m’), or {able, The three dircc!ory approaches
projec[s. We will learn how lhey work as well m Ihc exlcn! of lbcir use.
io[roducccl earlier wilf be explained by nn examirmlion orexisling ne!works.
Pocket F/oodi!!~. OIIC approach to network routing is pfickcl flooding. The ji.rrd, .sfn(ic dirccfory is illus(m(ed by IBM’s Sys[cm Network Archi-
Every possible pfith is used hc[wccn x tmnsmi[(ing .!,(I rccci.irlg DTIZ; lcc!t]m (SNA), Tbc .rcs.~i,>/J-t,r;rrJ/rc/ dircc!ory [echnique is explained by the
duplicalc p8cket S are plaCed On10 alt oulpu[ channels and rOUICd thrml~h !hc public p:!ckcl weiwork Tymnct. l~in;!lly, Ihc (Jd[fp!i!c (w (I?r!,!!]!ic d;rrc!ory
ne[\vork. An ;Idvn!ltagv (o f70<!di#7gis lh:xt sioce every pall) !hrm]gh lhc npprcmch is illuslrnled by the Dcparlmen[ or Derense’s ARPA NJsT.
nc{work is !Iscd, (I1c first copy of(hc packcl lo nrrivc :![ (kc cml silt will Imvc SNA car? INS( he inlroducccl by an cxamirwlion or lhc S.r.?IrrIr Srrv;c?,c
gone through the shorlcsl dckiy (which mccls onc or lhc m:t;or go:!ls 01 C<,!l(wl I’oi,l[ (SSC1’) aml two olhcr rundamcn [al pints or lhc archi[cclurc:
ne[work rotlling). IIowever, the lr:i~c mul(iplicnt ion elTcc I (’~ME) is clt!i!c plly.vi((ll IIIri/.< (PU) amf Iogicwl n,fifs (L U), ‘lhcse [hrcc clcmc”[s arc COIIUJ
severe wilh p:lcke! flooding, and !I]c load on (IIC nc[work is proporlion:ll 10 !Ie!>{,ork oddrcssctblc otri!,r (N AU S), In SNA, nn NAU can be an originator
[he conneclivi!y or [he network. i.e., more channels UNCIal[crnulc p;Ilhs or a rcccivcr of fmfic; am! every NAU in [kc network is nssigncd a uniqtle
create more tra~]c. }Iowever, pocket Iloociing provides ror a higll[y rcsilicn( address. For cxnnlplc, an NAU is assigned 10 elements such M (he
ne[\vork since x packc[ COPY will nl\vays gcl lhrm!gil 10 lhc emi dcslinalicm hos!.:tcccss melhod (VTAM or TCAhl), IIIC front.cnd nc!\vork ccnlral
as long as one P:!(II exists bct\vccn !hc sending nnd mcciving sto[ioms, Smnc pt’ogr:!m (NC P), clus[cr controllers. [crnlin:lls. nml ccrt:\i!l ;Ipplic aliens,
military networks usc this lecb!liquc because i[ is very rohtisl. C<>lllllltlrlic;blil)ns lines :!re :\lso mssigncd :oddmsscs, bul they ;tm! nul NAIJs
The [raflic rllul[iplicnl ion c~cct can hc dinli!!isllcd by n[l[!iog some since II>cy do not origiuale or vccci\, c tm(lic,
a[ldi! iona! b<wkkccping logic al C:ICII swilch. I:or cx:implc, IIIC dcsigll cot! IIC SSCP is rcsponsihlc ror (IIC SNA ncl\vork. 1[ resides in Ihc I1OSI
SCI up as 10IIUWS: 1[ C:ICI1 rtcciving I1O(1C rccngrlizcs n d!!plicn!c p:\ck cl, il [clcv[l!l!rll!lr] ic:tli[>rls :ICCCSSmctkml (cilhcr ACF{ITAM or AC F/VTAh4),
[Iisc:)rds Ihc packet and does no[ scml 011[ any nd[li [ional copies or IIIC Eoch port (donmin) or an SNA !nctwork is nssigncd [u ON SSCP. Tbc major
,. ~ . ... . .. . .. . .. . . . ,.,, . .,, .,, ,,( (I,C .,, rk,. , .rl,i< runcl ions of on SSCP ;Ire:
- -.:$ .. .. ,., ,.,, . . .. . .
“-’’’’--~
)
182 Swltchlngand Boullngin Nelwo!ks Chap. 7 chop. 7 Packol Swlld,lng 183

● es[ablisbing user sessions in [he ne~work SUBAREA 4

Q conlro]ling all rcsm!rccs ill IILC donmin
● bringing up (he network,

End users in an SNA ..{work arc individu[lls or.pplicolions progr;lnls,

An end user is not considered part of SNA, so a Iogic!tl t]ilit (LU) OCISos 011
access poinl inlo the ne]work. Tbe logical unit is software or microcode. An
end-user-to-end-user session requires an LU.ICWLU session (o acquire the
resources for the end users. The LUS provicfc I’or any tx!iTcrs, dnl:t
conversion, editing, flow control, and sof[ware required to sa[is(y (he
end-tlse rreqt!irerllents. Erich LU has a network name associated \vi[h i( IMCd
by SNA to determine a nclwork address and fhc xc[!lnl Ioc:l [ion o{ [he
needed resources, The cnd user is no[ concerned wi~h Ihc physical aspects
of the network,
SSCP sends comm:mds 10 N PU, wllicll lhcn mNmlgcs (IIC rcsm!iccs
a[tachccf directly 10 il. A PU aclunlly conl: iins a subsc[ or lhc SSC1]
capabilities and performs functions such os recovery procedures, ac[iva{ing
a data commt!nica! ions link, ond [erninnl co!]trol,
SNA communicates !brough a .rr.rsio!!, u,hich is o lcmporory [ogicnl
connection between network-addressable urlils (?’ JAU). The goal of session
marv!gemenf is to create an LU-10-LU session in order for end IISCIS 10
communicate wilb each o[hcr, In so doing, IIIC SSCP firs[ establishes a
session with [he logical uni~’s pbysicnl uni( (SSCP-P U), lhcn wi!h [be Iogicnl
unit (SSCP-L U), Finally, the IWO logical uni[s es[:!blisll a session for
applications processing (L U-10 -L U).
SNA uses a sfalic and partial dircc(ory. The di!cc[ory is responsible for
rouiing (raiTc through [be SNA ne[work, Figure 7-6 depicts a [ypical SNA
lopology, SNA is orgnnizcd around the conccpl of domains and nodes.
Nodes cons[i[u[e domains. Two kinds 01 nodes exist. The s[!borca node
-: EXPM[ 170ulw
con[a ins a main fvdnle compuler an fJ/Or n fron( end, ~ncl has (he iulclligcrlcc P: PEr@ml R..,,,
to m;tke muting decisions. Periphcrnl rmdcs cont:\irB cluslcr controllers
Flgute 7-6. SNA Domln
andlor terminals and do not nmkc rou(ing dccisio!ts,
When a user wishes 10 usc lbc SNA network, o class or service (COS)
cxplicil roule is a scqucncc or subarea noclcs and links rrom tbc originn[ing
must firs! be defined. The wser dcfit>cs a prcrcrcnl in! ro[tlc ;Ind n prcrcrcn lid
10 lcrmitltl[i81g s\I[xwcns. Ul! 10 cigb[ cxp[icit rou{cs c;tn hc defined bclwccn
level of service Ii. c,, a class or service (COS)/, For cxnmplc,, Ihc prcfcvcnli;!l
cnch p:lir d sulmrca nmlcs, I?:tch explicit rotlte is :dso dcli!lcd io n (r,ln,vil
route cottld con[ain (N) a reqtlcs( ror Ion<{ lirlcs instcacf hr so[clli[c links
m[[!i!tg fahlc (SCC I:igure 7-7). The rot![ing Inblc con[a ins [he des[ina [ion or
hccnuse orrcsponsc lime considcrz(inns, (b) [hc cxplicil ro!(litlg over cer[;!itl
Ibc suborm addresses 0s \\fcll m cxplicil rm?tc numhcrs,
links (hat are more secure than otl!ers, owl (c) Ibc hypils sing or ccrt$ tin Rou(ing through SNA is session oriented :Ind fi.ycd ill (ITC lime (I1c
nodes. users’s profile is gcncmtcd in[o [he rm!{in,g tahlc. As \vi[ll all pncket -
The CI:IS, or service (COS) clcfincs a list or prercrco[i; !l IOIIICS, rnllcd s\vilching nc[w,orks, nllcrn;,lc muling enlries in [he lablc orc providc[l in the
\,irlt(<l/roulr.! (VI{). A virlu;ll ml!ic is ;1Iogicoi t’m!lc hcl!vcc I1 IWO cm{ p{]inls, CVCIII O( prol>lcn)s wilh I1O(ICY or ch:\nncls. SNA pruvidcs :,11 :!ddi lional
A user session is assigned the first operational VR it! lhc COS lnblc. Erich rc;t[ure called tmw~,,!i.r,riott gmt,p,r (TGs), This [erm describes the grouping
,,; rt, ml .CV,,P i< th,-. mstnncvl info a (nldc (o crcalc r.rp/i(i/ ?;tflr,r (E RS). All or p:tr:tllcl links bcl,wcc(l adjaccn( sulmrc!a nodes. The transmission gm(Ips
 ,. ...,,,.,,.,.,,,,, ,.,

)
184 Swllching and Routing In Nelworks chap. 7 ChWX 7 Pmkel Svdlch.g 18S

—-–-+--1
~“’h’n’”’m*’’OnL”’>’’’””’ supervisor
node. I’bc
SCIS up :1 scssio!l by scnlling n “nccdlc”
needle packcl idcnlifics
p~!ckct 10 IIIC rcq{]csting
:!11 !bc intermcdin[c nodes used to
complc[e Ibc pockcl Ir;wsrcr 10 tbc c!llI site. Upon (I1c nccdlc pnckc[ :Irriving
111Ibc SO UI’CCnode, (be pnckct is lhcn scn( fllo!lg (be p;!lb 10 lbc internvxfinie
nodes, where bulTcrs arc set up :ind reserved ror n two-way session bel\vcen
(be IWO users,
TYMNET cslnhlisbcs (I1c needle fmckc[ hnscd on n “link COSI”: link
c:!p:l cityload cotllli Iiljnsore:lcll Iinc, type or link, nmf (be lypc ofslpplicn[ ion
session (interactive, hatch, CIC). TllercaRcr, a session (reverses the same
p:llh \vhitc thc users :lrc kI?IZCd n!l 10 lbc ncl\vork. The nc[\vork st!pcrvisor I
moin[nins nn nw;lrcncss of lbc colire nclww’k by requiring llwl cocb node
scncl s(a[us packets 10 il every fcw seconds, These puckc[s contain tbc
opcra[ion:ll s[ntus of cnch node and pro\, idc inrornlnt ion on pncket delay
tbrull&b lhc llOlfCS,To tcrminotc lbc session, tt “PO(11mppcr” lmckct is used
to relemc tbe channels and b(llTers !brough the path.
EtIch TYMNET Node is alloca!cd Iogicf!i r/I(Imrcl.Y. and llle channels
arc rcscrvcd klr Immmissions \vbcn lbc session is SCI up \vi[b tbc nccdlc
lrmwi! n.w!ino Table p:lckc!, The Iogicol ch;inncl numhcr idcnlilies lbc sessiou nnd the p;!ckcts
belonging to the session. Figure 7-8 illustrates [be logical channel conceptb
DSA; Dmlinat?o.S,,l,wm
ERN: EXP!i,;t noulo N.mbe. (\vllicl! nrc cnllcd /Mw/.r ill lbc cI1d s{lcs), As lbc scssf(,n is SCI UP :11 nmlc A.
En, ExDli,it )7..1, Ilte fmcke[ is resigned 10 oulbm!nd logical cbttnncl 5. The lo~icnl channci
NN: Nexl Node
numhcr 5 is plficed in the packcl bcodcr and sent 10 node B. Due 10 (be
TG: Trmm!%$ion Gro,,P
previous session cstnhlisbmcnt, node B knows inbound logical channel S is
Figure 7.7, SNA TransitRo.llng Table to be given 10 ou[hottncl Iogicnl clmnnel 9. Node fl pcrrorms !be queuing
iunc(ions a!td chongcs IIIC pocket bew[cr cflanncl nttmber to 9. This nunlber
consist or links using (bc sntne lcchrwlogy (ror CXHTIIPIC, Innd lines or is wsociatcd \vi[fl porl 7 at lbc fi!ml Jcs[i nation. noclc C. Atl o!([IM{{IIJ Iogic;ll
salelli[e links). cll:)Nncl m]nlhcr is :msoci;!lcd \vi(b a!? i)(lmt(!rd Iogic:ll clmnocl number.
As s(alcd etrlier, [be SNA direclory is porlifil-no single sufmreo I1OS ARPANET is an exanlplc of xdap[ive or dynamic direc[ory rou(ing. ([
an unders[:!nding oflhe complctc cnd-to-cnc! pn(b, As Ibc lnblc in Figt!re 7-7 :!Iso illt!s!rnles the conccp( of’ distributed packc[ systems. Each node
shows, [be subarea only knows !hc a(ljacen! nodes to wbic,h it is 10 rou[c m:linl
ains :IN nw;trcncss [Ir IIIc ctllirc ncl$\wrk [L)pOklf4y :Ind indcpcndcn[ly
[ralTlc. The explicit routes are broken down in!o route scgnlcn!s, A clmngc NODE A NODEB NODE C
irl network con figurnlicm nnd IOIIOIORY ([Or cxnnl PIQ, :lddiWi !lc~’ nO1lcs Or
removing nodes rrom Ihe nc{work), necessitates ch~!nging oniy Ihc lrnms:tc-
2
[ion routing tables or the wljaccnl nodes. No olhcr nodes arc oR’cc[cd.
Tbc (ransi[ routing lable consists oribree fields: tbedcsti!l:l[ ion suhnrcn
LINK LINK
(f)sA); explicit ruufe (ER) numbers: and IbC nCX[ no~lc/lrOns(nis$i(lll WOUP
(NN~G) field When an SNA nlessage, called a pall, inform:,(iotl ,!nil (l’l U), 5 5
is processed by x sulmrea node, IIIC node cbccks the .I’IU bender ror a DSA
9 9 -----
and an ER nt!mhcr. 1( finds {tic cw’rcspondi!%! cnlrics, in IIIC [:!hlc ;lnd PI:ICCS
-1 t
[he mes.wgc in lhc appmprialc outguing q!Ieuc. P Lc LC Lc LC r
TYMNEf $Iluslrx[cs IIIC scssiomoricnlccl ,Iircc[ory. 1( is :,ISO :,,1
cxxmplc of ccn[ralizcd rnu[ins. TYhlNl~T prOvidcs a cc>!llr(~l CCOICr (lllC P, P“,,
LC: Lo”ic”l Cl?,,
””,!
“supervisor”) in California \vllicb dc[cr!llincs !he rotIIc (brwtgl) [I)c nclwot.k
. . ... . . . !... ,,. ,,, ,!, P ,,,.l,”,>, k, IIIC: network Figure 7.8, TYMNET Logical Cl,mmls
166 Swilching and f })g in Nelworks Chap, 7 Chap. 7 “> )s1 Swilchhg 187

commms the odimurn (shortest) path to each dcsdna[ ion mxfc and [hc fintd
node. Arfaplive ne[works function on the concept of node-udjacency knowl-
edge; {ha[ is, a particular node is aware of ~he SMUS of thOse nOdcs adjacent
to it. The process is depic[ed in Figure 7-9, which shOws Ihc rOuting t~blc fOr
node D.’ The routing table consists of several cn(rics. Three illustrated arc
final destination, next node, and a calculated overall delay. If node D wishes
to transmit packets 10 node A, it performs a table look-up [o find dcstinu[ion
A and de[ermincs that Ihc next node [o route (he packc[s is C, The ovcmll
delay from D 10 C to B [o A is seven units of time—shorter [ban any olhcr
path to A.
ROUTING TA13LE
FD NN
AC7
BC4
CC2
EE3
FE6
GG4
,.
i
FD, Final D,,tin,lion
NN: N,., Node
00: O,,, a!l Del.”
Hgure 7-9, Adaptive Routing
As the packets are sent OUI from node D to its adjacent nodes (C, E,
and G), the software a~ D keeps records of [he time required to receive an
ACK from [he adjacent nodes. In addition, each node knows how m:!ny
packe[s it has outstanding for other nodes. Every [en seconds the node
calculates the delay on e3ch of its outgoing links. Any significant dcvi~[ ion
in delay changes are sent by packe[ flooding 10 all other nodes. The nodes
then use the information to recompute the rou!ing L1blc, Thus, the n:tmc
dynamic or uduplive routing is used, because [he routing logic ch;mgcs b:lscd
on ne[work conditions.
The key objectives of dynamic rou(ing arc LO(ii) provide for a tlcxiblc
network m mce( changing trdfflc colldi~i Ons. and (b) prOvide o fast WI
re~dily avti(tblc mc[bod for bypassing problcm nodes. For cxt~mplc,
ARPANET processes over 20 million user packets a day and cxpcricnccs
over 99 percent up-time for all i[s users. This notable performance is
achieved while adding a new hos! CPU 10 (he systcm every lwo weeks.
Adaplivc routing is nol wiibout its problems. First, [he software 10
handle this powerful routing scheme is complex. Second, it is possible tha[
a packet can ‘Loscdl ate” and become lost in the network when it moVeS from
one node [o another during the time tha! the routing tables are changed,
However, if the routing Iablcs are nol changed frequently, the lost-packet
problcm is no[ serious. Initially, ARPANET exchanged path-update packets
wi[h neighbors every 128 milliseconds, which crca[ed a variety of problems
in the network. Recent approaches have [he nodes update their table every
ten seconds.
Adaplive rouling also presents some unique problems in reassembling
packets al (he final destination. With (he fixed-directory approaches, since
the packets follow edch other sequentially through a set path in the ne[work,
the p~ckcts arrive in sequential order. However, adaptive rou[ing allows the
OD
packc[s to take different paths through the network, so that in many
instances they arrive out of sequence. (Some people ca[l [his method
da/ugrm~J mufing. However, we will see that the term da/agram has a
difTcrent meaning in the X.25 context. ) Out-of-sequence transmissions
require the receiving node to queue and hold all packets until all packets
h~vc arrived before [hey are given to the user.
Roufing Problems. This section discusses several problems [hat exist
in many packet ne[works: lost packets, duplicate packets, flow-con[rol
problems, network purges, and packe{ squelches,
To describe the lost-packet problem, let us assume a packet is routed
to switch B, which acknowledges with an ACK to transmitting node A
[Figure 7-10(a)]. However, the switch that sends the ACK (node B) does not
send the packc[ forward, because the switch fails before B has an opportu.
nily [o [ransmi[ [he acknowledged packet out onto [he channel, In this case,
[hc pficket is lost, If o~her packets from this session finally arrive at the
rccciving node, lhc lost packet cannot be found in the network,
Several methods cxis( for handling lost packets. One approach is 10
rcstric[ node B from sending an ACK back [o node A un[il i[ has ac(ually
scni the packet on to node D. Olhcr systems require lhat end node D
[rmrsmi[ s[atus ptickcts back to node A 10 indicate which packets are
missing. The lalter approach stipulates packet accountability as an end-to-
cnd Cuncl ion,
Figure 7-10(b) illustrates the problem of d{/p/ica/c packe[s, In this
situ~[ion, node B’s ACK does not arrive back 10 node A, even though “ode
B sends lhc packet successfully [o node D, Conscquen[ly, node A may
w.sumc node B is down and rctransmi[ the packe[ [o node C. Node C will
relay this packet to node D, which even[wdly reccivcs the packet twice.
Duplicntc packets can bc bandied by a number of me[hods. One is to
require a more clabomtc sequencing scheme in a hcsdcr to uniquely identify
 packc[s. One &pproach to hmdling flow con[rol is through packet choking
[SCC Figure 7-10(c)], Euch node monitors lhe utilization of its outpul lines,
When fhc output lines exceed a [hrcshold, the node’s logic checks incoming
packc[s to delermine if the packe[s desdned for th~[ line are shove a
threshold. If so, a choke packei is sent back [o the node or DTE originating
[he “problcm”” Irrtffic. The sending SW is required to reduce traffic or hold
[raffk by a certain amoum or a certain period, Once the overload has
dccrctsed, ~hc trnnsm;tting site can resume sending trailic.
A problem whh packet choking occurs when two or more nodes
Jcpend on each oiher [o complc!e an action. For example, if a packet choke
is issued to a node because ihe receiving node has an excessive number of
ptwkets, yet the node it “choked’< is sending some of [he very packets
needed for the receiving node [o relieve its butTers, then fhe result is a
“deadly embrace.” One solution (o the deadly embrace is to require the
sending node to request from the receiving node the necessary butTer space
for a muiti.packet session. The receiving site reserves [he buffer space ahead
of [ime or denim the call requesl. TYMNET,s “medle’+ packet is a“
illusmttticm O( reserving buffers before [he session begins.
Figure 7-IO(d) shows ano[her sihm[ion, network purge, in which
packe[s can bc IOS[ in the nc[work. Due {o a number of potential problems
(sequencing errors, timing problems, etc,), the netwock is$ue~ ~ ~a,llro/
puc’krj to terminate a user session, Typically, when this packet arrives at end
node D, subscqucnI packets for this session are not acceplcd by D. In [his
case, packets 2 and 3 would be ignored, and a higher level protocol would
have to ini(iatc recovery of these packets.
The X.25 clear, reset, and resmrt conirol packets discussed in chapter
fii~hl illustrate how the problcm shown in Figure 7.10(d) can occur, The
VUIUC of a higher ICVC] recoyery mecha”i$m ([he tran~po[t layer) iS also
discussed,
Finally, some networks (such as packe( flooding) discard a packet if it
has existed within the network beyond a iime limit. The packets are given a
“time [o live” and then discarded (S’tqwlched”) if the time expires, After a
certain amount of time, the packet loses i(s value. .4dap!{ve ro”(ing
nctwork$ and connecliordess networks sometimes use this approach

Packet-Switching Support to Circuit-Switching

(d) Ne,wmk Purge
Networks
F{gure 7-10, Packe! Routing Problems
Several yews ago, AT&T/Elell recognized the inefficiency of in[egraling its
control signals on the same charmel with voice traffic, Consequently, it
each packel, and to provide software at [he receiving sile to discm’d
devised the Common Channel Intcrotljce Signal{inB (CCIS) sy$tem, which
dupl;ca!e data.
[mnsmi[s the signaling information for a group of trunks OVS. -
F[ow-ronrro/ logic is available al every nude to preven! m cxccs$ivc
channel from the user communications than.. ~ ‘-
nmnber of packets arriving at a node faster ihan the rmdc can tmnsmil ihc.
 ‘ ,...
“. . . . .
, , ,m.,, ,=,.. 191
Swochlng and Rou!ing In WM’vo?ks chap ?
. . . . . . . . . .

190

i{lili:)fcs lhc c:I!I old S(OICS ;wcoliulinp iilrcwm:t[itm rO~ Ialm hilliug ~lr tlw c:tll
Iimc for swilc!lcd circuils, 11 ;I17CI fwnvi,lcs f(w mom Jlcxil,ility ;tnd Iowct
{o [Itc rcspcclive {CICPIWJW user. ‘l’hc process is ccmlplc[cly :tu:omn[cd-nv
COSIS in high.volume telephone nc[works. h!orcovcr, since IIIC sig!!!!llit!g
npcr;t [or is involved mtd ihe voice h:as been stored di~i!nlly (o simula[e a
function is diwssociz~ed fron} {IIC voice cbanrlel. c~l{llrf~l sicllnls CM be
1)115
!1:!11 <q>cl’aloi’.
lmv.llcd in o highly conccfllralcd m:ln)wr,
..
One of lhe ini~ial problems encoun!crcc! in implc!l\cntilw CCIS WJISan
occiwiowd connection Ilm[ bnd i~ voice-dcfcclivc ch~mrtcl. To sntvc this Conclusion
problem, A7’&T/Flcll now Icsts the conncc{cd ch:tnncl for” quo[i{y before
releasing if fur user allocation. Switclliog systems ;)51<1r<]uting plutocols b;~vc evolved Sron, [tic primi{ivc
CCIS \vas Ihe firs{ mojor packe{-swi!cbing sys!e!n implemented by electromeclmnictd devices used in csrlier [elephone systems, to ~he sophis-
lie:! [cd packc[-swi{ching syslcms in use [uday. imd most recently to (he
AT&T/Bell. The pnckets are used for cnll setup nnd brc:lkdown. Col[ SC(S or
digilal switching III; II is vitlu:dly toklng over lhc swlching indoslry. This
inrormfiticm arc called si,cfml ujii(.r, which consis( or 28 hi]s (I3 bils UIC USCIJ
chapter itltroduccd lhc nwjor swiiching and rouling syslems uscIJ in
rm error de{ecliofl). CCIS places 12 signnl uni!s into m packet fm transn~ is-
computer networks. in Chapwr Nine, arter we learn about digiia[ sys-
sion. The signal uni[s wi{hin ihe pscket hove tbe snme $xtin atian, ?s
lcms. wc will cuntimw [his [Iiscossicm wi!h o CIO.SCcx;)minxlion Or cligil;]l
[Icpic[cd in Figure 7- I I. Tull orTcc A sends the pxckcls to n si~n:ll lr:!osrcr
point {STP). ‘I”hc STP transfers the signal units to nn ossocinfcd ot}lgoing swiiching.

{nmk to the distanl oJTce (toll office B) to estzblish the call SC[UP.
NOTES

1
sr.yal
T,,.,(W ‘Tc/.c,>,>>},,t,,, ic,>]i,>,,.,, A,> t>,lr,)<it,rl f,>!, {,> 1/,? Nclw,, rk. AT&T DO1211nlCW
P.!”{
NwWcr WC-933. Isspcd by A’I’ATCu Mut<mIt Linison Pwgmm llc;ulqt!mtcrs, Pkwa
fhst Tower, J Spccdwcil Avenue. Murrisru wn. NJ, JJ7Y{W.
For !!m pwposcs or breviiy, the )3,S. Fzoducts are discussed. Similar IJevel-
opmcofs hnve occwmd ~n Europe. Cmxda. anJ the Far Easl.
>r+(”c division ~ntj tin,c ,nu]<iplczed switching must be dcrerrcd until diEiln!
{mnsmission scbcmcs are explained, The rzader who wishes on immedbtc ex pkma.
lion or Jigilal swilchina may rerer to Chap!cr Nine.
3An indmlry pttndil $;,id Ihc dilfcrencc lm(wccr! virtwl w>,) lmtwpwcnf cxn I,c
discerned by nnswc ringIWOqms!iom: Cm you wc it? ;md IS i{ (kcrc,? II y,,,, ciin w:
Trunk,
O(fi., A it but if isn’t three, then it is virhmi, I( you cmmol sec it bul it is {here, then it is
Imnspzrent, like {hc sntelli!e deh,y unil (SDU) in Figure S-7,
SL: StmaltinqLiok* “’WIIcn is the Ptiv:tte P:ickcl NCI m ocgani7.mi<,o”sl)cs~ Solulinn?” by l{<,bcr~
11, Wesslw rmd Louis J. Piazza, i)nrn Co,,>,r>,,,ticoti<,,t.r, Scp[ember 1984, pp.
Figure 7-11. Common. Chanool lnlecofliceS{gnallng(CCIS) Conlkwralkm 21,?-220.
W ystcm gcncr21fion requires the st,Ft\\3rc lo hc , kwdcd” with t:d,lcs imd
CC[S is spreading mpidly in hm6.dislancc 1o11;}pplic!![ions, A’i’&’i’/f3cll P:,mmc{ers ttcfini!w lhc ruilliw decisions. Usuid!y, Ike s<>r$,~,rc is inopcr.
lnlficros)
designed the present CCIS pro[ocot IO bc consistent with CCJ’l-l’ sigm!lling ahlc during the %,sysfien., - Many of [Iltd’s communicn[ion products arc sra[ic,
syslem No, 6 (with this cxccplion: (he CCIS vcrsinfl uscs t{ 4.8 kbi{/s rx(c, $ysgcn.<,ticntccl syswms. which has msui[cd (!1[his ok] joke: 1[ I I!N4 h:id <Icsig$$cd
in con[riisl 10 the in[ernatio!ml systcm of 2.4 kbil)sl. Newer 5YSIC11JS ulijixc ~l~rlt)ctrs tclcphvm nclwmk. cwcrytmc wouhl Imvc tu Iumg up wbcn ;, tmw
(he digi(d-orien(ed siguatling system No. 7. !elcphom was in.i!nfled. ICIIlimms, t LIM has matle considemhk progress in sfrem!l in-
C(3S also inietfaccs with z telephone caller rOF hmtidis$;~tlcc C;IIIS I:w irq? @ sysgcn process. Mcwcovcr. I lihl’s sysgcn Fncilitics pwvidc km cliognm{ics to
prccludc or wnrn $)rir!cwnpwiblc sysgcn macros. An oIT.line SJWW like IIUU or 1J3M.
example, z(L most coin. opcra[cd telephones, (IIC di:ll of ;5 O plus {hc
is mom cambcrsomc, (W il is s:i’er IImn dymuaic, on.line logic changes
‘“ destination mxmher is 2cceptcd by CCIS, \v17ic11routes Illc c:~ll l<> :i d;l~t{
base. CCIS provicles o prompt 10 Ibc Iel?phnnc IIscr, SUC!>m ;\ski!>g ([h[ough 6’ ‘A Cnilcc! inn or Tymnd Tcchnicd l%pers.” pltNishetJ by Tymtmf. Inc.,
,:.:,:7,.,1 v*i~~) ,f,~ [~{~pl]~n~ ,Iscr IO di~l[ i, crr<lit. c>trtl numl,’er. ‘1’he mtmhcr Cupcrtiw, c:dir<,rl,k$, Also see: “Ru\uing S{ralcgics it) CIMwuler Nc(works.” by
.~.. CI.IN hasc fW r(,r!hcr v:llid;,limt. c~!.$ {bcn Wco.Ning Ilsich and lsrwl Gitnm”, c,,,, r[rmw, Jum l%+!. pp. A6-56.
 7[)nI(! C,),t,,,,,(t,ic.<,r[,),)$,)J,<I/li.!ri/,t( [cd Nclwwki I (, , $~ fl(;,~k, [<csfo” ~n~rlcn KIUrII
Publishing Cumpony, Reston, VA, )987, p. 94, :1- \ “’”
I
SUGGESTED READINGS The X.25 Network
l{sieh, \Vcn. Nil)g, :)!tclGi[r]l~ln, lsri,el. ,,l<oCl[ingStfiiccgics i,, C”mpu(er Ne, wOrk~,,,
/ELEC,,,,l,,t,,, !i<<(li<,,rx,J
tbtlc 198.4,pp,46-56,
Joel, Anlosc, Jr. ““ilc I>MI I(M Yews in “~tIecua!ll>ltl(lic:,tiu,]x Swi[cl, ing, s, IEEE
Co!){!?t!t!{icc!(i.!!s,h{ay 1984, pp. 64-70.
“Notes on [hc Network,,, Amcrica,l Telcpltone:)nd’rclcgntph Company, 1980,
Rosner, Roy D. P[{cLcf S\,,i(clti,tg. Calirornkx Lifelimc Le;,rning l>tlblicalio!ls, lnc,,
1982, p. 371,
“Spccifica[ionsc, fSig”8$llingSys!cn1No, 7,” Vohmm VI, I%cidc VI. 7, CC17Tt?td Introduction
Book, CC1’17K I>lc!%ary Assen,b[y, October UIY, 1!)84 (Maltiga.’~orremoli nos),
This ch;lptcr dcsci’ibcs lbc CCITf-rccommendctl s~andard for packet nc(-
“Specifica(iOns of Signdlimg Sys{em No. 7,8 Volume Vl, Ffiscicl.cVI, 8, CC17_TRed
works, X.25, along wi(h its mdjor prolocols and supporting standards,’ We
Book, CC1’l-r Plemiry Asscn]bly, Ocmbcr 8.19, I!II14 (M:tlag~.,l’orremoli”os),
describe ltle pro[ocols and explain their uses in the contex~ of an end-user
of Sig”J[ing Sys[mm5RI aml R2,’, VOIWTUIV[, Fasciclt V(. 4, CC/7T
“.$pecificalion
applicrd ion. The first ‘parl or the chap[er introduces [he major fefitures of I
Rcd Book, CCllTPlenary Assen?bly, 0c[ober&19, 1984 (Malaga.Torremolinos),
X.25, Then, in the section on packel formals, more dc(ail is furnished if you ,
Tnllcy, David. flmir 7’cx1<,,)I,<,zIc
SSvifrl,i!,g SysItJ>>tx(lnd A), itochcllc Pork, NJ: ted il, Otllcrwjsc, skip 10 (IW scc!ion on X.25 fttcil ities. Ii is assumed the
Hayden Book Company, Inc., 1979,
ruder is fanlilitir wi[h nlttleriul in [he first seven chaplers of tllis book, M i
“Users To See Ple(bora of New Pwkel Services, ” DCIIO Co!>l!rz!l!licn{iotz,, April well m Appendices B and C.
1985.
III 1974, CC13T issued Ihe first draf! of X.25 ([he “Gray Book”), It was
revised in [976, 1978, WKI 1980, mnl a~~in in 1984 wilh !hc 1985 publicti( ion ~
of [he “RcLI Book” recommend[i[ions. The original documenl was p~imarily :
,.
Ihe proposuls fronl DnMpac (Cunach), Tymnci and Telene! (U.S.), [hrce new
packc[-swi[clling nclworks. Since 1974, X.25 hm been expundcd 10 include /
many op~ions, services, uncl futilities. It is now the predonlinm[ user- ,!
oricnled inlerfiice stayl:!rd into wide area packet ne[works. ‘/
A packet network uml the user stations must have control mechanisms ,,,,
,!
when [IICY intcrvace with each o[hcr. Pcrhups the most important from the :,
standpoint of Ibc nclwork isJlo!,, ccwrul: limiting the amount of traT1c from ,“,
Ihc user sttt[ ions in order LO prevcn[ congestion in the network. The user $t,
,::
DTE also needs flow $mm’ol 10 wgult!(e (Iw. lrullic coming from tbc network.
lfotbthcfY1’13;lnd th~nc[work alustalso lmve error control proccdures!o ~
ossure ull IImlfic is rcccivcd wilhoul errors. X.25 provides Ihcse flow and :
error control I’unc lions, ‘!
X.25 defines the procedures for [he exchange ofdala be(ween user ,,
$
devices (DI’Es) :md II puckc~ nelwork node (DCE). 11s formal title is
“lntcrfuw Bciwccn 17aIn Twminal [Iquipmcnt and I)UIUCircuit Termirmtirw
EquipmcnL for “rcrnlinuls Opc!uiing in lhc P&ckc[ Mode on Public flulo \
. .. Networks, ” In X.25, the DCE is UCIUUIIY a duta switching exchange (DSEI,
discussed in Cl];!plcr ooc. Ilowcvcr, wc will usc lhc Icrm DCE 10 SIUY
consistcn( with X.25.

193
 LAPII) ;IINI lhc [lCIWOlk li$ ,>, ,-,.’,,., .,,,. ”.... . . . . . . . . .

illuslr’ti (ion, user A i~ ] - JS i(sclf !0 (ho nclwork with Iogictil clmnncl

number (1.CN) 1I
NCXI, Ihc dut;, is given 10 rouling sf-flworc, which pc[fOrln~ (I1c swi[ching
fmlclions discussml in Ch@cr Seven, These runctions arc no[ pwi of X.25. The
11.ilnis given biwk 10 X.25 (@ fhc Iowcr Iuycrs) und is transmitted OUI of lhe
in{emwdiidc node (which COLIICIhc (Iw nc[work node IDCI?] for user 11)10 Df’E
fl. The nc[work node ussigns LCN 1610 i[s session with DIE B.
Tlw rcwicr m;gh( wondtr why X.2S is of any red vtiluc, Indeed, a
prtrgnmtic qucslion could bc, “WIM’S in h ror IIIC’?” SCVC~~l rc~sOns GUI be
sluted [or Ihc use of a shmclatd such as X.25. First, [he wlop( ion of a
In(ercs(ingly, [tie X,25 s[und;brd cont;lins I(O routit,~ <((gor(!i,t,,,v, Fca-
common i[undard xmonrg vendors provides for m easier way 10 in[erface
[uccs such i\s (Iw fixed or dymtu]ic p;tckcl. r<]ttling SCIICIIIUSwilll i/1 ;, oclwork
dill’crcnl vcndm’ prmlticts. Sccoml, lhc X.25 slundilrd, htis $o!lc through
(d[scusscd in Ch:tplcr Seven) arc ICI’( IU spccilic vc”dor ir]]ple,]]cn[:!(iol]s,
nt!mcrous revisions :tml is rckrlivcly m:l[tmc (it is now revisccl every hrr
since (hey are irrttm:tl (o CI vcndo{’s prIJdLIC[, .41s0, i[ should be emphasized
ymirs). X.25 Iws seen cunsirlcrtible use since 1980, awl scverol syslcms were
~ha[, al[hough {he {*,o DTEIDCE inicrkiccs 11[wch end of Ihc ncIwoJk ;WC
inlplcnlcntcrl ;IS curly as 1976. Consequently, the changes and arlapla lions
[ndcpe[ldent of each olherin reletion [o lhow X.25 dcfi”cs (hcirdialog~!e with mtide to the 1984 doct)nlent reflect J subs[nn[iul amount of experience
the intervening ncfwo~~ n~dp, X,25 </01,s II:IVC cnd-lu-cnd Signific;t”ce rela[ing 10 [he in[crfwc wilh a packet nelwork. Third, a widely used
because SCICCIUI [ro[lic is rouled end ID end. ?40”et)>c)css, !hc rCCOO,me”JCd sumdanl such as X.25 can clccrcase network costs since off-the-shelf
:[:!ndard is osym!llerric: only one side of the “e[\vovk in[crfilcc (DTEIDCE) sofl\vwc and Iwrrlwtlrc fire rwddily uvailable. f~our!h, it is much easier 10
IS defined. This impnr[:tn! point will hc cmphosized in scvcr;i[ scclio”s ar[his wri(c a request for propowrl 10 a vendor staling !be network musk con fornl to
chdplcr. X.25 th:m 10 wrilc o 18[)-fMgc spcciiicalimr clocumenl. Fifth, the dam-link
The flbsence or rou”lins ;dgori[bms in X.25 is of[cn o sot,rcc of hycr wi(h IIDLC/LAPU rrnly provides for error recovery and rld(a Lccount-
conr~lsion. Figure &1 shows Ihc rclz[ionship of X,25 in IIW “c(work lLiycr(3) abilily on an individwd link bclween Ibc DTE/DCE (and on ihe links between
t<>rclny or rcl(llittg c:qwhilicies, l’hc lral]ic is tr;!ils!tli[[c<l fv<,,l] 1)1’E A 10 ;!” !hc Puckc(.swithing nodes wilhin Ihc nciwork). I Iowevcr, X.25 provides a
i:!crnlcdialc node, \vhich cnuld lx (IIC user’s cn(r;t!lcc node into IIXnCIWOVk hi@r Icvcl of support by cs[;!blishing ;!cc,owrltlbili[y bc!wccn cd) scncfing
(n X.2S, [hc DCE). Al tllis nulc, Ihe physic;ll I;!ycr (l), dol;i link I;tycr (2, 13TE ond ils DCE (ur[nrnce piickc[ rmde to (he nc[work) and each receiving
ll~li md i(s DCl?(cxi( puckci nwfc from {he network). In olher words, i{ gives
E,,du,,, A Ioc”,,l,,dta,. Nod, E,,d U,,, B nlolc cm-Io-c!ld suppnll Ilm!> dots I II) LCILAI’11, X.25 :!Iso provirlcs for
T cmichcd f’uncliundily WC]! bcyoml IIwl provided by u rhlu-link prolocol.
7
1lowevcr, (he four-yc.r revision cycle concerns some vendors who
6
6 believe il LIillicull 10 ochicvc sl:,hili[y in comnrunictilions product Iincs. Some
H 5 wmdors Jmvc ~dso cxprusscd concern IhOI the incrcming numhcr of func-
I I 1’ iions Ircing writkn inlo X.25 fire trmking (I1c s[unrl;trd IUU large und complex
4[1 a
fur cl ficicnl use.

Layera of X.25

X,25 and the Physical Layer

As Figure 8-I ill!utr;dcs, (Iw X.25 pilckcl-level recommendi!tion is one

— : Use, D,,, F1OWand 17..,i,,g Of Ihc rccwmncndcd skmd:wds for the third l:~ycr Of ls~’s !ll~d~l (alsO s~c
F!gu[e 8.1. X 25 and Relay/Rou\ing Ilgurc 3-6). 1( ;\ctu:iUy encompasses the third I+\yer as well as {he lower {wo
Iilycrs. ‘The recwIImct,dcLl physic.1 luycr iuicrlacc ‘.! n IIIC DIE WMJ LAP. (See Chuplcr 1’ , Ior u dcscr!plmn w 111,1.L, L.c., I,, ti, m .-,., ., l,! ;
DCE is X,?!. (“ilc ]’c~,dcr mity wish 10 refer lo AP } C I’or a review 01 Vendors tdso usc } liok cunlruls, such 4s bisync (binary syncllrOnOus
X,21, ) X,2S :ISSLI,IICS [hc pllysicd 13YCI X.21 keeps clrcuils ‘f (Iransmit) nud con~ru l), [or Ibis hi~cr. LAPII ;tnd X.25 i.leracl iu Ihc following munner:
R (rcccive) active for [he cxclmngc 01 pnckels, II assumes tl);it X,21 is in ‘1’lw X,25 pft(!kc~ is curried witlli!l lhc LAPIJ frwuc w the I (infornm- “’
sla!c 13S (send da!a), 13R [receive d;)l;i), m 13 [d:itn tmtlsfer). X,25 further tion) fwld (dcpictcd in Figure 4-3). LAPB’s job is (o ensure th@ the X.25
(lss\lllllJs 111;1[ Illc X.2 i chwlncls C [cwli roll :111,1 I (imlicdliun) urc ;kctive, p:,ckcls w’c (mmmi[fcd cmur-free ucross m error-prcme channel fromho ihc
Ciivcn [II;II C :!nd I we uctive, X.25 uses [hc X.21 pl}ysiml intcrl’wx Ixtwccn Dll;/f)CE. (To dillcrcnliutc bclwccn u pwkc[ amJ n frumc, & pockcf is
(he f3TE and I)CE as o “p; Icke[ pipeline<’ by {ru[js,)liili[lg a[]d rcceivi”g Ihe created al Ihc nclwork Icvcl t!nd inserted inio afr(jnte, which is created &l the
pockets acIuss IIIC [rommi( (’r) iind rcceivc (R) pills,
d;tit!.l ink Icvcl. )
Since I)l:lny cuun{cics Iwve !101 i!uplcmco!cd X.21 cxlcnsivcly, X,25
LAPII uscs n specific subscl uf I{DLC 10 support X.25. The lhir[een
also provides a provision 10 use (he X,21 bis/l< S-232-C physiciil interface
comm;mds and rcspunscs arc:
(see Appendix C), The Icrm bis rclers [o J sccumJ vcl-siou ot’:t rcconlnlended
s[andat’d, d[hoijgh X.21 bis is not CIOSCto X,21 io sinlilarily, Do(II X.21 bis
COnlnlilnclS ~ Responses
and RS.232-C use the CC1’fT V,24 circuit ossignmen[s discussed in Appcn.
dix C. RS.232.C identifies its circuits with (WO Ie[[ers (such M fJA); V.24 {Iifiirmnliolf 11) R,ceive Reudy (RR)
idcn[ifics iis circui[s wiill [hree numbers (such as 103). Rccciuc RMdY (RR) Reject ( REJ)
In order [o use lhese interfaces, X,25 requires IIUI( circuils 105 (CA), Rcjccl (RI?J) Receive Nof Reudy (RNR)
106 (C B), 107 (CC), 108.2 (CD), and 109 (CF) be irl (he ON condi[ion, 13ala
Receive No( /?@y (RNR) U/luf/mbered
is exchanged on circui[s 103 (11A) and 104 (lIfJ). If ihesc circuits are OIT,X.25
Ack!to!vledgmet!r (UA)
assumes [he physical level is in an inaclive sltilc and any upper levels (such
as Cla[a link [LAPf3] and ne[work [X.25]) will not function, Al[hough not Disco{t,(ec( (DSC)
slaied explicitly, X.25 ne(works can operu(e with o{her physictil layer Ser Asyttchromms Rc$poIIse Frame Rejecl (FRMR)
standards (for example, RS-449 and V.35). ,+Jodc (SARM)
The principal RS-232-C and V.24 circui[s required for X.25 are shown SC( Asym’hromws B(d<mced Disconnec/ Mode (DM)
i[l Table 8-1 (the ground, sigrmlling, and timing circuils we no[ shown) Mo[/e (SAIIM)

TABLE 8.1. Clrcults lot X.25 Standard

As these entries show, user dala in [he 1 field cannot be sent as a
RS.232C V,24 response. In ;Lcc.orckmce with HDLC rules on addressing (see Chapter
BA Fuur), lhis mcons I (ramcs will tilwwys conluin lhc dcstintitiun address,
send Da[a 103
BB 104
which prevcn[s :iny am bigui[y in CIelermining Ihc proper intcrprcltil ion of the
Receive Data
Request to Send CA 105 fmmc, If, fur cxumplc, s[a[ion A rcccivcs an REJ frame with !he address of
Clear 10 Send GE 106 A, i[ knows it Ims wccivcd u cnnlmand. If [he REJ contnins an nddrcss of II,
Data Sel Ready cc 107 !hc si;ition knows il hus rcceivcd a response. (SW I:igurc 4-9 for a review of
Data Terminal Ready co 108.2 [his imporkml conccpl. )
Carrier Detect CF 109 X.25 mquirus LAI’R (o usc specific tddrcsscs a( the data-link Icvcl.
.The subscriber D’i13 musl bc A (binmy I 1000000) find (I1c DCli (nciwork
The physicol level of X,25 does !Io[ peuform significant control func. nmlc) nlusl bc B (bintiry 10000000).
liuns. 11 is III Ore llfit piwsivc co[lduil, will} CO[)II{IIL>ruvi(lcd hy llic dt!lc).ti[lk X,25 OIIOWS boll] SARM oml SAflM 10 suppor[ LAP and LAPR,
:md nclwork Iuycrs, rcspcclivcly. I Iuwcvcr, SARM is cncoumgcd, whiic LAP with SAItM is
mrcly used now.
X.25 and fhe Data-LInk Layer flu!li X.25 oml LA I’11 usc scn~ (S) find rcccive (R) numbers to accouni
X,25 fissumes the clata. ]ink l;lycr to be LAPR. This Iinc pI-oIocol is a in their respcclivc Iuycrs. LAPLJ dcscrihcs its numbers os N(S) ancl
rortrailic
sUhSC1 of II)e supcrsct HDLC. II t!llows, bul dues no{ cIIcu LIr:Igc !IIC !ISC uf N(R). X,25 uscs l’(S) and P(R) [o dcscribc its sequcncc numbers,

,.
 ?.L’r/,((’rtc /’l I ‘/,,’./. . . . . .. . ,.

0;!11s [u a lwscd liac i“ ~ :$hon. nc(w~rk–11,~ !mllsmilliug D’1 Ii 1s

,:1 f!
;Issu red of obwiiling tI co! ,11 (U IbC rccc!wng D f’E (hrough the packc~
nciwork. ISCC I:iguw 8-2(; 1),1 X,25 rcquims o PCIIIIUIICII( virtual circuit be
c$lablishcd bcl’orc Ibc session begins, Col\scqucntly, on ;Igrecmcn( must be
rcuchwl Iby IIw two (Iscls ;,!),! (Iw ptlc kc[ lnc[work carrier before it permuncn!
vitludt cwlacc(i<m will Ix ki!loca[cd, ‘1’hcwttltw, whc{I 2 twnwttilling lm sends
a pockcl into [he PWA!I I!ctwot’k, Ihc idcn!ifying inrormoticm in (IW p,,ckct (J
X. I User C[;ISSCS Or SWv;cc (
Ik!gic:dclmnncl number) imlico!cs Iha[ the reqwssting DTE IWS a pcrmunen(
X.2 User fucililics
vir(wd ci,ctli[ cuancc [ion !“ Ihc rccciving DTli, Consequently, ;! connection
X. 10 Cilegorics of zcces~
will bc nmdc by [I)c !nct\vo[k ;Iml (he rcccivir!g DTE without ruttbcr wbi!rtliuo
X,92 I?cl’crcncc Corltmcliom fur p:fckcls wi[lt d;tl;l Iransn{issiolls
:u)J scssiou !legoti; )liun, PVC requires m) call sc(up or clc;l ring p~occdurcs, and
X,96 CII1l-prt>gIcss sig,l:i]$
[lit Iogicul clmnacl is col]tintmlly ill a dul;l.lmnslcr slide.
X. !21 Inlernalio]]ul nunlhcring p];MI
X.213 NcIwork scrviccs. Vir/JJo/ CfI//. A virlu;d cull (OISO culled a swilchcd vir(util ctill)
rcscmblcs sonic of Ilw procedures tissoci:l [cd wi(h lclcpllOne dial-up tines.
X.25 uses a Considcmbk anumn( 0[ [c{ept!onc lermi(tol<gy (chan”c]$, ‘The process is illuslm[ccl in Figure 8-2(b). Tbc originating OTl? issues a
circuits, calls, etc.). These Ierms will be delincd in IIIC COIIICXI of p;lckc[ c~ll.request Ip;lckcl to Ibe nc[work wi(h a Iogicul chunncl nutnber of I I
s\$<itching ror [his Cb;LPtCr, (LCN), The .nc(work rou[cs [be call rcquesl packel to the destination DTE.
The des(ina( iart 1>1’11rcccives ]Iw c:d! request p;tckc[ os an inconling call
p;lckct r!’wll i(s nelworknode will) >,” LCN or 16.
Features of X.25 Logic$d chmmci l!u@crin# is done U( each end or [hc network; the moin
requiremcn[ is to keep the specific DTI2-10-DTE session identified at all times
X,25 operates on (he premise of virlmd circuit services, A vi[[u;d circuil (Aso
wiih LCN I I and LCN 16, Logical cbi!nnel numbers specifically idcn~ify the
c~lllcd a logical channel in X.25 patlan cc) is one in which o“e ~,serpcrccivcs tIW
mrious user sessions ror’vd physicdl circui[ at mch end of (he network.
cxis{cncc o1’o dcdimted pllysicai circtlil ill ;! compulcr hc is using, ycl i,, rc,di(y
Inside (he nc!wotk, lhc intcrmcdidtc pfickc[.swilching nodes may also perform
Ihc “tlcdicdcd” physic;d circuit is ;dlocu (cd [o multiplu users. ‘1’hroupl) (IIC usc
lhcir owu [.CN mtmbci’ink. Tym!wl pcrkmms Ilris I ypc UI func!i!m (SCCJ:igurc
of statistical multiplexing techniques, di~cre”i “sers, puckcIs arc i“l~llc;lved
7-8).
01110onc pllysic;ll ch:mn cl.ldmlly, IIw chmmc[ pclfornv\ncc is good cnmlgb 10
If [I]e rccciving DTE chooses 10 acknowledge and accept the call
cnsuw Illot C:lcll Ilwr dots Inul tmlicc dcgl; tdcd service l’r<ml<>IIwvlfilllic o{, IIac
req[fest, i[ lr;!nsmils lo Ihc nc[work u call -acceplcd pucke[, The nc(work
channel. X.2S uscs Iogicd channel numbers (LCNS) 1“ idcil[tfy Ihc OTE
lIICII tI’ansporIs Ibis puckct to ihc rcqucs!ing lY1’li in the form of a
connections to Ihc nclwork. As many as 4[)95 )oh,ic(tl cb:umcls :md uscrscssiol]s
call -conncclul packc(, The channel enters a data-t mnsfer stale ~f[cr cnll
c.:111l,e :tsiigticd (<} <MIC (,/I.II,ri,/i/ UII;,IIIWI.
$;st:tl)lisl!l]lctll, ‘[”o lcmhin:tle tbc scssicm, a clear request is sent by ei[her
lYI’1~, II is rcccivcd as it chmr indic;!liou, a“d cunfirmcd will, the clctir.
X.25 Channel Options
c,,,!lir]lj p;!ckul, ‘1’,) su!n!n;i~iz.c (IIC cotlnccl i<,fl-esl:! l}lisli(llcl]t proccdurc;
We in(wducc X,25 i(t mow dclail by discussing Ilic opli{ws !ix
?sl:!blishing sessions between DTEs [hii[ have X,25 logic c:]pabiliii es, The IJ(ld’.[ /.CN ,Sc’/cflcd //y
Slzlnd>lnl pI’OVid CS fmlr mcctmnisms t,) cslnblish ;!nd ,,l:lin[;,i,> c<,rllrllh,tlicti. C.(II Reqml Origimting oTE
Iic, ms: lnctlllling 0,,11 Dcslinalion packet network
nmlc (DCII)
● pcrmancnl virludl circui[ (PVC]
● Vi,([(:,l C:,ll (v~) C,!ll ACCCPICCI Stime LCN as in
lncOnling CNll
0 Llsl-$clc!c[ C;lli
Gill Cun!icclctl S:IIIW I.CN tIs in
● F<is[-sclec[ c;\ll \vith immcdi:,{c cle:tr, I Cilll I<c[lllcsl

,
 . .. ..- . .. ... . . . ... w, ~ ;’
:..

-.
,.,
;:.,.

i-”
::...
I
,! ,,

:,
,.
...

i.
,.

,.

,,-.

ti $
\

—
1
1
I
I

I
!

““,
 ,1
,’

HOw-Conlrol Princlpl~s

x,25 ;jIIt,WS II,C LJSC~dcvicc (~rE) ur packci exchange (flCE) to linli[ (he
..l,e ;,, w]jicl, il ucccpIs p;ickcls, ‘flis fcalure is very useful in plcvc!lling
Fns[ select providcs”~ur [\vo oplions. Ilw first []pliOtl,-/Cf{.rr(ll,
is dcpic(cd in I:ig,, r’e X-?(d), A I)lfl C;III rcqucsl [I, is fi~ci lily un II per-cdl cxccssivc Imllic fmu) :Iwiviilg ;II cillwr sl;dion.
Flow control can bc cslnblisbccl scfmrdtcly fur e,icli divec( ion :llld is
hi!sis 10 the nclwork mxfc [DCE) by mc;!ns 01’wI ;Lppropri; ~tcrCqIJCSI i“ IIIC
L,NCLIcm ;~u[horiz;b[iow from (IIC slti[ ions. As we sh;ill SCC, I1OW co.nlrvl. is
hL!iIdcr of u puckei. “l% fi!sl SCICC(focili[y ;IIIOWS IIIC cull rcqucs[ p;lcke[ [o
c~]]>lui~~i~~~~~!~;l ui ~Ip !,s?O1
,28 bylcs (us!<IJ), “~bc ct~]lcd f3’[E is ;I]loWCd IO implcmcu{cd with ccr~ttiL1. X.:.?} .$OII~I’Ul p~ckc[s 4S ‘en ‘s P;icke[-level
——
.Stqhl.cllcc Ilulllbcls.
respon~ with t cull ;tccep led packe[, which can also conluin qscr datti, “f’hc
Cclll rcques[ fincoming Cnll packc{ imlica!cs if {I)c rcmwc D’[’E is 10 respond
wilh.@&~~e.ggu$s[ ur CNII ;!ccepted, 11’:1 cull ;!ccep( is [r:insmill cd, Ihc X,25
session con[inues with the nomml d:II;L mmsfcwing und clc;iring PWCCCILWCS Other Packet Types
of a swilchd virtual CAII.
l“:IISI SCICCI :IIw> pn]vidcs Iilr ;I fuucik C:tll-c<l[][lccli<l[l rc; dttrc of (IIC ]“ ~!ddi(io,l 10 Ihc pockc[s clcscribcd in [hc previous discussion, lhc X.23
X,25 i“itrtace, IIIc]jfxf,Jg~KL~,I!!;I/IjtI I!!I.cxlj,Ire dc(Ir. ‘1’bis opIiorl is dcpic(cd ~cco,lln,cl,cl;j[iol] uscs scvcrd OIIIW pucke[ !YPCS. (SCe ‘1’~!bl~ 8-2. ) The
in Figure 8.2(c), AS with [he otbcr fas[ select option, o call rcques[ conl:li!js rcm:iiuing puckcls :Irc cxpltiitlcd in Ibis section.
IISCV d;tl:I, This pdckcl is Ir:lnsmil!cd lbrm)gk Ihc IIctwoIk 10 IIIC wcciving TbC. ;UICMUI.I pruccllurc ullOWS 2113’~E [O l~hnsmit One nOnscqllcnccd
I)”l’ l!, which, upuI, :Icccpltiocc, lwnsn]its ii CIC; II- rcqitcsl (wl)ich also p;!ckcl 10 ono Ihcr’ 1)1’fl withou[ Iollo wing [hc normal Ilow-conlrul procc-
con!a ins uwr (J: IIz I), me clew ccquch{ is received NC LIIC origimiion site M n ,IWCS esti]blishcd i!~ X,25, (Flow comrol is discussed in more LfttJil shorllY. )
clc;lr indiculioc p>,ckcl. This si[c Itlt,ms clcur Cc)l,lirnuiliu[], Tbc clcur “1’IIcin[crmpt proccd!lrc is useful fur si(uutions where UII application requires
ccllllirm p;bckcl citmm[ cutll; liu user clulik, “1’(lus, [IIC forw;ll’d p;!ckcl Sc(s up (IIC [r;!nsmi[inl uf d:IIII undct’ UIIUSU: II conditions. f:or example, a bigh-
II]C ne[work connection und [he reverse packe[ brings the co”ncctio” down, priority lmcssagc could bc tmnsnlil{ed as an inlcrrup! pticke[ co ensure Ihe
The ideti or the List selcc[s (;iml Ihc dcfunc[ d;l(itgrtml) is (o provide rccciving DW
OCCCPISIbc da(a. User...ck+{a (32 oclets) is permil ted in an
sl)ppm’1 lft)r it~cr !ll~J,lic~t[it?:lsl!/;tl h:!ve only mIc or IWO,lmlls:tc(iuns, such as illl~~lupl pwkg
I. ‘1’IIg.IIscJ,!I~j II ItrctIp Is J!I.S.no .~!IC.CI.W .rcwhr d~M ml~kc t>.
inquiry~rc,spqp~c :ipplj.ck (poin[-of-s; ilc trwwclicms, crcdil clmcks, wi!hiu tbc vitlunl cmll or’pclwu!ncn[ vi~twi[ circu il. As ‘Riblc 8-2 shows, lhe
funds [ransfers). These ;ipplicutimv, cn})no( c~cciivcly usc n switched virtui,l in[crrupt P: IckcI rcc)L!irt~.dl].. interrupt confmm~~i~n bcfO~c ano~hcr inlerrup~
CVII hccouse uf [hc uvcr’lw;wl 00LI dcl;ty rcql!ircd in scssi,, n cst;lblisbnlcn( omf Ipackcl c:lll hc scni 00 Ihc Iogicul chunncl,
discs f:lblisbmcn[. Moreover, IIICY CU”IIO! bcuclil lion) [he usc of u pcr!n~. wc l!.~c4!ij:<.ILeJJ[/Y_w} UII~ &uiwIYx KC@Y.{RN I!! p~ckcl$ U~C
ncn[ Virlual circuit, bccausc [heir occnsio,]:!l use wo,lld “C,[ wtil-nt”t (he useIJ in :1 Pishion qui[c simiku’ IO lhc silme commnnds in lbc NDLC and
pcrnlancnl msigrlmenl of resources n! !he silts, Cunscqllcn(ly, [IIC fds[ !.APII subsc[ (ChIIpicr Four). “flcy serve the important function of user-
selects I1:IVC been incurpol-;ttcd inlti X.25 10 Imccl tbc rcquircmcn( for dcvicc iniiinitd ROW control.. uoth ~bCSC r’~ckc~s prOvidc u rcCcive sequcnc~
specialized uses Or n netwo [k, M WCII as 10 provide Ior nlorc conncc lion- number in [he pwkc{ ftgld 10 indicdle (he DCXI packcl seWen.c?..WI!J$r
orientcd sufqxm Ihdn Ihc ddlogrwm ollcred, Ilu!h 1)’!Is III US! subscrihc 10 .cxpccIcd frvm Ibc p’re. The RR pwkct
[mnsr!li(li!lg is used m [cII [be
I;lSL SCICCI w [he IWi WUIk will bluck lbc C;kll.
:r;lnsu]irlil}g 1)’I’IYI)CE IU hcgio scmling AIL I pi!ckc{s tind OISO uscs [IIc
Fast sc(cct wws designed for lr~nwclion.based applimlions, but its usc iu rcccivc scqucncc luumbcl, lo acknowledge :I!Jy pnckcls llmt huvc been
scmote
jab entry (RJC) oud hIIlk file imnsfcr (kwge :m]msn(s ul’do[:t, SUCII;IS ii ,.vi”(lsly Irw IsmhIcd. I.ikc (IIC RR response in HDLC, fhe RR Wcket can

,,
,’, ,. .,
 TABLE 8.2. P,ckel Type3
Tbcsc (WO pxket (y )vidc X,25 wilt] tin mhhliuuul Iurm 01 tldlu tlow
Packel Type k’ —
Service con[rol beyond the d;~l, ) suppur( Icvcl of LAPll, so fluw c.~!!t<gj..~fl~
From DCE 10 DTE
From DTE 10 DCE
windows ;IIC pf!~vitl~d,,:~! IIIS, lktt;dink I;tyer. .wilb LA1’11 mId ill. ll~c..,nclwutk
Vc Pvc
I;(YCVwi[h X,25, 1Iowcvcr, rcmwb$ Iron) previous cb;!plcrs {hul lhc dul;t.link
Cafi Se(.llp and c,e~,(”o
Icvcl CJOCSno~ provide cl~cclivc 00W cunlml fur individual user cleviccs (uru);
Incoming cd Call request x but, d Ihe nclwork ICVCI, ~,2S..@es.,R.R. @ R,NR willl.spec.ific Iogic?l chmmcl
Call conmmd Cd ilcce~led x n(yuucrs IQ +ccop]pii?h .inlli,yiJud Row control. This flow con[rol can be
Clear indication
Clear rq.w x rm’idcd b) OIIYIhiIIg Ibid Iws o logical chnnnel number assigned [O i[ ([crmi.
DCE cleer co”lirma!ion
DTE clmr conmmation x [MIS, pcrsunal conlp~lters,’:tpplica [iun progranl s), insomc networks, blocks of
12a1aand lrdar,.pt
h}gici!l cl);)onci m,mbers urc ;lssigncd 10 I] I1OSIcomputer und the I1os[ m;lnages
DCE dala l,le I,CNS (W i[s ~dloclul lcrmilmls MKI pr’ogmms,
DTE data x x Tbc rejt’cf (REJ) pickc[ spccific:!lly rcjcc[s the received pocket, If it is
DCE in[errupt DTE interrupt x x
DCE inhwr.p Cont,rmabo” USC(I, IIW staiion lcql!csl $. Ee[rans mission of pucke!s, begin ni,ng..wi(b JIW
DTE inlerr.pl conlirr.a( ion x x coun[ in !bc puckc{ ICCCIVC sequence fickl,
Flow COm,OIsn,j Re~et Ttle=f packcls wc used 10 reinitialize 0 swilchcd virtual call or a
DCE RR
DTE RR x perm;{rlcn[ virluul circuit. The rcsc[ procedure renloves in eoch direc!ion
x
DCE RNR ,I?IWCC” II}C Iwo $Iuliu,]s ([w O“C lugicul chunncl session) all dalti and
DTE RN8 x x
DTE REJ x ,,:IC!WI?I puckcls \vJlich muy bc in Ihc nclwork, Rcsc( proccdu l-es muy be
x
Reset indication Reset requasl necessary when problcm condi[kms urise, such u lost packe(s, dup[ici[c
x x
DCE reset ccmfirmatio” DTE rese!co.!irmalion p:IckeIs, or pilckc[s [h;lt cmmol be resequcnccd properly. (See Figure 7-10)
x x
R: SC(is usc~.~.nly ~,!iijlg gj.ul:t:frllnslicr slot c. Aw$$U2n!,.U&U@lfl&
Rewm
Resfan indication (resel rcqueso or !!l_e..llc!yQ!k._(rcs.el_ilu&u~0m).
Ibslar! reqmst x x The rc’sf[~r/ procedure is used to initialize or rcini[kdize the, pa,ck:I-level
DCE rmlarl corl(ir~~d~n
DTE [esfafl conlimatio” x x ,DTI?/[)CE i~~[~rft!g.e. UIJ~ 4(]95 !ogic~l chunncls on a physic:!] POr~ can be
Diagnostic affcc led. m” procdwe .cleiws ...(III Jhe. .Vi[!ull. :?!!!s ml rgsgts. .c!(. .!!1?
Diagnostic
x x pcrnl~lncn( vir(u:d !ir@Ls ill [hc in[crPacc level, Tbe resiar~ nligbt occur as
Regis,,a,ion o rcsul[ Or~ severe pro[~iml I,such as a$~sh in Ihc nc[wo[k (for example, (he
R@slraljOnco”ljrm8,i0” Rwis!ra! ion reQueS,
network conlrol center co!npuler ~~ils). All ou{sttinding puckeis are IOSI and
x x must bc rccovcrcd by a higher level protocol.
Vc . Nti”a, c,,,
‘VC = P.rmanom Nti.al Cir..i( Somciimcs (IIC nc(wwk will usc u rcsttirt wbcn rcini[iuiizing or sturling
Up [hc sys[cm (o cnstwc ;)11sessions ore rcestnblishccl, Upon u DTE sending
o resl;)r[, Ihc nc(work musl send a rc$tart [o each DTli [hnt has a virtunl
circui[ session willt ihc ))TE Ihat issued (IIC rcstnr(, Rcsltirt p:icksJ,s,,cgnaj,sg
conl; iill codes imfic;i[ing (hc rcmwn for Ihc reslurl.
From cliscussioos on packet nc[works in Clmpler Seven (see Figure
7-10), (I)c ccudcr moy rcc;I!l lb;I[ user dalu packets can be lost in a nctwurk,
Packcl loss is UISUpos~iblc iu m X,25 nciwurk. The clcnr, rcscl, und rcs[arl
p;lckcts ctln Cmlsc Urldclivcrcd p:icke(s to be discarded by Ihe “c(work, A
si(u:t(ion SUCII ;I.sIbis is nol ;)11Ih;tt l!nusudl, since these control packets oRen
:\v!ivc :x( (IW cfes(in~tliu,l mxfc bcrovc all user duta puckc[s, Con{rol p~wkcts
!Irc nol s~[hjcc( 10 IIW dckty inl]ercn[ in (be flow. control procedures USCLIwi(h
i!scr d:!l;t p;!ckc(s, Cumscqucn(ly, higher Icvcl prolocols are required (o
;ICCUUU( fur Ilmsc Ios[ pnckc [s, L;ttcr in (his chi!pier wc ex;lminc ihc

,. i
—;
—m> ,.
.=
.
/-.

,.

:..

,.
..-
 TI,L )
.,L5 No!wo,k chop. 0 i
208 Chap. O P8ckel ForI. 209
I

r> rm3 rcs(art requcs[ TABLE 8-4(8). DtE Time Llmlts

r3 DCE Ics[:Ir[ im[ic;ttion lme.Llmil Time.Llmll Slmled S(ale Ofthe Norm811y
Number V(IIW? Wh” LogicalChannel Terminated When
An example of:1 cdl cslfiblish(llc!lf is prvvidcd i!] ‘r:d~lc H.3 tO give illc
T20 180 s DTE issues a rz 13TE leaves lho ,2
reader an idco uf how ch:tnnct SI:I{CS arc used. Reslnfl Rowe31 Slalo
T21 200 s DTE Issues a C811 pz OTE leaves (he D2
TAL?LE 8.3, Call Est.gbll.9hme.t Procedure [Exnmple)
Request stale
Chon.ol To Cur,..! T22” 180s DTE I$$ues e d2 DTE leaves the d2
Sequenco
.1 Events Packet From To Stole From Channels Resel F@Jesl $Inle
T23 180s OTE Issues a pe DTE 19LIVS.S[ha X3
1 Call Request local DTE local DCE pl p2 Clear Req..mt slate
2 Incoming Call mmole DCE remole DTE p!, P3 T2e 300 s 13TE Issues a Any DTE receives Iho
3 call Accepted ,OTIO!ODTE ,omole DCE P3 p4 ‘~ Fleglslratlon Reglslrallon
4 Call Connecled Iocd DCE km.! DTE p2 p4 Reoues( Confirmation or
a Llngnos!ic
packel

Timeouts and Time Limits TABLE 8.4(b). DCE Timeouts

The majori[y of cornmur]ic~[ions protocols have limers, zml X.25 is no Time-Limil TlmFJ.Llmll Starled Slale 01 the Normally
Number value When LoQ!calChannel Terminated When
excepti Dn. ‘~lmers arc used IO est:lblish limits on how long i{ {:\kes (o get
connections, clcarcllanncls, rcsc[a scssiOn, c[c, Wilhout such [imers, a user TIo 60 s OCE Issuesa r3 DTE leaves Ihe r3
might wait itlddioi(ciy {or an evcnl if (hat cvcn[ did !Iol go In corllplct ion. Reslari l.dlcalion state
Timers simply force X.25 [o make decisions in tbc evenl ofproblcms; hence T1l 1809 DCE issues an p3 OCE leaves Iho P3
[hey facilif~(c error recovery. Incoming Call slab
X.25 provides IY[”E tinlc Iimi[s find DCE limcuul.c. These limcrs nrc T12 eo s DcE issues a 03 DCE leaves lhe d3
described in ‘rablc 8-4, as well w wl~a( haPPCnS WhCII tlw tinlcrs e~Pi~c In Reset Indication S!alo
T13 80 s 13CE Issues a Clear p7 DCE leaves the P7
all cases, if problems persist and I he timers arc resc~ ~IId re{ricd, evelltuallY
Indbrdlon Slale
the channel mus! bc considered out of order and r!c(work di~guo, s[icsl
(rouble.shooting measures should be performed.
lin[ruduccd earlier and discussed in nlorc dctnil shortly) Tbc last four bi(s ur
lhc Iirsl oclct conl;!in (he gcncrd rorma[ identifier. Llils 5 aml 6 of lhc general
rorm;![ idcn[ificr (SS) m’c used IU indicalc [bc scqucnciug ror the pockcl
Packet Formats
sessions. wO sequencing op(ions nrc allowed in X.25. Ihc first op(ion is
The Icngth of;! dcfttul[ user LI:I[!Ifield itl a LIOMp:lckc[ is 128 by[cs or OCIC{S, MdfJ<J A’,which pcrmils scqucncc ntImbcrs rr0t17 II Ihrm)gb 7. MIXIIIIO /2,?,
bul X,25 pruvidcs options for olbcr Icnglbs. ‘r’hc following oplions :Ire :)1s0 wllicb pcrnli[s scqt!cncc numbers ronging (rcml () through 127, is :I[so
av~ilzble: 16, 32, 64, 256, 512, Iu24, 2048, and 4096 OCIC(S The lil(tcr two avnilabtc, Tbc scvc NIh bi[, or D hit. or IIIC general lonim[ idcn(ilicl is USCLI
sizes were acldcd in (I)c [984 rcvisiou, If !I>c user <In(a field i!) lhc packcl only wi[b ccr[ain pt{ckc (s. (Wc discuss Ihc l) bil sborlly, ) The cighlh bit is
cxcceds the network.pcrmiiicd llmximun~ field, (l\c rcccivi!ig LYIE will rcsc( (hc Q bi~. OWJ is USCLJo(dy [or cld.user d:il;!-lypc p;lckc {s, II qwdifics Iwo
Ihc viriu;il call by issuio~ :1 rcscl packet. Icvcls or user do!o 10 lbc ncl\votk (cxpk!i,wd lo[cr will] X,29).
Every puckct [ransrctrcd ocmss [bc [)TllI)C13 it\(cl kbcc to IIIC nc[. The SCCOUIIOC(C[ nf Ihc p:tckcl llcmfcr cmlf:[ins (6c Iogic:tf ch:tnncl
work musl con(~in a( Ictisl three OCICtS(or bYtcs). ‘I”IIc [II ICC OCICtSc~ltllPrise mimhcr (LCN). This &i-bit iicld. cotnbincd \vi[ll lbc Ioxicol chnnncl group
lhe packel bcader, Other oc(els may also be used (o ll];lke up lhc header. The nunlbcr, provides Ibc complc[c logical chonncl idcnlifico[iun of 12 bi(s,
header ford:!m and norId;Itfi packets is illus[m(cd irl Figure 8-4, The first four which provide a.possibiii(y of a [o[al of 4095 logical clmntwls (211 less [he O
bits Df the firsl oc!ct of (I1c hcfidcr contain (he IWicnl cti~lnncl gro~lp INlnlbcr chanuc l). lIIc O LCN is rcscrvcd h conirul usc (rcstnrl WIU diagnostic
,:. . ., . . ... . .,, ,-. ,,.. : .:.!,; : ..... .. .:1: .’,,:,.l;<,:~a~..
, ..::,:,.,.7,,:~
;,,,;, ,.7 .,”...,
.,,
.
 Bits ‘“L’ ,“ “ J\.
8
II — i 8 ‘ 4 ,:,talch,:”e,
‘
Dl
G....rd Formal
U,, r I P(s) j ~ LCN Iclc,,,iii,, .,,
‘(R1 ‘ M I 0 D SS~ :~;} G(w” Number
0,,, xxx / , xxx , XXxxxxxx o 001
l:::
LogicolChannel
Nurnbw
5s .01 lur Modu108
SS - 10lor Mod.10128

(al Da,aPmke, 61,wJc, 000 01011

I 0,[$, 3 I 0,,,$2 0,,, ! I

CallingDTE Address
Lcwlh
I Catled DTE Add,,,,
L,matl)

Other
0,,. (,
1
PacketType Idm(ilier
Xxxxxxx 1
l.x~~xxx ZPl
— , k~f$~~+
[1 F=iIfI~cI ml FFL
, Xxxxxx
TDA
Xxxxxxxx
RDA
Xxxxxxxx
7DAI.
Xxxx
i 80AL
; Xxxx
SeeFigure8-3(bl

I
I
F.cili, ie’

(cl NondataPackel

PIR1: R,c,ivi”g Sequenc,Numb,< SS: ModuloBtts

h!: Packe(Ca,ego,”l”dica!or LCGN: LoYc,l Ch,nnd Grew
P(S1: S,ndinqSeque”c,N”mbCr FFL: FacititiosFic!dLengtl>
LCN: Lo98ca1Cl>,nn,1 NumbCr TDA: T(an5rnilting DTEAddre%%
0: O.alilier Oit BOA: ReceivingUTEAddres$
n, Deliveryc.”rimloit TDAL: Tran,mit!!”g DTEAddressLeng!h (10 A,,.ll,er ~ewolan X.25Pacie1
RDAL: ReceivingDTEAdd,c%$Le.g#h
Figure 8.4 (Conllnued)
Figure O.4. X.25 PackM Formats
end. [fIhc outgoiug cdl (ctill requcs!) from a DTE has {he same LCN as an
packe(s). Nc[works usc Ihesc two fields ill various ways. Some nc[works use iucomi!lg CIIII (cdl conncclcd) fronl Ihc netwoi-k DCE, X.25 stipuliiles th~t
[hc t\vO [ogc(hcr; o[hcvs (re:tl them m scp:wa[c Iichls. thcinconlingc:lll bcclc;mcd;lnd !hccollrcqucst processed.
Logic:tl cI1,III!)cI IIUCUIWI’S(see I:igurc 8-5) urc used to idcn(il’y [he DTE “1’lwlhirdoclcl oflbc X,2S f>i!ckct llc;,[lcr islltcpi]ckc[ typcidcn[ificr
!0 [hc fmckct nodc(llCfl), and vice vcrsit. ‘Slkc numbers m:ky h ilssigrlcd to: OCICI for mmdota pwkc[s [Iml scqtmncing octet for do[o puckets. This field
(i, )pcrmw)ci)[ virl~];,lcircllil s;[(, )ollc-\vi\y illc[llll itlgc:tlls ;(c) !\vll-w;lyc;\lls; idc!l[ilics IILC spcciiic nomkb[u p:wkc! [ypcs illuslm(cd in”l’tiblc 8-2.
(d) onc-\\,;Iy otJ!goillg CAIS. The lernl “orw-w;ly” ml’crs (0 [lIc <Iivcc lion in I:ig!lrc 8-4(c) illuslmlcs whlilion; li fields inside [bc X.25 p:ickc[. For
which [he call est:;blishrnen[ occurs, II is possible (hill (I1c L)TE ZIIIJ I) Cl? ciill cs(ablishmcnl P:WIW(S, Ihe DTE uddresses und wIdmss Ienglhs ore
!m;Iy use lbe some LCN when Lmginning a communication process. I’m i!lcltl,lccl, 'l`lle:iclcircss i!lgcclnvc!l[io ncouldtlsc ast:l!ldard sllchzs X.l2l (see
CX; N]lPIC, :) [>’1’1; c;bll rcqucs[ c<wld usc IIW s;![]\L! I.CN ilS at DCI1 c:LII Appcudix 1;). Tlm uddrcss Iiclds c;in be i!l lbc fuurth lhmugh nim(ccnlll
conncc!ion, To imillimi~e lhis lpossibili [y, !Ilc IIc[wwrk (I)CII) looks ~c]l a UC(CI(Iiutxinllil)] Icnglh) ot’ (IIC CNII vcqws[ pnckcl. These ;ILILlrcss liclds ;Irc
nt!mhcr s!t!r[il)g at IIIC lvw-ordm c!lcI, ;t!)d Ihc IYI’E SI:ICIS ;It IIIC bigll-otdcr used in IIIC c: IIIcsl;l[]lisllmcn[ p;ickc[s lo idcnlify [he c;tlling and called

.’..,.,
.,.
 )~j
Ilil,v Ikscr; .. “or Vd/IIe
LCN
o
Rexrved for Network
Per”>,”,”,
r I ()
.)

Virc”al 2.4 flckcl, scmf scqucncc IP(S)I

m Ci,c.i,s MOI’Cd;IIu bit lIhc M bil]
s
LIC
6-8 Puckcl rcccivc scqmmcc [I>(R)]
Onwa”
1,,,.,,,’(,Q ‘1’hc func[iun: of [hcsc Iiclds fire w follows: The Iirst bit of O identifies
Hlc
lhc pockc[ :is o dulu p,wkc[. ‘1’hrec bi[s are ussigned 10 d send scqucncc
I number IP(S)I. Onc bit is ;!ssigned 10 tin M bi( function (more idmul (his
LTC kt!cr). The [hrcc rcmilining bils tire assigtlccf to a rccciving sequence number
[1’(R)I, Wc will .SCChow ;!11[hue Iickfs are used shorlly, Ifuwcvcr, note Ml
Two+”,” dlis lime’ [Iuil sequence, numbers exis[ a[ both Ibis Icvcl (nelwork) and the
Algorilhm
1 dal~-fitik Icvcl (1 ll)l.C/).AIJlf),
Some vendors ;!nd lhc m;tjcwily of X,25 documenls depict (he packet
HTC
formal as shown in Figure 8-4(d), The pu,ckc[ con[en[s ore Ihe sunle; the
LOC OCICISurc drown in a st~king wmngemenl, inslead of’ serial sequences m in
Figures 8-4(a), (b], und (c).
Onw,” The sending and receiving numbers are used to coordinate and
3“tQoinQ
acknowledge [mnsmissions between Ihe OTB and DCE. As the packet
[ravels through iht! nclwork l’rom node (o node, the sequmce numbers may
HOC bc id~crcd us (hc puckct lmvcrscs dw nelwork swilching nodes. None[he-
Icss, Figure 8-4 shows tlm[ (he receiving DTE or DCE must know which
‘“ __wJ___ p~!ckc~ recciviw scqtlence nur!lbcr to send buck IO (he transmitting device to
LCN - Lo,icalChmn,l Nun properly ;icknowlcdgc [he specific plckc[. These fcalurcs of X.2S ure similar
LIC - Lo&t lnc.aminoChannel to !hose found in (IICsecond 0S1 level, dnta-}ink con[rol (Chapler Four), The
HIC . Hi@,estIncomingChmml
use of P(R) nnd P(S) id (he network level requires (he P(R) 10 be one greater
LTC - LowestTwo.wayChonn<l
HTC . High,,, Two.wa”Chm,>el th;In (Iw P(S) in [he (IJM p~cke[, Remember lhfi( boll] 14DLC/LAP13 and
I
LOC. Lowe%,O.t$oing Chmnet X.25 provide fur imfcpendcnt (R) and (S) sequencing.
HOC . High,,, OutgoingChannel Figure 8.5, X,25 Logical Channels
The D B/f
slations, Thcrctif[er, (hc nc[work uscs the associo [cd logic~il ch:innci num. The D. bi(Fdcili!y w:isaddcdtolhc 1980 version of X,25. I[is used to
hers [o idcn[ify [hc f)TE. io-Df’f? session, II, wldi(icm, (I,C (t,cili!y fields may provide foroneof lwoctipnbilitics, First, when (hebi( isselto O, the P(R)
1
:IISO{m [!SCCIin (he cvcnl IIW DTl;s wish 10 IISCopti[>ns con[;,incd in Ihc X.25 vducin<fic:tlcs lhAI ockn(j\vlcdgmcn[ of’receipt oflhe LIutu packctsis by [he
slundard. (These I’ociliiics we discusswf I:, (cu in [I!is ch;, p!cr, ) Finully, user nclwork, Second, when D is SC( IU 1, the P(R) field is used m provide for:ln
cnll doln may cxis[ in (he p:ickcl, “fm mttxinlitnl limit ill [hc coil rcqucsf cnd.lo.ctld ;lcknuwlc Jgrncrl[ of fhe packet, i.e., from one DTE [o [he other
p;lckc! (or user 11:11:1is 1[, oclc!s. ‘fhis lield is uscftll I*F Cl,lries, such its [)’l’E, I’lw fttnc lion ot Ilw 1) hi! Ior nclwork acknuwledgmcnt ur I) ’rlI. to-
pusswords and iiccuunling irll’urnla[ivn, rOv (Iw rccciving D’1’li, 1[ is used IIISO l)rEiickt}owlcllgt!lclll isilluslmlcdin l:i8urc 8-f, Wilh lhcuscol’lhc Dbit
~or !hc X.29 protocol ((liscussccl shorlly). For ccr[:lin op!ions, such :Is ftisl = I opliun, X.25 resumes onc of Ihe Iunclions of the tmnsport layer:
w.lcL.1, 128 *cIcls of ,Iscr d;tl:, :)rc Jlowcd. end-lo-end ;iccount;!bility.
The packc[ header is nlodificd 10 I’ocili[a(c [IW nlqvcmcn[ O( user d;l[a
The M Bif ~
through the nel\vork. As can he seen from Figure X-’J(a), Ihc !hin! OCIC[of[hc
Iwodcr, n,wlll;b]ly rcscrvcd (<w [he p:ickc! lypc idcn!i[icr. is I)mkcu inlo rvur The M (mnrc dil[ik) hil identifies a ‘rclo[ed sequence of packets
Scpilwtc Iicl,ls: lr:ivcrsi!)g [hmugh IIw lw[wu!k, ‘l”f~iscikp:tbili(y aids [I)c nc[wutk md L)’~Es

.d
214 The X.25 “ ‘: Chap. 0 Packet Form?” 2t5
)

m m
~ “E ---’’’”’’----m<’”

–-mnmmzammm–
q’-”------’b
PacketsCanbe Combined PacketsCanbe Comtimd
M Endof Sequence

Figure 8-7. X.25 Category A and !3 Packets

Combining packets may be useful when differenl packet sizes are used along
the rou[c lhrough a network, or in in[erne[working when (he subnetworks
use differcnl packet sizes. II allows [he packets [o be tracked as a logical
(,) D 0;, s,, ,0 zero
whole. If this is Ihe case, the M bit can be used [o indica[e to the receiving
0,,. DTE [ha[ [here is a related sequence in the packet flow,
‘Tnblc 8-S shows how X.25 treats M and D bi(s sent by the source

a’“’”w
DTE.

TABLE 8-5. X.25 Procemlng of M and D Bits from Source DTE

Combine wilh
Category M sit D sit Full? Subsequent Packets?

B Oorl o no no
B o i no no
(b) 0 0;, Set 10One
B 1 i no no
Figure 8-6. X.25 D Bit 0 0 0 yes no
B o 1 yes no
in preserving the identification of blocks of data when (he network clividcs
B 1 1 yes no
these blocks into smaller packets. For example, a block of da[a relating (o a
A i o yes Y*S
da[a base needs [o be presented to the receiving DTE in [he proper
sequence. This capability is quite importanl when networks are in[ernet-
working each other, a Iopic discussed later. As previously stated, one goal of M and D bit specifications is 10
combine packets, For example, if ~he receiving DTE”s data field is longer
A and B Packets than the [ransmilting DTE’s, then the p~ckcts wi(hin a complete sequence
The combination of [he M and D bits provides for IWO cafegorics in ~hc can be combined by the nc[woik, To illustrate the concep[, consider [he flow
X.25 standard. These ca~egories arc designated as A packe($ and B puckef$. of p~ckcts in Figure 8-7, Packets i, 2, 3, and 4 are related; [he setting of [he
This feature allows a DTE or DCE [o indicate a sequence of nlore than one D bit in packets 1,2, and 3 indica[e they are A packets. Packet 4 is a category
packet (see Ftgure 8-7), and allows the network to combine packets. X.25 B packet, which ends one packet sequence, and allows the four packels to
defines a complete packe[ sequence as a single category B packet and all bc combined. Packe\s 5, 6, and 7 belong to zmolhcr sequence, and packet 7
preceding, contiguous category A packe[s (if any). (a category B packe[) uses [he M bit set [o O to iden[ify ~he complete packet
The category B packet also ends a rela[ed sequence of packets. In sequence.
contrast, category A packets reprcsenl (he ongoing packeis and musl be full, The 0 B/t
with M = 1 and D = 0, Only category B packets can have a D bi! SC( 10 I for
an end.lo-end acknowledgment. Ca(cgory A packc[s and the immcdi:ltc Iy This bit is optional and may be used [o distinguish between user data
following B packet can bc combined in~o one packet by the network. B and conlrol information. Since one of the PAD standards, X.29, uses the Q
packels [hcmselvcs must maintain Separa[c cnti~ics as scpamtc pocke(s. bit, we will defer discussion of this bit until wc discuss the PAD standards.

,,
Flow Control and Windows 3. Ricililics drkd ‘ uriginuting public dills network (1’DN)
~, 4, Ltcililics drcl( )/ dcs!ilwtion PI)N.
X.28 uses flO\v-cOnlm[ Iecbniqucs ond vinctow concepts t,..,, Arc q{lilc simil;ir 10
[hose al 14DLC, L/\ I>ll, SDI.C, nnd Mhcr line I]XMOLOIS(ch;\pIcr l:ww), As OfJ-Li,Ic Jacilily R egiftration. This P.icilil y permits (he tsrx si i~oy lime
seen ill Figllrc 8-./, a d;t[;hImckcl comllims IWLI scqucn)cc n,,mhcls (SCM1 w)d 10 rcqllcsl fwililics or {0 Ol)li!i!l lbc Pidfiilnc[ers (vulucs) 01 Ihc fucililics, as
wccivc) [0 courdin:ltc lhc Ilow of pockc[s lwl\vcc II IIw I) ’I’ll :Ind l) Cl& ‘1’lw Nndcm Iood by IIIC I)c E. ‘1’lw 1)’1’11/l)Cli diologuc [~tkcs PIOCC with Ihe
extended n~lmbc ring scllenle allows for a scqlmnce Iicld 10 contain o nl;tximunl rcgistm{io!l packcls (SCC T,iblc 8-2), nml the p:tckcts indictilc wbc!hcr lbc
tnun]lmr of 127, usin~ Moditlo 128, Al IIIC DTIUIXf I i!!lcrthce, [IIC d:!li, p;wkc[s fdcili[y viiluc cdl] 1X tlcgolitl [cd.
wc conlrollml Scp,,r,licly t’or c:lcb dircc lion, Ixucd on II)c :~!llhoriz; tlions coming
Ilom the user in IIlc (mm u(lbc rcccivc scq~mncc [nuu)bcts m ([w I(c<civc! Rem/J I:xfem!cd [’ackc[ Nl:wbcrirjg. ‘I”llis focilily provides scq~lencc number.
(RR) and ,4ccciw N,H Rc<(dy (RN 1/) control p:IckcIs, ing usillg tVIOdIIIO128. in i(s absence, scql!encing is dOne with MWJLI1O8
Wby Iwvc flow cun[rol a[ Ibe d:i[;~.liuk ;IINI Ip;Ickc[ lcvcis? Since X,25 (SCWIUWCnumbers I-7). Ibis 1984 mldition W:IS ~eenled imPOrlan~ in Or~cr
multiplexes multiple users onloonc physic;d lil)k, lbc issu:mccof # Iink-level [ocun(cnd wilh Ihc long propagation problems ofsatcll itccllsnrlels and rudio
RNR would [bro[(lc [mflic for ,(// lugicd ch;tnncl cu”ncctions on Ihc link. transmission or ships N SC*. The rcwler can refer to Chaplcr Five (Figure
X,25 Row cun[rc)l nll<jws [be lbtollic 10 IN upplicd mom sc(cclivcly, 5.2) Iur it discllssion O( Ibis pruhlcm.
hlorcover, sequencing U( [be Inclwurk intcrfuce adds UII mJdi[ior1211ICVCI of
occoun lability nnd sccurily of user tl:i[a. [)./liflfo7iJco/iofl. This f:icili[y is intended ror use by f3TEs developed
The mmbcrin$ of lhc packms :kl this Ihird ICVCIproceeds in the s:lme prior (o (IW it!troduc(iwl UI (hc 1980 D.bi[ procedure. [t OIIOWSthe DTEs 10
rashiolt M il does with lhc scco[)d-level II I) LCILAI)lJ si;tnd:hrd Tl!c p;wkcl opcm[c wilb end-lo-c Iid acknuwlcdrwcnl.
sequence number cycles [hrough the cn[ire mnge of(l through 7 and rctums
pocket Relrmtxmission. A DrE may request re[mnsmission (d one [o
brick to (1aryin, If Modulo 128 is used, [bc scq!!cncc numbcrcycles [I)rougb
scvcml l!:IIZIpihckcls rrum the I) CL,The WIT specifies ibe logical channel
tlIe entire range of O (brough 127,
number nnd a wduc for 1’(R) in a rejec! packet. The 13CE must (hen
The dti[ti llo\v of Ibe D bit umngemcn[ in Figure 8-6 shows bow (IIC
retransmit ;dl ptickc[s from P(R) {o the ncx[ p;lckc[ it is IO [ransmi[ for tlle
sending ond rccciving sequcncc ntimbcrs wc ccwrdi nated wi[h each olhcr.
Iirsl time. “Ilis Iacili[y is similtirto IIw Go-hack-N lechnique used by [he line
Like lIDLC, SDLC, iiod LAPR, X.25 uscs lhc windows cslilhlishcd by the
protocols :it Ihc second Icvel d IIK OS1 nlwJcl (SCC Cb:lp[cr Fuur).
Modulo scbcme [o prcvenl an overflow of {he ptlckcls, lluwcver, wi[b X,25,
;! siandard window size of 2 is rccomnwmled for each direc lion of Ilow, l,jcov{ing Calls Itarred, Outgoing Calls Uarred. These two fi~cilities
iiltbot]gb otller \vindow sizes cm] IX mwlc ;Iv;liloblc by nc[works. Tbc v;!lue prevent incoming c;!IIs from being plcscnlcd 10 (he DTfl or prcven( (he DCI?
of 2 linlits lhc flow of packc!s [bat we ou[stunding at ;IIIy one time, This rlOlll 2cccpliw oulgoing ctdls fuom k rm.
limitation neccssilatcs faster acknowledgrncn[ or [hc packels from Ibe
receiving DTE. Tbc lirnitcd wi!!dow size ;Ilso Iimi[s tl)c nu!nbcr of puckcls Otte-llfay I.ogicul Cko:,nel O@oirw. One-way Logical Channel
[b:\l are uulst:!n ding in the ncfwork al my unc time. l,~coming, Tbcsc two fidcilitics rcstric[ u Iogicd ch~lnnel 10 originnling culls
only or rccciving culls only. These two ~~cililics we sinlilar 10 lncomin#
f)ulgoing C;ills IIuI’I’cLI,except Ihcy are applicable to im/ivid(~a/ channels.
X.25 Facilities Nonx(ondord .9efatdt Packet Sizes. This provides forthc sclcctionof
defw!lt p;wkc[ sizes llmt [ire supporlcd by [bc [nclwork. Rcgis[rulion pckc(s
The 1984 rclmsc or X.25 con!:!im scvcml op[io!l;d ft!cili[ics, CA dcscribcd
c;ln bc USC’I10 lncgo[iutc the p:tckct sizes.
blicfly here, Sonw of IImsc t’c:t[urcs fit. not rcql!ircd Ibr it vendor [o bc ‘X.25
ce!litied, ” yel tbcy provide some very userul functions to end k!sers, und some
No/lsfafi//ardl)eJfJu/f JVi/ldow Sizes. This facili[y allows the window
;!re comidcrcd ‘.csscnt ial” (o a nctwmrk. The F,~cili[icstkre mqueslcd by specific
size-s11’(ii), 1’(S)1 wbecxIN!nJcd b~yOnd ~lwdcfwIl~ size 0f2, rOr {dJcJRs.
cn[rics in [hc cIIII rcqucsl pxkc(, ‘I’bc f;!~.ililics :Irc cklssihl M:
l)cfoidt 7/jrortgllp!tt Classes Ar$i$t8?rre]11. Tllis Ficility providcsforlhe
I. in!ern;!tion:d facilities [in rcconlnlend;tl ion X.2 (Appendix E)] selcc!ic~!lof.oncof[ljc followitlg lllro~jghput ratcs(inbil/s): 75, 150,300,600,
2. CCITr.specified DTI1 focilitics 1200,2400,48(10,90(10, I!Z200,4800 (I. olhcrv;tluesctm bcncgoli:!lcd.

. .. .
 F/ow.C.,itro/ l’oromctcr Ncg,,(in[iorj, Tbi. c’, ~‘[y dl(lws Ihc wi,,du,v ill dircctirigjobc vwious, llill’crcrll rcsourccs. l! IS sIi, uIut f,, .(, IILLIJI ,., ,],. . ,
sizes (P(R), P(S)] 10 be nego(iillcd 0!1 a pcr-cnl’ }.. A DIE ollen sugges(s famili:w Port ,tlr ftwnd in n)osf ins[;ltlti [ions.
windo, v wld p;lckc[ sizes during c:tll esl:kl]lisbmcnl, Smlle nclwvlks rcqtlirc }
[Ilcsc p;bl;l!llc[crs 10 bc (IIC S:\[llc (i)r I),, (I, 1)’1’[;s, Cdl Red;rccliot,, “f’bis tilcili(y, also par[ ofthc 1984 wldilion, rcdircc(s
packcl cnlls wbcn IIW Ill’l! is OU( 01 ui’dcr, busy, or h~u rcqucstcd o call
Tl(roughpn[ Class Negotiation, This illlows the lhro~lgbpu( r~!cs 10 lx redirection, 1[ UIIOWSu COII to be rcrou led 10 a bt!ck. up DrE, which provides
ncgolioion on a pcr-cotl I-x, sis, [he VC(Yvi!li!ablc function of keeping problems and fi!ilures isolated from (he
cnd user. ‘1’bc ctlll rcdircc lion CM!IJ also pt!rnlit culls 10 bc rcdircclcd to
Closed User Groups (CUG). A SCI of fca[urcs allow USCIS 10 [orm
diR’ctcl]t p;tils of o comlry due to Iimc.zone considcru [ions,
k’rolli).~01 DTIA Imm which access is reslric [cd Tlic CUG ftmilily [pmvidcs
a nlcostlrc ul’ sccuri[y/pliv:lcy ill ;I public nclwork. ‘1’bc facili[y Ims scvcml Culled I,itjc Address hfudif ied Notifico[iott. In [be even [ a cull is
op!iuns, such ;1s oulgoing or inwmling ;lccess ouly, Typicmlly, (be ckdling rcdircctcd, [his (icili[y informs (Iw culliog wr[l why Ibc called wJdress in a
station spccilics Ibc required closed user group by the fi!ci lily fichls in (IIC cdl cunnccltxl or cle;!r indicu[iun pwkcl is diffcrcn[ fronl [he DTE’s CZIII
call requcs[ packc[, tf[hc ctdlcd s(a(io!l is nu[ u rncn!bcr, the cull is wjccted request packcl.
by [be ne[work,
Call Redirection Notification, In the event a call is redirected, (llis
flilnlem[ Clmed User Groftpx, This facili[y is similor (o CUG, but ftlcilily so informs lhc id[ernti[c 0Tf3 and also gives [bc remon why and the
allous access rcs[ric[io[ls bc[wwcn pcl;rs of 1)’FUS, mldrcss of the I)TU [hat wus origin ~llly called.

Faxt Selec/, Fast SclecI A ccep[n,tce, Tbe~c (WO F~~ili{ie~ ~Gre ~is~tls~cd This Iasf fdcility permi(s a DTIZ
Tranxit Delay Selecdo]n and I]tdicaticm.
earlier in this cb;tp[ cr. (o selccl dcluy time [brough tlle packet nc[work, This fea[ure can be
a Iiimsil
quilt valuuble [u Nil end user by giving [hc user some confrol over response
Rewrse C)!argitl~, Reverse C60rgi!sg ,Icccptm,ce. These facilities allow
time in the ne!wmk,
(he packc[ ne[work cb:{rges 10 accrue 10a receiving DTE. II can be used will)
virtual calls ,{jld I’USI $elcc!s, The f~cility is Iikc culliog ‘, CXIICCI” O“ a The fwililics me invoked by Ihe use of specific fields in an X.25 control
telepbonc. ptickcl. Figu[c 8.4(c) provides n gcnerdl view of !bc telfi[ionship of Ibe
fiiciii[ics fichls to the X.25 packet.
Loco/ Cl,ar,qir!c Preve!lr;on, This f;!cilily ii(, [horizcs [he DCf2 10 prc.
ven! [he cs!tlblisb!llcn] ofmlls (or which I he sul>scribing LY1’Emusl pi~y. For
example, a f)TE may not be al[owcd 10 Jccepl reverse churging 10 ih
accoun[ from all cfllling DrEs. Other Standards and Layera

Ne:wxk User Ide,dl(jcatiou, This facili[y CWII)ICSII,C [r:msmi[[i~,g DTfl The Pad
{0 provide billing, scct(!i[y, or nlxmlgcvIleIIl ir)llormulion on ;8pcr-c;,ll Imsis 10
Ihe DCE, If i!lva lid, tbc CMI is b~rl-cd, As [be ,X,25 rccomnlendalion developed in [he 1970s, Ihe standurds
groups ttcognizcd [Iml [he majority of tcrmiwds in opcm! ion were u“inlel-
Cl,orging lll~ormolio,t, This ~~cilily reqt!ircs [hc DCIZ 10 provide [he Iigen(, asyocbrom.ms devices, Obviously, an in[ctitce wtis needed [o con-
DTE in fosnui!iu” about (be p:tckc[ sessiou rcluling to [bc cb;wgcs.
nect [IICSC lcrmimds irlto pnckc[ networks. Consequently, s!andurds were
RPOA Selecriori. This ;Illuws a c:illin~ DrE 10 specify o“e Or mOrC
dcvclopcd [o provide for pro(ucwl amvcrsiun and pIicket a.utwbly/disa$-
recognizedptivu[e upcro(ing agencies (R1)OA) lo b:lndle !he p:!ckcl session scIII b/y (P4D) funclio!ls f“r the tsyncbronous tcrmim!l, (The reoder may
The RPOti is a cwricr, I’OVcxmnple, N1’lT in (Iw U.S. rccull from Cb;IpIcr Onc (but a PAD is o service provided to a user for an
in[c,fmx il,[u u d:II;, cummunic; i!iom puckc! network, Generic protocol
Hut)! GroIIp. This f:!cilily disl~ibuics incoming CZIIISacross a dc$ig. ccmvcrsion is expklincd by Figure 4-13 in Chopler Four, ) Af[er (be inili;!l
nfited grouping of DTfJDCE i!](er-P4ccs. Tl)is [984 oddi[ ion gives USCPS tlw l!J76 dmtt of tl!c X.25 slandurd, the s[tindards committees followed up in
:! biiily l{) sclccl lll~llliplc p,~rls or] ;1 fr{~!ll.clld lprtlccssl)r nr Colnpll[cr, m 1977 wilh vcc(,nl[llcll(l!,li(,ns for tbrce specifications 10 support x,25 wi[h
hclcc[ clillcren[ ~Ionl. c[Ids or Cu]llpulcrs ;11 ;1 usct fucilily is quile
silt, ‘1’hc Ilsyncbrunm!s lcrmifwl i,llctfnccs: X.3, X,2ti, and X,2°, ‘(’hcsc rccommcn -
v:~lu:,hlc fororg:tnimions \vi[h li~rgc co!,ipu[ir% t’ocili[ics [I):)( need flcxibili[y da[ions b;ivc Ixxn enlmnccd wilh [I)c 1984 relcu se,

.,
 I (1C I,lcil 1)1 :1 I,til) IS 10 pwvldc pl<>!,,c”l c,) :1S1011101 t! IIxcv clcvicc X.3 :Iml X,7Q c I;!sl Cxonlplc, I.lg\llL! m-n(c), 11111
S11*11C$7U 1.,%1) Iu. ilicu
(DrE) !O ;I public or priv;~[c HcIw~rk, ~1~ onlpltn]cnl:!ry prOIOCO] m!lsidc the }rk, perh;lps D( u user premises, [n (his silu~l(ion, (he PAD
convcrsluo M [Ilc rccciving cnd of [he ncl,., ~. ThL! g(ml is (0 ~{lrj,isl) a appcnrsm n., .~(ud X.25 device 10 IIN ne[wm’k, The mwlcrshcrultlals’o m(c
lfilnsp:llctll scwicc 10 Ihc user 1)’~l;s. WhilC X,3 aid i[s Coll,p:mioll
IIMI X,29 is USWI (u support comnlunic; ilions bclwccn a PAI) l!nd ~!l
S[;)11<1;11,1s,
X.28 :,!],{ X,19, ;,,I,Iwss wily ;Isy Iwbvomms dcviccs (which
X.25-mode [)TK or buIWCCll tWO f’Ai)s.
cons[i[ule mmyoflhc devices in operuiio!] Imlay), ninny vendors ol~cro(hcr
PAD services 10 sllppor[ pw[ocols such os IISC ;Iml SI)I.C, ‘1’hcw X.3. Ilc 1984 version of X.3 provides a SC( 0f22 p~mmetcrs the PAD
IIOII;ISY IICIIVC)II<)lIS PA I) c[)pohililics do IIOl Ldl will!iu (I)c flnmcwolk of X,3 uscs 10 idcnlify and scrvicc cnch icrminol cmnnmnic;iling wilh i[. When a
X.28. and X,29, connccficm 10 ;I I’Al) from lbc DTL is cslablishcd, lhc PAD piutimelcrs arc
‘fhc PAD slwd:trds provide for several co!lfigurti[ ioils, Figure 8-8(a) used lo delcrmine how Ihc PAD communicu[es wilh (hc user DTE, ‘Mc user
shows :! co!ltlcctiuL1 hclwtic[) user nun-p D’1’li uncl u packcl. !),udc DTE,
uckc{ also bus ‘Ibc op[ion or ul[cring Ihc pm’wnc[crs ufter ils log-on to the PAD.
Notice (hiif the PAD (X,3) and X.28 urc nccdcd only (’or [he ;NynclIromNIs Each of Ihc 22 pulumclcrs ,consisls of u rcfcrcnce number and parnmclcr
DTE. Figure 8-8(b) illustraics nno{her cmnmon example in wllich two values, These pofi~melcrs and references are exphined in Table 8-6.
asynchronous f)TEs wish to conlmt!nic>l[e wi[h c:wh ulher, flolh 1)1’Es use. The p:tran)elcrs do nut Icml themselves to interpre[alion easily. A fcw
examples am provided here 10 explain I!ow lhe PAD ptirame!ers could bc
used.

Ptiriimcler 3 = II Inslrucls lhc PAD 10 forward only a full packel.

Pttrtthletcr 3;= 2 Inslrucls the PAD to forward a packet upon the
terminal sending a curriugc-rclurn charac[cr.
‘..- / Paromc{cr 6 = 1 A lermin~l user wishes [o receive [he PAD service
signals; useful during [rouble+hootint?.
(8) U,,, DTE Ccmm””k,,e, with
Pa,ket.ModeDTE Pur;,mctcr 7 = I Upon receiving a break character from the terminal,
[hc PAD sends an inlcrrup[ pticke~ w [he receiving
I
Vrf?.
X.28. ,This slamkml Jefincs Ihe procedures 10 con!rol the dala flow
Iretwecn the non-pucke( mode user Icrmimd and (he PAD. Upon rcccipl of
an inititd colmect ion from the user DTE, the PAD establishes a connection
and provides services according 10 X,28. As illustrated in Table 8-7(a), (he
user DrE evokes X.28 comm}tnds 10 lhc PAD, which rcquesls un X.25
‘.- /’ virtual cull to u rcmole DTE. The PAD is lhcn responsible for transmiUing
(b) DTE.,O.OTE c.acwwn,c,,ion, the appropri}~!c X.25 coli-reques( packe(, The table summarizes (he proce-
dures I’OC

● the cstablishmcn[ of [he path

● (bc inilializuliml uf scrvicc
____________ ● (he exchange or lkrhl
● !IIC cxchungc d conlrol inrormnl ion.

X.28 requires [he PAD [o return u response when o [ermincd issues a

comnmncl [o ii, I’1’hcsc sign:]ls $Irc smnmwizcd in Tublc 8-7[b). ] J1 Aso
(cI A PAD O,,t,ldo ,,,, N,,wIrk
spccilics Ih:It two profiles c:tn be tfcli!lcd ror providing scrvicc 10 [he user
Figure 8.8. PADs and x,25
DTE. The Iro!,spc{reul prolilc mc:im IIIC servicing l’A13 is lrunspi!rc!ll 10

.-.,.,, ,, . . .. . ,.
.,.
;,:
 TABLE B.6, Contlnuea
TW!LE 8-6, PAD Parameters
‘1 X.3 Paramotor “).,,,,,,,,O”
X.3 Paramekv values
Releronco Number .,.
RelerenceNumber Dsscriplion values
... ..—.. 10 Linefoldhg Specilieswhelher 0 no Kne Ioldng
1 PAD recnll ,Smlpe ,!.rr ..,,. u not &_IOSSCDIE
0,0 PAD ShCUhl 1–255 “umber01chalaclorsper line
l,ansler mode 10 1 DLE characlw
1 Iold the oumut fine
command mode 32.12S “Ser.defined cha,acte,s
10 Ilm Inrminal
2 Echo Com,ols !ho echo 01 O no echo 10 50 bus
11 tina~ speed of hvICaleS the speed O llObiVs
characters $0.1 by f echo (dala”ll) 11 75/1200 blUs
DTE 01 lhe Ierminal 1 134,5 bus
Ihe termnal
2 300 bius 12 2400 MLIS
3 Data low&ird- DeOnes [he charac. 0 1.1!packet only 3 1200 blvs 13 4800 biLls
ing 1.,s 10 be in[or- 1 a(phan.marics 4 600 biLLs 14 9600 btls
preled by Ihe PAD 2 carriage relum (delaull] 5 75 bius 1S 192w NW
as a signal m 10{. 4 ESC, BEL, ENO, ACK 6 150 bills 16 4600 biVs
ward dala 6 carriage rel.rn, ESC, BEL, ENO, ACK 7 1800 bius 17 56000 biVS
8 DEL, CAN, DC2 8 200 bitts 18 64000 bilk
16 ETX. EOT 9 100 bilk
18 carriage relw”, EOT, ETX
12 Flow control of Allows the terminal 0 not operational
32 HT, LT, VT, FF
the PAD to Oow.conhol 1 use X.ON (DC1) and X.OFF (DC3)
126 all other chamders h cot. 1 & 2 0[ IA5
dam being trans.
4 ldla lime, del.?y Seleds a lime ink.,. 0 no om.r milled by !he
nal 01 !ermina! w 1-25S delay value in twentieths01 a second PAD
li.ily 8s a signal 10
13 LineloedInserdon Co”bolsPAD lhser. O None
Iorward dala 1 aftercrmiagerelurn10DTE
tion01Nneieed
5 Ancillary devh? Allows the PAO to O no! operational alter a carriage 2 aim cwdme returnfromDTE
control Conlm 0,.9 Ilow 01 1 X.ON (OC 1]/x. OFF (OC3)-d.91a ml.rn (s sent to 4 nller echoe_dcarriage mtum
terminal da(a using ttans!er Ihe Iwminal 5 values 1 + 4
X.ONIX. OFF Char. 2 X. ON/X. OFF-dala translw and 6 V8iUW 2 + 4
ac(ers command 7 values 1 + 2 + 4 (dala lransler
6 Conlrol 01 PAD Allow the lormlnal O no sewice signals only)
serwce signals 10 ,fmeive PAD 1 !ransmit sewice signals 14 Lineleed pad’dng ,Conlrols PAO Inser. O none
messages 5 transmit sewlce end prompt signals lion of paddl”g 1-7 number of pads Inserled (dala Irans.
6-15 newotk.depe”de”l Iomml service 1 characters aller a fer only)
signals { Ilnefeed Is sent to S-255 optional extension
7 Opera[ion cd Defines PAD ac(io. o no acfion Ihe lermlnal
!he PAD on when a break sig 1 interrupt packet 15 Edili”g Controls whe!her 0 on
receipt 0! nd is welwd 2 resel packet editingby PAD Is 1 on
bleak slgnol 1,0,” tl,o 1.,”>1”01 4 I!ulicelio,, 01 break I avaihblo during .
ho,n DTE 5 Inlorrupt & I“dicnlion 01 break dala.lcansler
8 escape from da[a.lransfer slate mode
16 discard O“lPUt 10 S!atiSlOp OTE
16 Characlerdelete Snlacl$characler 127 DEL charactef
21 1 + 4 4 16 cornbi”ed
usedto signal olher chamclers
6 Discard output Controls lhe discard. O normal data delivery Characletdelela hom IA5 (op!ional)
ing 01da!a penti”g 1 discard output 10 s!aruslop OTE
17 L!ne dele!e Selecls character 24 CAN character
o“lp”l 10a ISrminal
used 10 slgm Me olhor characters
9 Padding OIIW ConlrcAsPAD irwor. O no poddng 11”11119 hom IA5 (optional)
ca, uage <el., n {ion d padding 1-7 “urnbor 0( padding characler In
18 Line display Sdecls characler 18 DC2 charocler
characlem alter a sefled
used to signal Ilne o!her characters
carriage return is fmm IA5 (oolio”all
disDiav
sol 10 Iho le(minal

./ , ..:.,
224 ~ X,25 Newark Chap 8 chap. o Olho~ jda,d, end Lay,,, 225
.,
TABLE 8-6, Co” ff,,Lmd TABLE 8-7{.). PAD Commnnd Slgnnls
X.3 Pmmeler PAD Command Format Description
Relerence Number DescriPllon Vel”cs
STAT llnwosl S!”(USIk,lornmlkm roo.tdino “ vlrhm cnll c.anrmdod
19 Edi(ing PAO Controls the format o m ed!dng 10 !I,e DTE
sewice Slg. 01 lho etitirig PAD 1 edili.g !or Drlnllt,g !ermin.ls
CLR Clear a virtual call
.01s swdce signals 2 edidng !or dlsploy terml”als
PAR? (P.sr8me10cs) Roqvesl lhe curre”l values 01 specilled pammelws
0 adillngusingCl,cyac[ofsfrom
range 32-126 SET? (Paramolers) Rcq,rw,l chrmgi”g or se!ling ol vol.m .! specified parameters,
Reouesl current values of specllied Damme!ers
20 Echo mask Selwcls the char... 0 all chamclers echoed
lers whl.h we not 1 “o echo 01 carriage mum PROF (Idwdiiler) Give 10 PAO 8 SIanda:d @ O( paramelar values
echoed 10 the tor. 2 no echo .1 LF RESET Resel Ihe virtual call
mhal when echo 4 no who of V7, HT, FF INT Tmnsmlt an Inlerrupt packet
(Parameler 2) Is 8 no echo of EEL, BS
SET (Parameters) S8! or change parameter values
e“ablod 16 no echo 01 ESC, ENO
Seloclion PAD Se! up a .Mual call
32 no echo .1 ACK, NAK, STX, SOH,
EOT, ETB, ETX
64 no echo 01 edlti”g chamclers TABLE 8-7(b). PAD Service Slgnds
128 “o echo of all Cha!ac!ers In co!. 1 & 2
01 IA5 PIUSDEL PAD Sewice Fo,mal Description
21 Pacify heal. Controls (he check. O no parity detec!ion or gencrallon
lng and generation 1 parity checbng Llnefeed , Ack.owledgmenl01.scommandsignal
men(
o! pari~ on char. 2 patily generation COM lndlcalionof Call Connecled
@wS lrOtiO the 3 value 1 + 2 RESET DTE RemoteOTE has resel (he call
teminal RESET ERR Call has been resel due to a local procedure error
22 Page wail Specilles lhe num- 0 no page wait RESET NC Call has been resel due to nehvorkcongestion
ber o! Unes 10 be 23 number 01 Iineleed Chamclers belote
ERRoR PAOcommandIs In error
dsplayed at one waiting (mandalory value); other ov
Oonal values PAR <n:n> Response to set or read PAD command; n I“dicales the
lime
,. parameter number and parameler value In decimal
PAR <n:lNV> Response 10 an In.alld pat.meler selling rmguesl in a SOI or se!
8nd read PAO .mnmmd.
both D“rEs—lhc DTEs “think” [hey hove n clircc( virtunl connection Iocach ENGAGEO Response10STATUS PAOcommandwhen a call IS
o!her. In (his siluntion, IIIC rcmo(c DT13 is rcspc>!lsihlc [or SQIIIC PAL) established
func{ions, such m error checking. The ~i!>tplc plofilc !w!kcs m or (IIC rully FREE Response10,STATU5 PAO commandwhen s call is not
defined X.3 s[andard and (he parame[cr ru[lc!ions 10 ,salisry the user lY~E e31abklmd
requests.
The 1984 version or X.3 provides a user wilh lhc flexibility [o l:iilor X.29. l’his s[$!nd;ltd p!uvidcs diuccl ions ror IIIC PAD :Ind o remulc
;:ddilionfil characleris(ics for n pxr[iculrir tcrnlin:ll. Tllis is provided by (he sla[ion to cxchangc CODIIVI it>lormolion on an X.25 COII, In {he corIIcxt or

PROF I’AD command signal (explained in Tflblc 8-7). The I’ROF comnmnd X.29, :ircnlO1c s(:llion rcfcrslo citl]cro PA Dor~r X,25 DTE—X,29nllows
could give p:lckc[ nc[work vcodorsaddi(iomfl flexibility in {:(iloring;t PAD 10 !hc cxcb:mgc oritlf(~ll]l;llic>]l 10 occur ;)1 ony lime, ci[hcr ;II a d;ilwlransl’cr
supporl ioterraces ror more prolocols, such as the BSC nnd S13LC da[a.link IIIWSC or any o[hcr phmc or (he virtual cnll,
controls. As iolruduccd c~!rlicr i{) lhc clmptcr. (he X,2. ~ Q.bil scwcncc controls
A typical X.28 command tInd scrvicc siE!!;,l is its rollows: ccl(ain ~ll!lcl ic]!!s[,f X,2<) .’l”l!c Ql)il [[~r[l;jl;t[l!!;tlificcl hi[)iscon[ni[lcd ill lhc
hcmlcr or(hc dn(a packcl. II is used by [hc rcmo[c L)lII to distinguish
SET 3:0, 6:1 bc[wccn a pnckc[ con[niuiu~wscrdnl. (Q = 0). oronc containing PAD
co!llro Iitlr{)r!l!:lli{Jtl(Q = l). X.29is11~!ilcltscr(!l whcn;lhosl co!llpulcrnccds
This means: se[ PAD parameter 3 (o (J find PAD p:!mmctcr 6 (o 1. [0 cl)ongc Ihc X.3 opcr:lliilg poritmctcrs 01 IIIC lcrnlinills cc3r11t11tl
llica{i]1g \vi{ll
.. ..

/ ,,, “, “: ~ .’. :,;.:,:,:,.;,,.... . . . .;; ,.?,y?, ,. ‘,;:’’:;::;:;’. “(:?!::<

,. ,,, ,.,..,,
,
 Chap, 0 Olher S1.m ~ and Leyets 227

il, }Iy scncliog CII1X.29 con(rol p:lckcl [o it I>Al) (Q =, l), IIW Ims[ C:III 7—Cmlnccliut) itl Progress: SI:IIC cntcrmt m PAD ini(ii!lcs N nc[work “
“rcconfigu i-e” i[s N[{:tcbccl work s!slioms, 1 co!lrtcc(iwl.
X.29 delincs seven coo[rol .lcssagcs, \vhicb arc c!tllcd I]AD nlcss;,gcs, 8--Scrvicc Sigwds: Allo\vs all service signals wi(b tllis SIUIC.
Tbcsc mcss;igcs :Irc: 9—[):Itn Transf’cr AROWS lr:lns[cr of dnm ncross inlcrft!cc.
ll!--Wuiling for C1mTm;
Iod: Sl:t(C CtltclCd {cl n[low DTE 10 rcccivc
SC(: Chi!nges 011X.3 VNIUC,
PAD co!munnd or dn[:i.
Read: Reads :!n X,3 V;IIUC.
SCl and Read: Cbimgcs xn X.3 VNUC aud requites I’Al) lV conlim) IILC

I
change.
P:\v4n)c[crs Indic:diun:
Invi[aiion to Clcur: Allows
clears (0 Iocnl lermin;d.
Rc[urncd in mspunsc [o obovc c<mlm:tmls.
X.25 cAI clew by rcmulc L1l’13; PAD
/“-LO.,!?’}\
1,,.,1,;. ” Rwo,>,!LIc for
the ,,,”, !,;..

Indication O( Brcok: PAD indic:ttcs Icr, nirml h:is Ir:!osmi!(cd :t b!cuk, \\ :

Error: Response to an invalid PAL) message.

+ ‘ {::}”
PAD: Packet Formats and Packet F/ow
“: $,”,, Numb,,
The PAD packe[ is sinlilar in fornlat 10 (I}c convcntio,l:!l X.25 psckc( !: Value cmTransrd! Circuit
format (see Figure 8-9). Tbe [bree.octe[ header is reql!ired, aRer which r: V,(”, on R,.,!,, Ci,,”,,
follows a orle-oc[e[ control field and [he PAD paranlctct numbers ;Itld D: OTE10DTE Signal
0 md I : $Imd, Bin,r” Ccnd!,;on,
values,
< >: 145 Ch,cmtm Sewence
I
(o) PAO-DTE Stat, Diqram

Figure 8.10. PADIDTECommunicnlions(parameter6 set 101I

The Transport Layer

Figure 8-9, X.251PAD Packet

The fourth Iaycr uf tl)c 0S1 c<mlnlunica[ions nclwork nlodel is [he
To summorizc [IIc PAD, Figure 8-IO dcpicls slates ;Intlsmlc tmnsitiums tmnspor[ Inycr. 1[ sits jus[ :Ibove lbc nc[work Iuy,cr (Figure 3.6). The
be!wcen a user DTE and a PAD, This illuslra(iun shows :t c:ill-csl:!blisl] rllcrl( Inicmnlionnl 0rgw1i7Jlliot1 ror Stnldtlrdimlicm (tSO) approved (bc lranspor[
and dala-tron.!fer possibility will] paramelcr 6 set 10 1. (T:ibic 8-6 expl:!im Iaycr on June 25, 1984, and il is now being implcmcnlcd in some vemJor
paramc(er 6.) l-be sla[es per[orm !Ile following [uncl ions: prodtic~s. Ibe Inycr bns been under dcvelopmen[ for several years. amJ was
cngcrly (even anxicm sly) ;l\vni [cd by soIne !memlxrs or the IJOI? cornnluni -
I—Ac[ivc: DTfz and DCf? exchange I ~cruss it)lerface. cfi[ium cornmunily. 1!s in1por[21tcc Iics in Ibc [oc[ lbfi[ i( gives Ibc cnd user
scveml op[ions as 10 bow [be X.25 ne[work (belo\v it) serves the user These
2—Scrvicc Rcques[: E!mblcs PAD 10 dclcc[ d;i[a mlc ond code used
op{ions nrc fcalurcs beyond Ilmse avnilablc in X.25.
by DTE and [o SC-ICC([bc ini[i;~l profile,
Tbc trmspor! Iaycr rcqlrircs lbc cnd user to spcciry n qrtoli!y oJ.~er!,icc
3A—L)TE \V;li[ing: In{clface is in a wniling sla(c.
(QOS) [ronl lhc network. U’IIC tmnsport Izycr musl know lhc IYpcs or
4-Scrvicc Ready: SIa{c cn[crcd N[[cr PAD lmmsmils [’AI) idcnfifi. scrviccs ofl’crcd by !hc nc[wo!. k hclow i(. ) Upon rccciving ibc uscr”s request
ca[ion signal. for o qu:lli~y U( scrvicc, tbc lr:inspor( I:lycr SCICCIS)1 clnss Ur protocol 10
5—PAD Wai[ing: PAD wfii[s [or dz[a or corllroI signtl[s. rnz!cb (be user’s quali(y of service requcs(. Even fhuugh a variety of
6-PAD Command: SIa[c cntcrcd from v:,rious \v;\i[ s[n[cs. Alluws tnc(wot’ks nl;!y exist (cutltlcc linworicnlcd. cullncclionicss, c!c. ). the trans-
comm~nds (o bc Imnsmil[ed (u PAD. potl Iaycr ensures :) consislctll Icvcl Or scrvicc is provided [u !Itc cml user.

,, ..,...,, .,, ... ,..

 ;. .,
;:

,.,.

..:.

.-. —
.
2

—— ___
 ,
230 ) he X25 No(work chop., Ctlap. u Olh ) <nd”rds“n<, L“,.,, 231

TABLE 8.8. 7,8”8DO?I Layer Prl”,lllvc,

P,imltive N81Tw TYPOof Pdmidve Pwuncters 10 Pri.,iliw

T. Connoc! Requos[ Indication To t,anslmrl address: from

CIMS O Pro[ocol provides for a very simple (ranspor[ connection
Irwnspor! eddmss: expodiled
cslnldislimc@ 10 SIIPPOI’I n Type A nc[work. Cl;!ss U proviflcs for a
dala opllon: qualily .1 sewlce;
TS.”W, dala c[]lltl ccticj!l-c,ri cll(cd, SIIPPOII dl!ring bu[h [hc nclwutk cutlnccti<lll :tnd rclctisc
T.Corm@ R8spons3 confirmation Flespcmti.g address: quafily 01 phuses. 1( IJocs t(ot provide for nny support of user transfer data during
service; ewedi[ed data oplion: ccmncc[iotl cstnl?lishnlcnt. This protocol is nhlc to dctcc[ nnd signal protocol
TS-user dala crr<ws. [r Ihc nc[!vork I:tycr sign:!ls nn error {U (I!c Ir:!msport Iaycr, IIIC
T.Dala Request lndicellon TS.UW, d“la [lmnspor[ 1,ycr rclc$lscs Ihc connection to its nctwurk loycr. Tllc cnd user is
T. EwecMed Dam Request Indication TS.user data illlormed ibout the disconnection.
T. Dlsconnecl Request TS.UW, data The Class I prolc)col is nssocial ccl wilh networks, such as sin X.25
T.~sconnecl Indication Dlsconnecl reason, TS.user dtw pnckcf nc[work. ‘W Class I protocol proviclcs for a scgmcn[ing of daln, if
ncccssnry; rcten lion of :!11CI:IIII :!nd acknowlcdgmcnt: and rcsynchronizat ion
T = Transporl L8yer TS = Transport Layer Service ~
01 [hc session in the even! of a X.25 nc(work rcsc[ indic:t [ion pnckcl. The
pro[ocol is olsa mcp]ircd [u s!lppml cxpcditcd <1:!1;1tmnsfer. II responds (0
NETWORK PROVIDER
m m disconnect requests and responds [n protocol errors. 1! is also responsible
for rcsynchmnizaliun and pcrlornling reassignments in the cvcnl of a
tnc[wo!’k fuilurc.
Clmpter Seven (Figure 7-lo) arid Clmpler Eigll! explain how packe[
networks can expcricncc various kinds of problems. Since X.25 canno[
recover all of [hcnl, [hc Imnspot( Iflycr performs n vi[al end.lo.cnd integri[y
service.
1! is possible to lmnsnlil user dnla in a Closs I conrlec(ion rcques(.
Also. cnch IM’OIOCOI11010uni~ (PI)U: scc Clmp[cr lhrcc) is sequcnccd 10 nid
in ACK8/NAKs ml error I’CCOVCI’Y.TIIc ACKS release !hc copies of [hc data
uni(s a[ [he !mnsmi(ting siIcs. Class I also provides for either user acknow[-
cdgmcnt or nc(w’ork acknowledgment, II should hc emphasized {hat Class I
can only recover from errors 111:1[arc sigmdlcd from the nct\t,ork. 11dots WI
use [inlcrs 10 dctec[ dckiys or nondclivcr~!blcs.
CI;MS 2 protocol Nllows N mulliplexiug ofscvcrnl [mrrspori conncc[ions
inlo. a single X.25 nc!work session. II also provides for llv\v con(rcd [o
prcvcn( congcs[ion from occurring ZI[ the end DTE si[es. Class 2 provides no
error dctcctilln IIW recovery. if 011 X.25 reset or clcnr pnckcl is dc[cclcd, [his
pro[ucol disconncc(s IIIC scssiun und Ihe user is so infirtmlcd. The Cliiss 2
Fig. re 8.11. TransportLayer Sequences
PI’O(OCOIis tlcsigncd 10 hc USCIIover very rcli:lblc Type A networks. TIIC flow
conlrol provided in (I)is protocol t!scs (IIC fnmilinr cOrlccpl d \vindo\vs
VC:I rlctuwrk (Types A, 11,or C), [he I;tycr CN!)choose livccl;Isscs O(PIU(UCOI (dcsctibcd ill previous cllilp[crs). User CIOI:I c;ln bc trnnsmillml in the
procedures (0 support lhe rjOS rcqucsl rrom Illc Itscr:
The CI:MS 3 PMJIOCOIpmvidcs for lhc scrviccs included iu (hc CISSS 2
‘class u Simple elms s!ruc[urc,. 1[ olso provides rccovcry rrum a network L!ilut’c U,;(IIOIII requiring
class I Basic error rccovcry cltiss Ihc :rlo[ilic:\[il~!l of IIIC user. The user daln is relaimxl unlit lhe receiving
,,
class 2 Mtd!iplexing class tmnspor[ Iaycrsemls brick o posilivc ncknowlcdgnlcnt oflhe da[~. This class
1
I
 I
232

has
The X ~.dlwolk

a very uscrul mechani.$n) to rc[rtinsnlil dmtI, “I”hc p:tckc[s ill tmttsil

Chap.8
I Chap. o ln!wnetworkin~.
)’

TA8LE 8.9, Tm,,,rmti Layw P,otocol Funellon3

233

through o nc[work arc p.ivcn J maximum “lilcli me” !brotlgh timers. All dakt
P,olocolclass
requiring a rcspomc nrc [imcd. Ir [bc [imcr expires hcl(wc :)11:wknc)wlcclg.
men[ is rcccivcd, rc[mns mission or olhcr rccuvcry procedures c:tn k Pmloml Func!lon Vmla”t 01234
—
invoked. The Closs 3 pro[ocol assumes a Type H netwmk scrvi cc,
Asslgnmmlto ne!workmnnocllon xx x x x
The Class 4 pro[ocot includes IIIC flow conlrol r!lnclinns or Cl;mscs 2
1’PDU lrrmsle, xx x x x
cnd 1, Like Class 3, cxpcditcd dt![o is allowed oftd [tic ACK.$ wc .scqucnccd,
OTTPDIJ Ie,,gll, a,,d Snglne,,li,,g xx x x x
This pro[ocol allows for “fmzcn” rc[crcnccs—tlpOll n conncc (ion rclcmc,
I lbc corresponding references cannel be reused, since tbc network layer
could still be usitlg the rcfcrcnces,
Concalena[lon o“d sepmit!lon
Connection es.lablishment xx
x x
x
x
x
x
x
.,-
Co.nec! ion relusal x ,x x x x
Clsss 4 is used when a ne[work could lose or corrupt J;![?. 1! uscs
Ralease ImpUcll x
several sophis(icu(ed mccll;tnisnl.~ 10 check lor errors, $cqucncc number
ExPliciI x x x x
problems, and los~ pfickcts, [t is (I1c only Irtm.sport CIOS.Sllml rctmnsmik lmprkoIb,ni”hnm x x
da[a when n timer e,xpires and rcscquences da[x at (I1c ~ccciving cml. DT TPDU numbod”g ,,.
No!m81 x x x x
Because i~ re(ains a copy of the do[a until il is acknowledged by the receiver, Exlended o o o ,..
[ransporl layer Class 4 can recover fmm nc[wurk fail!lrc. Expedited dala lra”sfe! No,m.d x x x x
Due [o Ibe many functions provided by Cinss 4, i{ might bc assumed Expedhe o
Iha[ [be protocol is incfTicien[. Such is no! lhc case, IIS fuoclionolily is rio[ Rmwgnment x x
incflkicn! if !bc cnd-[o-cnci {inlcrs arc implcmcnled properly, Reassignment al[er failure x x
- ,.
Table 8-9 summarizes Ibc five CIISSCSof prnlnculs rtrtd (Imir rcspcclivc R@lenOonunlit acknowledgment of Co.lirma!im o .:.
functions. ‘1’hc rcodcr should consult CC1’IT’ X,224 for moie dclni[ am.1smnc TPDUS Receip( AK x x x
.,..
\,aria [ions of [his [:~ble. %synchmnizalion x x
M“lOplcxl”g and demullipl~xl”g x x x
Expticir IIOWconkol
WOh x x x ,,,.
Internelworking Wi(hout xx o
Checksum (use d) x
1 As net\\,orks prolifera(c m]d grow in ft!nc(ionali[y, cnf.1.users of[cn need 10 (non-use 01) xx x x o
access mmc lb~n one nc[wo~k [o oblain a setvi cc. For cxnmplc. n [crnlina[ Frozen mkwences x x x
lbuf normally uscs nc[wovk A m:!y need 10 ;!CCCSS:1<1<1(0IXISC al a compu(cr Retransmission on Ilmeou! x
that subscribes 10 network B. I-bus, (IIC c!d. tu.cnd sc!vicc rcq(!ircs [lm( Rcsequencl.g x
nelworks A aMJ U be in[erconncc [cd. ‘I”hls fca{urc is cnllcd ;!ttcrt! cr, t,urkittg, Inaclivily con!rol x
The EChl A and 1S0 divide [he nc[work Inycr info lbrce funcliom.1 Trealmenl 01 protwo errors xx x K x
groups. A[ the lop is [be .r(~b)!c!)t,ork ;tjdcpc, !ldc!lrc conw,rzr!tcc ,frrrlc(iof! Spli[!ing and recornbird”g x
[SNICF). which provides [he rclty nnd rou(ing .scrviccs for in[ernc[working —
This subluycr contains IIIC ill!crnc[wurk prw(ucnls (U CITCC( da(;t nnd !r;>nsfcr TPDU = Trsnsporl Protocol Data U“il O = opllonal
between nc(wurks. Tbc middle group is Ibe .rj(l]![r!,!wrk ,lrp~,:!,(c,ttr C,IIIISrr.
A,CfICOfl:nrliC,,l (SNDC F), which may be oscd [c b! ing II)C in(crcol,”ccting MI[cways. Tbc cntmccii!tg ncl\v<wks do no! pmvidc (his d;l[;l: (bcy c:twy il
tlc[wurks UP {n o ICVCI nccdcd for Ibc itllcrc<l !lncc[i[)rl, The !OWCSI sublaycr lranspnrcn{ly [brougll [heir nc[works frunl tbc cd users thrnugl) [bc
is the .slll>!!c!,w>rk occc.r,? JIIrrcIi,I)I [S NAI:), wllicb conl:\i!ls [IIC scrviccs gnlcw:ays, Tbc s!thllclwnrks lrc;!t this in fornl~tion m cnd.user data. The
rclcvanl IC cnch of lbc intcrcunnccling nclworks, for cx:tmplc, :1!) X.25 VIICW:IYdues on[ c:wc ;!bwrl IIIc i)llcro;ll nwli[,g ur <Irg<lnimli<ln wilhirl lhc
nc[work, l“\vcr.level nc[v+twks; tbcy rcmnitt Imnsp;!rcnl lo lbc PIICW;IY. 1[ should [W
, A{ [hc brw)dcs[ Icvcl, inlcrnc!working hy SNICF is :ichicvcd hy x no[cd tbol lbc gntcway performs rouling decisions. :{!?(I as such hos Ibc
gotcwoy or a rela),. Wittl Ihc gx[c\vxY cunccp[, lbc it!lcmc[wn[king conlrul ncccssury logic (u clwnsc appropria!c OUIPU[channels al)d possibly al(crna!c
,,
and rou[ingloddress data i.s pmvidcd t!ml used only by (IIC end users and [hc networks.
 234 The X.25 ~otk Chap, E chap. o x,75 235
“ )

The t’cl:Iy SNICF is more Iimi[cd (h; III a !JO(CW:IY SNJCF. III (his designed IO IIWCI (his IIccd. II is ills{) usml witllitl n nc[\vork (o cot INccI Ikc
proloco[, [IIC in[crcotmcc[ing networks arc awure of’ [bc COII(I’01 :IHd ro!l[ing ptckct cxclmngcs (u e:)cll olhcr. ‘1’hc sl:!mk!rd 11:!sbeen i!l dcvclopnlcnl I’or
;\dclrcsses and usunl]y They urc responsible for rwtin[:tining
gcncra[e thcm. almost lcn ycurs; i[ was published :1sn provisiomll recommcncla[ ion iu [978,
nn nwarcness of (he global wld~cs, scs nml the nc(works tlm[ are i!l(crcotl- anlcll,)cd in 19W, mKJ ogoin in 1984.
ncclcd to each olhcr, As N conscqucn cc, IIBCrc[uy SNIC[: ncccpls ruu[ing ‘1’IIc objccl of X.75 is 10 :dluw illtcrllct \vc]rkitlg: il pwvidcs :1 rcloy ror
requests !ha[ have been determined by a subnc [work to be N[ n dcslino [ion
a mcr [c>cuolnlunica@ through multiple net\vorks with onothcr user. The
!ndclrcss in o[hcr net!vcwks. The rcl;ly SNICF tlmr] ruulcs (I1C alit!;, unit
sl:m[l:!rd nssuoics Ihc nclworks usc X25 pmccdurcs.
according (0 lhc furrlishcd mldrcss.
14gurc 8.!2 shows how X,25 :Ind X,75 opcrnlc, A t!ser ill !Ic[work C
logs on to i PA I) amJ cslublishcs ml X.25 session with lhc ncl!vork. Network
C rccogtlizcs [1121user X wisbcs 10 cOnlnlunicnte \vilh OTE Z in nno[her
Connectlonless-mode Networks ne[w,]rk. 13y pvcviuus armngcnlcu[, nc[wovk C cslxblishcs a logical scssiotl
During [he past rew years, sevcml vendors und standards otganiza[ ions hove
puhlishcd specifications ror conncc(ionlcss-nmdc nc[work service (see
Chap(cr Two for a discussion of connec[ionlcss scrvicc), ‘flcsc pro[ocols
reside in the network layer of lhc 0S1 model, Usually, Ihc Class 4 tmnspor[
loycr protocol resides above [he connccliunlcss nc[wovk Inycr [o provide
cnd-(o. end service,
Connec[ionless-mode systems are frequently used (or connecting net-
works together through lhc usc of an In[cr{!e!!,wrk I>m[oco[ (1P) (for
examples, 1S0’s 8473 specitica[ ion and the Department O( Dcrcnsc 11>),The
nc[work Iaycr provides [he necessary routing functions bct\vccn networks

o
ond [he transpor[ layer provides entl-lo. end reliability. Since the [mnsport
Iaycr provides ~his suppor[, inlcr!lctwork occo!lnlobilily is no[ m prime x.75
concern. In fact, conncc[ ion-oricn [cd in[crne (working of(cn rcsul[s in dc.
~rtldcd pcrrurmance duc to (he additional overhead of nc[work-to .t\c!\vork
(czllcd hop-lo-hop) ~ccountability and services,
The II) rests over (IIC da[:!-link layer or IIIC nc[work Is!ycr and provides
lnclwork-(o-network comrnu”icnlio”s, indepcndcnlly of [he specific net.
u,orks% runct ions, 11>requires very Ii[[lc from C;ICI) U1 [hc nc(works, II c;,n
even bc opcr;~[cd OVCr a [tlephonc line 1111[ LISCS n d;~[t,-link pro(ocu] like
Hl)LC (LLC, LAP!.). elc,),
The nc[work Iaycr protocols ore no[ effected by 1P; i[ simply occcp[s
lhc rnetwork pro focol da[a {(r!i! (llDU) and [rwmpor[s it [o (I)c nex[ network
\ 0,,
wllhin its own proroux dc!{n r{ni( (l Pl)U). The lPOU con[xins (he ncccssary

I
rou(ing in forma[iun and :Iddrcsscs [o muvc (IIC cI!!(:! Ihrougl, :ill I!<,ps (O the PAD, Pack,, As,,mbl”/Di,amembl,
STE: Siwall!,ta Twmlnal Exchmw
final dcslin? (ion,
DCE: Data C;rct,dllmmtn. !iw EQ.iPn,mt
PAU
No,,: PAD could,1,. be userCITE

X.75

X,25 is designed fur users [o conlmunic:t[c will, CaCI1 “[I1cr II1ro[jg}l ~rle U%erx
nc[work, Ilawcvcr, users opcmlillg on two scp:ttolc nc[works often need 10
csl:kblish co[lltllu nic:l[ic]rls to sl];trc rcsmlrccs und c,xch;, ngc dn(ii, x,75 is Flqure 8.12. X.75 Iniorne!worklng

‘ ,,
,’ ‘,:.
 236 j rl)o X.25 Nc[wo,k Cl>aP. 8 chap. 8 X.75 237
)

will, wwr 7,’s [, NICNIX,25 nc(wotk, Il. Nctwwrk 11C,,II]I,ICICS [I)c ct,llncclim msumcd IU bc :In Al or G I dol:~ link it) conformance will; rccommcnda [ion
bc[wccll 1)1’E X ;IIIIJ L)’I’E Z Iby cs[i!blisl)ing m x.25 scssi<,jl will] I!scr Z, X.92 (SCC Appcmlix E).
X,75 remains lmnsparcrlt 10 each user: lhc PA[) or DTE.[o-VCl? inlclfxcc is ‘fhc S1’!3 Nses the same packe[ formal (hat is created by (he X.25
slill X.28 or X.25, rcsrmctivclv,
,. slrbnctwork. II simply nmdifrcs lhc Iogicnl channel number [o oblain an
X.75 is qui[c sif:lilor (o X.25, II 11:1sIIIC rc>tl!!ms dcscrihcd c:,llicr will] srw,-sw diologuc. The STfk IIICII rclny the hmRic bcl\vccn Ihe in[crcon-
X,25, such m swilchcd vir[u:ll circ~l its, Iogic:ll ck;mucl groups, logical ncc[ing nctwurks. The X.75 S’[Es pcrfvrm rlo encapsulation of lhc X.25
clmnncls, :,IN1 scvcml 0[” Ihc COIIIIOI puckc[s depiclcd in “1’:tl~lc8-2. “1’hc header; il is reused. Also. lhc STf3-lo-STE inlcrfacc is like llle X.25
archi!ccli[re is Jiviclcd i!l[o phy.! ical, Iit)k, \iI)d p;~ckcl Icvcl .\, will, x,75 DI’L-[0-DCE or X,.2X DTiMo.l’ All ill[crfoccs: i[ Ims IOCNIsignificnncc only.
placed :lbove X,25 in (I1c nc[wotk I:lycr. In addilio!l. X,75 asst, mcs IIIC X.75 mkls n neiwork-level utililics field for the STEJSTE session nnd does
iollowing sl:tndards arc used by (I]c p:!rlicipoling ncl\vorks: nul usc (IIC X.25 pnckc! cdl indicaliotl, clew indication, and call acccptcd
imlic;l[ion, since (hey wc VCICVW1( mdy IV (hc DTE-(O. DCE i!l[c!f:\ccs.
“1’hcsecond Icvel of X.75 uscs [hc IIDLC subscl LAP1l. (X.75 dots not
X.1 User clssscs 0( service
supper! LA P.) Tlle X.75 STE OISO uses (he LAPB fmme-reject response
X.92 Lvgic:[l Iijlks Al, GI
(FRMR) 10 nvlc (hrcc :uhlilimml silu:!(inms Imyoud cunvcnlion:tl LAPU (SCC
X. [W Adminislro(ivc :Irrongcmcnls ~w inlcrn;t(ion:d CIOSL!CIuser Clmptcr Four for LAPIJ I:RMR discussions):
groups.
1, Rcccip[ of a LAPB supervisory fromc wi[h on F bi[ SCLto 1.
An overview of [hcse rccu!nmct]dcd s[a[ldords C:III bc [otI!ld iu Appc!ldix E, 2, The rcccip( or an lIncxpcclcd, utlnunlbcrcd acklw\vlcdgnlent (UA) or
X.75 defines Ihc upem{ion Ofill(crn;\[ional p:ickc[-s\vi[cllcd scrviccs. Ii discormec[cd nlodc (DM) response.
dcscrihcs Iiow two {crnlin;\ls nsc cunncclcd lo~ic[{lly hy III in[crn:lli onal lillk
3. The rcccip[ ofatl invnlid N(S) field.
while each (crmin:!l is opcraling wiihin its <]wn p:tckc[-mode cI:I[:L!lc[work,
X.75 uscs a specific term [or [lie network itltc!f:\cc-sign: !llirlg (cm)inu The X.25 und X.75 lirlk Icvcls also support [hc n!t:ltilitlk proc’cd(!rc
exchange (STE). (MLP), “Ilis procedure provides for [he usc of mul{iplc links bc[wccn STES.
l~igurc x.13 SI,O,W SOmC kcy fc;i[urcs Uf X,75. ‘flc S“rE corll:lills two MLP cs[nblishcs lhc rules ror link transmission and link rcscqucncitlg for
major func(ions-p:lcke( -signailing procedures :IIICI p;!ckcl-[ransfcr procc. delivery (o/from IIIC multiple links. Mul[ilink operations allow the use of
durcs. The sign:lllin~ proccd!!rcs cover !he physicnl Icvcl of the ISO model, parallc[ cunlmunicn[iuns cllanncls bc!wccn STES in such a manner [hat [hey
Like X.25, [he physical level can bc implcmcn(cd wi[ll X.21 or oppropri:t[c appear as mm channel wi!h a greater cnpalcily.
V-series rccorntllclldilliorls (suck as V.24), X,75 rcql!ircs (IIC signaling 10 IJc Tbe mul[ilink opcralion :dso provides for nlorc rclitlbility (h~n can bc
perfornlcd at 64 kbiVs. (A!] op!ionol m{c is 48 khi(/s. ) TIIC pkysicnl link is ockicvcd on q sing]c clmnn cl. M1. P sends [he da(a across a single link
lhruugh LAPB. Ir [he: link is L!ulty or producing cxccssivc rclrons missions.

mA’O’G’L’nk
MLP can place [IIc [ralfic 011(0 nrwlhcr single link in i(s MLP group. 1( cnn
Jlso transmit mul(iplc copies or a tfala uni[ across more [ban onc link. The
receiving MLI’ cnli[y discords Ouplicn(c ‘copies.
Mul[ilitlk procedures cxis[ XI the upper port oflhe da[a-link level (see
Figure 8-14). Tl)c X.25 nclwork Iaycr pcrccivcs i[ is cotltlcclcO 10 a sin~le
~ link, old the LAP]) single Iitiks upcmlc as ir lhcy wc COIINCCICJ dircclly 111
(kc nc(work Iaycr, MLP is rcspunsibic for flow control bc~wccn l~!yers 2 ond
A): l.i”k Ih?(wrrw,Tw. ,Wjacen,Galow.y l)a(a SW’(CII(OQ
F.xrl>.nqm 3, as \vcll m rcscq!lcnciog lhc data units ror delivery [o IIIC ncl\vork Ivycr.
IUSE,l h m I,,!,w,,a,i.,,d co,Nwc,iI,,, Tkc nc[\vork I:)ycr [l)cn (Ipcr:llcs \vilh a I]igl)cr Imndwidtlt in Ihc d;tl~!-link
G!: Li(,k Oe!We,n a S“”,,, Ga!cwaYuSE and, 0,,,; ,,,, (.(, G,,,’.”, ”
DSE in 8,, ln!crnat,onalConnection k,ycr,
STE X: STE .1 Intmna,io<,al Exch,ny The X.75 lIDLC-[wicntcd command nnd rcspvtlses nrc depic[ccl in
STE Y! SIE .1 Other 1.,,,,,,, !.”,1 E,chmgc Tfiblc ~-1(1. The cmnnl:\!)[ls :I!MI responses :Irc idcnlic:!l lo I. APIJ, (kc
Figure 8.13, X,75 Signnlling Tcrm,in81,!r,lwlaces, and Links daiu.link Icvcl suppnr~ing X.25.
,. .
I , ,,, ,’,~;., , .,,,.,,’. ,’ .,,.. ,.,
,,,.,
 238 } .25 Network Ct,,p. 0
chap, 8 Cmnm.”lca(, ‘@lweon the Layars 239

x.25

Y No,wo,k L,,,, nctww+.. Ihc figure is divided into six parls 10 facilitntc uudcrs[?n ding [he

m
process. z .. .
‘m lmmporl Inycr scods n conncc[ion rcqucsl 10 the nclwork Ioyer, as
sho\vn in Figure 8-[5( 1). The nclwork Ioyer responds by scmling a cunncc-
M“l,; ,;nk P,.a,@J,,
tion rcqucs! (o (I1c d:lm-liok loycr. wllich, itl turn, scmts on ocliwtfc rcqucs(
Dal, Lhk Layer 10 Ilw physical Iaycr. These prinli(ives are requesting* link be established to
S?ctql?
provide :{ pn(h for z user dialogue. As Ibis reques[ passes through the
L’nk —123 ,,. N !Iclwork uml dot:l-t ink luycrs, II!C I:!ycr st:!lcs chnngc fwnl disconncc[ to
P,omd”,,,
pc!ding. AL Ihc pllysicA Inycr. X.2 I logic turns the C clmnncl on, (Rcc;i[t
—— .’ from cnrlicr discussions (Imt ~he X.21 C clmnncl is similar [o Ihc North
Amcricnu slnndw’d IN-232-C pin 4 :!uI (I1c CC1’f-r s{mtcl!trd V,24 circuil

‘:’FWP”P‘;a’”er
105.)
The sigtml is lramsrnillml (hrougll (Iw network ([he nc[iuns wilhin Ihc
nclwork arc, uo! Jcscrib$d in (his sce!mrio). The signal arrives at receiving
Cmnm.nk.11.n%
Cha”ml si[c U, oml the physicnl Iaycr :wliv:ltcs (I1c X.21 I circuit. (rhe X.21 1 circui(
Figure .s.14, x.75 Mullillnk Procedures is sinlilar [o IIIC RS-232-C pin 5 nnd (I1c V.24 circui( 106. ) The physical lnycr
crea[es a physical ficlivale indicsl ion; Ihc dala-link layer immediately [urns
TABLE 8-10. X,75 Commands and Responses
this [o i{ physic!d nclivn[c rcspmrse. Si(e U X.21 Ihcn tscliva[es its C pin, and
Con!rol Field trtmsmits the signal lo Ihc nct\vork. Tlle signol is received al silt A, amJ (he
physical Ievcl 1 pin is [urned on wi(h a physical m(ivatc cmrfirnmlion
Formal Command Respows 12345678
indication.
Information (Inforrna[ion) O N(S) P N(R) II iS possihlc [11:1((I1c physical link cxn be esfoblishcd wi!hou! Ihc
transfer sigrmls rrom the upper Itiyers. For cxanlplc, s link sInrI -up proccdurc a! (hc
bcgif!ning of (Iw bwsincss day might inilia(c [he physic~l Icvcl wi[hout regard
SupOmiswy Rfl(receiveready) RR[recelverrmdy) 1,000PIF N(R)
10 higher level rcqlmsts.
RNR (receive no! RNR (W@VO not 101o P[F N(R)
ready) ready)
The ell’cc[ of (I1c sign:ds iu Figure 8- 12(}1)c[in bc seen ill f:igurc 8- 15((J).
REJ (teiecl) REJ (reject) 1.00 IPIF N(RI
The [nc(work loycr is still not involved in any transpor[ or psckefs al (hi.$
[illlc. The rcmlcr will scc WIIC!I guing (hrough lIICSC figures (hit! first (he
Unnumbered SABM (set physical level is oc[ivaf cd, [IICII [IIC dz(a-link level. nexl Ihc network Ievcl,
asynchronous
mid finally (IIC {rfimsport Icvcl. Figure X-l S(b) shows (Iw dato.l ink l!tyer
balanced modo) 1111 P!oo
moving fmm n pcndillg SI:IIC 10 I! dt![o stntc, The LAPU logic at (Iw dz[n.link
DISC (disconnect) 11 OOPO1O
Icvcl stwls !he process by scllding n SC! AsyIIchmIIoII.~ l)dldIIccd hiodu
FRMR (Irame
reiec!) I11OFOO1 (SALIM) commhnd (o Ihc nct\vork, This is acccp[ed by (he physical layer and
UA (unnumbered [ransporlcd [icross [hc physical layer T clmmrcl. (The X.21 T channel is
Bcknowlcdgmsn!) 1,1 OOF11O similar [o [hc RS-232-C pizl 2 and lhc V.24 cit’cui( IOJ). ‘llc doln is
DM (disconnocled transported across the network 10 rccciving si[e II: il is passed Ihrough Ihe
modo) 1111 FOOO physicol I:lycr ncrtms lhc R circui[. (The R circuil for X,21 is sirnilor 10
RS.232-C pin 3 or V,24 circui( 104. ) The SALIM cumnmnd is pmscLI 10 silt
~’s ll;([:\-liuk Ioycr, wl)icll io turn, ockoowlccfgcs Ilic conmond will! [III
Communications Belween the Layers
uIIoumbcrcd ncktlowlcdgnlcn\ (UAI. ‘[”his is passed bt!ck down !hrough lhc
This sec[ion provides an cx:tmplc of (he rcl;!liomships and cotll!llttnic:t[ ic]ns ICIYCI’SNcross [[w oc(w<wk, where it is rcccivcd by silt A’S I, AI’LI cln[a-link
bc[wccn )hc phy5ic;d, d:ilil.li!jk, nclwork. Nnd lmtlsport I:iycrs. Figure 8- [5
Ixycr, wltich Ihco ini!inlcs o Iink-conncctiun conrirnmtioo signal.
“1’hedn(a litlk s(xrl-t!p IIUIY bc P:IN of au operational procedure bc{wccn
is used [0 provide ~his in(cgrnlcd view [)r Ihc d;t[a c[llltfll tit!ic:tt ions
Ihc user si[c nml !hc nu!\vo\k mldc. The litlk is csl;!h[ishcd ~!(’[cr(IIC physic:tl
;/.. ,,:
:.,

— :ONNE
— 3EQUEST

0NNEC7
DISCONNECI
ENDING
0

—
I R
K

ONNE !EOUEST

,.K D
?
>NNECT A )lSCONNECT
!NDING L

N
K ,...
=
P ACTIVA REQUEST P ACTIVATE.CONFIRM PACTIVATE-R ESPONSE _ PACTIVATE-!ND1CATIO i...
P ; .-
H
INACTIVE
T!VE :
c m m PENDING
NDING !
TO ACTIVE
c
A
L
“II D

(a)

Flg.re 8-15. C.amrn..icalims Between Layer.

,.’.
..”

‘-GC
.

~,
.....
,.

,T:%~~\ m~,:,,

?.DATA. REOUEST
P
P u
Y
: BITS ACROSS 811S ACROSS : ACTIVE
81TS ACROSS BITS ACROSS R CHANNEL
ACTIVE ; R CHANNEL TCHANNEL c
T CHANNEL
c A
A L
L I

4
t

(b)

Figure 8-15 Continued

 }>Y
;. .,;
,,.-,;

!,;:

N-CONNECTZONFIRM N.COMNECT.RESPONSE _ N-CONNE CT4ND1CATION

‘“’”GE m’=’’” [
DATA. REOUEST L-DATA-INDICATION T 10
D

;.
A !,.
DATA
L ,,, .
N
K

P-DATA. REQUEST P.DATA. INDICATION P.DATA. REQUEST P.CIATA.INDICATION

P P
, “
I I I t :
; BITS ACROSS BITS ACROSS BITS ACROSS B(TS ACROSS s
ACTIVE R CHANNEL ACTIVE
T CHANNEL R CHANNEL T CHANNEL
: : “
.4 A
L L
! !
I

(.)

Figure 8-15 Continued

..’

,;F/ F--3~E, N.DATA. REOIJEST

.ATAF~
m~o. P-DATA-INDICATION P-DATA-REQUEST P.OATA.lNDICATbON
L
I I L
: 817S ACROSS ! I
ACTIVE 81TS ACROSS BITS ACROSS
r CHANNEL R CHANNEL BITS ACROs!j
: T CHANNEL
A
L
I
4

(d)

Figure 8-15 Co.u”U&

—
 ,,

,;.
.,,
,:.,
..,

II:
D
A !
!
L-DATA. REOUEST
1 D“ATA!
1.1 I
m“’”
m‘ m’ ‘c””““
I I
1 FRAME REJECT
OATA ~ N(S1-2N(B 1-2 N(R1 .2
1 1

I 1

“-A’T’VEN I
I
T

(e)

Fig.,, S-15 continued

1
1

N.oATA-RES?ONSE — N.O&TA.$ND(CAT\O

DATA DATA

m
II
I
I
i
].
I

L-DATA-INDICATION L. DATA. REOUEST L.OATA-indication

DATA

m H“AT’
P.0A7A.3EouEs7 p.CATA.INDICATION P.OATA. REOUEST P.DATA.INDICATION

AcTIVE ACT, VE

~ “j= “’+$’” _

,1)

Frg.re 8.15 Co.rlnued

 246 ),,25 rwvmrk U),”, Chap. 8 Communlca } Be!ween llw Layers 247

level is opcr:l(iunol, ‘Fllcreu[lcr, :1 P:IIII is >Iv;!il:lblc r{]~ IIIC lr;lnslnissiur! d I:!ycrs. l~ur i!lsl:mcc, ii’;] ptoblclt, occurs :]( Ihc dulo.link l;~ycr, it n“rIw,IIy
packets and user CIXIO.TIIC SAIIM is m)( required f’or cnch pnckc[ lrnnsnlis- does mTl neccssil:lte rc[rnnsmi[[ing any units at Ihe Icvcls above, Ralher, (I1c
sion; the link IIo!’ma[ly stays :tctivc [u occcp[ (I1c plckc[s :1s [hey sw scn( IV do(:t.li!]k ktycr pvuvidcs (IIC NA K :Iod :1 rcfr:lnsmi[fnl occurs n[ this Iaycr
Ibc d~!lwlink Izycr. \vi[huu[ dis(urhi!ig Ihc pwkct scqucnci!)g al Ihc tlc(wurk loycr, ‘I’his process
Now !hal ihe dat:l-liuk Izycrs have bce!l ac~iv:l[ecl \>cIwccrl Ihc two will become evidcn! in Figure 8- 15(c).
si[cs, !hc lirlk-con!lcc [ion con firnm[ion SC!)( to Ihc p:!ckc! I:!yct- in IIIC Continuing our discussion in Figure 8- 15(d), Ibc pnckel is passed (N[
prcviuus illus(m! ion cnuhlcs Ihc pockc( klycr 10 ioifi:!te ~iCOII VC<IUCMP:l~kcl si[c A) IQ Ibc dul:i.lil)k I:iycr’s 1.APII. Notice tlwl si(c A’s l,AI’H scquctlcc
from [he X.25 logic II:igurc 8-15(c)1. Tbc call rcq{ws[ is, scn( wi[b a Iugicol m!mbcrs ;tvc cwmlimtlcd with silt 11’s LAPU, IThc rcwlcr should cxnminc
clmn!~cl number (LCN) of75 in [hc packc[ Iwmlcr. ‘l”hc packet is tramnli( (cd Vigurc R-l\(c) [0 scc Ihc wkilionsbips of the scoding nnd rccciving sequence
(o lIIc LAI’U du[:!-link klycr where lhc p:tckcf is pkwe<l ;n!<r (Iw I Iickl or (IIC mmthcrs USlhcy occur in I;igmc 8- If(d). I Tlw rromc is lr;{nswillcd 10 silt U:
LAP13 rrwmc, The LAP13 sending and receiving scqucncc !numbcrs ;irc LA1’U cxamimx it ror errors und tmnsmils [IIc Ma p:wkct lo the nct\vurk
established in this illwlro lion: IIIC scntling! scq!ocncc nurnhcr is SC[ to 0 [o Inycr, Likewise, the network lnyer nppends lhe proper scqucncc numbers
indic;llc lhc first rrwnc scn~ ;wruss !hc li!!k. ‘1’hc rr!tmc is Iransporlcd llim\Igh. and tmnspurls [hc d:\I:I w! or tbc wtwork Ioycr tI[ [].
site A’s Iuycrs, and through [he network [o rccciving si[c U. It is II)c!l p;mscd ‘!’ht SCqllC!lCC llU!))bC1’S :!{ IIIC ,Iclw”rk Ic”cI uve rClrJV:,r)( ~0 (IIC n~{$vo~k

to (he d:!ta.l ink Iaycr, which performs an error check. lIIC error check Icvel only, oud [he seqt!cnce nunlbers at [he da[a-link Icvel per[ain only [o
indicalcs Ihc {romnlisxion is correct. lhc dailo.link Icvcl. This CO!lCCPI is rund:,mcttld IU umlcrslnmling (bc
The p:)ckc( is (bcII passed I!P (o (I)c nc(work Ioycr. ‘where ii is rcccivcd rcklfiums flip or [hc nciwurk loycr {O (Iw [kl(wlink hycr, Silwc mtll{ipic x,25
as an incoming c~ll packet, wilb ~ logical channel number of 1[)6. ‘Ibc scssio!ls can IX nlultiplexcd onto onc pllysic;ll link, il is qui[c possible (IVJ[
network I:lycr sends :i nc[wurk conncc[ion itt(l;cttlicm ,signJl IIJ Ihc !mospur[ a II:II;I Iiilk can c;trry 11x logical channels (dilfcrcnl users) in lhc order shown
]:lycr and rcspon[ls wilh N cd :ICCCPICd p:ickcl (is$ilcd r,w X.2.5). ‘Ws in ‘T;lblc 8-11,
packel is PawcLI to the da[a.link I;!ycr. wbicll plnccs it i!lsidc ttn inruml:!lio[l Table 8.1$, Example of Order o{ Logical Chan. ek
htmc. The da~~-link layer SC(S the receive scql!cuce field 10 I 10 :ick!!ow[.
edge (he frwmc scn~ to i[ I’rum silt A. I“hc rr:lmc is Imnsporlcd :!cruss (he Logical X,25 Packel LAPBFrame
Chmnel Send Sequence Send sequence
physicol Izyers in the ne[work. 1[ is received N si(c A“s d:)la-link I:lyer,
wllicb pcrrurnls :In error check. The error check illdicates IIIC trxtls!llissiw! LC 16 P(S)=3 N(S)=3
occurred \vi[houl problems, The [packet is [her IMssed [O (I!c trc[work layer, LC 40 P(S)=6 N(SI=4
which rcccives i( as a call connccl packc{ in (I]c X,25 logic LC 28 P(S)=4 N(sI=5
Lc[ us mmsr :11{his noinl and rcvich smnc ;I%PCCISo[our scctmrio. “H]c LC 40 P(s) = 7 N(SJ=6
scqucncc Or evenls occurring in Figorc 8.15 conrt,rms prcciscly [0 lhc LC 40 P(s) =o N(S)=7
I principles or conncciion.oriented nc[works Jiscusscd iu scvcml scc(iuns or
[his book For example, Figure 2-4 and Figures 3.1, 3-3, [I!ld 3-4 clepicl [Iic
The LAPU dola link is simply “dropping” each pnckc( rronl [he logical
sequence of cven[s we arc explaining in lhis section. Also. (laptcrs Four
session a.wigncd 10 it inlo lhc 1 field nod asking lhc receiving node for an
and Eighl describe the seqwmccs lha[ occur N the LAI’B fln[l X.25 lcvels.
error check and nn acknowlcdgtllcnt. ()!lcc mvrc \vc ilcm!e the lhenle that
Tbc reader may wish [o review Ihcse scclions or [bc book ir cunccpls
lhc lnsk or !IIc Icvcl 2 d;\l!\-liuk loycr is lo provide fin cr~or-rrcc Imnsmission
illus(ralcd in {his summary seem unrmnilinr.
0( lhc IC!,CI 3 packcls lb[uu~il lhC nclwork.
All I:!ycrs arc now in o d:![n. or :Ic{ivc. s[~Ilc. [:i~,lcc & 15(d) SIN1!VS!h:ll
Rcc:)ll !hnl IItc vccciving scqucncx number rur hull! IIUJpockc[ :!nd LI;IIO
(:! IDS() ;! p:!ckc[ will, mcr dx[;! is tc!nsmill cd. ACIIIOIIY. Il,is lnigh[ 1101hc
user cI; IIo; il cuukl bc cun!rol d:i!a f!orn IIIC (WIISIIUI{ l: Iyct’. lIOWCVC I’, ror
Icvcl is sc[ wilh n nun,bcr gtca[er [batl (he 8C[UX[ [mns!nissiv!l previously
purpu~c.~ orbrcvi [y. wc a~st)~))c Ihc p;lckcf cu[l[:!irls IISCVd:t!:!. rcccivcd. “This Iccbniquc. iu cII’cc[, stiys “1 rcccivcd and z\cccpt Cvcryibi)lg
No[icc {he ptlckct trnnsmi[lcd rrm Ihc llc[\wlrk I!tycr:t[ silt A cu!lli!im! up In :Ind including{), ‘1’bc !!CXIpnckcl or rr:!!tlc [[ml I rccc. ivc ltotlb yuu !I!”SI
scquencc !lunlhcrs. I’IIcsc :IIC [abclcd P(S) an<l P(R) [o distinguislt Il)cm rrom Ihflvc (IIC number ! in Ibc scmlil!g scqocnce number,”
[hc d:kta-link scqucncc numbers, which OICIubclcd N(S) :Ind N(K). As s[a[cd l:igl!rc 8- IS(C] sho\vs [hc cffcc[ of an error occurring a[ the da fo.link
several times in ~his cbnplcr, bo[ll layers h~vc lhc :ll~ili(y to pctrortn Icvcl, TIIc dato pockcl is rr{lnl silt A 10 (IIC di{(a-liuk Iaycr X[ sile B. Site B
sequencing which is ncccssary to provide f’or account ;thilify :Imong peer dc(crmiwx an ctror bns uccurrm-1, 1(! (his case, il issues a Reject (R13J)
i ,,
 248 ). X:25 NWm#k Ch@. 8 Chap, O Concl(t$l; 249
“)

commancl [discussed irl Clmplcr Four) wi[h scqucllcc nllnlllcv 2. ‘1’llc rcjccl ● oplions u!] 56 ur 64 kbii/s (Juilks
fmmc is IXISSCIJ buck to silt A, Si(c A’s d;!l:k litlk still IIIIS lhc p:lckcl ● Link COII(IUI is LAIIIJ
ouls[andiug,
o RS-232 -C, V.24/V,28 counccliuns
1!1 I:igurc X-15(17, si[c A’s dal~i.l ink Iuycr inili:, (cx n rclmnsmissi<lu ol’
● User-dclir!oblc fxwkcl sizes,
[he erroneous Cramc. The rramc is [ronsmi(!cd [o si(c 1), cllcckcd fur errors,
and !hc pockc[ is p;lsscd t!p [o tbc ocxl Icvcl. Site 11:s X,25 network I:!ycr
Almos( every cumtry in Europe :1!1<1 lhc For lhsl has n o:![ional public
appends lIIC proper sequence nl)mbcrs in (I]C p;wkc( I}c:idcr, IMsscs II}is 10
pocket nc(wurk, For cx:tmplc, I:r;!lwc’s TRANSPAC w:!s Ihc fits[ I<urupc:ln
silt B’s dulfl- link ktycr, wl]icb SIPPCWJSils UW!I scqucncc numbc!’s i!t(o (IIC
nclwork 10 usc X,25, I( I1OW Ims 22 swi(clli!,g ccn[crs, n,ld ~vcr 13,(w
rramc, and passes it back 10 (IIC nelwork. Site A uscs (I1c sequence uu!ubcrs
dinl-up nnd dirccl subscribers. TRAN. SPAC Imns!ni[s over 40 million bi(s
to acknuwlcdgc [hc rmnlc 8( Ihc d~![a.l ink Ioycr :IIICI (IIC packc[ :1( tbc
doily ;m(l suppor[s UVCI Illo,(lllo” d:tily cnlls into Ihc oclwurk, The Uni(cd
network Iaycr,
S(;i[cs Ims !ll:bny priwttc N!MJ public X,25 ncl!vorks, Sevcr:d illus[ro[ive
The reader should no(ice that !hc do(n-tink crrur rcnlained lrnmsparcn(
o(l’crings :Irc cxplo ined iu Clmplcr Ten.
(u tl)c X.28 [nc[wu[k Icvcl. OJrly whcr] the CVC!l[S in Figure 8-IS(C) were
l!llcrustiotm! !~c!worki!lg usi!lp X,75 1):?sincrc;mcd drnnmlicuily in !hc
rcsolv ccl did (1}c X,25 nclwuik I:iycr rcccivc II!C d:il:), ~
1;1s[Scvcr:!l yc:lr.s. I:(w C,x:lmplc, I:igurc 8-16 sbuws (IIC Uni(cd Kit@um
Alihough nul Jcpictcd in lhis illuslra[ ion, p!ublcms nmy vcc!jr :!( lhc
in[crn:)[iu!lnl packc[. swilcbcd scrvicc. ‘lhc l.umlun in(crnatiun:ll d:IIa ccmrc “
packet level, which should remain transparent [o the d:tl:t-link Icvcl. Fur
uscs X,75 [o link [o scvcml of {be X.25 nc[works,
ins[ancc, Ict us ossumc [hat a packc[ sequence numhcr is in crwr. This
packet is passed [hrougll [be bo[[onl IWO Ioycrs LII Ihc lronsmillirlg silt ;iud
Datalm
up through [he layers al [hc receiving si[e, “lhc packci Icvcl ;Il sile B <Ic[cch
I a sequencing error and Ironsmiis a ICSC[ cunlru p:!ckc[. “1’his would Ibe
\

placed in Ihc inrurmalioll Iicld of a fra!uc :![ lhc dolt[.liuk I:tycr. I.APIJ would
(rcat the reset packet as an ordinnry inrormalin!l psckc[ :11site Il. Likewise,
LAPB al site A would P:MS [his packc( bmck Up [u Ihc silt A p:ickc[ level. 1[
would then be USC(I as :! rcsc[ command, in wbiclc (bc (WU p:~ckc( I:[ycrs
bc[wccn sites A and B W<uulcliniliatc rccovcry opcmlions, ‘[’IIC d:]t:!.link :ImJ
physico l~)ycrs would nut be cunccrned willl (his prol~lc[n

Conclusion

To whul cx[cn[ orc lhc X.25 :IMI X,25 -rclNlctl S1:UNI:II[lS lwin~ mscd lml>!y?
.
I!,la,,d

Aq
/
“rbe answer is, extensively. As an illustration, Iistcd hcluw ;Irc Ihc c~p:lbil. ‘E flglindf E!nPAC TRAN5PAC
ilies d:l Iypical vendor’s systcm. Ibis ex:inlplc is situilor 10 mos[ Orlbc d;:ta
/s,;,ir!/
networks in existence in Nur[h America, ~uropc, ;IIICI [IIC Far Ilasl.
Pss
lBEnPAc

● 18 or (IIC X.3 CC ITT PAD pmamc[ers

. l“,,,..,,. ”,1
● ll:tll Ncs pcrmancn{ virtu:ll circuits (l)VCs) ;lt)d ,swi{chcd Virllt:!l cir. m mow”;
Cui[s (S VC5) 1 Figure 8.!6, Ink?rnellmml Networking
● Ilov-conlrol uplions: XON/XOFF (DC1/l)C3) or Clc~r (u ScIId/
Rcqucsl 10 Send (cl’s/l<l’s)
● Supports cluscd user groups Does a Sftindard Assure Compaf/L.//i(y 7 ..
● Compa!iblc with X.3, X28, X.29, ;itxl X.25 Ever fbuugb vcmlurs+ {clcpbvw cunlpanics, Ond Poslal and “lclcgmph
● Supports :!synchronmts lcrnli!l:lls :Incl scvcml !ilcjllhctx or II!c lllM hfiois(rics (lTrs) may hc using [bc mmc rccotunmmlcd slamk!rd (such as x,25
binory synchronous [13SC) filmily or LAPLI) to design lllcir syslcn)s, lhc sys(cn)s mc tm[ llcccsswily cun, p;l(ib[c

,.,
, ~,
250 & 25 Nelwo!k Chap. 5 Chop, 8 Cmcl.slOn ~ 251

wilh one ;mo(hcr, “ro illtls(fi!le, v;t!ious coun[rics d vcmlors pmvidc dillclcn[ “v!!:! C(l,!l,%,ll!,ic:,lic,ttNc[wc,!ks Scrviccs :wd I:l,cililics. ” Vulwnc VIII, Fmcictc
responses [o (be LAPII ~1’omc [?rjrct co!))i]l~!l[l [FRMR). Cc!(>in t!clworks Vll I.2, CC/?TRc{/ /J,)ot, CCl'l-~I,lcnary Assembly, Oc[obcr&l9, 1984 (N!alaga-
illi[i:i(c u [Iisconncct rcspcmsc (OISC) upon rccci.ing :t lwmr RcjccI (I: I{MI{) ‘Torrcmulinos).
command. ‘I”IIcsc networks issue (I)c disconncc[ b<~<w<,rcsc[ling [tic litlk wilb J I{abn, Jon:!!lmn J., ;Iml S[ollc. Iltlvid hi. “P:wkcl R:!diu Nc{work [Lutlling Algu.
link-sc[(ing command such as S6/ A.!yIIclIroIIoII.r u,I/oIIcm/ Mod? [SAll M). ‘lhc rithms: AStnrvcy.’’ ll~E[~C,,,rr,,#rt!,ic,,tic,,#,v,Novenlbcr IY84. pp,41 -17.
problcrll Iics in [hc (ac[ (IMII (I1c disconnect cntlscs :! rcsl:!rt :1( !hc fmckc[ X.25 [Iindcn. Robert. lrnvcrly, J:)ck. and Sbellzcr, Alnn. “l”bc DARPA ln[crnc(: In[cr.
Icvcl, The reader may rccull Iha( (IIC rcs[:wl proccdurc 0s csloblisbcd by (hc c<,nwwting ilclcr<lgcll<llls C,llIIplllcr Nclworks will! GNICWIYS,’” ([XL <’ww,t,,!li.
X.25 specification reinitializes anti clears all vir(unl COIIS.
c,,lir,m, Scptcmbcr 19H.1.pp. 3848.
Some vendors usc {he obvvc lcchniqtic: UIIICVS CIO !IOI issue (I1c DISC Wiwcr, U. W. “Strcxmlining C<~t?,tnt]nic;!li<,!ls with Nelwurk Pwkct Switching, ”
Do I,! C,)!,!!r!!,!,;,,t!i,]!,.$, h{urch 1985, pp. 3[19-?22,
command. Conscqucn(ly, 4 vcn[lor wbicb ulili7.cs (he’ <Iiscon!wct bcr’ore
setling (he SAIJM
will neccssurily hsvc trouble inlc!f’ocit]g i[s syslcnl with a
vendor that does not use the sxnle approach.
There is no easy :!nswcr [o [he pwblcm ur clill’crcn[ in[crprctations of
rccmnmcildcd s[andards. onc sol[t [ion is [0 pmvidc III] cx(rcnlcly dcl:, ilcd
standards document. However, such a dc(ailcd s[:)ndnjci WUUIIJ bc ag[miziltg
10 develop [brough a slundards commi!(ec. Wllot is (more, it would ccrtoiniy
hinder flexibility a{ [he design level. Ano(bcr cboicc is 10 provide n!ore
opportunities ror [he design teams rrom PTTs, tclcphotlc comp:t”ics, aIId
vem Jors [o work wilh cer[ilic;i( ion bodies to ensure [lint in[crprclotiun ul[bc
s[undards is in adhcrcncc will] [I)c irl[c[l[ 0( [hc spccilic:l lion i(sclf.
The third oplion is 10 cerliry (be vel]dm’ pruducls or [hc PI-r
ne(works m mcc(iog (IIC s[and:l rd. This opliou is being exetciscd in several
coun(rics Iod:Iy. In the US, {he Nntimal Ilurc;!!l or SInml:Irds puhlishcs
FIPS PUB II.)(UI% 1041, which provides guidelines to dc(crminc conlom.
ante (o X.25. This docurncnt provides the details 10 perform ICSIS10 simul:ile
an X.25 L)CE or WI X.25 D’I’13al [bc pbysicd, d:~lwlink. :IIICIpockcl Icvcls.
hi:tny vendors !iow have [heir own ccrti~ca[ion progmms.

NOTES

lSec “X.25: Evaltlnting and Sclcc[ing OITcrings and Optioms,” i,lJornl(,!i,m

E!!g;nerr!,!R, Jamrary 1985. Copyright 1985, [nrorm:ltic,!) Ilngiwcring, inc. All riglNs
reserved. 1

21bi,i.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Drcss[cr, Kohcrl l).. and [)1:177.0, I.ouis J. ‘,\Vl,crI Is lbc Priva:c hckc( Nc( m
Urganiz.:bliun”sUcs( S.luliur L!” I),, !,r Co,l,,lt(,,!i<,)li8,,,.r, Scplcmbcr 1984, pp.
215-22 [1.
Clink, George E., a])d WuIIg, Micllact E. ‘Vcri[yir,g C’,~,Ifornmncc 10 lhc X,25
S[andatd,’’ U,,to C<,!,l!,!!f!tirnrf,,!!.?,April 198S, PP. [53-16!,’
“DOW Conlmunicaliotl Networks Inlcrracc s,” Volt!n)c VIII, Fasciclc Vlll. S, (’C17T
Rrd Book, CCI’rTPlcnary Asscmbly,OclobcrG 19, 19fi4(hlalz, p:!~[’,,zrctrluli
r,usl.

.,
>.;
 Chap, 9 Adva.la& “} !igild Syslwns 253
...
CHAPTER NINE (lligh ond low air pressure) ;Irc lnlllsrorlllcd in(o m1 clcc(ricul sigmd wi(h
sinlilar vmvcrornl cbtlmctcrislics. ‘1’kc [clcpllmm ac[s :1s n lrnnsducer to
I clmmge a signal from rme ronn or energy (sound) 10 another (clec(rical), As
[he signal is lrxnsmitted down [he communications channel. it nll!st be
Digital Networks mnplif!ed pcriodic:dly [0 pmvcn( cxcessivc signal decay.
Scvcrnl problems t!risc rcgnrding the analog signal oml how i[ is
lratlsnli[lcd across lhc cbimnct. First, (he signnl is relnyed through anlplifiers
I nnd olkcr [ransduccrs. TIIc rcloying funcl ion is designed 10 bc as Iincor os
I possible. Linear nlcmls (I1c wavcrorm representing [kc sigml maintains ils
chamcleris{ics frunl one end of the chamtcl 10 (he o[hcr. A deviation from
[his Iirrcxri[y crculcs n distortion or tbc wavcr~rm. All nnolog si.gnds cxbibi(
I some form of nonlincm’ity. Unfortun:I[cly, [kc mlcrvcning compoucols, such
m amplifiers, increase the nonlinearity of the signal.
Tbc second problcnl rclalcs 10 nuisc on (IIC chant! cl. As cxpklincd in
Introduction
AppcmJix A, nn clcclric:d sign:d is cumpuscd d’ the mmr:mdom movement
Since the early [960s, telephone companies, spccinlized carriers, and of electrons. Thermal noise is crentcd on a wire or cable chmncl by (he
ne[work vendors have incremingly inlplemcn(ed sys[ems witll digilid tech- random wwialions of !he electrons in (he channel or transducer. You have
nology. (The rcmler muy recall II!C COIICCPIS of atmlog and digital trwzsnlis- herml hoise on a Iclcphonc Iinc-il sounds Iikc hiss. Noise is filso introduced
sion in Chapter one. ) ‘f’odny, many [transmission components use digi[al in radio [transmissions by clectricnl disturbances in the car[h’s a(nlosphcre
[cchnology, including such diverse devices as PBXS, nllll~iplcxers, nnd and radiation rrom lhc SUI1,nnll .Wrrs.
switches. Third, ir n signnl is s(orcd on n rccordi[lg medium, such 45 a lope or
Why is digital tech! wlogy becoming so pcrv:isi\w in the induslry? Fit-sl, disk, the mcrlium itself’ is n source or noise, For extmlplc, Ihc roughness of
many digitd devices are less expensive than Iheir rmalog colm[e!-parls. For [be surFace of a recording disk or lnpe and ils granularity (due (o [he size of
exanlnlc. di~ital mul(iplcxers arc Icss cxpen$ive lllan an~dog lll~dliplcxcrs. tbc magnetic domains on the nlcditlm) can also crentc noise.
Moreover, ~gitd systems are built arouml large sc:dc inle~rntion circui(ry Fourth, all signals arc wcnkelled (or a~(enua(ed) during trrmsmission
(LSI), which is qui[e rugged nnd reliable. Second, it is possible [o usc digi[al across the medium. This signal decay cnn make (he lransnlission so weak
technology [or tmosmission or’ all images-digital networks tnrnsrni( not [lml it is uninlclligiblc nt the rcccivcr. A high-quality \virc c:thlc with a ktrgc
only voice, b!tt dam. television vidcO imw.cs, and facsil~ile W1 (be s~lllc diameler cerlninly nlitigo(cs decay, bul it cannel bc elinlinolcd.
ch~nnel. Tllird, digit:ll lcchniqucs overcome many of [be transulissimr rmrl Digital systems ovcrcmnc lhcsc problems by rcprcscn[ing [he anolog
s(oragc limi[ aliens of analog Icchnology, Wc addtcss Ibis poin( in more wavcl’m’m wilk digital and binary i!nogcs, In essence, the analog wavclm’m
de[ai iin [be next scclion. sigmd is convcrtcd to a scl-ics or digital nunlbcrs Nnd Ironsmi([cd on Ihc
This chap~er provides a lu(orinl on digital networks and nlso gives [he communications channel as binary data. Tbe digital numbers represent
reader R more rlctailcd view of Ihe ne\v digilnl Icchrmlogy. such :1s in!cgmtccl samples Or (IIC wnvcfornl.
digi[ul sys[ems, rligilal swi[ching, and packcl voice (ransnlission. The digilal signals :!rc suhjccl 10 IIIC swnc kinds or impcrrcc{ions :IuII
prublerns as tbc analog sign: d+lecay and noise. However, Ike digiud signnl
is di.~crefc; fhe binary samples of the analog wavefornl are represented by
discrete Icvcls of vol[:qics, ill contrast (o (Iw nomliscrctc Icvcls or :\n mmlog
Advantages of Digital Systems
sig!ud. As lhc sigm!t Imvcrscs lhc clmnncl, il is only ncccssory lo mmplc [hc
Tlle process of digi(im[ion was developed al Ucll Lnbomtorics in (I1c 1960s, 06 SPUCY orpresc:wc u[a digital bin:lry pulse, no[ its dc,grce, M in lhc nmdog
with lhe sinl or overcoming some of [he Iimi[nlions of omllog Imnsmission sign:ll. The nlcrc :dMcI1cc or prcsencc or o sigmd fmlsc can tzc nlorc cnsily
and image recording. As cliscusscd in Chi!plcr Onc, :111 otmlog signal recognized then the mngnitudc or dcgrcc d m 4IM1OC sign;ll TIIc digilal
experiences a conli!luous vari~nce of ampliludc over lime, (Also sce signols can (hen bc cmmplctcly rcconstilu[cd before IIICY dc[criomte below a
Appendix A for arl cxplon:tliml of amplitude.) Wlmn nn individwd spc:lks spccificd (hrcshuh-1. Consequently, noise or atlcntralion c:tn be completely
in~o:1 tc!cph one, [orcxamplc, [hc physicn!, mccll:lnic:tl oscilla [innso[tltcoir clinli!lalcd fronl the rccotlsIrt#c Icd sig!ml.

.. . . ,.. , ,,,.- .-, ,. .. .-.-,.? .,:- .,... -,:-.:...

 254
“) ~gi,al ~a,work,
Chap. 9
.-_-—
--_
.8..--.
..-

!
The periodic sampling and rccmlstilu(iun pro~css is pcr[ornlcd by
rcgcncm{ivc rcpedters. ‘Tbc repca!crs arc pl:nccd on a cbmmcl 01 defined “ -------
s m
in[ervals. The spacing depemJs on [hc quality and size of lhe conduclor, the g---
amount of noise on (he conductor, its bnmlwidlh, and (hc bil ra(c of Ibc ,~ -- .?.
~ ---- ~
{mnsmiss ion. Enrly digitul syslcms mscd SI6ooo-r(lllt spacing. Tmfny, oplic
fiber channc!s can transmit reliably wi[h rcgctlcmtiott occurring every 20 [u ---- 5.
30 nlilcs. . . . . . ...—.
Signal Conversion I
I
1
MarIy me(hcxlsare used 10 change an analog signal into a cligilal string of
I binary images. The first widely used nppro$tch, PAP code modt(lotioft
(PCM), was dcvelopccl in 1939 by A. 11. Reeves of 13cll I.:tbs. Even (bough
PCM entails m:lny proccsscs, i[ is gcncmlty dcscribcd in Ihrcc SICPS:
sampling, quantizing, nnd encoding (see Figure 9-I). ‘I”hc dcviccs pcrrorming
the digitizing process, called ch~nnel bnuks or primary PCM mul(iplcxcrs,
have two basic functions: (1) 10 conver[ analog sigtmls to digital form (aml
vice versa at lhc o[hcr end); and (2) 10 cumhinc the digild signals into a
singic [ime division mul[ipiexed (TL3M) chta s[rcam.
Pulse code modulation is based on 14yquisl sampling Iheory. If an
analog signal is sampled at regular in[erwds at o ra(e at Icasl t\vicc tlle higllesl
frequency in the channel. the samples will con[nin sulricicnl information
{ about the signal to allow its reconstruction, The accepted sampling rate in
the imluslry is 8000 samples pcr second. I?asccl on Nyquis[ sampling ihcory,
this ra[e al!ows the accurate reproduction or a 4 kllz chnnncl. The 8000
sampics arc su~cient to cap{ure. (he sigmds in a 3 kllz. [clephOnc lille.
The s:lmples arc s[ored and collccIcd at a predc[crmined m(c and
tr~nsl:l(cd into a binary image. Euch sanlplc is c:dlccl :! pulse ttmpliludc
modulation (PAM) signal. O!lce ~he sampling Ims jaken place, [hc PAM
signal is subjec(cd to [hc second major co!llpmlcni of Ihe translation,
ql~cznfizit!g. The purpose of qqnniizing is 10 i!ssign, a value [o cnch PAM
signal. Qunnlizcrs nssign a range of values or either I {o 128 or I [o 256 to t
eacll PAM signal. If Ibc quanlizcr assigns one of 128 values 10 the sigrml, 7
bi[s are required for each sample (2 7 = tz~), If (IW qt,:l[ltiz.cr uscs 256
possible values, 8 bi[s are required for ench sample (28 = 256). The
128.quan[!!m-s(cp quanlizer requires n 56,000 [lit/s ralc (8(K)0 X 7 = 56.000).
‘The 256-quan[ur!l-s[ep qmtn(izcr requires n mlc {Jf 64,000 hil/s (8000 X 8 =
64,000).
Expcrimcnls lmvc slmwn lha( 2048 qll:lnliz.ing slcps provide for
adcqua[e voice signol quality. However, clcvcn bi[s pcr snnlplc (211) would
require an 88 kbit/s data ra[c (211 = 2048), so n rcduc( ion it! (be number 0[
quantum s(cps is highly dcsimblc. CMe sulutirm is (IIC usc of compizmling
(discussed shor[ly),
I
~~ ~~~... . . ... .. . ,,,?... ,. ..,.
1

) )
258 ti,,..d Networks Chap. 9 Chap.9 Dlgilal L.., Syslems 25?

Once (he PAM values have hecn assigned :t binary wdue by (he The owdincor cmling process is defined by a logarithmic rcln[ionship io
quantizing process, the third s[ep encodes [he samples, into a binary bit [he form of lhc mn km, (used in North America and Jtqmn) and the A law
string. As stu[cd earlier, [hc binary wducs for (I1c 8000 samples cm’ry cnwgh (used in Europe). The ln\vs wc qui[c simil:w CXCCPI Ihc A I:kw uscs o Iincar
information [o rcconstruc[ lhc analog signal nt (IIC o[hcr cnd of Ihc clmnncl. relationship in (IIC sil!t\ll-:llllplitt! [lc mngc. Tbc mininlu!lJ slcp size is 2/4096
In order to recons~ruc( the signal properly, the d~[a mus[ be presen[cd for the A law and 2/81S9 for lhe mu law. The nonlinear companded analog
I [o a digitnl-[o-aunlog (l)/A) converter w [he snmc mtc Ihc signal wns snmplccl voice signals in a time division nltd[iplcxcd (TDM) systcm arc implemcnlcd
origin:dly. lhc cvnvcrtcr dcvch)Ps n VOIIORC (o rcprcscnt cod! of IIlc 8(100 in a segmcnlcd process. ‘flc mu Imv is rcprcscntcd hy 15 segments; IIIC A
data values ml prcscn[s [hese volmges [o lhc fXA Iunclion. ‘1’hc digilal-!o- I?w is approximalctl by 13 segments. Uoth laws CXCCCIJ [hc nlitlinlunl
amdog conversion process results iu a signal [Ire{ is a nem replica of (be rcquiremcnls in reducing lower signal level distortions.
original analog waveform.
Digital transnlission is not wi[hout its problems. A di~i(al sign:d can be
clistoried in a number of ways. Firs[, inmlcquate satnpling can crcale a Digital Carrier Systems
I distortion in the signal, The problcm cm1 be SUIVCII by nlorc frcqucn[
h! 1962 AT&’~/lJcll bcg:m (IIC commcrci;d usc of digil:d lclcphonc s yslcms,
sampling. but this would require m,ore expensive cmnpcmcols mNJ Inrgcr
The sys[em, implemcn[cd in Ihe Chicago area, was Iabclcd the Tl carrier
bnndwid[hs (higher bit rates) on [he channel to carry the incrcnscd chda
system. Since [hen, a filmily of T c:wriers llave evolved, and lod:ly T1-bmed
rates. No technique exisls (o completely eliminate snnlpling distortions
in(cr-city facili[ics nre pervasive throughout North America and o!her parls
because of the analog n~!ure of the wavcf’orm. ‘flc [umkmtcnud ammnaly
of [he world. ‘f’nble 9-1 shows the AT&T digital carrier syslcm. The systems
results fronl apptying discre[e (digifal) samples [o a nondiscre!e (analog)
mnge fronl Ihe TI carrier supporting 1.544 Mbit/s [o lhe sophislica[ed op[ic
sigmd.
fiber systcm (fT-4f?-432). which opcm[cs at 432 Mbit/s. TIIc chonncls of (I1c
The second problcm arises [llrough quanliz.ing errors. lhc quantizing
lower T cmricrs arc combined in(o Inrgcr bundles [o nmkc cllicicn[ usc of
process dots no[ rcprescn[ ex:!c!ly tbc nmpliludc of (I1c PAM sigw!l. Since
Imnsmission fitcililics aud roulcs on llle ne[work,
[he signal clislorlion in [he process is proportional to [he SICP size, onc
Tbc TI signals arc applied direclly 10 the channel (for example, wire
approach [o solve the problem is to increase [he nunlbcr of qu:!n[ izing steps
pairs) in a bipofar formal. (Figul-e l-l I shows (IICTI dlcmo[c nmrk inversion
available 10 represent (he signal. Ilo\vcvcr, increnscd ICVCISof quau( izing
bipolar code.) This code hns the significant advantage of providing de(ec~ion
incrcwes the COSIS of the componcn[s mid the number O( bils required to
of any single-bil [mnsnlissiml error: If a I is convcrtml erroneously (0 a O,
rcpresen[ {he signnl. None(hclcss, [IIc 128-s(cP qwmliz.cr 11:)s been rcplaccd
at~nccnt Is will Ix uf idcn[ ical polnrity. viol:l(ing tbc :dlcrna[c nlnrk
by the 256-s(cP quantizcr.
Earlier systenls cxllibitcd a Iimmr relnticmship bct\vecn PAM sigmds
and PCM code (called lit!m!r codit8E). As a conscqucncc, cqtml changes in
ttlc signal ampli[udc would produce cqwd ch:mgcs i!l (IW PCM codes. TABLE 9-! . AT&T Dlgltnt FacllllNs
This efTcc[ crea[ed signilicanl quanlizalion distortion in Iowcr anlpli(ude
System voice Grado Bi[ Rale Repealer
signals.
Name Medium Channels (MbiUs) Spacln.a[miles]
Newer (cchniques compress (I1c higbcr nnlplitudc sigtmls to a smaller
amplitude range for a given number of quzntiza(ion levels. The snmllcr T1 wire 24 1,544 1
cable
anlplilmJc signals are cxpondcd. Tllis Iccl}oique inercascs (I1c number of
T(C wire 48 3,~52 1
avniltiblc qlltln(izolioti levels, ml dccrc:lscs tllc ovcrnll qtl:lnliza! ion distor-
cable
tion. Aflcr (he signnl is decoded, it is rcstoted to its origiml amplitude Icvcl.
T2 wire 9a 6,312 1-25
This combination of compressing aMJ cxpmlding is cnllcd compflmiing. cable
Modern systems ZIlso usc another cnnccpl CU!IMI twl!/i!lclrr co,li!w.
T4M Coaxial 4032 274.176 1.1
Tllis process represents stmdl-amplifude PAM sigwds by larger coding FT3 optic Iiber 672 44,736 4
vzwiaticms lhan similnr cllangcs in l:!rge-anlplitmJc PAM sip,rmls. The quan- 1344
FT3C OPIICfiber 90.524 4
[izx( ion error is rcduccd iis lhc PAM signnl Icvcl is rcduccd. As a comc- FT.4E.14.4 opllc fiber 2016 140,000 G12
qucnce, n cunst:tnt .si,quol 10 disrortiwl (.$11~)r<:!if) is m:linMincll over a wide FT.4E-432 OptiCIiber 6048 432.000 6-12
range of I’AM signals.
. . . . . . .. ..
 258 ) Digital Networks Chap, 9
! 1’ 1

—— EUCOIKStmdwd 4
I I 1
inversion (Ahtl) coding rule. If n o is convcrlcd crnmcously 10 a 1, lhco (WO — North A.mrimn SmmJard-.—.—-- .--.-.--.-.1

n5B3m
successive Is of idcn[ ical pukwity will violntc (I)c ndc. 1
A frequently risked ques(ion is, why is Ihc 1.S44-mcgnbh rntc used for

> “<
Chapl Cl!.yl Channel Channel Channel
(I1c ‘rl corricr? The :Inswcr cOnlcs rron) [hc usc of linlc division multiplexing
I
(TDM) [echn;qucs 011 the ‘1’1channel. m ‘Tl carrier is clcsigncd (0 suppor[
24 simultaneous voice-grade lmnstnissions. Wc know, froth prcvimm cliscus-

?F+~
sions IIM( each channel is opem{ing wi(h 8000” s:mlplcs pcr sccoml. Wc will r I I [ , 1
assume 8 bits pcr sample arc required for Ihc transmission, Ir 24 individlud
[transmissions are carried across [he channel, and 8000 samples constitute ,
each transmission!!, [he (OLZIb}t ra{e required is: 8000 sxmptes X 24 chmmds
valueof 10
+ 1 fmming bi( = 1,544,ooo bi[/s.
Ye[ ano[hcr queslion rocuses ou (IIC rationale for 24 Tf3M chmmcls {d No!!h Amedcm d EuropeSlmdard

Why no[ 22 or 28? Ini[ially, AT&T/13c0 judged (hat an effeclivc and

cconmnicol hanclwidlh of 75o kl [z could uccommm.falc n 1..544 MlIiI/s
[hrotrghpu[. Based on lhe initi;ll .&,tl]dwidtll considcri;[ ions, lhc 24 chatmcls _125w-——— .
were derived as follows:
Channelt

. I second + 1,544,000 x 8 bi[s pcr sample = 5.18 p.scc (.000005176). t

I I
● in other words, s.18 psec are required ror eaclt’ sample. 1 / \
Channel2
● 5,18 psec x 8000 = .0414 scconcl u(ilizcd by rat/I or [kc 24 clmnwds, In i 1-
,1 ,!
● 1 second – ,0414 = .9586. ,1
,1
Channel3
. Thererore, about 95 percent or tlle channel’s TDM slots arc available I;l
ror other transmissions. (, I
Ill
● Thererore, .0414 second x 24 = .9936.
channel 24
lli I
● llencc, over 99 percent or T! channel’s SIOIS are cllectivcly used, 1~~~
,11 VI;l
,[1 11, , ,!11
11, , ,11
A user DTE may not be able to use (I1c run 64 kbil/s clmnncl ralc. On In,,rletved ! ! I I
PAM Samr,les I 1 I
some sys[ems, (he carrier uses one bit OUI or every eight ror nelwork I L ..--— —~
,!;, ~_-__--, &=<:===--l I
signaling, Consequcn[ly, user (hroughpu! is actualty 56 kbil/s througl! (kc ,, ,,
channel. Other systems “borrow” (he eigh(h bi[ itt every sixth sample, i ‘-–7 I I I
PCMOutput
which gives 7% bih per sample. .! Emder
The T carrier kame is skown in Ilgure 9-2.1 Each [rame contains one
sample from each or the 24 voice-grade channels. Some versions of dle T CH1 CH2 CH3 CH24 CM! CH2 ...
rainily usc [lie eighth bit or each snmple for control sigmdling. Olhcrs use
every sixth sample. Figure 9-2(b) illus(mtcs Ihc usc or time division l-{ 125 IIS
t Frame. 1930its }---4
multiplexing (o interleave [he PAM samples into the 193-bit frame.
The 1.544 Mbit/s rate is the commonly ncccptecl standard in North
America. Europe uscs a slightly cli~crcn[ oppro~ch. Its digital schmne
encompasses a 32-channel system, where 30 channels transmit signals
derived rrom incoming [elephone trucks and the remaining two channels are
used to pro~ide fcr signaling and synchronization \ignals. The European
$c~~ ,J\es ~~ ~vfp9-jl !+ j-3:e pf 2.(UQ \!:p.’$.
—.m+ml. %7,-,w ,~fq- ..:, -S+-,.., T-$,.,W jw,>
;;;;....,.;;:,,,,,t::,~~;
..?~.,~w?t ~,.,,pw.,
;-w’J:~~A.,.,. .,,.: !,..,,...,.,,!:
.,,.+’: :?, ~~,?%--
;.,.,,*;, ....,,},,. r,,-,,,,, .,.,:,,,
,..,~, .,,,,,..:.,,,.,
7L,<?7F,
..:,,,,,,,,,.,,.,.,,,
.,,!,;;;:l,..
,,,,.”,,...,,,..
.,,:,,.,.:!,.
,>
.,!.,,:,
,, .,,,,:,
;,
, ~!w!y~~~~~;~;:
,
260 ) Nclw”rhs ml.,,.,

Channel and Data Service Units reproduction or IIIC wavcrorm. “roday ’s sys[cms have more scrphis[ica[ed
appro:tchcs (ban IIIC convcntiomd PCM Icchniquc. Onc widely used SySICm
Digital tmnsmissicm bc[wccn compu[cr and Icrmin:ds occurs lhtougb dc.
vices known gcncrical[y 8s customer premises cquipmcnl (C I’E). l’tier 10 is called d(~rrc,nt ial Iml,w code modd<t[imt (DPCM ). Ibis Icchuiquc Irnns-
mih Ihc difrcrcnccs bc~wcc]] snmplcs of (I)c sigmd ins[ctd or [hc uc[ual
dercgulalion, 11]. Cl’Es were in (IIC tclcphonc ccrmp:,ny’s d,mmin. As N rcsull
samples. Since w! :tn:l log \v:tvcflwm’s samptcs arc chmcly c{wrcinlcd will,
of Fcdct’al Cu!llllltl#lic:!liur)s Commission rulings llcitllcr AT& ’1’ nnr (I1c I.lcll
each o(hcr (nhnost saI1lplc-lo-stIIII Illc rcdumt;ml), lhc mngc of sNnlplc
operating companies are pcrnli[ ted 10 inslall equipnlent o cuslomcr crw
rlilTcrenccs requires fewer bits 10 rcpresenl. DPCM uses a rlilTcren(ial
provide. Tllis equipment incluclcs Ibc digilol CPES. IN the 1970s anll early
qwrnlizcr 10 slorc the previous s:lmplc in n s:\!llplc-:\ncl.llolll circui[. The
1980s, a user IYI’E in(crk!ccd in!o a digilol chunncl wilh o Wcs[cm 131cclric
circui( nlc:tsttvcs (hc ch:at)gc hclwccn the [\vu somplcs :Iml cncwtcs (he
500A, a cornbinccl clmnncl scrvicc tmil (CSU) and IJ:!M scrvicc unit (DSU).
cbmge. Ditrcren[ial PCM ncbicves n snmller voice Jigifiza(ion mre (VDR)
In 1981, a[ [he reques!s of cus[omcrs, AT&T provided i scpamtc device (or
than do llle co[tvcntimrtd PCM techniques (32 kbih, for example),
bipolar sigmd conversion, ca[lcrl lhc 500-11 DSU, Today, a cus[omer
A special :asc of IJPCM is dclfo nmddaliotl (I)M) which uses only one bit
interfaces in(o a digital network through a cllat!ncl scrvicc uiil (CSU), a dir[a
ror each wrmplc, Delta modulation measures [he polmily or dilTerc!lce of
service unit (D. SU), or a conlhinxtion of tllc IWO (CSU/DS U), (See Figure
successive sonqdcs and wscs :1 I hit 10 indica(c i~ Ihc pnl;wily is risiug io
9-3.) ‘l”hc ILSU convcrls lhc 1)’1’li-oriented d:ll:l sign:ils inln bipnl:lr digiid
ampli(udc :11111:10to rcpnxcol il’lhc sigmd is dccmnsing in anqdilodc (SW Ifigurc
signals. The MU also performs clocking, signal rcgcncrntiou. tlnrl cqu:diza-
9-4(@J. The signal is cncortcrt m a ““s(nircrme” of up and &.r\vn sequences, The
tion of the channel, The CSU has more Iimi[ed runcticms Iban [hc DSU. Tlle
rtigikd code can Iatcr be USC(Ito reconslmct Ihc analog signal (analog-to-digikd
CSU performs func[iuns such as line conditioning (or cqu:!li?.a[ion), wllich
[A/t3] process) by “smrw(hing”” tlle s!ttircasc bock to (IIC [wigimd signol.
keeps (be signal’s pcrformaIIcc corrsis[cn[ across (I1c cllanncl bnrrdwirl[h;
Della modulfilion is simple 10 i@enlenl. However, i! requires a higher
signal reshaping, which rccmrsti[u(cs (I1c binary pulse s[ream; and loop-hack
s~mpling ra[c lllan PCM or DPCM because each sample does not carry much
(es[ing, wbicll entnils the trtrnsnlissirm of lest sigmds bctwccn Ihc CSU and
infornl:l(irm. Delta moduhrtion nssumcs the cncmlcd \vavcrOrm is no more
[he nc[work cwricr’s OITCC cllanncl unit (OCU).
Ibwr onc slcp awrry frrrm (hc snmplcd sigmd. I Iowcvcr, a signul mGy clmngc

DSLUCSUmaybe Comblnrd
~____–––-––- T LocalTelmhom Olflm

Digital
Network

L_———____——- J

DSU . Om Swke Unl!

CSU . Chmnel ServiceUnit
Osu = Ollicc Cl,a!melUni!

Figure 9.3. Digital Circull Slructure (al Dolt, Mmh,lwion [Nondi,twtic,.1

Analog-to-Digital Techniques
lrl acldiliorr 10 pulse code Imodul:l(icm (PCM), scvcml jltl:llc)g-[c,-digi[al
techniques wc used by [CICPIIUUC cvmpanics and crlhcr vcmhws. The
[cchniqucs fdl into IWO bro:!d classifications, !Iwtt,fcw!u f!mrlysi.? nnd porom-
ctcr codij,g,
SIOF+Overload

Waveform Ar7a/ysis
GrmwlarNoi,e
Ttle pulse cudc nlodllla(io[l [cc’hniqt!c discussed catlicr is cfi[cgmized
lb) Di,!ortlcm
as vmveform annlysis or waveform synlhesis. 1[ is so named hccnusc [he
unalog w:tvc form is anolyml and snmplcd to fwvidc digit:ll cndcs r(~~:1I:llcr Figure 9.4. Delta Modu!alion

,,, .. .... ..... . . . . .... .,, . ,,. ..., ,..,. .. -., ,. .,,,.. . . . .... .. .,. , .,.,.,.,. .. ,,,.
 ,
262 E j ‘elworks Chap. 9 Chap. 9 F.lure LSigila “) ms 263

m(rrc rapidly (ban !hc staircase nl<xJukllur c:m reflect. prod{ !cing :1 pmblcm
C.t!-w”r
u ! (clC.’cl,
cnllcrl slope ovcrloml. In conlmsl, n slow-c lmnging signal also crcalcs M,!c!mO.,wl
distorti{)”s, cilllcd granular noise, 1,’icc I;igurc 4- l(h). I This cllccl (If in:wcu- v
ra[e representation 0[ the wavel’Ornl is called qmlltliz,trhm noi.w; i( also
occurs with PCM and DPCM systems.

SIEHia- w
One widely used variation of delta mOdulatiOil is couli]trmlfslv vnri(d?lr
.r/ope ddlo mocf/f/afimt(C VSD). (Ano[hcr (crm b this [cclmiquc is dekr
modulation with commanding. ) CVSD Imnsmi[s the rlifTcrcn&c bctwccu two
successive samples and employs a qlmntizcr 10 chrmgc [IIC nclmd quantum
0“’””’
steps based on a sudden increase or dccrcase of (he signal. CSVD incrcmcs
the staircase s[ep size when it detects (he wavcfornl’s slope incretmiog and
reduces lhe s[ep size upon detecting a decrease in the slope. As sfaled
earlier, PCM umf DCPM cmo also employ comrmrzding Icchniqucs
errors. By changirrg (he quantum s[cps,,lhe quanlization
10 reduce
errors arc rcrluccrl.
CCITr has stt!ndardized a commanding PCM tcchniquc called mlnptive Figure 9.5.
%’=’’’O’”
Parameter Coding
djTcrcwiu/ PCM [ADPCM). This appronch uscs a hi[ mlc of’ 32 khi[/s,
carrying 4 bits per sample. Many systems bavc now mloplcd CCllTs and proccsscd by the LPC function. which tfclcrmiocs N prcdic[cd VOIUClK Ihc
ADPCM techniques. saruplc. .%vemf calcukrtions are pcrformetf on the sample. Wflen [he values
flave been cnlcufo[cd, all [flc values me [Isecf 10 produce a prcdiclcd v:duc for
Parameter Coding (Vocoders) Ibc speech scgmcnl in qucslitm. ‘Iflc idcn [Jr the ilcr;ilivc c:dctlln[iom is (0
In addition to {he wavcrorm mrnlysis techniques just discussed, fhc reduce (he error bel wcen Ihe input speech s.cgmen[ and lhe prcdic!cd output.
indt!slry has devo(ed considerable resenrch {o o Icchnique czdlcd parame(cr The LPC co[llinuously ad@ by periodically developing a new se[ of predicted
cocliflg (o[her lcrtns 10 dclinc lhis approach are modeling. amllysis synthesis, values.
and vocoding). Parame(er coding systems are no[ used on (he iclephmre IL40rc tlle sigmd is trmmllittcd unlo Ihc channel, [he sigmd to be
ne[work because they arc designatecf to encode ,sp@cc/I signnls OIIIY ml Transmitted is conlpared against n (able orvalues,2 The en(ry in (he table that is
cannot accommodate other analog siguals, such as modem !rursmissions. In closesi to (he nctmd wdue is used as the aclua[ (rirnsmi([ed value. In [he LPC
conlras(, PCNI can convey dala or voice. syslem, [lie sigmd is nlalcllcd against n library orvah! es,l-his library is c;dlcrl n
P;tramc[cr codiog dots not preserve (I)c chnrncter d (IIC input rode 6ook. The library member whose values give (he best nmtch to the signal
wavcrornl: ra{her, (I1c input wavcrorm is proccsscd into pnramc[crs which is sclcctcd m Ibe CMIC word. TIIc mlwm!ogc or [his :lpprcmch is Iho[ cacfl corJc
nleasure VOC?I ch:lrac[cris!ics. The speech is nimlyzcd toiproducc n fimc word c[m be rcprcscnlcd by n vcty fcw mmtfxw or hils. For C,XMMPIC,if’a Iibmry
!wrying model or the waverorm. Paranle[cr coding then computes a digital Ims 4fXMmcnzbcrs, only 10-[2 bhs arc required 10 represent antior tmnsnli[ [he
sigmd lha( most closely resemhlcs [flc originol speech. These modeling information abou[ the full LPC speech segment.
parameters are ~ransmit(cd [hrough [he chmrcl (or s[ored OH disk) IO allow This technique is attractive because (he LpC code book allows
for I:tter reproduction or [he speech signal. Vocodcrs me cmrmIO1dy used for Transmission at only 2,4 kilobi[s per second. A higll-qmrli[y 9.6 kbit/s
recorded nnnOuncenlc!lls (c.g, weather in fm-nmlion), pcrsonul computer Ielepbmre line supporls rour tinle division nlulliplexed (TDM) 2.4 kbi[/s LPC
voice oulpuf, and clcclrtmic video gmncs. konsmissimrs. lllis dolt] m(c is subskrn(inlly lower IhmI [flc \vnvcrornl
l.iflear prccfic(i!,e codiug (LPC) (see figure 9-5) is ii widely rrscd rOrm [ccllniques or 64 kbit/s, 32 kbil/s, and 16 kbiUs, The mnin clismlvan(age or
of panrmclcr coding. LPC is bnsed 011 !he ract (Iml speech prmfuccd by a LPC is !h;]~ speech rcproduc[ion is not as hi~h qwrli!y m PCM.
vocal [rac( is citllcr voiced or voicclcss. The VOWCI“c” iu kcwp is a voice
sound: the “s” in sir is a voicclcss sound. Doll) or lflcse nlcchanisms are
sampled 10 produce a s(reanl of inlpufses. The inlpulscs can (hen be s(orcd Future Digital Systems
JS digi(:ll imogcs ror kr{cr USC.
I“hc patlcrn of a speech sigmil is Ihcrt defined in 20-.$0 millisecond During lflc 1:1s1lwerrly,ycms. tllc industry has nmdc exlrmwdinory progress
dura(iuns c:dlcd ,sprcr+ .srxntrnls or p,lrcrl,$. ‘l”hc speech scgmcn[ is snmplcd ill rlevclopillg intcgralcd digilnl syslcms fbr rcprcscn[itrg :Ind Ironsmri(ling

,,,
t

:.
D ●
 ,
266 ~ Nmwo,ks Chnp.9 Chap, 9 Inlegroled ) NMwo,ks 287
,..
● S11S SC(S up svllwarc to rccurd cun!wclim) :)ml scuds diol Ionc In 1, 10 prnvidc u worhlwidc tmilin’m digit;d ncl work which s!q>porls ;, wide
caller. mngc l)r scrviccs :wd uscs (Iw smlw sl:tndnrds ;WM,SS dillcrcnt C4WII.
● Port accep(s dinlcd digi[s from caller. Iries;
● Calling siucllilc c{]tllll)~ttlic:tlillrls Cnnlrollcr (SC(:; scc I:igllrc S-5) scmls 2. [0 provide n ulliform SC([lrstilll[hlrds rOr lligil:d lrnnsnlission across nmJ
“a[tcmpt connect”’ sigm!l 10 CIIIICCISCC bwcd 011 Ihc ‘1’I)MA pto[ncnl bCl WCCI1nc[\vurks:
discussed in Chap(cr Five. 3. 10 provide it slundm’d IS1)N user in(crracc,such III; ([i!!{cmol cb;ttrgcs
● If rcsourccs :!re nv:lilnblc UL ctdlcd SCC, :In “nflcnlpl response” is 10 n network ;WC !ransparcn[ [u the cnd user;
returned and [he called par(y is diolcd. 4. i!l conjunction wi(h tbc lllirtl objcctivc. [0 provide for cml-user
c Upon ~he called pmty going oiT-hook. the called SCC [mnsmils opplica lion indcpcmhce-no considcrzdiml is nmdc m 10 {heir chnr-
“conncc(, ” and (he calling SCC responds wi[ll “connect rcsprmsc. ” ac[cris(ics in rcl:t(icm 10 tbc lSDN itself;
● The ydrties converse, wilh (1w voice por[s digitizing Ihc :ImIlog sigmds 5. ns nn adjoncl to gotds [Iwcc nmt four. to provide pnr[dlilily for user
for insertion into the TDMA frames. DTEs and npplicalions.
s Ei\hcr pwly hnngs up and tbc SCC [ronsmhs “discoollccl.” Olbcr SCC
responds with “disconncc( respons e.”
ISDN is ccnfcrcd on IIwcc mniu nrc:m: (1.) tbc sl:tlt(l:lvtli%l[ic>tl Or
scrviccs MTcrcd 10 subscribers in order to rO~~cr in{crmltiun:d Comp,l[ibility:
(2.) Ihc standardizafiun of tfser to nc(work in(erraces in order 10 foster
The voice porl also petforms l,oic? ocfivi!y comprcw;mr (VAC). A voice
itldcpetldcnt [crnlinA cquipnlcnl and nc!wnrk cquipmcot dcvchrpnlcnt: and
cmwersa[ion includes periods of silence (iislcnitlg tlnd pn~sing). VAC Iukes
(3.) (he sfandm-di?nlion of ncfwork capabilities in order IO I’os!cr user-to.
advan( age of the quiet periods by (ransmil(ing dn[~ frmzl the coder corrcsp@-
nc~work and ne[work-to. network communications.
ing to signals above mcer(ain level. Only spcnking persons require cbtmncl slots,
MU,CIIlitcmlurc on the sul?jcc( clnims ISDN is a rcvohl!iotmry (cchnol.
so VAC makes i! possible (o shwe salellile ch:mncls mmmg mulliplc voice
conversations. Forty conversations may require only 25 chnnnels. OgY, ~blcb is 1101 lrlje—lbe JSDN is m mvdufi{~hary lechuology. The
commlllees, common carriers, mrd lrade associations who are working on
The digital dma port [Figure 9-6) accepts dots Mesfrom 2.4 kbii/s [o
[he slandards recognize that Ihe ISDN is based on lbe ongoing [elephonc
(he TI rale of 1.544 Mbit/s. A user can in[etfncc inlo [he port as if i[ were a
inlcgratcd digilal nclw[wk (IDN). Consequently. mnny of [lie digi[al [ccl].
DCE (nmdcm) or D“I% ([crnlimd). Tbe “elaslic bull’cr”’ cmnpensn[cs [or user
niqucs discussed previously itl this cbap(er will be u[ilized for future ISDN
clocks and [he SCC clocks (see Clmpler One and eorlicr discllssions in this
syslcms. This includes Agndling mtes (c.g,, 32 kbih), transmission codes
chapler on clocks mKJ synchronization). l“hc shif( registers cmlvcIf user
(e.g., bipolar), and even physic;d plugs (e.g., the j:tcks [o Ibc [clcph[me). Tbc
by(es inlo serial-hi! da[a s[reams.
roundolions kw ISDNS hnvc been in dcvclcrpnmn[ (or tbc pas[ I\\Icmy ycnrs.
The digital porl also uscs n comprcssicm Iccbniquc. 1Io1o m’firil),
Tbe LSIJN recommcnckdions have reccivcd criticism. Some people be-
contprc.!.!im! (DAC). When n 48(3-hit clmnncl slot con[ains a striug of
Iicve ihcm 10 bc overly complex; others slalc tlley are m)! supporrivc of a hue
characters (Imt are the same as the previous channel, tbnt, channcl slot is not
inlcgratcd systcm; still oIbcrs claim they do no[ usc Ibe right !echnolog), IO
[ransmi!ted on the link. Tbe receiving DAC reccmsfructs lhc origimd da{a
acllievc [heir gotd. We will discuss (hcse criticisms as wc describe Ihe ISDN.
stream by using U1e Ias( chnnncl S1O(received from (he specific port (o repeat
the last chmaclcrs for ch:lnncl rccrmslruclion. fSIAV /n/cr@r.r. Figure 9-7 ilhjstmlcs !bc stnndord end-user [SDN
Thus, through the use of voice ports, doln ports, and lime division ne[work intcrf’ilccs. Tllc lSDN-rccoIIIIIIc I1dc~l s[:lndnrd proviclcs n snmll SC(
multiplexing, SIIS intcgmlcs voice-data lmnsm; ssions. Afux lhc signals arc ofconlpa[ible intc[foces which arc inlendcd to economicntly suppIJrI a wide
digitized, [hey arc all ttca(cd the same and [hc dcmnmls m1d problems for tlle range of user opplicof inns. The standard recognizes [Imf [Iilf’crcnl in fcrfaccs
channel require only onc (cchnology. are required for xpplic:llions Ilmt llnvc llillcrcn[ infnrnm[ion r:t(cs und
leqUiI’CnlCIItS, COnSCqUC!\lly, more [ban one in[crf~ce type is availob[e.
T/le Integrated Services Dlgifaf Nefwork (ISDN): Ucfore cxploinil!g Figure 9-7. l\vl) lcrms mm be defined:
An in[cgra[ed scrviccs digital ncl\vork (IS1)N) provides cmI-Io-end
digi[al connec(ivi[y 10 suppcw( :1 \vidc rnugc of services, in CSSC;lCC, nll ● Fwtctiomd ,qro[{ping.r ;trc a se{ of cqwdrili(ics nccdcd in an ISDN
im:lges (voice, d[lla, television, Pdcsimilc, clc. ), arc lmosmil[cd wilh digilal mscr-access inlcrf:lce, Specific runclions within a functional pmuping
technology, lSll N has five nlnjm rzoals. m:! y be pcrfunllcd by mul!iplc picccs <d cquipmcnl Nnd soil WIIC,

. .- -. ,., . . . .T,, , ~ -?,,. ,:.. ,, ,. . .,, ;,,..,. ,..,,, ,., .,.,

.: ~;: ::-Y-.:j,,;O.~?i
 268 Digilal ~ ,rks Chap. 9 Chap,9 IntegratedDtgltalNC \ s 269

● Rq’crcnce poia(.r arc [he points dividing (he fuaclion:d groupings. I:lycrs of lhc ISQ lSDN amdcl (wI muy usc bcw’cr w’vices us WCII). Access
Usutdly. a rcfcrcncc point currcspcmcfs to n physicul inlcr(flcc hcfwccn poinl 4 encompasses otltcr CC1’l-r.s[alldnrdizcd services, which dcpcml ua
picccs of equipment. the specific X :md V rcco!~)tllctldntic~ lls being alilizcd by termini-d adnplors
(’rA).
Funclionql groaping NT I (nc(work termination i) inclocfcs functions
cqaivnlea( to Ihc physical lnyer oftbe OS I reference model. These func(icms
ore nssocia[cd witll Ibc physical and elcctricrd connections in the network.
The major NI’1 fonctions are:

s lcrnlianliun Or Ihc Iiae

! e layer 1 line main(cn:mce and pcrrormcmce monitoring
* lrmcsmission signaling and liming
* provision fur power [ur the chmmcl
● possible nlulliplexing nl [be layer I level
.* inlcrfncc (crmimction, including nlul[ idrop (crminn lions if aecessary.

The NTl can delinc the boundirry of lhc carrier’s lSDN: il may be
@ coatrolied by (he nclwork carrier. It provides (be user a fixed, standard
inlcrfncc into the lSDN. NTI gives Ihc user frdn.rpw’rary info I hc ncl work
T.,n,rni,,im
Line and isoln[cs lkc user from the pllysictll aspects O( lbc ISf3N.
The NT2 (network termination 2) fcmc(ions are equivalen[ (o the
physical layer nad higbcr layers of the 0S1 model. Examples of an NT2
functioa arc private Ic]cphonc Imrnch excbimges (PBXS). local nren ncl-

❑ = Fuoc(ionalG,O,O

. Awe,, Poimt
+ . R, feren,, Point lor Intorlma)
works (LANs), and Iermiaal or clusler controllers,
fuaclioas as mr cad-user iquipmcn(
end-user equipment Icrmiaates
interface.
In other words, the NT2
As illustrated by the figure,
into [be NT2 through m S-connection
o rcfcrcncc point. Since Ihc NT2 cna bc a PDX, Iocnl aren ncl\vnrk, or
!crmiazl controller, it cm) perform funclioas such as switching. nlultiplcxing,
Figure 9-7. Basic ISDN Con figumtions
aad prolocol lmndlitig. IIS pri!lcipnl rcsponsibili[ies cncompms Inycrs 2 and
3 pro[ocol handling.
Figure 9-7 illustrttles a rcferencc coafigura(ion for (kc ISIJN user.
The ac[unl functions perrormed are not sliplJaled in lhe lSDN recom-
network interface. The six functional groopings dcpiclcd ase three diffcrcn(
mendzc[ions. IIowcver, Iali(ude is given 10 allow a PBX to perform funclions
[ypes of reference points. Reference poin{s S nnd T usc [he iecoalmcnded
al layers 1, 2, and 3, wllercm a sinlple [ime division multiplexer (TL3M)
chnancl intcri’acc .struc!urcs of Ihc specific ISDN s[andard 1.412 (more nbou[
would probfibly only pcrfurm layer I functions.
~his s{amlarcl Ia[cr), The physic[il ialcrfiicc for rcfcrcacc point R is in
TIIc NT12 (nclwork Icrmiuntioa 1, 2) is a !!l[ll[iplc-ftlttcl it}tl dcvicc
accordance wilh o[her CCITJ rccommenchtions or EIA rcconlnlcn&!tions
ccmtainiag the combiacd capnbililics d (he Nl[ aIId NT2 cquipmcu[.
(f’or example, X.21, V.24 o.d RS-232-C).
Devices inte!-face ialo this funclion with an S rercrence-poin[ conncclor. The
‘I”hc ISDN also provides access puinls. m dcfinilidns of IIIC occcss
e~alving ft~llrlll-gctlcntli(l!l PllXs (SCC Clmptcr Twelve) fi! info (his funclior!.
poin[s arc as follows: Access poinl 1 [Mcrcnce poia( T) and :~cccss point 2
(rererence point S) are [he acce.w points for I>eowr .scr!,icrs suppor[cd by (ke The NT2 and !be NT12 funclioas nre m follows:
ISUN. Bearer services involve Ihc Iowcr lhrcc Icvcls uf Ihc IS() lSl)N mmlcl ,,
(the ISDN layers arc illustrated in Figure 9-9). ● protocol handling for Iaycrs 2 WI 3
,,
Access poin[s 3 onci S ({se Ic/e.rcrI!icc,$, which cncumpass {he upper , ● multip[cxing f’or Iaycrs 2 ml 3

.,. .
 ~
!

;,

1-

;.
..

WIl Em
272 } ,.lal Nelworks Chap.9 Chap.9 Inlegra!el ) al Networks 273

lSDN Ckatjnel.r. The most common ISON inlcrktcc
of 144 khi(/s. The rntc includes (WO 64 kbil/s chmllncls, cnllcd Ihc B channels,
and onc 16 kbills ch;!nncl, c:dlcd the 1) clut!lncl. In acklitiuo to lhcsc
clmnncls, ISDN provides Ior rmming ccmtrol :md o[l)cr oycrhcml bils, wllick
[otds [o a 192 kbit/s bi[ rate. Tbe 144 kbi[/s irlterfaces opera{e syocllrcmmMy
in the full-duplex mode over the same physical contwclm’. TIIC 144 kbilfs
signal provides time <Iivisiou mulliplcxcd provisions for Ihc IWO 64 kbitls
sup fwrls:! bil M(C s1171cfutc !0 consisl of 23 II ch:mncls md onc L) ckmmcl (2.! If+ D). “Me
Uuropcan approach of 2.o48 Mbills requires nn intcrfnce s(ructuve to consis~
Or 30 B chatmc]s mld OilC t) chmocl (30 B+ D).
Uplion 16M’c: Al[ert!ntitc pritmrry rwft, 1{ CIMIIIICI i:t!or:/iwc ,sirmtt,rc.
Tkis option cnn bc USCCIwhen an NT2 device commc(s 10 the network by
more than onc B channel. For (IIC 1.S44 Mbil/s rale, (he in(erktce s(ruc(ure
would consist of 23 B clmtlncls :!nd 00C E clwnnc[ (23 B + [;). For the 2.048

channe!s amI [he one 16 kbitls channei. The SIZMI:II’J OI1OWS[hc B clmnncls hlbills rate, [kc interfncc slruclure would c[]llsis[ of’30 B chnuncls nnd one

[o bc (ur[her nlultiplexed ill (he subclmnncls. For example, 8, 16, or 32 khi(ls E channel (30 B+ E).

subchannels cmj be derived fronl the B chatlncls, “1’hc (WO B chnnncls can bc Olhcr iolcrfaccs arc :Ilso suppo!’!cd in lbc ISDN, and addiliomd
combined or broken down as {he user desires. interfaces are uudcr SIUCIY.
The B channels we inlended [o carry user inrormniion s[rcnnls. They ISDN Layers. ‘~bc lSDN apprmrch is 10 provide m end user with full
provide for sewml di~crent killds of application SUPPOr(. For exanlpk O, support lhrougll IIIC seven k!),crs or the 0S1 nlmlcl. III so doing. ISDN is
cm provide fur voice a[ 64 kbi[/s; dalu [rnns!llissiwl for packc[.swi(ch divided iuto l\vo kinds of scrviccs-the Lxwrcr scrvicc, responsible br
ulilifies O( bit rates less than or cqunl [o 64 kbitls; and bruadbnnd voice al 64 providing supporl ror the Iowcr I hree levels of (he seven.layer slxndard; and
kbit/s or less fclcscrvice.r (for example, Iclcplmnc, Tclctcx, Vidcolcx. mcss;qw kundliug:
The I) clmnncl is in!cndcd 10 carry conlr’ol owl sign: dling itlf’ormn(ion, scc Clmplcr Thirteen), rcspunsiblc for providing support Ihrough oll seven
although in cerlaill cases lSI)N allows for [be 1) clmnnel 10 support user dam hycrs or llle model and gencralty making usc of (he underlying Iower-level
transmission m well. However, be aware (ha{ the U clmrmcl does nol carry capabilities of bearer scrviccs. Tllc services are referred to m lo\v-lnycr and
signalliug in formM ion. ISIJN dcscribcs $igmll!ing iofhu!lion M s-lype, high-kiycr hc[i~ms, rcspcc(ivcly. “1’hclSDN Itmc(ions nrc :Iihx; IIcd :wwrd.
nacke[
,.. da[a as n-tYDe, Ind [elemclry as I-IYPc. ‘rbC ~ ch:l!lI1cl olaY c~lrrY ~111 iug (0 (IE Iaycring principles Of[be 0S1 mId Cell-r slmdads. ‘rhc (unctions
(hesc types of ;nform;(ion lbrough s[ntislical multiplexing. we dcpic[ed in Figure 9-9. V:wious cn[i[ics or [be Iaycrs arc used (0 provide
The ISDN committees arc also working on provisions for o(hcr kinds a full eml-to-cml cnpabili[y. Tbcsc Ioycrcd cupidrili[ics m:ly bc sllpplicd by
of channels (the E channel and 11 channels). Tbcsc :wc inlcnkl for chimnels PITs, [clcphonc companies. or olhcr suppliers.
at faster speeds. Tbe E channel is a 64 kbil/s channel lMc,d 10 carry sigmdling Let us piece some O( (I1c ISDN components logc[her and describe how
inrorma( ion for circui[ swilching. The 11 channels nrc cn[cgorizcd as: IWOend users cntl bc supported going (hmugh WI ISDN I) channel and ?n
X.25 pnckct swi[ching nclwork. Figure 9-10 pruvidcs on ilIus(r;ltion of
}10: 384 kbil/s pncket-swi[chcd conlnmnications through an lSDN. DrE A, \vi~ich under
HI 1:1536 kbil/s (kc ISI)N [criminology is configured as:! TfZl, uses [he seven Iaycrs provided
N ils si(c. The DTE inlcrfnccs into the physictd Inyer of lSDN wi(h (IIC Sfr
H 12: 1920 kbi[ls
intcrfi!cc into an NT I dcvicc. In turn, the NTl nmchinc pnsses user
informalim] to a pnckc( hnmllcr. (A packc( hamflcr wm]kl not bc required if
ISON requires the 11-ch:mncl intcrfi~ccs fur poinls S and T to comply
Ihc DTE were aII X.25 p:!ckc[-mode dcvicc.) “Me packet IImIdlCr i“lerfi,ccs
wi[h onc of (hree interface structures:
wi[h Ike packet-swilchcd ne[work lhrough Ihc X.75 pro!ocol (discussed in
[]p[iw OIIC: n chnttwi it]terfncc .rrrnc(urcs. The Imsic i!llcrfncc
Chap(cr Eigh[). ‘I”hc dmlo lmvcmcs through the pockc[-switched nclwork. II
S(rUC(”rC is compuscd d (WO 1} ch:lnncls aml onc D “CllilnllC1. TIIC hmic
is hwsmillcd (u (kc rcmv(c pwkcl lmndl cr. [u IIIC NTl, uud liIINly [u IIIC
in[crfi!ce slruclurc requites (11:!( [w{) l] ch:mncls ;Iml ONC D cll:mncl nlways
cod-user 0T13 1) [I( the sfr inicrfocc.
be present a[ (he user nc~work inlcrfncc: (he D clmnnci, bi[ r;!tc is 16 kbiUs.
This up(ion is knowrl 2 1111).
:IS LAPI). I’bc
lSON provi~lcs n d:ll: t-link ptotoc,d 10 :!lk~,v Iyrl;s t{,
(I f)(ioll 7’wo: I>r;t>tnr.v ralr II cltouncl itlfrrfiwc .stntcfurc,s. ‘1’his :lltcr- communic:!tc C;ICIIolhw :ICI{NS IIW 1) CIUIIIIICI.‘1’his p![,ltwol is LA[lI).
will)
naiive provides [or s(ruc[urcs corresporldillg to (IIC common bit ra(cs o{ a subset or IIDLC, (Ch:!ptcr l~uur provides n dc[:lilcd discussiutl or 1IDLC. )
1.544 Mbit/s and 2.048 Mhi Us. The primnry clmnncls orc composctl of II LAPD operates :11Ihc dwl;!-link lnycf of lhc 0S1 orchilccltlre. TIc proIocol
chlnncls :md one D cllannel, The bit raic rOr Ihc D clmnncl wilh this op(ion
is indcpcndc!nl (jr lronsnlissiml hi! r:Ilc :II1d requires :, I,!ll.duplex i]il -
tramporcnf ch:mncl.
is 64 kbit/s. The Norlh American 1,544 Mbi Us slnnd:!rd requires (I1c in[crfacc
 suo!iqunuwo~ NOSI .01-6 am5!4

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saf, lloo~oo o (uotiewmju! pa,aqunu”n) ,“
Ou 1110 j/dill (1 .OWUJOl.! Paxfanoas) us (t .O!leUOiu! p-muanbas) LIS
0“ tllo (0 UOpelwo,”! pao”anbas) o,~
3/all Lo (o uoumfuow! pamnbas) OIS
CW tlll,~o o (epow M.UW5!P) Ma
(WOW .Wqeq
snOuoj~uAse Jas) N~VS
seh 1001 jld — (H)N — (w!a4 r3H (m!aJ) r3H
saA Lolo 4/d — (kf)N— (@EaJIOU04!-) ijNH (@?.J 10U OA!02aJ)HNH
sal, 1000 A/d — (B)N — (bea, aAF2aJ)w (Apee, e~!a>e,) w AIOs~adns

)ajsum~
[uo!!euuo,u!)I Uo”euuolu!

-.
 )
278 ,,@al Nclworks Chap, 9 Chap. 9 Integralec ..) ..al Nelwwks 279

TABLE 9.3. Cmn.,andllle!?ponsc Flcld Bits TABLE 9-4. ISDN !jtnles for Clrmdl.Swl!ched Calls

I Network CIR user cm w

(JI
#/l///s(a(e-No Cd f3XtSt$.
Call unit-Sla10 exisls for an outgoing call 898 result cd user action ,equesli”g cdl
Commands From f o eslabllslwrw”l,
Responses To 1 0 U2 overlap sendinPSlale exists for an outgoing call wMle Ihe USer IS sendi”Q CM
Commands To o I selup Informaoon 10 Ihe n.slwotk In Ihe overlap mode,
f%sponses From o f U3 outgoing cnll proceedir+!slnle IMs19 for o“ outgohg CM who. ltm “Otwotk l,a.q
ack”cmvledged receip! 01 the Inlormntio” requked for Ilte call to procond and lhe user
[he lype of fmme as well as (he sequence n[tmbe!.s used to maio[:lin windows Is awaiting further network response,

and acknowlcdgnlcnts bc(ween (I1c sc[lding :iml rcccivini dcviccs. U4 Call dellver.s+slale exists for an mdgolng call when the nehvork has compleled
processing the call 10 Ihe point C4receiving al.wf hom lhe user. network In!erlsce
Table %3 shows IWO commands und respomscs which do not exist in
lndlcalad by Ihe called address, or an alternafe Inlerface spoclfled eilher by (he
[he HDLC supersel, These are sequenced information () (S10) and sequenced ,called usar or the nelwtwk.
information 1 (S1 1). The purpose of (hc S10/S1 I commands is (0 lransfcr
us NG@;aI~IEIe eXMS la an Incoming call while negolia! ion for a suitable
information using scqucn[inlly acknowledged frames. These frmlcs conlain B.cllannel Is In progress,
in[orma[ioo fields provided by Ityer 3. ‘fhc infot’m:! (ion commands arc
U7 Call recaiw&Slale exlsls for an Incumlng call when 8 responselanswer hom (he
verified by the nleans of {he end (S1) field. The P bi[ is SC( 10 I for all SifMSll called user Is aw.ailed while al.wl”g,
commands. The S10 and S1 I respcmses are usctf during single frame U8 conned requesbslale exists Ior an Incoming call while wvalong receipt horn (he
operation to acknowledge tbe receipf ofS11 and SKf command frames and to nehvork of a connecl acknowledgment.
report the loss of frames or any syncbroniza[iou problems. LAI’D dots not U9 Incoming call proc6.eding-Sta!e exlsls for an I“cnmlng call when the user has
allow information fields 10 be pl:tced in [hc S10 :md S1 I response fmmcs. Scknowladged racelpl of the Irdormadon recf”l,ed for Ihe call IO p,~eed and !he
Obviously, information fields are io Ibe S10 and S1 I command frames. neiworkIs awailingIurlheruser response,
The work on layer 2 for ISDN using LAPD is crmtim!ing. Although (he (IIO Ac!ive.+l. ateoxisls when a call IS in !lIe o“d.lo. end communication.
19W-84 work has rcsullcd in the rcsolu[i[m of subs(tmlive issues by Ihe u! 1 Disconnect requesl-S! ale exists in response 10 a wquesl by Ihe user 10 disconmacl
standards groups, much \vork remains [o be done on llcfininF nlorc spcciiic a call, prior 10 acknowledgment by lhe nelwork.
primitives and funclions of LA PD. However, as can hc sccu fronl {his brief U12 Disconnect i“dicalioFSlale exisls when the network hag inticated ~ScOnnecf and
discussion, since i[ uscs ninny of [he I IDLC conccpls, LA PI) is nloving 10 the user has “o! yet indicated release or detach.
full definition and conlplcte spccific:dicms. U13 Oefach requesf-Slate exisfs when [!?9user has mques[ed a c811be detached, prior
ISDN addresses Iaycr 3 as WCII. TIIc Ioycr 3 spccificnlio!l (l-CCOmmCn. to acknowledgment by.lhe “.mwotk.
da!ions [.4s(] and 1.4s 1) cncmnposses cikt(it-rw;wl] cotmcclions, /mckc/- U!4 @lath-Slale exls!s when lhe B.chsn”e! has &en released bul lhe CaII haS “o!
s,tilclt connccl ions, nnd [I,rcr-f<>-tr.vcr conncc lions, The :Ic[tl:d :Ilignmcn[ of been cleated.
(he ISDN layer 3 func[ions with Ihusc of the 0S1 nclwbrk arc being s~udicd U!5 Suspend reques&Slatw exisls in response IO user acllon 10 initiate Ierminal move
a( Ihc prcsen[ time. [t SI1OUICIbe n~tetf that even [hougb tbe lSDN layer 3 procedures h?cslly, prior to acknowledgment bylhe nehvork,

standard ctinlains commmwls and responses dilTcrcrl( from Ihnt of Ibc 0S1 (JI6 Ldca/ suspend–Slale exists In respawe 10a suspend request, following receipl ol
X,25 l~yer 3 s(andwd, i[ is envisioned [ha[ [he (WO slnndi!rds will complc. Iha acknowledgment of the suspend lequesl by Ihe network.

mcnl c:Icb olhcr in complc{ing (I1c transmission of user iuformolion ocross U17 Resume reques&S! ale exisls in response lo a request 10 resume a previously
[be ICVCI3 nc!work, suspended call, prior to acknowledgment by fhe nelwork,

Circuit-s\vi[clled C:IIISusiog l;!ycr3 Imvc smc rcscmblimcc (o (Iw X.21 U19 Release ,equesl.-Sla!e exists In response !0 a release request, prim !0
acknowledgment by lhe nelwo!k,
sla[e diagrams discussed in Appendix C, “Ioblcs 9-4 znd 9-5 arc provided (o
give the rcodcr a bc[[cr umicrs(onding of Ihc lSl)N SI:IICS aml (IIC ISON U20 Remote {aci!dy requesl-Slnle CXISISin response to a tequesl from Om nelwork Ior
01.38clivslion of a facifly, ptior 10 user response.
sessiun-cs(:ibl isbmcnt procedures, as \vcll as i]lforftl:]liol)-lnllJsfcr ml
discs{ nblishmcnt procedures. U21 local Iacillfy reqw?sl-Slate exisls filler a request by Ihe “WC 10 the n~!wo,k for {he
activation of a Iacifily, pdor lo netwotk response.
Tbe hytwid of circuit- ZMI pnckc(-swi(chcd lccl!!ml[)gics irl ISDN his
rcccivccl s(rong criticism from ccrlttiu scgnlculs in lhc imltlsll-y, ‘fhc cri(ics NO Null sfnls-No call exists,

believe one technique, packe~ swilcbing, is suflcicnt (o accmnnlodo[c all

I
200 ) a! Networks Chap. 9 Chap 9 Integra!c ) et Nolwo!ks 281

TABLE 9.4. (conllnued) TABLE 9.5. ISDN Layer 3 Messages

N1 Dial lone s9ndhg-Sb31e exlsls for an oulgolng call when lhe networksends dial Call EslabllshmenlMessages Call OlsestablishmenlMessages
tone priorto the receipt01lhe firstmessage.
ALERTing DETach
N2 Overlap sendin@Jale exists for an oulgoing call when Ihe ne!workIs awailing
IurfherInlormalionhom (he user before attempting call establishment.
CALLProceeding DETach Acknowledge
CONNecl DISCOnnect
N3 Oulgo(ngcall proceeding-S1ate exists for an oulgolngcall when the networkhas
ecknmv!edged receipl .1 the Inlormallm requhodfor !fm call to proceed, and Ihe user CONNectAcknowledge RELease
Is avmlllngfurthernetworkresponse. SETUP RELeose COMPhJte
N4 Call delive*St’dk3 exists Ior an oulgol”g call when the nohwxkISaware Ihot SETUPAcknowledge
mmpalibleuserequipmentexistsal {hecalleduserInferfacewhichcan acceptlhe call.
Call Information Phase Messages Mtscella”e.wsMes%lges
N5 Negotiate-State OXISISfor an Incomingcall when the user,and the no!work are
attempting 10 select a Emhannel on which 10 Comple!e tho call. RESume CANCel
N6 call presenks!ale exlsls for an Incoming call when the call has been Indlcaled by RESumeACKnowkdgo ‘ CANCWIAcknowledge
the network but no user has Indicated whether the cafl can be a~ep(ed. RESumeREJ@ci CANCel REJect
N7 Call receive6SkYe exists for an Incoming call aller user oq”ipmenl has Indicated SUSPend Congestion CONhcA
the s!afl 01 user alerting. SUSPendAcknowledge FACtlily
N8 Connec( reques+Slale exlsls when an incoming call N awaiting a response to a SUSPendREJcJci FACllity Acknowledge
conneck message to the user. USER fNFOrmaUcn FACili\yREJSCI
N9 Incoming call proceeding+ ilale exlsls [or an incoming call wllon the user has lNFOrmatlon
acknowledged receipt 01 the Information required for the CSII [o proceed and the
REGlsler ,
netwofk Is awaiting Iurther user response.
REGlsler Acknowledge
N1o Ac(ive-Stale exists when a call Is In the end.lo. end communlcaf ion mode.
REGisler REJecl
N!! Disconnect req”esl+lale exists afler a user has indicated disconnect and the
STATUS
nehvork has nol yet cleared the connection.
1412 Discnnnec! indicaliOrP-Slale exlsls when lhe nelworkhas indicateddisconnectand
applications {II an integrated digital nelwork. For example, Satellilc Business
tha user has not yet Indicaleddisconnect.
Syslenls (SBS) successfully uses one uniform approach. However, due to
N13 Detach reques+Slale exists when Ihe nelwork has requeslef a cdl be detached,
pdw to acknowledgment by the user. [hc browlcas[ m!furc U( sn!cllife signals. SL3S is nof ccmccrncd with the tm(unl
switching itml rml[ing of its sigusls.
N14 Delac&Slate exists when the B. Channel has bee” releas%d but Ihe call has not
been cleared by ni!her (he network or the user. Nonc(helcss, the shmdm’ds were approved by the CCIIT represen(a-
N15 Suspend reques+%lala exists when !he neiwork has received a su$Pe~ WJesl
livcs of 157 counlrics in OcIubcr 1984. mlrl several prototypes have been
but has not yel sent a response 10 the user. built. For exmnplc, Urilish “~clcconlmitrlic:tlions (BT) has cwnplc!ccl 064
N16 Local suspend-Slale exists when the network has posilivety acknowledged a kbh/s and (WO 8 kbi(/s syslcms in London, and ISDN chips we available in
request for call suspension. Eogkmd and North America.
N17 Resume reques+S[ale exists when (he network has lecejved a resume requesl bul The proponcn[s or lSi)N believe i[ 10 be :Iblc 10 :Iccommu&iIc a wide
has nol yel sent a responseto the user. vwic[y of end-user applicnli[ms. such as Ihc ability [o choose csscn[ix[ nml
N18 Tone aclive++tah? exlsls after a network disconnect request when the opllon 01 nonesscnl ia] scrviccs, cbmmcl options, aml vnri:lblc dn!n IOICS.
sending in.band lone iS used.
Nt9 Release reques+Slak exisls when the network has )I>ifiakdNIoIeleaso of a call Europe, the Far East, and the ISDN
(that is, disconnecOon o! the B-channei and release of the call relerence value) and
Recommendations
Is awaiting user acknowledgment.
N20 Rernofe facility ,eques&Sta!e exisls alter a request fromthe networkfor the
Europe has been !hc initinl focus for cody IS[)N Icsts. For cxomple,
activation01a faciflty, prior to user response.
the Fedcrid Rep\lblic of Germany Ims comple[ed a Ien-ci[y (es[ using two
N21 Local facilify reques+ Slate exists aller a request Irom dle user for the aclivalkm of
ISI)N cxchnnges in Stutlgart mid Mnntlhcinl. The Gcrmnn l’lT supports !he
a facility,prior10the nelwork response.
ISDN S in(erf;!cc nml lcl-minol ml:!p[or (TA) [o ;dlow CUI-ICII(IY cxisfing
 ,
‘) ‘ }
282 b,gmd Networks Clmp.9 Chap.9 DigllalSW.,., ,# 2$3

DTlls to usc lhc syslcm ‘The Gcrrmm sy.dcm IISCS a TA X.21 kw X.21 1.430 :md 1,43 I :!1 (Iw physicnl ktycr. AI lbc ll;tt:l-link Inycr, [.APD is used,
iuleflaces of 2.4 and 64 kbi Vs, and Ihc ‘IA X.21/bis ror lhc V-series nwdcms but (IIC U.S. propwwl Ims IIIIKIC some mimlr CI1OIWCSnml nddifiorls 10 Cci”rr
of 2.4 and 64 kbi[/s. The West German PTr, Dcu(schc flunclcposl, plans 10 1.440 mNI [.441. TIIC ne[work layer has been simplified, bu! is slill closely
lmvc 6 milliun ISDN sllhscrihcrs by IIIC year 2UUU. a~igncrt [0 ccrrr I ,450 amJ I .45 I.
The Ihdi:m PTT bc~in ISDN field ~rials in 1984 uml Ims pk!ccd cligihd Tbc Tl crmlmillcc has :t suhcommillcc (T1 1)1) dcvolcd 10 ISL)N work,
:.
telephones, show-scan video, m)d in[cractive da[a in(o the proto[ypc. I ID I consists of lhrcc working groups:
Inlcrcslingly, the I[:dion version also inlctiaccs in[o an X.25 d:ila-packc(
network. ‘1’he ini[iul subscribers w (I1c I(ali:ln sys(cm nrc tour Iargc crmlpa - TIDl. I ISDN Architcclurc nnd Scrviccs
nies. The major l(alian telephone comptmy, SIP, cs[ima(cs [b:i( 90 pcrccn[ of T( D 1,2 Swi[cbing and Sigmdling Protocols
[he local loops will be digiltll by 1990.
T] DJ.3 Physical Layer
The Uni[crl Kingdom was onc or the enrlicr cn(rics inlo integrated
digi(al sys[cms. Its sys(em, ln~egraled Digi[ol Access (IDA). is !:!! i!clcd for
Iorgc users, IDA is being used IO interface user equipment in(o ISDN D}gJtal SwJlching
scrviccs. ‘I”hc U.K. slruc{urc will bc buill :lround Ilrilish ‘1’clccom’s Syslem
X family or services. ll~ihiin plans on cs[xblishing IOU() IDA ncccss Ioc:diuns A fully inlcgrnlcd digiinl network mtmI lmvc tbc ubili[y IU switch signols
by 1988. mnong aml Ix4wccn (IIC various compm IcINs in Ihc ncl\vork. Incrcmingly,
France possesses one of the world’s nlost nlodern digital ICICPI1OIW digi(al-swi[ching technology is being used to perform U1e routing and
ne[works. Unlike o[her countries, France is in(roclucing ISDN through snlall switching funclions ot’ lhc digitid pulse.code images, Figure 9.12 shows a
businesses md rurfil areas. “rhe French PIT eslinmles [ha; 95 percent of [he simple digital time division switch, The swilcb conlrols (Iw gales to a
coun[ry will have lSDN nccess by 1995. common bus, which are opened aml closed at various lime periods to allow
In Japan, Nippon Tclcgrnph nnd “1’clcphonc is plnnning and developing the digi[ul bils 10 bc Iransmitlcd bclwccn [hc devices o(l;lcllcd to [he swilch.
a nationwide ISDN, which is due for completion in [be ycm 2000. Tbe In (IIC illustration, assuming (IMI WI’13 A is communicating willl DIE F, [hc
sys(em, cailcd [bc lnforma(ion Nc[work Sys{em (INS), will bc used by 6004 switch closes n gale 10 DTE A and to f)TE F during [he same sfo[ period,
which pcrmi(s a .scgmcn! of speech or dfi!a 10 bc Iransrcrrcd :Icruss (he bus
subscribers for (es[ing and developmcn(. NIT’ plans on (be nmjority of the
user beirlg residential subscribers. [0 tbc rccciving device.
The resul[s of these and o[hcr lests will de[erminc Ihc fu[ure of the From previous discussions in this chapter, we have Ienrned thaf a PCM
ISDN. sampling speed is 8000 .wmplcs per sccoml, A digilrd swiich nlusl be able (o

(/tI/fed Sfates and the /SDN /?ecommendaf/ons

While the full features imd s[andards of (be ISDN ore still under
development, several !es!s have been made of the curren(ly existing s(an.
dnrds, For example, Illinois Ucll o(l’crs ISDN wi[ll tllc SESS digilal switch
amJ cnhmccd soft\vare. Tlle sollware prrwidcs for in[egm[cd circuil and
packet-switching capabilities al lbe 5ESS s\vitch. 1! Imndlcs voice and data
:!t the same time. The Illinois Bell systcm suppnrts the CC1l-r intcrnotimml
ISDN slandarcls, including ihc 11and D cbanncls. ‘1’hc U chonncls opcm(e al
64 kbi[/s OUIJ:!re used for voice tmd hulk rhta circuil-switcbcd informa[iom
“l-be D cbnnncl supporis pocke[.swilcllcd dalo at cilhcr 16 ot- 24 kbiUs. “f’he
!3 aml D cbstrncls tcrnlinlte in[o the SINS compu(cr.
lle U.S. accrcdl(cd sfondards commillee, T] Tclecommunicatiom,
has wri[ten a drofl slandard for an ISDN prinmry dn!n rale of 1.544 MbiUs.
l-he recommendation is q!litc similar to the CCI’I-I s(an(lmd ind is z nmjor ,.
SIe P in nloving the U.S. lo\vnrd ISDN. Tbe proposal conr%rms to CCJIT Figure 9-12. SimpleTime DlvlslonDigllal Switch
 284 oi~ ) Iwmks Chap, 9 Chap,9 Vol.. Trans. )‘, by Packet 285

provide 8000 SIOIS [or Iwc/{ ccmncclion Thcrcforc. for Mscssin!}s, lhc swilcll OIIIIW[ rr:mtc. Wilh nwc COWICX systcm, onc ‘rsl is usmdly CmIIICCtCd
musl be swi[ching :1[ :} speed of )1 x 8000. A very snmll sys[cm is cop:ddc of 10 a!wlhcr 10 form a digilnl swi[ch collcd lhc finrc nttilliplc.rcd ,sIIifclI
swi(clling more [hilt] 2 million hits pcr second, which SIIPIM) IISover 30 I’CM (“INS). A TMS is csscttihdly s\vitch (JJ = mwdwr {~rc{>tltlcc!i(~tls):
ml 11-IIY-}1
channels. however. Ihc TMS provides ror :wolhcr dimension-tinlc. Unlike o[hcr
Two fortlls of digilol s!vilching ~rc nv:!ilnhle: .SP(ICC,.s!t,i!cltit!x xml Ii!tw swilchirrg sys[cms nnd nlatly PBXS, which Icnve the poll) upcn I’m [he
Ji),i.riolf ,YI!,i!c/IiI!K. A space swilch connects ;uny inpul Iimc slot (soy 4) 10 my rlumliwl Ora call, a TMS is ch:tngcd rlw cacll Or [hc n time slots ill IIIc digi!ol
ou[pl!l lime slol 4, The cvnocclion Ihmugh lhc swi(ch 1:!s[s unly Ior (he rfimlcs cO[lli[lg from the lime divisicm multiplexer (SUCI1 as u chnrmcl
dura(iou of lhc time slol. lxmk).
! The ccmccpl is simil:!r lo (I1c virl~a:tl-co@lglcction conccp[ nr p:tckcl
Enrlicr discussion!.s also cxpl;tincd !IIc (ISC ofu “1”124 :Ind Ihc CC1’l-l’30
voice-channel tmul!iplexcd rramc, Tllc ‘1’1or CC I”I”I’chx!mcl Imnk nssocinlcs switching nnd X.25, A pllysicd will} (or bund\vidlh) is shared hy mullipic
users. This relationship is eviden! in Figure 9-13. TSl A accepts a multi-
a specific customer’s loop with n specified time slot. These spccificd time
plexed s(reanl into its inpu( slorc register nnd s(ores a slot in bulf’cr position
SIOLSlhcn CM be SCI1[ (0 (I1c digi[:d swi~ch kw rouliltg lhmugh (hc digiitd
6. Shorlly Ihcrcarlcr, il trnnsfcrs (his IJ:w1 to its outpul SIOIC (mllcr, posi( ion
network.
20. The TMS, al n specific time, will connect TSI A OUIPU[ bulTcr to TSl Z’s
The more clabomlc digil:il lime clivisicm swilcll SCP:!HNCSIhc imfividual
inpu[ bulTcr. in (his COSC. cluring slot 20. (I1c swnplcs rrom TSl A are
PCM signals ond s\vi[cllcs thcm through a ti!,!r .sII>l it! fi,rcl#ttf!#<,f i{ci/i(y (T’SI)
lrmrsfcrrccl 10 TS1 Z’s I1unll~cr 20 lime S1OI:1s WCII. Alicr this nccurs, TSl 7.
(Figure 9-13). The TS1 can bc a nonblocking swilcll ill that (here arc lhc same
Irtmsfcrs its input slore bufrcr. (I1c 20[h sIo(, 10 i[s outpu[ siorc bulTcr 15, :Im.1
nu!nber or inpu[ slots availa blc as (here we ou[pui slots. A channel CJII be Ihc data is [ransnli[lcd, In (his manner, digikd imnges we swiiched throwgh
swilcllcfl rronl lime posi(icm X in on inpu~ rmmc (0 linlc posilicm )’ in nn &[ime division digilzrl switch. Al(lwugh not SI1OWI1ill (his I@rc, a TMSfLSl
focili[y provides for bidircclionnl tr:msmissiOn-(lle TMS uses the same [inlc
,,,., Tramh Mo&I SIOI 10 iptcrleavc diua goin~ the o[her dircc[ion, thus providing for full-

DiL
S!.,! Low
.—— ———-- duplcx [musmissirm.
6 Digital swilclli!lg 1)0s rt~t]ld i(s \voy iuto the PUX incluslry nmi Ims
‘., overcome One of (he m;!jor limiting facturs [)[ using n PBX ror dnln
‘\\ cunlnlunicat ions. We discuss lhis issue i!l Chap[ c\- Twelve.
--.,
20

Voice Trensmlssion by Packet

_—.
—-----
O“!wt
s,.!,
1::$!! y“;
Clmplcr Scvcrr rliscmscs Ihc nl(lihulcs and pros and cons of IxIckc(-
swi(clling syslcnls. Enlphmis vw plnccrl on pncker-swi(ching
rnu(ing computer- and (crtllitlnl.gc! !cfittctl dula. This choplcr hm mh.lrcsscd
[he Wmsln(ion ofmudog voice nnd video images inio digih!l bit s[reams, wc
can now take lhcse lwo subjecls, dntn packet tmnsmissicm and digilal voice
ne(!vorks for

HI
transmission, nnd join Ihc Iwo Icchnologics. Tllis scc(iou discwsscs o Iickl
so! Ihn( is mpii.lly gaining IIIC :tttctltiotl of the conlnlllnicotions indus(ry: pnckct
--cJ !5 ~%
-.. .
.. ,0
voice lrnnsnlissiml llsing digital cmliog techniques.
Chaplcr Scveu briclly discussed Ihc cady rcscnrch [hmc on pockc!
S“3!W”
systems: “pockclizing” vnicc. II \\ws recognized lhtl[. Iikc d:l[:l tmnsmis -
.......... sion, voice lrwrsmissimt has a “buts[y”
L qunlily—souml inlcrspcrsecl with
,s12 ?criods of silcncc, Ccmscqucntly, voice p~ckcts c:!n shnrc a conlnlon
NO,*:O(IWO,,ew”. c,,!,,.9”1 !,,”. Sc,wm“m, (N.!Shw”l0.0!,, Shwl!”mw,l”. . ch?nncl, juslm dnto pttckcls do lmk!y. ‘The ra[ionslc for \wice hy pockets is
7S!,. “,(,,9Sam,T,mt51.<m lMS.
Inuch the sanlc m d:![tl by pnckcts: to shwc [he trallsnlisiiml nlld sivitching
Figure 9-13. Time.Mulllplexed Digital Swl!ch facililics, Ccrlninly. the couccpls implemented wi(h nu in[egralcd digital
. ,- .,. .. ... I
 I
I

206 )I Nelwotks Chap.9 . Chap:9 Bell Lab: ~ m!.SwllclledVoice.Dala Palenl 207

systems such as SIJS and [hc ISDN s{andords puint 10 :1 movement to AIIoUIcr prohtcm pcrt:nius 10 [bc dcluy ur [hc (runsruission ur Ihc
in[egrs led voice-dnla sys[ems. ptckc[s through in[crmcdi:!{c mxfcs or thi network. and Ihc consequent
The concep[ of voice by fmckct is illuslralcd in Figutc 9-14. A rmckc( dclny or [heir arrivni m (kc rcccivcr. [n d;IIu p:!ckc( nc[works, pnck.ds
voice terminal ([’V”]’) is wwd [0 pmvidc lllc intcd’ncc 01 lhc (clcpbunc :Inalug cncmmlcr dillct’cnt dcloys, cspccinlly ir [hey arc truvclling [hrougk a
hmdse[ aml a dala lermimtl. The work at this lime (prinwrily by lhc Dcfcmse non-session-oriented ncfwork (see Clmptcr Seven for non-session.oriented
Advanced Research Pmjcc[s Agency [DARPAI. AT&T Bell Lnbs, GTE nc(works), Voice reproduction requires a fixed rnte uf packet reconstruction
Corp., MIT, and Tymnc[) II:M rocuscd w IIIC iltj:ll<>g.[u-[ligit:ll Iccbniqucs or and a fixccl mtc or playmtt (It tbc rccciviog cmJ to [be user. Since packets
CVSD [continuously vnriable SIOPC dclla modtdu[iotl) or LpC (lillcar Pre- arrive at vwinblc tinlcs, o puckcl must bc dclnycd and bullercd a{ [be
dictive coding), The voice processor pl-ovidcs rm analug ~ud digi(:d speech rccciviug site in order [o nllow [lie rcnsscmbling of tiny Ialc-arriving pncke [s,
conversion. Ttle protocol processor is rcsjxmsibk br controlling (he nt- A poin[ is rcncllcd. huwcvcr, where In[c-nrriving. nmmrrivit,g, or wu”dcri”g
(ached PVT modules. It gencm[es and interprets the pncke(s necessary for pmcke(s simply nmsl be ignored uml the resultant incoruplc(e oulpul p~ckets
establishing a call or session. It OISOcon[~ins buffers for (be incoming ml given to the end user. This can create gaps ,in a voice conversation if the
outgoing packets. Tbc network intcrfacc processor is cmlccivcd 10 provide delmys bccomc scvcrc.
(he nc(work-dependcn! packet in!ct-face. One applollcb 10 sulvc lbc dckuy prublcm is bmcd ml cbol>sitlg N I:wgc(
pldyout by nn anmlysis of Ihc network to deternline wllcn (he nlajori[y of
pwckcls arrive. Upon passing (IIC IIWCSI1OM, Ihc packets nrc presented os
voice oulput. Scvcswl ::pprm!chcs tam umlcr sludy [o cnb:mcc (his lccbniquc by
?,0.,%s0(
dynamically adjt!s[ing (IM slclay lime based 011 network conditions a[ a
pwlicuiar pcliOd.
Tlle lllird prublcm pcrluins 10 (IIC choice or n pnckc[ size. Tu nlinitllizc
9 ——

-’0
(kc delay of the packet nml to decrease the efrec[ of a Ios(, damuged, or
Packel
Netwo,k kale-arriving packel, it is dcsimble to keep the packets as stmrt M possible.
SI1[W pzcke[s provide ror raster response [imc Ibun long packets, Ilowevcr,
long packets provide for bctlcr ch:mncl utilization, because shorl pockc(s
Figure 9-14. Packel. Voice System hove mm’c non-user data in Ihe form or packe[ benders and control fields.
Oplimum packel size mus[ ccmsidcr rcspcmsc lime, [hruughput. and the
Expcrimcn(s and research [bus far encourogc uplitllis!ic prcdictiuns for effect of late or lost packels.
usi[lg pocket-swiiclling networks ror both voice and d:l[n. [ lowcvcr, voice by
pncke[ does prcscn[ sonle significant pwhlcms. First, il is desirable 10 usc
existing pnckc( nc[v.,orks ror voice [ransnlissiutl IU prccludc building n rcdm!- Bell Labs’ Packet-Switched Voice-Data Patent
dant network, Dala (transmission is rela[ivcly in[olcmnt, of errors, so the
packc[-switching protocols [mfay, sllch m X. 25, zssumc (he poslure of correct- {n conlrasl 10 lhe LSDN stamlmxls, which use a hybrid of circuit and packet
ing m mmy emors as possible. However, voice [nmsmission is quite lolermst of switching, seveml emerging pnckel voice sys(enls use only pocket s\vi[ching
occasiom.1 errors. Forexatllple, a 40-nliOisecond speech scgnuml, if lust, would [o carry bo(I1 voice and d:ttn. Llcll Labs has received n patent Ihrough (he
not aflecl (I1c in[clligih ilily of a ccmvcrs:t lion tlct\vcctl Iwu users. work of a furmcr cmpluy cc. Jmmllmn S, Turner (nuw at Washington
}Juwcver, error tolcrancc cm plncc a nctwurk dcsiglpc!- in a “c:Itcb 22” University in S[. Imuis. Missouri).
si[u:t[ion Fur cxmnplc, if a ccmncctiuolcss nclwurk (SCC Chnp(cr T\vo) The nppruncll by “f’llttlcr is sllo\vn ill F@rc 9- If. At Ibc user premises,
supports voice by packet, an occasional Ios[ packet may do no harm. On Ihc voice channels and dnta transmissions are packctizcd and digitized a[ the
olhcr Ih;!ud, a series of Ius[ p:lckcls cm!ld possib[y clmngc Ihc nlcsning ofa cus(omcr in[crfacc (Cl) before lhcy nrc sent 10 [he Iclepbuuc ccnlml oflice,
conversa!iotl. For ins!ancc, consider a pnckc[ voice convcrsntirm such as The p~cke[s are lransmitlcd across (lie cuslunlcr”s digi(al subscrihcr line
this. “Ycs, our nlecliilg is in Ihe SJO Airport—r will mcc[ YOUtllcrc. ” The (DSL) to (IIC packcl swi(ch ir!(ctfitce, [hen uvcr l, S. fvlbi(/s TI chmnels to the
p:ickc[ reln{ing !U (he “J”’ is danlagcd and inlcrPrclcd as SFO—Srm rmcket s\vitcll residing in (he centml OKLCC,
Francisco Airport. The (WO individu:lls we ~uiug 10 expcricnccs frus[ra{ing Unlike cunvcn(iunxt pnckcl switches, Tumcr’s SYSICIII ulilizcs wry
“non-mecling. ” high-speed pmdlel pt’ocessing. itl which severot ac[ivi(ws tt!ke place con-

,.
 I

) ~
l)igitol Networks Chap.9 Chap.9 Conc<u.lu,,
208 209
/
I NoTES

liC!!git!mWz#cmtd Opcr,lfion,c in the UrR S.MIC

U!, 2MI cd. (Murruy Hill, NJ:
AT&T Ucl[ Lnhomh,rics. 198s), p. 220. Copyright AT& ’f’ llcll [,tthormorics. llc-
printe.dwill) permission.
‘J. Carmmly. “lhimcr: Watiyslol’mn Voice Signuls into L)igi!vl cudcs... JJ<lf,!
ocmhcr 1984, pp. 10S-I 13.
C<,!!t!t!#ttticnfi,~rt,v,
3J w, Fe,,,, cl, Jr,. NW! f), t). (i<~hiotl. “’A Sn(cflilc C,,,,,,ttt,ttic;ttic,ns Control.
DSL Icr, ” [JIM SS.WC,,MJ<m,ml. Vol. 22. Nos. 1/2, 1wI. pp. ii I-94,
osL

I ‘$ PNl

T1at 1,544MEW% D~L DSL

/
.’
SUGGESTED READINGS

Ahnlcd, Fnhim. md IJcycr, fichard. '' FronlDnta to Voice/Data, <<Te/ccc,rr,!t,t(lticn.

lions, Fcbmmy 1985. pp,.11-11
ikmwY,ClilTmd. “K1.W~Caltlp;!ign$f orl Sl>N Nolo,,,. l{Ic,I,,>,,;,.I \vc,.k, J:muNry
1985.
lleO:lnly. Jc41n. f)igilo/ T,,lc[]ltr,tty, Ncw Ycwk: John Wilcy:md Sons. 1982.
“Digital Access Signaling Syslcm,s - VohmmV1. Ilmcicle V1.9. CC[17’Rcd BW,k,
CCITr PlcwwyAs scmbly.0clober&19, t984(Malnga.Torrcrnolinos),
-., i ,.”
..\\ I “Oigilo( Nclwmks.TcwMnlissio(t Syslcmsnnd Mul!iplcxij,g Eq,lipnjcnt.a, VOhIITIC
/’
To 0,1>,. Cm’lral 0!!;..$ 111, l%scicle 111.3. CC17’1 Rrd UOOk, CCl”l-r Plenmy AsscNd,ly, Vctober &19.
., the Co”ve”ti.mt 1984 (Maloga-Torrcn]olinos),
CI: cummr l.wrf ace citcuit.sw!tch~d
TelephoneNc!vm,k
“DipiKd Tnmsil Exclmngcs in Intcprated IJigiml Networks and &fixed Analogue.
DSL: oi~;td Subxr!bw Line
I Digila[Nctworks. Digi(al L(lcnlan<l Combi!jcd Exchanges.. qVvh!nw V1.
Fascicle
PNI: pecketNetwork Interface
CO: Confaim PacketSW!l.h VI.5, CC/7 T/fed Umk. CCl”fTPlenary Assembly, Oc(ober &.19, 1984 (Malagu.
‘rorremolinos),
Figure 9.! 5. Bell Labs”Packet SwilchedVoice DOla SY3t0m8
“Inlcgra(cd Scrviccs Digilnl Nclwmk (lSDN),” Vohtmc III. Fascicle [1[,5. CC_IfT’
Rmflfo,,k. CCl~ll,lcmiry Assc[lll,(y, Oct{,hcr 8-19. lV84(hl:bl:,ga.,1’[~rrc,,,t,lint, s).
currently in !he s\vitch. ‘i’he swi[cbcs roufc Ihc pnckcts wilh self-routing “[be .’Xrenglhs and Applic.lions of Llgilnl IJnla Multiple xing,.. Jl,t,vicCm!C.@.Y,JIJrm
algorithms, and the packets move by Ingiczl channel nssighmcnts [rem 1979.
swi[ch 10 swilcll to lhe final Clcstinnlion. Turner Cs(imntcs n lmliolla(
“U.K. Cm’ricrP ilolsl Sl)N:Spccd I)ucks Expcclcd St:t$!,l;lrcl,., lJ,j!,! C<,!, zt!!,t!8ic,j
“Ojce.da(a (}e!work WOUld experience m dclny of onlY 100 kI 200 miRisec-
fions, July 1984, OP. s4-s8.
omis-ccrlainly sullicienf [o dimini.?h most of (he playofr( problems clis. Woods, John. “A Look m the Pros md Cons of AnnloS mudDigi!:d Technologies fol
cussed earlier. hiicrowxvc Rmlio,”’ Cc)?)t,?f)tttirn/i,,!t.~.February 1984,

Conclusion

In [Ire very near fu!ure, a (ermimd or pcrscm?.1 computer \vill bc nblc .[

~cCCp( SpOkCU i!lpu[ frnm its user, perform gr:mmmr d syntnx correclim, s,
and, if neccssnry, produce o tinishctl, Iypcd nml}uscrip(, Scvcr:!l such
products are now nvail;!blc, ofrcring z Iimi!cd vocabulary. AS (he (cchnofw
gics of speech syulhcsis, rwtilicial i!l(clligcncc, pockcl voice, nnd intcgra!d
Yoicc-ckita nc!vmrks convcrgc, compu(cr nclworks will undergo n significmd

-., . [ransforma(ion. in (he fu[ure, (he fernlinol kcyb~ard will bc a thiiu! of the
,, .,.......:,, . . . . ,,, ,,
.
 Chap.10 PublicNelwml )- 29i

,.,
CHAPTER TEN The cuslmncr may chonsc 10 have a comlccliOll which pwvidcs o IC;ISCLI
chmmcl poI-I at n Tclcncl ccntrtd olficc (TCO). TIIc ktcili(y provides port
speeds ranging frcml 110 hi[/s [o 56.(KKJ bit/s. Ano(hcr fen{ure. (be dedicated
occcss fwilily (OAI:), prwvidcs ml X.25 network i,nlcrfucc Iur speeds uf2400
Public Networks and Carrier Offerings M/s or higher. “flc DAF cml nlso hc oblnitlcll \vilh a diol b:wk.up io cusc Ihc
dcdicatcd fncili[y goes down. The did bttck-up facilities arc nvoilublc M 4800
Ii[/s or 9600 bit/s.
In uddilicm M tbc tlcdicolcd cbntlocl in[u Tclcnc[. Ihc c:twicr :11s0
.;.Ipports public tclcphonc dial.in service, “f’elenet is available through
did-up local scrvicc fronl over 95 pcrccn[ of fhc busillcss phones io (hc U.S.
Chmgcs arc bmcd o,) clnss A or Clm.s B cilics, Cilics clmsilicd m Closs A
‘iwc rcta(ively high volumes of clufa, and Tclenc[ supporls Class A cities
~i(ll spcerls up 109600 bi[/s. Cities witll rekrlively low (ralTc are Class B
Introduction cilies. ‘rebel supporls Class 13 cilics with tmnsmission mtcs of up 10 1200
bills.
As compulers and terminals proliferated Ihi-oughcwl businesses mld homes, Cuslomers may cstilblish vir(unl connections to any o!her user sull-
we have recognized [he need to ‘clink up” (he macbincs to slmrc sof(wme, scribing [o the TclcncI network. Telcnct also provides mr option CIOSCIY
dala, and conlpu[ing power, The 1:1s( several cb~pters covcrcd several rcscmbliog the X.25 closed user-group facility (Clu!ptcr Eigh[). The Mure
nllcrna(ives for linking DrEs by disl-up (elcplmnc Iincs. priva(c circuits, Mows customers 10 eshd~lisll connections with designated s[;i[ ions only.
private networks, and public networks. Tllis clmptcr discmsscs (IIC usc of Tclcnc[ also pl-ovidcs for nn X.25 I>AD-like futlcl ion. Di(f’crcnl cus-
public ne~works nnd comnmn c:!rricrs ilt more detail, ond bighligh!s some of Iomcr st:llions wi[ll diflcrcn( profocols cmt comtnunicn[c wiih cnch olhcr in
[he nlore \videly used nc[works and carrier oiTcrings in cxis[cncc. 1[ is TCICIICI’S nc[work virlual icrminol (N VT) mmlc. Tclcncl’s NVT uccommo-
impossible (o cover all (IIC avxil;tblc sysfcms. CnrISCqIICnlly.: Ihc cx:lnlplcs Jalcs lcrmimd dilrcrcnccs in chomctcr cmlcs, dcvicc linling, und dcvicc
cboscn are illustm(ivc of (tie many and diverse options availnhlc. Prices Imvc fommts.
been omil[cd ptlrposc!y bccalJse of their vololilily. The rewlcr is cucouragcd As wi(h many public nclworks, Tclcncl olTers spcci:ll fca(ures. For
[0 con[ac[ a vt!rie[y of vendors, since Ibc prices old scrviccs {)ftcn vnry cxmnplc. lhc hol-liuc d;Il:I scrvicc olluws (I1c user 10 communica{c directly
signilicnn[ly. Also, Ix tiwarc tha{ (IIC olrcrings nrc cllut~ging very !rapidly. hclwcco IWO por(s m kN1g M MIC port opcmlcs al Icss th~!u 1200 bil/s. Also,
users can obtaiu a discoun[ by using the nigh[! ime service :Ind facilities
during olT-pe:lk or weekend hours. Telcne! provides an electronic mail
Public Networks service cnlkxl Tclcnmil (SCCChap[cr “Tllirlccn). A user nmy nls(I bnvc Tclcncl
LIccess cquipmcn( 011 tbc cuslomcr si[c, .’l’his equipmcn[ is crdlcd a Telcnet
Teienet processor (TP) and is instollcd an~ maintained by tbe Telene[ syslcm. The
Tclcnel processor comes ill several vcrsicms. The versions nnd their support
Tclencf was ooe of [he first public networks cslablishcd in lhc Uni[c(l are Iistcd below:
Slalcs. 1[ also was (he firs[ U.S. du(a nc[wmk [o u~er p~lckct-swilcbit)g
(cchnology. TelcrJcl olrcrs scrviccs to all 50 SIMCS and IIIC Dislricl of 1~ /000 Series OITCISIrmmmission speeds of 75-300 hitls
Columbia. In adcliikm, i[ provir.lcs conncc(iuns iolo uvcr 40 fnrcigll coun(rics 3 Asynclwoncms Ports
or proleclora[ es. The wide coverage is n[lmctive for busiocsscs or individ-
7 AsynchrmwI/s poltS ,
u:ils [hat conduct opem[io!ls ntouml \hc \vmld or thrmlghvu( IInc LJnitcd
Sta(cs. Tbc ‘rclcncl network consis(s of Ixlckbonc CI1;IIIIICIS npcroting N 56 14 Asynchronous Ports
kbi[ls,
17’ 2;00
Ttlcnct convcrls o t!scr d:l(n SIIC:!II1 ittto p:tickc(s for [r;{nsnlissioll
[hrmlgh its backbone !le[work. ‘i”he pilckc(s cm1 (IC ml more {11:1(11024 bi[s in Basic Uni(
Ieng(h. Access (O llle ‘rclcne~ Imckhonc is provided [hruugh several fca[urcs. 4 Asynchronous PUI(S
,. . ,, . ,.-.
 292 Public Networks ] ,mticr Oflorlngs Chap, 10 Chap.10 P, ) .Wworks 293
.,.
8 Asyncllronous Ports I I 0-9600 c) The lllirtJ osynchromms service is IIIc provision Cor dedicn led
4 Synchronous l’orls 2400-9600 diol-up por(s. TYMNET’ provides a dcclicntcd port tllrougll the
public di:d.wp nclwcwk.
8 IIDLC 1’01[S 2400-9600”
IJ) ‘rhc fourth m.yncllronous oplio” provides dctli~[ilcd l~a~~ lilj~~ (0
I Syncht-onous Port 56,000
[bc TYMNET node.
1s 4000 ,.
e) The fifth scrvicc proviclcs n dcdicntcd processor Iocntcd n[ (IIC
13asic Uni[ silt.
4 Asynchronous Potts I I1)-961J0 2. TYMNET provides for polled asynchronous support [o a cus[omer’s
8 Asynchronous Purls I I(L9601J facili(ics. ‘l”hc customers nrc comwc(cd 10 Ihc TYMNET node wi[h
4 Synctlrcmolls Por(s 240(>9600 cledicotcd Icnsed lines.
8 H13LC Ports 2400-9600 3, 3270 bisynchronaus (USC, sec Cbap[er Four) conncc[ions are provided
wi(ll speeds up to 9.6 kbit/s. The in[erf:ices usc [hc V,24 standard
1 Synchronous Por[ 56,000
(Appendix C). This option provides for o[her declica(ed leased liues or
dedicated synchronous dial-up por[s.
Op(ioIId/ .$drvicc.r:
4, TYMN12T :,1s” suppnrls :1 direct X.25 conncc (ion lhi-uugh dcdic;l[cd
Rotnry, pcr dcdic:i[cd access line
leased Iincs or dcdicnlcd syncllronous dial-up ports. HDLC is sup.
Caller ID, public access ports (6)
po!-lcd wi[h speeds up to 56 kbitis operating under either V.24 or V,35,
1s[ five p:lss\vOrd codes
5. An SDLC ccmnec(i[m is supported [brougl: dcdic:llcd Ic:wcd Iincs,
Demilcd Connection Report:
6. Dcdic~!ccl lea@ lines or dedicated dinl.up synchronous ports arc also
Ist 4000 connections available. for RJE/l IASP. This supporls several members of [he IBM
Each wkii[iomd 1000 connec[icms tcrminnl family using hisyncllronous prcrlocols on n point-to-poin( bnsis
(2770, 278o, 3770, 3780].

TYMNET
TYMNET also provides ihc foll~\ving intcrfnce support func[ions for
compulcr llusIs: (a) asynchronous over dcdicntcd Iincs, (b) polled asynchro-
‘IYMNET is ano[hcr public data network. ollcring a vnricty or scrviccs
nous over dedicated Iiues, (c) 3270 bisynchrcmous host over cledica[ed leased
(o the user. TYMN~T, rcccn[ly purchnscd by htc~c~llllci[-~ollgtas, cmptoys
lines, (d) an X.25 cotnputcr illlerl’ace. (e) on SDLC-orienlcd hos! compu[er,
packe[-svtitching [cchniques wi[h a wide t’al]gc of PAD suppurt runctions 10
and (fI an RJE/l IASP host computer inlcrfacc, Like o[ber carriers, it
i[s customers. Users can cnlploy TYhl NE’f’ ror lrt!tls[llission of low- 10
provides an clcclrotlic moil service, called Tyme-Gmnl.
higll-speed messages, TYMNET cnn bc accessed lhrwtgb public dial-up
TYMNET llas facilities available for intcrna[iomd access, For exam-
lines, private channels, or dirccl conncc!iot]s wi!h o T’YMNET conccnim(or
ple, u?.ing Canada’s X.25 nct\vork DATAPAC, TYMNET crmnec!s 10 over
Iocatcd on [he cus[omer prenliscs,
60 cilies in Cnnada. Access between lhe United Sta[es WUJ the Far East is
TYMNET olTcrs several lcrminal in(etf;!ce services:
available through lhc i!llcrna lional chin birsc access service a[ speeds from
300-12fKI bil/s. 13urnpe is also coI1ncclcd lhrougll I(NIY viu Ihc do(ti hose
1. Asyncllronous intctfaccs-This facilily prcrvidcs an wlclitiomd five
access service m well. (Jvcr 40 other countries can be connected through
options.
TYMNEl by provisions established be{\veen TYhl NET and the coun[ries’
t) An option prnviclcs pttl~lic Iocfll di;!l-up ports, TIICSC P(,,
postal tctcphcmc :II1d [clcgmph minisltics’ (rrr) itllcrn:ll innal record carri-
support the 274 I-I YPC IUM [cl-miu:ds. Willl speeds of 30010 12(M
ers (lRC).
bi[/s, Ihe public local dinl-{tp port has over 400 krcalions in Ike
Us.
AUTONET
b) The public WATS di;!l-up pnrl is lhc scccmd nsyochrotlous
op(ion. Wilb (his ser\,icc, users ore provided toll-rrce in-WATS, A1lolbcr public pnckct.s\vilclling network is AUTONET. run by Au-
\vherc [he Imsl is billed for COIINCCI litllc. [ommtic Dntn Processing. Sinlikw to the olber public nelwurks. AUTONfZT
,, ,..-,.,..,. ..:. ‘ .>, ,, r -.’w-: t- lrti.+i,w!x,.:,-! 7,=; .,-,~,
,,,.,!?~~,,-. . .. ... f: ,, ,.!*,. , m~~,, .:. ....; ,,.. .,.,; ,,. ,. ,,,;..,.,,,,.,,,’;,,,,,,.-,,, ,.,’,>! ,:,,,.., .,.,.,,: ,. ... .,.-,; .... .. .. ......... ... ;, :.,....,,,.,,,,.,, .,,,,,,,,,.,.,, ,,,,.. ,,,..,:.,:.,,..,, .,,,,.7, ,.,: . ~.. ,
 .,.
294 PubticNclworksm’ 1,,et Olletl!v@ Chap. 10 Chap.10 CarrierL. . ) .4s 295

liuks uvcr 120 ci[ics with prtwisitm Ior Ioll.lrcc :!CCCSSinlo lhc ncl\v(wk I’mm IJlfcrs nplious on cillwr Iidl-pcuiod ttsc (7-&ty. 24-hoiw scrvicel or :, Iwsincss.
over 27U Ivca(ions. 1[ provides intct-faces in[u o(hcr pu!~lic nc[wurks in Ihc doy scrvicc from &OO:1.!IL [o S:30 p,m., Mcmdny lbr[mgh I:riduy, The sysIcIm
cout{lry and uver 3(I cuun[rics lhrnugbmll Ihe world. II [d~cr.$ ,scrvices very uses n v:wiety or :tsyncbruncws, synchronous, nnd nltd[iplcxing techniques, as
sinlil;!r to the nc[wuvks dcscrihcd i!l Ibis chi!p[cr: lnc:ll di:$ling scrviccs, WCIIas error dctcc[iun mld rljr~v:lrd crmr.corvccl ion n)costrrcs.
in-WATS servi.ccs, private links will] derficfl[cd POIIS, din-up links with
dial-up porls, and host interfaces for ci(her asynchrvnmls or syncllronOus
Jcvices. An X.25 I)(M[ in[ctficc is, :Ifso av:iilnhlc oft ALJTONI;”I’. Speeds, Carrier Offerings
suppol-lccl are highly dcpcmJing
v;wioblc, on Ihc parlictdnr scrvicc,
They range from 110 bit/s up 10 14,400 bit/s for high-speed synchronous ISACOMM
[raflic.
lSACOMM is t! voluc-:iddcd cnrricr providing a vmicty or scrviccs fw
AU”fONJZT also provides f’or WI clcc[ronic nmi[ scrvicc, cnllcd
both amdog and digikd [mnsmissiuns. The cnrricr provides Iwo [ypcs Manalog
Automail. Au[omail provides for elech’ouic nlail boxes through [he
services. Type Al is h swilcllcd-voice or digiml/analog connections. Al is a
AUTO NET network. The service is nvailnblc every day of lbc \vcck and
dkd-up scrvicc :!( 24(KIhit/s. Type Al is ihc second op[iun mmilablc ml 2400 birfs
every hour oi tbc IJoy, ‘The clcclrunic mail provides spcci:d Imndling,
for aulomolic swilchcd fhcili tics. In wldi[iun, lSACOM M provides digilnl
priorities, rcplica[ ion 01 the nlcssages going in~o nluI[iplc locutions, mnd the
connections for s yltchmncms dcviccs bct\vccn 2400 bitis nnd 3,088 Mbit/s.
storage of data it} [tic ciec[ranic m:~ilboxcs. Au(onmil :dsv provides a
ISACOMM provides for nlullipoint conncc[ions as WCIIas scvcml wdue-atldcd
broadcasting scrvicc (o scvet-al Iocn(ions for clcctrcmic bulletin boards, nnd
runclions dca]ing wilb error [Iclcclion oml c}~or correction (for example,
ex[cnsive filing facilities. )[ allows a user to edit :111clcclrollic Iciler m i[ is
rO~d emor correction. echo suppression, and echo cancellation].
entered in[o (be system. Autonlail interfaces \vilh olher facililics, such m
lSACOMM also provides [clcconfcrencing, fncsimile distribution, mul-
TELEX ~lld TWX.
[iplcxing, and xalcllilc ch:mncls. The user hns seveml oplirrns on how 10
nccess [bcse scrviccs, ci(hcr [brough [hc public dial. up ne{work, dedica[cd
Graphrret
Icmcd films, or cveu priva(c nlicro\vave hook-ups. [SACOMM provides
Grapllnct IIIcorIwmtcd is a somcwba[ dillcrcnt public nclwork [ban Ihe service in over 25 nmjor ci[ics in Ihc U.S.
systems previously described. Subscribers (o Gmphncl are provided with
facsimile images SUCII as graphs md ICXI inform: ![iun. “1’bcuser CW1subscribe Inferexchange Carder Charrrre/s
[o Grnphnc[ scrviccs via dinl-up lclcphcmcs, privn(c lines, TELEX, m’”1’WX.
Perlmps nowbclc is the CIICCI d dcrcgukl[i[w Nnd iucrcwcd conlpcti-
Grnphnct transnli[s facsinlilcs [o a wide rmmbcr ofcities in [he U.S. or by
lion more visible 10 Ibe gcncml public (hnn on the intercxcbnnge carriers’
direcl mcsscnpcr service 10 the end dcs[inatiun. TIIC documcnis c:sn ?Iso bc
did-up tmd privnlc-line olTcrings,
(rntlsnlillccl by firs(-elms mflii S( lbc cnd-uscrcily. Did-in service is awikddc
MCI piuncerccl lhc competition [o Al&T in 1963 by rcqucsling FCC
wi[h speeds tanging from 75 [o 1200 bit/s fmm Ihc user nmcbincs. Grnphnet
lwilT approval fur cnrricr services fronl S[. Louis to Cbicngcr. Since (he
provides several attractive oplionol features, such i~ on-line rnessuge
his(oric decisiotl (o approve specitll czrrier operations itl 1969, hlCI, Allne(.
retrieval, archiving d:lln [or Ia[cr re[rieval, providing n s[ntus of delivery
Skyne(, Sprinl, and other ccmqmnics have gmmcred a shtwc of AT&T”s
repor[s to the eud user, and PAD facilities such as [rmrstnittnl bc[wem
previously invioln[c domain.
di~cren( speed devices. Access is availnblc lhrm@l l’ELEXfflVX, (IIc
III (IIC post, [hcsc crr!llpnnics have provided a less expensive service
phone sys!cm, tind plivatc lines. After tro!lsnlission, mcssngcs arc dclivcrcd
vi:! mcsscngcr< mail, [clcphonc, fncsimilc, or :1 [crtllimd.
than AT&T, ycl cxpcricncc sho\vs IIIN some of tllcsc ollc~itlgs lmve lmd
qwrli[y problems. As (I]c imf[ls[r), progresses (o equal hccess znd sfondard
in!erfnccs for (Jll carriers. llle qu~lily problctlls tmd cost dilTcrences should
PACNET
diminisll signific:mtly.
A rclv(ivc twwcnmcr [O [bc c:lwicr iichl is P;lcific Ncl\\,urk Commu!
tica. Mos( or (IIC scrviccs in Ibis scctiun orc fw voice CIINIIIICIS.A summnry
lions Cotpnmtion (PACN ET). “fllis carrier oilers a Wricty of conncclicms of (he carrier scrviccs is ‘provided here:
ronging rl~m 50 bilk 104800 l>il/s in over 30 Ioc:tliuns wilhiu Ilm conlincnld
U. S., tis well NSC:In:Id:I, (;u:lrn, Al:!sko, ;!nd I Inw:lii, ‘l”hc suhscrihcrs itilcrficc MCI, Quicklinc
it]!o PA CNJ3T lhrcmgll dcdiczled lcmed lines. Like o!bcr comicrs, PACNUT U1!ilcd SI:IICS ‘lmnsmissiml Sys(cms. SPNS-l:otcign I;xch:mgc
..
,-.,. ,, .,, ,,.,.
 296 Pub{,, Netwmk, , ]..,;,Iw Olle,lnas Chap, 10 C4ap. $0 A7& ) ,ajO,OllOdTS 297

,%[cllilc Rwsimss Syslcms, T’ypc I Mcwngc Scrvicc ● Ili.gb-c:lp: wily Icrrcslri:d digilul scrvicc—1lC’1’l)S (ACCUNIW”rl..$)
Sfi[clli[c Ousi[lcss SysIcIns, ‘I”ypc fl MCSS:UK! Sdrvicc ● lligl]-c:tl?:*cily s:ltcllilc ~ligil;jl scrvi~.c-ll CSl)S (S KY NIVl” 1,5)
Sa[ellile f3usiness Systems, Type Ill Mcssogc Scrvicc ● IIigh-speed switcllcd cfigit:d scrvicc—HSSDS (ACCU NET Rcscrvcd
Western Utlion—Mc[rofonc I .5)
MC[—Exccurlc[
ACCUNET T1.5
MC1-Credit Cord Service
MC1—Nelwork Scrviccs ACCUNET T1.s is u dcdicutcd. digital puiul-in-pniu( scrvicc quiic
similar toibe’rl cnrricr discussed iuChxplcrNitlc. I[owcvcr, ACCUNET
GTfZ-S print-Sprint
TI.5 is Iariil’ed sepmstely from the TI offering. The service is designed
GTE-Sprin(-Direct Sprint
primarily forvcry largc[l:llo commt!llications [!scrs\vho ncednnlixtureof
United Sfa[es Transmission Service—Lcmgcr Diskmcc Service (City voice anddofa trfinsnlissiofl. Ituscs (he 1.544 Mbi[/s J:lf[lr:ttc. Unlikce:lrlier
cdl] oTcrings, itvarics costs wilhincrcased cllarges forsl)ort circui(sofup[o 100
Satellite Business Syslcms CNS—Series O milesrmd Iowcr costs forlnugcrcircuiis hcymrd 100 miles.

Weslcrn Union, one of [he nn[ion’s oldest cmicrs, provides n varic[y SKYNET 1.5
of services. Some 0[ [he more widely used arc:
The SKYNET 1.511 flcri!lg isnnexpnnsion cfanoldcr service which
wm designed (O supporl high-volume users using !mlcllilc scrviccs. How-
● Type! vvitcr fZxclIoIIgc Scrt,icc (TWX) ‘rcxl lrnnsmission VII ASCII
ever, tllcrcviscd o~eri!lg lla!ldles lo\verspecds as well, including 4.8, 9,6,
four-ro\v keyhoord icrminals; equipment av:\ilublc [ur receiver only
rmd56k bit/s. AT&T is usiug COMSATsateOites for this service; ho\vever,
(R U), kcybowd sem-receive (KSR), :mtum~ltic scml-receive (ASR)
wilh the rapidly dccrcnsiug regula(cd environment. AT&T \vill plzce this
wilh tapes.
service onlo its own satellites.
● /tI~ocooI. Users cau cstoblisll a private network using TWX or
Telex (crminals. All Imnsmisshm are privule. closed user groups
ACCUNET Reserved 1.5
wiih suppor( of half duplex or duplex, and SPCCdSof 110, 300, or 12~
baud. \ The last member of this family of digiv.d oiTerings is ACCUNET
● [f!fi~~~ta,rfrr, This service is idso called the TclcIypwrilcr
Conlpu@ Reserved 1.5, Tbisofferiug nugmctdso!herser+ices from AT&T based on
Service (’rC. S).1( is a message s!orc-and-forward service available 10 Iclcconfcrencing scrviccs. }Iuwcver. unlike earlier cdrcrings. which provided
Wcslern l-lnion subscribers [o TWX, l!lfoconl, or Telex facilities. a3 Mli(/s faciii[y, ACCUNf3TRcservecl I.S provides (he conventional T1.
● Dn!o,qrom. This should nof bc con(uscd willl the defunct datngram 1.544 Mbil/s rate. Its a!lrtrction lies in [hat [he reduced bit ra(e will also
option in X.25. Ralhcr, Western Union’s D:l[ngranl allows users to reduce video coufcrencing rates by about 40 percent, AT&T smtcs the
pllone messages to Western Union ofiices for delivery to a specific 4-megabit tclccoufcrencillg cost is approximately $600 for a one-hour
TWX, Infoconl, or TWX [acilily. lclcconfercncing cail bel\vcen New York Cily and Wnshing[on, D,C, The
ACCUNET Rcscrvcrl 1.5 is krrifTcd will] the snme onc.hour call cos[iug
Western Union also OITers dn[a cbntmels a[ speeds raw3i11g from 600 $380. Customers rcscrvc ACCUNET Rescrvecl 1.5 facili[ics by cnlling an
bi[/s (O 2400 bil/s. Options illcll!dc POinl-10-P(~illti lmdtiPOint lillcs OPcraling 800 number. The ACCUNET TI.S provides the channels between !he
at 1}:!1(or f\dl duplex, ACCUNETRcscrvcd l,Ss!!itcl!iltg!l,>~lcs.
1( is crbviuus frmll an cxmniunliou uf lhcsc [IIwc ull’criogs from AT.kT
Communications’”lbut nlany services arc av:lilublc lmloy which ac[unlly
proviclc inlcgmtcd (t-mlsnlission fircililics. As tfiscusscd in [he clmp[er on
AT&T’s Major Offerings
digilal transnlissicm. lhclcrm ISDN is[~f[cll Llscllt[> llcscriL~ea[l iolcgmtcd
AT&T Conlmunicfi[ions (fornlcrly the Inng Iincs division) olrcrs several services digital nel\vork. However. (I1c ISf)N also defines lhc s[ondards
scrviccs.Three interrclotccl services in Ibe offing arc (pm’cntbcscs depicl dcvekrped hy CCHT’. Conscqucnliy, oae should be carcrul when judging
new names): cxislinglarilTs, st!cllas tllc NI’&rfiltllilies. nsbcitlgnn IS ON. Imlccd, sonle
,.. . . . . . . . ..... . . , .,“,~.~
,. .,.,.
I
p, .,:, r :
298 p.b~. Nelw.,ks and ] Ollo,ings Chap. 10 Chw. 10 Local Area t ) anspod(LADT} 299
-r~:!:!.~’,1 ~“
vendors are rcluctan[ 10 use tbc term hccnusc of [[w ISDN cotlno[xtium omdog sigonls and rcgcncralcs digi!:!l signals. These nliw.w changes are not
dc:tling wi[h (Iw standwds of CC I’I-I’. [kc cOnccrn of lhc cml-user cuslwncr, since Ihc scrvicc is providml by (I1c
mrrier.
Circuif-Sw/fched D/gks/ Capab///ly (CSDC) Onc of [be in[crcs[ing aspects of tllis service is (he use of time
compression multiplexing (TCM). Transmission usi!lg TCM is OCIunll y half
! Arlolhcr scrvicc xv:lil:!btc from AT&T’ Cf>!lllllt,tlic;t[ic]tls is o S6 kbil/s Juplcx, bu[ lbc bit rtdc is bighcr {Il:ul Ihc slo[cd .56 kbil/s sigrml rate, UmJcr
all-digilzl service called circuit-swi[cbcd Jigilnl c:lp;~bili[y (CSDC) (SCC Ikis approach, lhc line is Iurncd :uwuml tk-r.v rapidly, which gives Ihc
Figure IO-I), A significant and unique aspcc( uf (his scrvicc pcr!ni(s the user impression of full-duplex (transmission, In o!her words, a user is transmitting
to access {IN stunt [wu.wire local loops corrcn[ly in pl:mc for convcnf ional AI double the 56 “kbit/s mtc b half Ihc nmmtnt of time.
telephone calls. CSCIC t’cquires addi[icmr,l equipmcu{ nt (Iw user prcnliscs, At !hc lclcpbonc central olficc. tbc cot!ventiouni No. [ AliSS s\vilch is
and [he ioc:d loops require minor modificalicms; [be cen[ml olficc gear used. Ar&r IIM enginccrcd sonic spcciol :ind minw nwdilications 10 pcrnlit
requires some nlinOr chnngcs as well, Ihc centml o~ces (o ad:tpl (llcir No. lAf?SS swilcllcs (o hnmllc [hc CSDC
transnlissio!l schcmc. Since [hc No. IAL3SS switch is cotlslrllctcd for :In:dog
Irmsmissions; lhc mfdilional connections we rcquirml 10 provide digbal
cqmbili(ics.
A fcw yc:ws :WO. N scrvicc suck m CS DC would I1OVC sccmcd
impossible; or, il’possible, it would 11OVCbeen priced cxorbi!antly. Ucll Labs
hw mfcrs[ood (Iw [ccbnology of lime compression multiplexing (TCM) for
I
““W ,,,:
NC,,,
7,,.;”,!;”,
mm,, U,,.m,
,“,,r!,u E.,,m.,
T..,,,,,* CW*”,!”, I
I
sonle time, but as n result of dcrcguln (ion aIId dives[itutc,
now become nlorc diverse as competition
the olTcrings have
encourages nc\v products unto (I1c
m ,, .,,,,,!, ,,,,,,, ,,,”,,.,,
markcl.
Figure 10.1. Urcuil Swi!ched Oigital Capatilily (CSDC) The increased compelilimr is evidenced by t competitive service [o
CSDC by Northern Tclccom. Inc. (NT]). This Canadinn-lmsccl or.ganiza(ion
CSDC is HOI in[cmfcd 10 replncc Ibc conventional 56 kl>it/s service olfcrs a service similnr (o CSf)C \vhicb uses DMS-100 technology. The main
kno\\,n os Del:! phone Digit;ll Scl-vice (1>1)S), 1[ is inlcnclcd [o he an difTctence iu (I1c IWO schemes is tlmt tbc NT1’s 56 kbit/s locnl IIWM nlus[ be
altcrna[ivc for (I1c smollcr d~la commu!licn[ions user, CSDC billing is bmctl dcdica[cd exclusively rl>r dntn hansmission. In con(mst, AIL”I’ provides ror
O!I nletered service and is intended to be used for a customer WI1Oneeds a the ability to switch between annlog voice and digital da[a transmission
high.speed [mnsmission pipe for [brce or four hours a [k!y. I Icuce, CSL)C schcmcs. Northern Tclccom cri[icizcs AT&T’s sys[cm by s[:l[ing thut
fills a need hclwccrt (h. LADT scrvicc (discussed ncx[) and DDS. Arm’s service must first he inili:ttcd by scllillg up an atmlog voice coil
The cus(omcr si(e llas (WO additional conlfmncn(s. ‘Ihc Icrminating before switching to dxkl motlc (ns was done in (IIC old d:lys witll some or (be
intclface equipment (TIE) [erminfi(cs tbc [elcptmnc or DT17,. Converrlional modems). It is cooceivnble Ilmt establishing the voice call first could presen[
inlcrraccs, SUCI1as RS-232 -C, arc sl!pporlcd, m wcfl m CCI’I-I V.35. Speeds some [irning and response-li[lle frroblcms for certain opfdicnlious.
of 9.6 kbi[/s and 56 kbi(/s Ire supported.
The second piece of equipment is Ibc nclwork clmnncl (crmin:iling
equipment (N CT’IZ), wbicll intcrfvccs into [bc nc[work.
Tbc (WO picccs of
Local Area Daia Tranaport (LADT)
cquipmen[ are linked wi!h four pairs of !wi.s[etl-p:tir coblc. f)nc pnir provides
for (ransmillcd dala, onollwr provides for receiver dnla. ‘The third pair Ifcll Labs km developed a scbemc (O permit (be simultnncous Irnnsmission
camics an:tlog voice sigouls, nnd [hc 10s! pair fwovidcs cntltrul signols for of voice and data over Ibc snmc lclcphcmc line. Intcrcslingly. the comtmm
switclling bctwccn (I1c voice aml cf:!!z transmissions, A’1’&T uses no cigh!- l~cal loop found in bnmcs nml olficcs con bc used to prvvidc Ihc scrvicc.
wirc modul;lr jack [or (I1c conncc [ion. Allhough the scbcmc is new. se\wrnl implcmcnta[ions have been nl:ldc. The
As stilled eatlicr, nlin[lr cbangcs we mode 10 [he 60!1vcntim1al cus- most nolnble cxis[s in Ihc Mianli. Floridx. xrcn md is collcd (he lnczl armr
[omcr Ioc:tl loop. For inslnncc, ccrt:!itl picccs o(’ cquipnlcll[ (hmdiug coils) d:do W!nsporl syslcnl (LA1) T). ‘Mc syslcm is a combinul ion Vitfcolcxl
and excessive connections (bridge laps) must be removed. It] some in- :Ipfdication (supporting applications such as electronic nlail or electronic
s[ances, a mnge ex[endcr moy be required. A mnge extendir amplifies Iinkiog) wif conventional Uoice transmission.
,,:
,., ,. .,, ,. ::...,. ,,,., .,,,,.. . ... . .....,,, . . .,,...,,.,,
 300 Public NcWotks en,. ) ,er Offerings Chap 10 Chap.!0 ACCUN’ )-’ :ketService 301

w
.— “,.,—— C.wlral Office —.— oat, Uelworks— Imsl. ‘flc LAOT address s(ructurc.s arc being [will i!l consmmncc with Ihe ‘
CCIIT X.12 1 standard (discussed in Appendix E). “f’lle LA DT has been
V.i,e assigned it siuglc X. 12[ Dal:i Nclwork Idcnlific:tlimr Cullc ([)NIC) hy the

=5-
Voice
SIMC Departmcnl nnd the Ccfl-r.
X.25 As wilh the mmry fenlurcs of X.25, lhc LAOT is Lfcsignml to suppurt
NCTE DS1 Ps Contvd virtual cdl circni(s or pcmmmcnt vitlual conneclicms, dcpenrling on lhc individ-
ual user rcquircmcnl. The LADT uses Ihc s(nndml pockcf sizes csloblishcd in
lhc X.25 standnrd, with n 256-ocI.4 maximum for the user packet.
It is cxpcclcd (IIC LADT Icchnology will prolifcralc tllrougbout the
L !1 56 KRI,I, : U.S. However, the lcchncdugy is rclalivcly r2c\v, slill cxpcnsivc, mtd does
L . Trunk
no! have a large user bmc at (his time. hiost or [bc Bell opcrnting conlpnnics
(IIOCS) are planning some rorm or LADT implementation scheme. What-
II NCTE: Network channelTwninetlng Ewimmn~ cvcrthe fulurc holds for LAOT. lhcrc will ccrtni”ly bc ,Nore i“(egr:t[cd voice
0S!: Data S.lnc,iber 1. ferf8ce
and data systems coming inlo our homes and ot%ces through the conven.
PS, P,.ket Switch
Iiomd local loop. The technology is tesled; ii is only a matter or determining
Figure 10-2. Local Area Data Tcmspofl (LADT) and reaching Ihc market, aml [hk is being done N [hc present time,

An LAf)T systcnl is dcpic[cd in Figure 1[)-2. Al II}Ccustomer location,

ne(work channel lcrmin:~ling cquitmncot (NC1’fl) prnvidcs jucks for a ACCtJNET Packet Service
connection [o a s[amlarcl terminal and a telephone. “[’he NCIW modulates
ACCUNET Packet Scr’vice (fornlerly Basic Pockel-Switching Service [13PSS])
signals from the (erminal ror dots Transmission above (be 4 kllz band. The
voice (rcqucncy is trwrsmit[cd wi(hin (IIC crmvcll[imml 3 klIz bmlwidlh
is a privale-line, packet-swilching service. [1 is especially useful for high-
volume dnfa Imnsmission sfintiorvcry “bursty” Iml?ic trznlsnlissimr chamcler-
below (he 4 kHz dots signal. Thus, Ill. simult:mcous Nmlsnlission or bolh
islics. ACCUNET~lscslhe 1980relcmco fCCllTX. 25, As such, il provides
voice amJ Jzta is provided.
LADT pcrmi!s Iwo furms nf access: dinl.up nml direct. The dircc( viti!lal calls orpemanen[ vinu~lcircui[ connections andsupWflofei[her 128-
or 256-bylc (OCICI)dpla fmckcts, wilb nn averoge packet delay or only 2f)lJ ms,
access provides for voice and &I(a service sinmltaucutlsly over (IIC pnir 01
AT&T Co,ilnlt]{lica[ions is conlitluously upgrading lhe ACCUNET
wires to the subscriber, ‘rbc wires comrecf (o n local dala mulliplcxer, which
service,’ns well is exlehding its service [o addiliomd ci[ies, The (rend in
is responsible frw combining ihe voice rind da[a traffic. Voice Irrmsmissions
ACCUNETis to move 10 lower speed services (such m 2.4 kbi[/s) to
ore scn[ {o a standwd voice swilch wllilc Ihc sllbscribcr’s d:{lo rrotn i[s
4cc0n1m0rkllc smallcruscrs \vllodu not need lllc highcrdola rnlcs 0r9.6 and
[ermimd arc sent to a pzckcl swi[ch. The nlnl(iplcxitlg occurs 81 lbc NCrE,
56 kbit/s. Enhancemctlls snch m reverse chmging :wc being added [o
The [ccbmrlogy permils a full-duplex 4.8 kbi[/s LIn(t transmission rate.
ACCUNET. AnoflIcr fcn!ure which has gained considerable a([enlion is the
One attrnc[ive fe~[ure of (his ~echnology is (be ability to use currently
adoption of an X,75 copnbility allowing ACCUNET users [o iscccss o[her
exis[ing Ioc[il loops, Di!d-up access is also nllawcd using lhc cxisling
fxtckct-oricn[cd tlctworks. 'Tllisprovides an ACCUNEr llscrtlle racility[o
conventional lclcphunc network. The LADT lccbnology presently prevenl!
cuslomcrs from using dial-up access a[ [be some time they we using [he Iinc licillto aCatlndia!l nc[work, sttclios DATA PAC, ornel\vorksir, E“ropcan
counlries, such m Fnmcc’s TRANSl’AC.
for data service.
The du(a lrmlsnlissio[ls ore marmgcd lbrongb IIIc convcnliomrl p;!ckc( REDI-ACCESS is z widely nvnilnble service provided by Con(rol Do[a
Iccbnulogy discussed in Clmplcr Seven, (I1c X.25 nc[wm’k protocol dk Corfroration (hal utilizes ACCUNfZT Packc[Scrvice. REDl-ACCESSSer-
vicc provides public di:d.in and dcdic:l(cd nclwnrk access 10 ACCUNET
cussed in Cl!:lp(er Eight, and [he LAPII Iioe prolocu[ discussed ill Cbnp[cr
Packc[ Scrvicc, support of nlul(iplc pro[rrculs including pru[ucul c[]nvcr-
Four. In addition, LAOT allows a sir!glc Jalt link lo’s 1]1)s( cmrrpulcr to ix
sions, and end-to-end services. The fo(lowing discussion summarizes REl?I-
ficccsscd from mullipic subscribers thrm!gbnul :I!l :lr~t. This permits a hosl
ACCfXS IMurcs:
[o support up [o 5 I I nclivc user tcrnlin:tls un n single 56 khil/s D:if:ipboric
Digitnl Service (flDS) lclcphone line, The opproocb bli!ninn!cs tbc need (OI
1. Public cfial-in nsyncbrunot!s (nplo 2.4 Kbi[/s) [crnlin;d access
a sepxm(e port awl modcm for each ~cli\,c tcrminul [hat wishes (o usc tht
.,. ... ,,, .,,.,,.,:., ,., ,,:, ,,, . .... .. .. .. .. .. ,, ..:,, .,....,,,,, .,.,,.,,..,,....-.,,,. ,,,,
302 PublicNetwork: j Carder Olferlngs Chap. 10 Chap. 10 011. ] In Europe 303

2, Public di:ll-itl vulumc cJiscouMs .%lcllilc Ilusincss Syslcms (S11S) provides rt}l sulclli(e scrviccs,.
3. Includes swilcbcd porl, dcdiculcd Iinc, :Ind l) SU/CSU or modems 10 h’uuglloul (be U.S. uml ollwr pnrls uf(hc world. Sittcc IIW S!3S lccbnology
the ncarcs[ REDI-ACCESS puckcl nclwork inlcrf: ice cily. was described in dctoil in Cbaplcrs Five and Nitm, il will not bc dcscribcd
fnr[her here. Phmsc bcw in nlitld (I1oI SDS cuslonlcr oll’crings are qui[c
The synchronous in[crrace (X.25 soriwatc on cttslumcr premises) similar to (I1c olllcr taril~s cliscussccl in (his sccliou of’ (I1c buuk.
includes [In X.25 in[crl’uce. Line spcml is 4.8. 9.6, or 56 kbil/s. llle
asynchronous to X,25 inlcr face includes a PAD on (I1c customer’s prc!nises
wi[h 8, 16, or 24 ports. ‘rbe conncc(icm charge for tbc scrvicc is cd (porl, Offerings In Europe
dedicated line, DSU/CSU or nlOdcnl) phts 20 percent.
While lhis clmptcr hm bigblighlcd so!nc of Ihc ofT’crings available in the
United S[mcS, it s116uM bc recognized fboI u[bcr cmmtrics provide similor
oiTcrings. Tllis scclion pruvidcs a smnpling of Ibu Europc:m markc(. For
Satellite Channel Offerings
example, Gcrm:my”s tclccomnlunicatiuns providkr, 13cu[sche Bundeposl,
Western UniOn has long OfTcrcd sa(cllifc clmds rOr U.S. owl inlcrnadon.sl has seven m:tiur o~crings it m:lkcs nvoilnblc [u its citiz.c!ls. The olhcr
cus[omers. The primary service includes a 4 kHz channel for Transmission of European countries have similar services:
voice or alteroa!e vOiceld:\tn images, Datn m[cs nrc nvnilnblc lIP to 9.6 kbif/s.
Tlle service is also available on u nl[>rjll)-lo-!nt>!ltll or fixed-lcrm bm.is, ● [lie Ielcplmnc nctwurk
Wcs[ern Union provides [his scrvicc [0 most of the major cilics in (be U.S. ● [he TELEX !lc(work
GIW also provides sntclli[e cbaoncls. ‘1’he SPRINT OITcring OiTers ● the [elcgr@l nelwork (GEN”rEX)
priw[e channels [o mnjor cities in Ihc U.S. TIE SPRINT tarilT provides for ● Icascd priintc circui(s
a mi[eage charge nnd a termination chtrge. The mileage charge is determined
● circui[.swilched public dala ne(work (DATEX-L)
by the aclual ci(y itselfi GTE divides ils ci(ies into poir groups and (hen
charges accordingly. ● packet-switched public data network (DATIZX-P)
American Salellite Company hos several op[icm for ils s:dclli(e ● Tele(ex service will} DArEX-L
channels. Tbc customer is provided [cased voice-grade channels r~r voice m
alfernalc voiceklata Transmission. The channels me nvailablc ei[her fur bnl[. Most olhcr coun(ries other llmn Conada ~nd (I1c U.S. have [heir
or full-duplex operation in Ihe 3 kllz bondwidlll. @ in lhc olhcr olTcrings, services controlled by the government’s PosIal “1’clephone and Telegraph
[he cimnncls are available be[wccn designated city pairs. American .%[cllilc ministry (PIT). The U.S. nml C:mnda nrc sonlewl!xt umique in ihm the (WO
provides for ctlttnncl conditioning, modems, nnd Ihc dclny cumpcnsation countries lmvc nlorc competitive oflerings avnikibfc. Nol\vilhs( anding, m
uni!s (discussed i!l Clmpfcr I;ivc). Anlcrican S:dclli!c also provides for a shown by (Iw Gcmmn illus[ro(iun, the oiTcrit~gs in Ihlropc nrc f:tirly diverse.
higtl-speed oflering; poin[-(o-point digit:!l Inmsmission is svaik!blc nt S6 Europe has cnlcrcd (IIC sa[cllitc cnrricr nmrkct in N nvt,im [!mlcrl:!king
kbil/s. This service is available al Cuff duplex on a ridl-:imc basis fur a[ Iea$f wi[h lbc launch of Te!eccml 1. Tclecom 1 is a joint veu!urc I’rum [bc European
one year. Anolhcr omering from Amcricnn .%lclli[c is snlelliic voice ex- Tclccomnlunicntions SNclli[e Organization (EUTELSAT). The satellite was
change (SVX), which is a hot-line service between IWO cuslomcr premises in Iauncbcd from (I1c Arinnc Imsncbing syslcm. ‘rclccom I will likely be more
IWOdill’cren[ cities. The SVX Iinc connects (o a custonlcr’s l)llX switch,’ I conlpe(i[ive than previous ventures in Europe. primarily because the syslenl
it is possible to connect wi(h n local Iclcpbonc cotnp any cxcbmqgc ill either is tailored for the Europcnn markcf with lower speed channels. In adcli! ion,
end [o access Ioc?I exchaugc lines. WATS, or priva!c line services. fill (I1c memhcrs of EU’I’ELSAT Imvc a s(nkc iu its SUCCCSS.
RCA American Communicllions sells scrviccs similnr to those ju$l ‘fllc system opcra(cs using tllc [imc division nlul[iplc nccess (T13h4A)
discussed. ‘I”bc RCA Amcricmu lwiT oll’crs :! fc:tscd line scrvicc hc(wccn *pproach discl)sscd in Clmp!cr Five. 1[ has oflerings for (he cus!omer
certain wire pairs in Ibc U.S. Tbc cll:irgcs nrc Imscd [m:1 Iixcd mon[bly Icasc rmlgitlg from 2.4 kl~it/s to 2 Mbi[/s. As witll IWII!Y of F,urupc’s dipil:il
or three fixed-period lease ra[cs. ‘l-be fixed pclimls inclw.lc a nlinim[mi ollcrings, lbc main cbmmc]s ;Iv:!il;d)lc opcmlt ut (,4 khi!/s. Tclcctltll 1 oll’crs
scrvicc of one year (TYPc l), a minimum pet’iod of IWO years, in which 15U high-speed Imnsmission rur facsinlilc, video confcrcnci[!g, digi[al !.elcpbone,
cbanrlcls mus[ be used (’l”YPc 2), ond N ltli!lirl)ul!l pcric)d of 3 YC:WS.ill ~vhich md ulhcr npplicnlions. Tclccom 1 links (IIC cuslomcrs lo Ibc salcllitc lhrough
a~ least 24(I cllannels must bc used (Type 3). (IICCC1l-~ X.21 slmld:Itll (SCC Appendix C). II is onlicipnlcd uvcr Nil cmlh

,.
- . .. . .
304 PublicNetworksand Car Chap.10 Ofreringsh “) da 305
:} ‘eflngs chap” ‘0

stations will be placed throughou~ Europe 10 provide for a powcrrul ● TELEX plus—a store-and-frwwarrl TELEX system
broadcast capability, ● Burmufax-a racsimilc scrvicc covering 60 countries
The U.K. also has satclli~e facili[ics that are tied to Europe, the U. S., ● Satstream—a satcllile service linking the U.K. to Europe
and Canada. A fledgling communications firm, Mercury Communications, . International packet-switched service (ITSS)-a gateway in London,
has an agreement with Western Union to provide for satellite services offering connection to 50 networks in 30 countries (discussed in
between the U.K. and the U.S. The otTerings provide for various combina- Chapter Eight).
tions of voice/data transmission and operate six hours a day. Mercury’s
channels are linked to land lines through microwave, optics, and cable-pair The U.K. government is licensing only one competitor LO BT at this
to [he customer location. time, Mercury Communications, Ltd. Although at present its service
Competition is increasing be~ween satellite channel vendors, as well as offerings are not nearly as diverse as British Telecom’s, Mercury Commu-
for the provision for the actual launch vehicle, The Ariane sys~em discussed nications dots provide Iwo major services. The first service offers various
earlier in this section is providing much of this competition to the U.S. options on a 64 kbit/s channel. This system provides for various accommo-
industry. Increasingly, NASA finds itself splitting customers with the dations of voice and data. The data channels operate at 32 kbit/s using the
European system. The NASA space shuttle is not only losing European CVSD digitizing scheme discussed in Chapter Nine. This offering is also
business, but many U.S. domestic customers have signed up with Ariane as suitable for voice tra~lc as well as data traffic up to 1200 kbit/s, Mercury
well. For example, SBS and the Direct Broadcast Satellite Corporation have Communications also has available high-speed trunks operating at 2 Mbit/s
opled for the Ariane launch system. The U.S. problems stem from the which support several combinations of voice/data on time division multi-
expense of using a manned spacecraft (the shuttle) and the charges NASA plexed (TDM) channels.
allocates for cargo space on the shuttle. Ariane charges customers $23-24 British Telecommunications and Mercury Communications will be the
million to launch a satellite; NASA’s price was to go up to $71 million for a on]y players on the U.K. data communications carrier block unlit 1990. The
full cargo bay in 1986, but the shuttle disaster has placed the program in an extent of the success of U. K.’s recent move to deregulation will rest large] y
even more untenable position. on the success of the restructured BT and the viable growth of Mercury.
The Arianc has been criticized by NASA because it is being subsidized
by the European Space Agent y, the 1I-nalion organization which paid for
the design and development of the system. However, it should be recognized
Offerings in Canada
that NASA’s costs are also highly subsidized by the U.S. taxpayer.
The United Kingdom is moving toward more carrier offerings with the Canada has a very diverse data commmricatio,~s industry and a wide variety
recent deregulation decisions relating to British Telecommunications (BT). of services available to the customer. Its structure is different from that of
British Telecom was formerly a conventional PTT. However, with the Europe and the Far East and has many similarities to the U.S. communica-
increasing awareness of the need for more competition, BT is now a tions industry. The primary similarities of U ,S. and Canada stem from the
privately held company wi[h a Parliament-evoked directive to lower costs fact that they are more deregulated than in most other parts of the world, and
(by 3 percent a year). lower its rate (also by 3 percent) and show a profit— the U.S. Bell System was the dominant [ethnology in Canada in the earlier
not a particularly enviable position to be in! The British Telecommunications part of this century. This section summarizes some of the major network and
Bill of 1981 led to the sale of the former PTT British Telecommunications carrier offerings available through Canadian vendors and carriers,
plc. [o the public ($4.5 billion in shares).
British Telecom has several offerings available to the public: Telephone Networks ,:
,,
● Kilostream—a digital service of 64 kbit/s Bell Canada is the largest telephone company in Canada, It is a
privately owned company. Although once part of the U.S. Bell System, it is
● Megastream—private leased lines ranging from 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s
now Canadian-owned. It services On[ario. Quebec, and the Northwest
. Videostream—a teleconferencing offering
Territory.
. Packet-switched stream—a public packet ne(work In 1882, Bell created a manufacturing arm, Northern Electric and
● Telecom silver—a credit-card system using packet-switched stream Manufacturing Company, to produce telephone equipment. Northern Elec-
● Circuit-switched stream—a door-to-door switched digital network tric became a separate company in 1895 and in 1976 it was renamed Northern
 306 PublicNe!wot ] ~ CarrierOlledngs Chap. 10 Chap.10 0 } IS In C.wmda 307
.,.
Tclccom. 1[ is cqtliv:!lc[l( 10 IIje foI-mcr \Ves(cI’11 13cc[ric or Al&T il. {he ,Chargc. TIlc ncccss chnrgc is depcmlcnt cm speed, \vhilc Ihc uszgc cbatgc is
us. based ml ho(l) lime ;IIIII disloncc. [)iscounts I’,lr ImRic vnlumc wc [lvt!ilablc,
“Mc rcscwch oml dcvclupmcnt P:UI or Bell C:\n: Ida is llcll-Nnrlllcrn DATA1’AC is II public Pnckct-swi(chiug !lcl\vork usi!)g Ihc X.25
Reset-mcll (l INR). IINR is join(ly owned hy 13cII Catwdo and Nor[hcrn rccommeodatiort. 1( was first introduced in 1977 and uses DATAROUTE
7“clccom ;tml is cquivalcnl 10 BcO 1.,:1[1.sin (IIC U.S. lines 10 cmmcct 10 SL-10 pnckct swi(.hcs. “l%c m-t work ASO provides
In addition [o Bell Canada, 16 other nmjor companies and scores or gateway func[ions 10 U. S., (he Far Eas[, and Europe, Users can dial up the
smaller carriers rurrlish the telephone services to Cnowla. These compnnic~ 13ATAPAC node using convcntiomd analog circui[s or digital dedicated
wc privalc, govcmmct)t WIICLI, or uItdcr controi [lr co.nps. “I”hc private circuits. Ir (IIC user is Incalcd in :m nrcn which sttppor(s DATA170UTE, (he
systems (such as Bell and Uri[ish Columhi:i “l”clcplmnc) mus! opcru Ic umlcr dcdicolcd circuit omy hc digi[:ll,
special rederal sln[utes. Seven DATAPAC services support many types or devices:

Telecom Canada 3000 Suppmls synchronous dcviccs stlch as lcrnlin:ds w1ll conccntrfs-
Iors al speeds from 1200 to 9600 bi{/s, This service is point-[ o-
Tclccum C:madu (rotmcrly Tram Cmmd:i :r$lcphorle Systcm I?CTS]) poini only.
pmvidcs public lclccolllnlunica[ ions itl Clnwl:t. Ii is :111ossocin[icm of some 3101 .’$uppwh I’m’ $Isynchronuus dcviccs using ASCII codc. SpCCLIS
or the largest [elcphone companies: I_rotn 110 to 300 bit/s arc supporlccl usitlg dial-up Iincs to connect
to (be local DATAPAC swilch, Speeds from 110 [o 1200 biUs are
Albcr[a Govcrn!ncn[ Tqlcpllonc sllpplwtcd using dcdicotcd l~ncs.
Bell Canada 3201 Support hr 1S0 poll/selccl pro(ocol (CCITT V,3),
British Columbia Telcpbone 3203 Support for IBM 2740 lernlitml. This is IBM’s rather old Selectric
ldad Tc]cphonc lypcwrilcr-lxmcd lcrnlin:ll which rum ;II 134,.S lli[/s,
Mari[ime “relegmpb & Telephone 3303 Support for I13M 3270 USC (binury synchronous communica-
tions) (see Chap[er Four).
Mani(oba Tclcpbone System
New Brunswick Tele~hone 3304 Suppor( ror I13M LISC HASP (Hous[on Autonlalic Spooling
Program), Allows speeds rrom 2400 [o 96013 bi[/s over dedica(ed
Newfoundland Telephone
circuits. Requires EBCDIC code. Suppor[s HASP RJE (remole
Sask~tcbcwan Telephone job cn!ry) s(ations.
Tclcsti[ Canada 3305 Supporl (or llJM IJSC terminnls using Contention mode (e.g., [he
lLIM 3275 lcrnlinal). Speeds are up [o 2400 bi[/s ror dial-up access
Telcccml Caniida olTcrs Ihc rollowi!lg major services:
mtd 48oO biUs kx dedicated lillc access.
DATAROLJTE is an atl-digital, dcdicn[cd data conlnlunicalions facil.
ily, DATA ROUTE was introduced in 1973, and over 70 cilies across Canada
CNCP Telecommurslcatlona
arc connected. Users C8N select speeds from 45 [o 56,000 bil/s, \vi[b either
half- or rull.duplex channels. Point-to. point. mt!ltipoin[, or mul[idrop lines
Cmmdirm Natio!lal/Crmndiatl Pacific Telccmumunicolions (CNCP) is a
ore available,
common carrier specializing in services (I]roughout Cmmda, CNCP is a join(
DATALINK is a rcplnccmcnt ror the :lgi!lg Milllicom 2 scrvicc. II is a
venture or (IIC IWO mliiounl Cmmlinn milr[mds< C[lm!di:!ll No(ionul nud
circui[-switched, cnd-(o-cnddigital nc[work. “I’mns mission is duplex, syn.
Canadiml Pacific. Its predecessor provided lhe firsl [clcgrnph scrvicc ill 1846
cbrono(!s at speeds of 2400, 4800, and 9600 hit/s.
between TormlIo :Ind Ilmnillcm and by 1886 provided consl-to.cuns[ cum.
I)ATAL INK is availoblc in DA’~AROU”FE serving :!rcns. The user llas
a dcdica[ed Iocnl loop c[mncc[ion (o a Nurthcm “~clccom switch which municrdions. “[”kc IWO c(mtpottics tucrgcd m CNCP i(l IW7. If is J major

suppoIIs the DATALINK service. Touch Tone signnlling using n seven-digit competitor 10 Tclecom Cana[ln, \villl [lie following prinmry olTerings,
mldrcss is used ror calling o{hcr s[fit ions. TIIC l) ATAl, INK ra[cs Imvc (hree CNCP is sinlilar (o (I1c Wes[ern Union Telegraph Company in the U.S.
cmnpnncnls: occcss ch:lrgc< usage chttvgc, :tml :1 onc-[imc insl:lllutiun Cwmdi:!n Nnliom!l titsu provides voice scrviccs to IIIC Nor Ih\vcsI ‘rcrtilo.

,.. ,, ,,, ..,.,,,,.,,, .. . . .. .. . . ... . ... . .,,

308

rics, Ihe Yuko!l, parts of NcwroumllaIId,

Public Networ!
) ‘“

find [he tmrlhcrn

Carrier OOOdngs chap. !0

p.w[s O( Ilritish
I chap. 10 G( ) xl

Tclccunlrtl(lnic:!iittrt Corporation (CGTC’). TEL~GLOIJE wscs bo[h subma-

309

Ccdllmbi:l. rine cnblcs anti solcllitc clmmwls iiw ccltllrtltlttic:tli<lll wilh o(hcr cotmlrics
l,, 1973 CNCl~ ill[rt,(!llccd its ;I1l.digiltli IImlslllissioo Scl’vicC, C:llicd ovcrsc:ts. ‘I’l;l,l lGl.olll l.i<)i!ltly o\vtM and opcrolcs il ncl\wrrk $d’subnwinc
IN IWDA’1”. II uses digit:ll Irnnsnlission f;wililics (o provide low-cm!, cxblcs which spun (I)c A[lnnlic md Puciiic Oceans. Tii LEG LOll E also
Iow-crrou-mlc ckIl;I scrviccs :Ictwss CImId:I.IN FOI)AT is very simil:ir (0 (IIC cmuwcls [0 o[hcr cmmtrics wi(h sntclli[c clrwmcls. ‘1’I”;I,F.C, 1.OU E dues not
DA”J’AllOUTfi scrvicc. lNl:Ol)A’l’ rrruvidcs f’m’speeds up 1056 kbil/s, wilh own iis owo so(cllilcs. it uses chnnncls provided by the inlcrunlio[ml
poin[-(o.po;nl or mullipoint up[ions. 1! can lnp inlo olhcr nctwo!-ks such os hrrm.sfir orgmrimtion (SCC Clmptcr Six).
TELEX.
IN IX) SWI”I’C1 I scrvicc wos it][twduccd hy CNCP in 1977.
Telesat Canada
IN I’OSWITCH is a rmlionwide digilul dala switching nc[work. Tbc IIclwwk
provides bolh circuil-swi[ched awJ tmcke(-s\vitchcd services. The circuih
Tclcsat Cmmda WNSincorpora(cd by :In Ac[ of Pnrli:lmcnt in Scptcmbcr
swilcllcd service is c:lllcd IN FOEXCIIANGE and is uscfut for bulk dalt file ot 1969 M n rcdctdiy rcgId:Itcd, conmlcrcinl tclccoltl ttlt!ttic:tliulls common
[ransfcrs. Two scrviccs usc packet-switchi!rg (echncrlwgy. “1’hc firs(,
carrier, It is not a Crown Corporation but is regulated by [be government,
IN FOCALL, does not require (he user equipnle!ll 10 run with n packc[- l’elesak is a member of tbc Tclccom Cmrmln, Telcsa[ opcrnlcs as a ‘“whole-
c)ricnlcd prolucol. The second, c:lllcd lNFOGRAM, requires user equip.
saler” or dumcslic st!tcllilc ch:itt IIcl scrviccs 10 (IIC commtm c:trricrs. It is
mcnt [u implcnlcnta p$tckc(-uricmlcd PI’O(UCUI.
sinlikw in conccpl [o COMSAT in (IMJ U.S.
lNFOEXCfiANGE allows users to connect w~lh Wmdarcl cquiptncnt
usiog RS-232-C inlcrrnccs and ASCII. UCD, or E13CDIC ch:waclcr codes.
‘rhc user specifics an address :0 Ihc nc[work. OIICC cotmccfcd, the user IHIS
a dedica[cd pcrint-to-poin[ link wi[b (IIC addressed shtion. The nc[wwrk Conclusion
suppor[s speeds of 110. 134.5, 300, 600, mrd 1200 bil/s wllcn rutming
flue 10 decisions by Ibc Federal Ccltllmtltlicati(l[ls Commission (FCC) mrd
asynchronous, OMJ 1200, 2400, 4800, and 9600 hil/s when running synchro-
Ihc courts. Ihe cmnmunicn[im}s industry has undergone some very radical
nous. Synchronous protocols supported are IllM’s I]SC, SL)LC, find lhc
chwrgcs. These decisions conlinue 10 influence (be induslry tnd afTccI (IIC
in[crun(ionnl s[andard, l{DLC.
nc[work and carrier olrcritqs [hill wc nvail;lblc 10 the public.
IN FOCALL SOOWS nscrs 10 cmmccl wilh cxis[irlg Icrmimll cquipmcnl
The FCC C1mlpu(cr Inquiry II (Cmupulcr 11) diucctivcs md (IIC
whictl may run :1 varicly of slondnrd prolucols. Prolucols which are
AT&T’/Jusiicc f3cparlme111 anti(rusl suit settlement (and its review by {he
supported arc I lJhf BSC. SDLC, and HDLC. lIIc same SPCCCISand codes
courls) have crcatcd considcrnble (urmoii tmrJ confusion,
which IN FOEXCJIANGE suppor[s arc suppcmlcd by IN FOCALL. The
O!le or (IIC n@rr problems is dc[crmining wlmt is to be tcguht!cd (bfisic
service is Uscrul for re:d-time applications.
services) and wlmt is 10 be unregulated (enhanced services). The issues
IN FOGRAh4 is siruil~r [o IN FOCALL (lcrminal support), exccp[ (he
become qui(c ccmplcx hcc:msc many carticr mld nc[wcrrk ollcrings actmdly
clcviccs must bc iotclligcnt enough to usc tIII IN I’OSWITC1l protocol
entail the use of bcr(h basic mtd ctdumccd scrviccs,
(nc(wurk ucccss protocol IN API).
In recognition (ha( significant chalq?cs have occurred in [he industry
In 1956 CNCP first olTcred TELEX service ill CwIda. TELEX is m
since Compu[er 11, in 1985 (he FCC initinlecl [he Third Computer Inquiry
in[ernatiotml nlessage delivery service. II can he used to scml messages (0
(Conqxdcr I [i). This cfltwl rc.csumittcs !hc clnssificu lion :md Irculmcnl {Jr
over 45,(300 business oRiccs in Cnnwltt :donc. CNC P TELEX inicrcmmccis
provision Or lrxsic mwl CIIII:IIICCJ scrviccs iu order [hut
wi[ll the TELEX services of Weslcrn I.ltlio!l in [bc U.S. for an mldilimml
80,000 bus!ncss o~lCCS. Aboul one million business OIICCS worldwide cml bc
. . a mwc rcalis(ic Iinc IIC drown Wwcen (bow olTcrinpTIh:II will conti:wc to
relcbcd wiih T13L13X scrvicc.
bc [rented mldcr trmlitimml rcpol:t[ury IIPWONCIICSoml Ihmsc Ih:II wc k, i?c

TELEGLOEJE

“11;LI;GLOIIJ7
Canada

is :In inlcmali[ln;ll common c:trricr providing vuicc an~

I (reed from them, without vclying loo heavily 011 :wlifici:d dcfini[iunol np-
proachcs thxtl lcchnoh?~ic:tl mlv:mccmen[ may nmkc mnwrlmblc. This rc-
exmninnl ion will inclmlc :W cxmnitmlino dulc slruclmd sqmmliml cundi[ ions
now govcroing A’l’<t’~ and the WCS. II will ;Ilsu iochlc o rc.cxmuimtlion or
data services bc[wccn Canoda and (I1c rcs[ of [he world. It was cs(nblishccl Ihe bases upon wllich cmricrs not whjcct to stmclornl scpamlion will be
as a Crown Coriwmiicm in I95(I under ihc nomc of Cmmdi:m Overseas pcrnliltcd 10 olTcr scrvicm cmnpnr:thlc 10 Ilmsc mIw dciiocd :0s‘ ‘cnhnnc cd.” 1

,. .,,, .,, . . . . .......... .... ... . ... .,.

 310 PublicNetworksaIKI ~ v Offerings Chap. 10
)-”
For~unn[ely, the findings of Compulcr 111 have IMJ to the ~crnovtd of
CHAPTER ELEVEN ‘
some artificial barriers between regulated and unregulatcel services. For
example, tbe Bell Opcra[ing Companies (IJOCS) are now allowed to offer a
protocol-conversion facility ([he PAD; see Chapter Eigho as part of an X.25
ne[work service.
Personal Computer Networks
NOTES

‘FCC Dockc~ No. 85-229, FCC 85-3Y7-36028, /uI@lst 16, 1985, p. I 1, Federal
Communications Commission, Washington, D. C. 20554.

SUGGESTED READINGS
“AT&T Comes For[h wilh a Full Complement of Sys(cm 85 Upgrades,,, Data Introduction
Co(tlt)rtoticafio,ts, December 1984, pp. 54-56.
The term “revolution’i is often used in the computer industry m describe not
AT&T is Treating 5.2ssCo. Swi[ch as Specialized Adjunct to its PDX Product Line,’”
only the radicil trmsformrdions within the industry, but also the etTect the
TIIe Re~orron AT&T, February4, lY85, pp. 3-1,
compulcr has had on society. Perhaps nowhere is this more evident 10 the
“MCI Voice and Packet Services Could Bring Low Rates [o Users, ” DaIa
general public than in the field of personal computers (PCS). 1 The PC has
Co!?t,,,t,,~icaliot~s,June 1985.
brought data processing to previously inaccessible places such as small
Patrick, Michael W,, “The Heat Is O“ for phone Swilch.es tha[ DO ~ Lotor~a~t
businesses, schools, and homes. Another evidence of the extraordinary
Shuffling,’’ Do!a Co!f,t?~ltt,icatio),s, Murch 1985, PP. 227-236.
clTect of the personal computer is visibly evident on television—ten years
Silverio, Vincent J., Bc!mc[[, Joseph M., TUhnzm, Steve J., and GiramJi, Joseph. *go it would have been inconceivable 10 view during prime time a IS- or
“The McriinTM Communications Syslem, $, /JL5E Jommd, July 198S, pp. S84S94.
30-second advertisement about a computer. The machines were somewhat
mysterious and often evoked skepticism and even distrust among the general
public. This writer vividly remembers seeing the first computer advertise-
ment on prime-(imc TV. Today, such advertisements are commonplace, and
(I1c compulcr has entered into the mainstream of our lives.
The lcrm “personal compu(cr” typically describes a small machine
1
tht!t can be pu( to personal use, although many PCs today are powerful
enough for rather exlcnsivc business applica~ions. Prior to the advent of the
name, these machines were called microcomputers to connote their smaO-
ncss, not particularly in size (although that as well), but in [heir limited
cOnlputing and inpulloutput capacity.
In the mid 1970s the industry experienced a rather amusing contro-
versy as (o what actually consti(u!ed a microcomputer. Revolving around
tllis controversy were attempts 10 define four terms: the micro, the mini, the
midi, mul Ihc ?mv.i computer. To give the reader an idea of (he progress
made in computer archi(cclure in only (he past [en years, Table 11-1
provides [hc Whor’s 1975 definitions for these machines along with the
characlcrislics of a typical state-of-the-art personal computer.
It is evident that what was classified as a midi (or even a maxi, in some
ins[zmces) only ten years ago is now called a personal computer. Some of us
(, curry lhc PC around as if il were a portable briefcase. Ten years ago, a large

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 314 personal C ,.er Networks 315
Chap. 11 Chap, 11 PC JllComputerComm”nkationsCharacterlstics
1
Sonic PC mmlcms opcm[c 0[ 300 and 1200 bi[/s, bu( the 24OO bitk .,
Error Handling
modems have been introduced inlo (IIC market mul arc widely used loday.
These are full-duplex, dial-up asynchronous modems and arc V.22 bis Largc-sv,ile systems such astbe Amdahl, lBM, Burroughs, and ICL
compatible, z (Appendix C lists [he major V series modem [DCE] interfaces, ) machines perform very sOphisticaled errOr-checking techniques On the
1[ iS only a mat[cr of lime before [he pc marke[pjucc ~oves jn!o tI1e 9.6 communications Iincs between the machines. (See Chapler 4.) The PC
kbit/s modem. usually uses o simpler technique for performing error checking across [he
Unlike Iargc-scale mair]fr:tmc compu[cm, mony PCs house fhc mmlcm hm”ni].
wi(hin the PC cabinc[. ‘flcsc dcviccs wc called plug-in mmlcms mNI arc very Oncufthcsimplcst rrrrmscrf crrorcllecking isc~tllcdeclw/ex. The
popular from the standpoint of r’c[icving work space w a crowrfcd desk and tcchniquc cnkils (IIC PCscnclingcach chmrctcrac rossa full-rluplcx com-
providing a modem in a portable termimd for the tmvclcr. Their principal municationsthleto xrcmote silt. in {urn, the remote siie sends, or echoes,
disadvantage lies in tbe fact tha~ they cannot be used by other dcviccs. each character back to the PC. If [he PC receives the same character it sent,
The high-speed modems are becoming very popular bccwrse of the it assumes the transmission is correct. If not, it assumes an error has
decreased time required [o transmit da~a ~cross a channel. Anyone who has occurrcd:md retransmits theemone?us character. Echoplex is designed for
sat in fron[ ofa PC wailing for [hc mansfcr ofrla~a across h 300 bit/s modcm ~wo-way, full-duplex circuits.
will attest (o the slow !ransfcr m[c, For example, a 300 bit/s modem can A ncw user of a PC system of(cn confuses echoplex with /oca/ echo.
kansfer a one-page document in two minu[cs. In contrast, a 1213tl bitfs Local echo is oflen used when a half-duplex modem is conneckd to the
modem Uansfers the same documcn[ in 30 seconds. A 2400 biUs modem is tclcphonccbaanel. IathissiNration, thedata isechoed back from theloca/
modem, to the PC monitor, and no[ from the remote site. If the device has
twice as fast—it transfers the document in 15 seconds. ]“ [11~ f“[ure, the
not been set up properly, tbe PC may display double characters on the
newer modems designed for PCs will (mnsfcr x cfocumcnl even faster. For
sciccn. This occurs because a modem is providiwg local echo and the remote
example, a 4800 bi[/s modcm (ransfcrs [he swne cfocumcn[ in’7.5 scconcls,
site isprovidirig rcillotc echo (cchoplex). The problem of double imaging is
and a 9,6 kbit/s modcm [rmrsfcrs the document in 3,7S seconds,
SOIVCCIby ~urning&tTthclocul echo.
Many PCs today usc “smar[” modems, These mcrdcms htivc built-in
Pcriry checking is a widely used technique for detecting errors. 1!
intelligence which allows the PC to control func[icms such as progrttm-
cmr?,ists of adding a single bl( (a parity bit) to each string of bi(s [hat comprise
controllcd dialing, and special characters lrmtsmitlcd from the PC. The
Forcxample, with a 1s odd-parity system, the bit is set to 1 or
a character.
characters command the modem 10 pelform certain functions, For insttmcc, O to give the character bits an odd number of bits thal arc Is. This parity bit
!he Hayes smar( modem uscs the following comn~.md characters: is iascrtcd at the transmitting statioo, sent with each character in the
mcssngc, and chcckecl at the rccciverto determine if each character is the
● A J%ccs the modcm in :in ofi-book condi [ion ~ncl w~its for a ~:irricr correct pwity. lrtitransnlission impzirmcnt causccfa “bit flip”of I toO or
from [he rcmo[c modcm, Oto I,theprwity chcckwould so indicate.
● CN Turns [he modcnl cwrier on or off. Howcvcr, ztwo-bil flip (for instance, al flipped loa O, and another I
● DS Ins[ructs [he Hayes (o dial a phone number; tbc S is (he ac[ual tlippcd to a O) would not be detected by the single-bit parity technique, which
crcatcsa lligh incidence of errors in some transmissions. Multilevel modu-
number.
la[ion(whcrc twoorthree bits arerepresented in a signal change) requires
● EN Commands [be modem to perform echoplexing (discussed
a nlorc sophisticated technique. The single-bit parity is also unsuited to
shortly). many analog voice-grade lines because of the groupings of errors that usually
● HN Inslruc[s [he modem to hang up. occur on this typcof link.
Tbc usc of cfo{~blc pari{y is a rctincmcnt of the single-parity npproach.
Many people progranl [he PC [o perform more sophis[ica(cd (unc[ions with lnslcad of a parity bit on cxch chamc[cr, this technique also places a parity
a smart modem. For cxmnplc, some users code programs in d)c 13ASIC (odd or even) on a block or characters. The block check provides a better
language to instruct the modcm [o perform as m] ~utoma[ic cidl uni[. “rhc nlcthod [orlc[cc( errors within a character and acrOss characters. It is alsO
BASIC proSr~mcanstorc many tclcphonc nurubcrsmd [bccsllingcim IJc callcda ~wo-dimensional parity check codc. Thedoublc-parily combination
controlled by interfacing wi[h the program fronl Ihc PC keyboard, provides ~ subs[wr(ial imprcrvcmcnt over the single melhod. A typical
tclcphonc Iinc wi[h an error ride of 1: 10) can be imprcrvcd subskmtially wilh

,, . .....
 316 Personal Comp Nelworks Chap. f 1 317
Chap, 11 Linklr } Personal Computer 10 Matnhame Comp.lem
)
[be (wo-dimcnsiomd check. However, botb single UWIdouble pm’i(y rcdtrccs
The PC user faces Iwo primury problems when sciccling a server: (1) ‘“
user [hroughpu[ because of [he many overbcml parity bi[s.
a dedicirtcil ve~sus a shared server; (2) a centralized or a distributed server.
Another form of error checking is tbc chrck.nmi. This is a simple
The dcdica[cd server has bc((er performance than a shared server, since it is
technique and can provide for improved error de[cction over CCI1OPICXrmd
dedicn(cd to onc or n’ few specific tasks. A shared server’s performance is
pari(y checking. Essentially, [he h-ansmi[ting PC adds [ogc[hcr the numeric
almost alwoys poorer because of the continuous interrupts made to its
vcdues of all the characters in [he transmission, The told is placcrl in(o a
opcruling systcm to provide scrvicc to multiple users andlor mulliple user
16-bil block-check count by using. the Icns[ significant lfI bils of (hc
opplico[ ions. In addition, a slmrcd server shares its disk wi[h multiple users
c:dcukrticrn. This VJIUC bccomcs the “checksum oml is Wansmiitcd wi[b dic
as w“cII, which dccrcascs the ac[uiil cupucity irvailmblc to the community. A
user da[a to the receiving PC. The rccciving PC performs (I]c same
rfcdicatcd server is uswdly mwc sccurc th~n u shared server, since measures
calculation and compares ils checksum will] (he hzmsmi[tcd cbccksunl. If can bc cwrccntmtcd to make only one nlachinc secure. On the other band,
the two values are [he same, [he receiver MS””ICS tlIC block has been
a dcdic:i[ed server is usually more expensive, since it is dedicated to
transmitted without errors, A sligh[ chance exists that an erroneous block perfornling onc (ask. This ineflicicncy is especially evident if [be trafRc dots
may go undetected with the checksum, but studies revcai that an erroneous
not warrant a dcdicatcd pcrsomd computer server. In [his case, sharing this
block will go undetected in only onc out of 1,000 transmissions. How many server wi[h other applications can reduce the cost to the user.
correct blocks are [ransmii [cd bc[ore an erroneous block is rcceivcd? On a A work stution utilizing a disk or file server may not require hard disk.
high-quality line, several [housand, Consequently, on a typical configum[ion For example, tasks (in d]c form of soflware) can bc downline loaded to a
an undetected block error may not occur for many months of opcmtion. clisklcss PC, which con~ains rrptional (read only) memory on [he inumfacc
A recen[ enlry in[o [be PC arena for error checking is called lbc cyc/ic cwd 10 perform tbe support tasks.
redundancy check (CRC). II is \videly used with the protocols discussed in In summary. if \hc work and traffic warrants a dedicated processor, so
Chapter Four (HDLC, SDLC), but bas found its way into the PC indush-y be it. However, for a network or system in which tratlic is not heavy, it may
only recently. make more sense 10 share lhc server with other user applications.
CRC performs a division on lbc cla[a before it is transnli(led. Tbc The sclcc[ion of servers also entails the choice of a centralized or a
quo[ient for the calculation is discarded, and ~he remuinder is tmnsmillcd as distribu(cd server. A centralized server means that onc PC is used to provide
[he CRC field. As in tbe cbecksunl approach, [he receiving device performs Ibc scrvicc function. Dislributcd servers entail the use of more than one PC
I an identical calculation and if the two are consistent, i[ is quite likely that the
for tbe supporl func~ion.
transmission occurred error-free, Tbe problem of implementing a technique A distributed server system can be very complex. Servers with (a)
such as the CRC lies not in its inherent complexity but in adapting currc”tly large rJattl bases, (b) mulliplc copies of data, and (c) short response time on
existing PC boards and software 10 a new technique. As tbc PC world updo(cs require a complex distributed environment. If possible, complexi-
matures, CRC will bccomc a common vendor otTering,. ties should bc avoided bccnusc of the increased risk of system failures, data
I
Using the Personal Computer as a Server inconsis[cncics, ml incremcd costs. Vendor offerings must be carefully
I Cv[duatcd.
The concept of a server is based on tbe usc of onc or more personal
computers to perform specific tasks for a number of o(hcr PCs. The most
common functions are disk, file, and print servers, Some vendors also Linking the Personal Computer to Mainframe
classify a server as one thw provides an outlet (gweway) to other networks. Computers
One o[her classification is a 3270 server, which acts as a suppor[ mcchmrism
Ili (od~y’s otlicc the PC is increasingly used as m ancillary tool to tie into the
I to a 3270 cluster configuration (see Chapter Four).
company’s larger scale computer systcm (mainframe computers). Several
Some confusion exists in the industry regarding the detini[imr of a disk
very ~ood reasons cxis( for linking PCs 10 maitlfranles. First, the PC
and file server, A disk server provides low-level support. Typically, it
proviclcs a v;duablc tool for dislribu(ing tbc workload onto less expensive
performs the basic read and write ope(~tions to disk scc~ors, In contrast, a
macllincs to pcrfor(n sinlplc tasks. Generalized moinfrmne computing is
file server is a higher level support mechanism, performing such funclions as
qui[c cxpcnsivc, so ‘it is prcfcmblc thal the large-scale computer be used
lockout and dynamic allocation of space on [hc disk, As the name implies,
primarily for complex funclions requiring powerful computation capabilities.
the print server provirlcs p[-inting support for Ibc PCs :itiachcd to the system.
Sekond, the PC nligbt need to usc the processing power of the mainframe,

... ,., . . . . .. ,., . .

 Chap. 11 Link 5 hg PersonalCompu(er10MainframeCompulers 319
318 Personal Corn! J Networks Chap. 11
1

for example to perform cOnlplcx calcul:itions such as Iirrcm regressions or

involved data base manipulations. Third, the PC may wish [o share the
software and the data bases of the mainframe computer. Sharing is quite
common in almost all offices today, where users perform certain calculations
with their own PC but go to the mainframe to obtain support for irrterttction
wi[h other applications and data bases. (. I %.4=.1 C..v.r.i.n S.lw.w
Several options exis[ for connecting o PC to the mainframe. These
oplions are depicted in Figure 11-1. The op~iuns arc not idl-cncompmsing,
bu~ provide some practical examples of how systems arc bcirrg connec[cd
today:

I Pro(ocol conversion software is installed in the host computer (or

front-end processor, if available) [Figure 1l-l(a)]. The software works
(bl P,m.m.lCmW” hut,,” Cl.,!” Cwtmtlm
with tbe host’s operating system and telecommunications packages 10
allow the personal computer to communicrdc in its conventional

H
asynchronous, full-duplex RS-232-C mode. The asynchronous por[s
are less expensive than their synchronous coun[crparls. Additionally,
no pro[ocol conversion board is needed for the PCS. However, each
PC requires a port to [he host.
2, A personal computer is used to emulate a clus[cr controller [Figure
1l-I(b)]. The other personal computers use their convcntiomd modes (c) ?,,!.3”,,COW”,., Em.1.t” c!”,,- C.”w.l!”
[o communicate with the cluster emula[or. This configuration rcduccs
the number of ports required, since the emulator has only one coaxial — ~,,, Rs23K ..

cable connection to lhe host. However, the cluster can act as a ~,dms.llx ... :
cm.”!,,
bottleneck if it is overloaded wi[h too many pcrsotrd computers. GM. c,”,,;, cmx/ns-232c ; A,vmhrmcu,
H.,, D-l..
c~,r.ll- CO*”R*.232,C ;
3. A configuration similar [o that discussed in option 2 is shown in Figure ... ~
%ms.>a,c ~
1l-i(c). This configuration maybe useful if an organira[ion idrcady his ...
a configuration with cable find wiring in[act. As an example, onc port
(d) Cc.wertet
0....4! I“ Pw!cd Comwl”
of the clusler controller is conncctcd w a pcrsomd cmnputcr.
4. Many organizations opt
for the conligura[ion in Figure 1l-l(d). A CM.bl C#b!e ,,,
~ ,,.
protocol convcr[er board
is installed in each pcrsomd compu~cr mrd ,,.
cm.<al C.axhlCmbt. .,.
communicates with the cluster controller through coaxial cable or tible “=,” ~“ltbh,”
or~!ic Fibr A$,”chmv,
Ho’, - Mul,l,lmer DMC4
RS-232-C and the clus[er’s propriekmy protocol. This approach is cost Cmtmll”
.,,
effective for a few personal computer connections to the host, How- S0.. C ...
-------
ever, over fifteen PC connections will likely sway lhc COSIS[o favor [hc -’.. .,,

other options. M 3i74 C..xid hwtk.k=ti

5. Another np[ion often overlooked but of significant mcril in some Figure 11-1. PersonalComputerLink Options
installations is the usc of a 3274 coaxial mul!iplcxcr [Figure 1l-l(c)].
This configuration is appropriate fur connections of DTEs to Ihe hos[ multiplexer has the notable advantage of pulling only one cable
computer which excccd 2500 feet ([he maximum distance usually bctwccn the mulliplexcrs [span C in Figure I l-l(e)].
allowed from the [crminals [o the cluster controller). Some vendors
claim (he multiplcxcrs become cost effective when (hc DTEs arc Some personal compu[cr literature indicates the versions of vendors’
Ioca[cd 1200 fce( (and beyond) frum the clus(cr, Moreover, the usc of various products for lillking to other computers are compatible. Unfortu-

... ..., ,.. ,..

 320 PersonalCOm. r Nelworks Chap, 11 Chap. 11 File” . sler on PersonalComputers 32 I
) }
namly, such is not always (I1c case. The vcnrfor oRmr mmfitics data
Name Emlflafe$
communications packages 10 enable the package to run clficicntly on specific
lRMAcomRfE 2780/3780 RJE sla{ion
hardware and operating systems, The old dictum, “let the buyer beware” is
lRMAcom/3770 3770 RJE SNA station
especially appropriate for PC data communications software and boards.
IRMAcom13770B 3770 RJE BSC station
Testing a product before committing to purchase il is a prudent and
necessary approach [o acquiring a PC data communications package. IRMAprint Provides an emulation capability for any ASCII (IA#5)
prirr[er.’. II is u stand-alone unit that emulates a 3287 (mod 1 or 2)
prinlcr: ~
Samples of Vendor Offerings

The technique in Figure 1l-l(d) (a circuit card in the PC 10 emulate the 3270 File Transfer on Personal Computers
terminal family or a 3270 control unit) is widely used and available from sev-
eral vendors. The following material provides [hc reader wi[h specific ide~ During the infant days of micro computing, the field was dominated
of how PC emulators actually work as well as information on the available primarily by hobbyists and other individuals who wished to experiment with
ofTerings, AST Research, Inc., and Digital Communications Associolcs (DCA) this interesting new machine. One of the major problems during this time
arc used as examples; many o~her vendors pmvidc similar products. was exchanging data between the computers. Ward Christianson solved [his
The AST-52SI emula[cs (hc 52SI-12 terminal used wi[h [hc IBM S/34, problem by writing a program which addressed the dual problems of (a)
S/36, and S/38,3 A printer connected [o [he PC emulates the 5256 printer. incompatible PC software and (b) incompatible telephone channel-oriented
The interface is RS-232.C aml rum a[ ra[es from 1200 tO 96c10 bit/~. protocols. Chris! iansen based his program on the fact that the telephone line
AST-3780 communicates with computers running the 2780/3780 BSC was usually the p~th to exchange data between computers and the PC at that
protocol, This includes IBM as well as non-lBM mainframes and mos[ time almost always utilized the simple 300 bills modem. Most of these
minicomputers. Itrequires a synchronous modem and can transmit at rates modems use idmrtical modulation techniques. Christianson wrote a file-
up to 19,2 kbit/s. Command files can be used [o initiate communications transfer program and placed it in the public domain by donating it to various
functions in an unattended mode, user groups. Today sevcrd versions exist of the now famous program in the
AST-BSC emula~es a 3274 BSC control uni[ with a 3278-2 or 3279.2A public domain. Two of the better known programs are MODEM7 and
[crminal attached, A prin[er conncc[ed (O (he PC can emulate the 3287. A XMODEM. XMODEM is described here, since il is a very widely used
cluster option attaches up to three additional terminals, personal computer file transfer protocol.
AST-SNA emulates a 3274-5 IC SNA control unit with a 3278-2 or The XMODEM format and data flow is depicted in Figure 11-2. The
3279-2A [crminal and a 3287 prin[er. The interface is RS-232-C and runs at S01+ field denotes the beginning of the message. The N(S) field is the
rates up LO96OO bit/s, AST-SNA has a built-in modem climim~tor for short sending sequence number field; it contains 8 bits which allows for sequerrc-
distances, ing up to 255. The next field is [he one’s complement of the N(S) field. It is
The IRMA product from DCA has scvcml options and fea~ures. calculated at the transmitting site and used at the receiving site to check for
Basically, IRMA is inslalled in the personal campu(cr to emulate a 3278 or any dmoagc to lhc sending sequence number. Next is the user data stream
3279 ~ernlinal. DCA offers other lRMA-line capabili~ies: consisting of a maximum of 128 bytes of data. Finally, the last field is a
block-check count field, which is used as a checksum on the data field.
IRMAline A stand-alone unit which connects to the pc with RS.232. The data flow for XMODEM is quite simple [see Figure 11.2(b)]. The
C, and the 3274 or 3276 control uni[ with coaxial cable. It cmulalcs a transmission between the IWO PCs begins by [he receiving computer sending
3278. a NAK control character to the Iransmi!ling site. Thereafter, [he data blocks
arc exchanged onc block at a time. The receiving site performs the checksum
IRMAlette Allows the PC 10 connect to lRMAlinc ~hrough the
RS-232-C interface, It also uscs passwords [o pass (o IRMAIctte and and sends back an ACK or NAK based on the previous transmission.
provides menu op[ions for establishing pmametcrs (o modems. Like olhcr protocols discussed in this book, personal computer proto-
cols like XMODf3M have additional features. For example, if a transmitting
lRMAconl Allows an RS-232-C conncctiorr [o a 3274 or 3276 control
PC rctmnsmits a message unsuccessfully nine times, it performs a timeout
unit. Most systems require coaxial cable. lRMAcom provides emula-
and sends lhc CmJcel control character. This technique is found in the N 1
tion packages for: \
(retry) and TI (Iimcr) functions of the HDLC family (Chapter Four).’

., .,.,,- .,,.’..
.. ... . .“ “
 322

—
pe150nalC } er Nelwotks Chap, 1i
I Chap, 11 F
)
Ial Computersand LocalArea Networks

Anolhcr packngc irvailttblc for the PC is called KERMIT. KERMIT is

323

similar to XMODEM; it provides for a simple, Wmrsparenl method of wrmsfer-

ring data between personal computers, KERMIT is available on a wide vsriety
of machines (lo be summarized later). KERMIT uses a conventional block-
(a) X Modem Format check counl in the SOH tiekl like XMODEM. 11 uses the simple sequencing
[echniques as well. One of its principal attributes is a type field to delineate the
actual type of packet lrmrsmit@d between the personal computers.
YCI another popular PC pack;!Be is Microcom MNP. This system
opcralcs in similar manner to the other techniques described before. 11 is
available as a poinl-to-point protocol and supports a wide variety of
computers.
MNP is somewhat ditTcrent from the other sysiems in that it uses a
layered prolocol approach very similar to that of the 0S1 model. At the
physical hycr, it uses the 8-bit asynchronous startk.top approach. The
data-link Icvcl provides for error detection using a CRC 16-bit field; it also
provides for Continuous ARQ error correction. It provides for sliding.
window sys(ems as well. It has options for half or full duplex and provides
I 8LOCK 2 other features, such as link disconnect. In addition to these lower level
—
proceclurcs, MNP provides for file-transfer capabilities similar to that of the
previous systems discussed in this section. The full frame structure of MNP
BLOCK 3 product is similar LO [he binary synchronous control protocol (BSC or
bisync), e.xccpt [hat each character within the frame is surrounded by the
nsysrchronous shrrt/stop bits. The start/stop bits provide the clocking signals
EOT
across the interface between the devices, which enables the PCs to utilize
the conventional asynchronous board.
Earlier in [his section, the problem of vendor package incompatibility
was discussed. While no easy answer to Ibis problem exists, one approach
lb] X Modem Data Flow
would ccr~ainiy ease the problem-the use of synchronous, code-trans-
Figure 11-2. XMODEM Personal Computer Protocol parenl piolocols (see Chapters Onc and Four). For example, the control
fields used in word processing and data processing psckages are often confused
Likewise, if the sender does not hear a rcceivcr’s response, it waits a periOd as communications prolocol control fields by the communications package.
of ten seconds before attempting another retransmission. The logic provides However, if the 1 freld in the synchronous frame were nof examined nor used by
[he ability for the receiving PC (o ignore the duplicate message. the synchwhtous communications package, the word processing genersted or
The XMODEM is a widely used pro[ocol. 1! is simple, easy to undcrstmd, data-base-generated dala could be placed into (he 1 field without allecting (he
and easy to use, Perhaps its major weakness is the use of an 8-bh field for the communications prolocol. Such a move requires a major change to the vast
checksum, which can cause some undetected errors. However, there arc other majority of PCs in existence today which use asynchronous ports and proto-
versions of XMODEM available which usc the more sophisticfitcd CRC cols, but the vendors arc moving toward this approach.
emor. checking technique, and provides belter intcgrily to lhc tmtlk fhrw.
Ano[her popular package for the pcrsomd computer is BLAST. This
product is available for most widely sold personal compu(crs. TIM BLAST
I Personal Computers and lad Arm Networks
protocol is more powerful than XMODEM. II uses a two-way, full-duplex
procedure with the sliding-window concept discussed in Chitp{cr Four. in PCs arc being highly touted as work staiions or even controllers for local
addition, the error-checking technique utilizes CRC. BLAST allows dub area networks [LANs). R~timmle for the PC-oriented LAN is quite similar
(binary tiles) as well as WX[ files to bc transferred [o wro[hcr compu(cr. to the mtimmle for other LANs (Chapter Six). Presently, over 40 vendors of

.,, . ,., ,, .,,

 324 PersonalCorn w Networks Chap, 11 Chap. 11 Psr ‘II Computersand LocalArea Networks 325
) \
PC LANs are in the markc[placc, Utlfor[uncdcly, very fcw of these systems For cxmnplc, even
if a vendor states it is using the Elhernet CSMA/CD
arc fully compa[iblc wi[h each olhcr. In Ibis scct;on we Cxa”line SOnlC Of (he sfanrJ@, if ccrfainlyrfocs nol mean that the product will communicate with
major PC LAN vendors and discuss some of their primary tdtribu~ es. another PC vendor that slates it is using (he Ethernet s{andard. The
The majority ofpcrsorml computer local area networks (LAN) use one incompatibility is not clue 10 any nefarious act on the part of the local area
of three forms of network pro[ocols: CSMA/CfJ, S~ar, and token passing, network vendor; rather, it stems from the facts tha~:
These syslems arc described in detail in Chapter Six. consequently, [hey
will not be discussed fur[her here, except as they rclalc to specific prorhc[s. 1. Even though a vendor may be working from a slandard such as the
The reader should hc aware thot building u Pc.oric”(cd IocaI LIrca Ethernet/If3EE 802.3 standard. the standards must be written in
network often places an individual io a world i“ which [imi~cd sljpport is cxcrrrcimirrg dcr~il to ensure that the designer understands the exac[
provided, especially in contras~ to the large computer mainframe world . intcn[ of each; statement of (he specification. This universal problem
where vendor support is rather extensive (even [o ihc cxlcnt of having exists throughout the world of date. communications.
vendor systems-support personnel at the customer si[c 24 hours a day). The 2. A veridor often deviates from a standard to enhance a particular
implementation of a PC LAN network often entails more individual effort produc[. Standards often degrade a specific application in order to
and participation than rlocs a large-scale effort. The user may bc required to enhance a wider range of systems.
become familiar with the rlc[ails of the sys(cm,
The performance of a vendor’s product of(cn does not live up to (hc Ancrthcr problem arises because a vendor sometimes understates the
sales publications’ claims. This problcm is one of the vexing aspects of using costs of a product. Costs should be examined very carefully by a potential
personal computer LANs. Several reasons cxis( for this situation, First, a customer. For example, let us assume the user is quoted that a LAN may be
vendor often states its local network (transmission capacity is x number of installed for $61M per node. This quote may not include additional interfaces
me~abils per second, so the customer may assume that tbc lbroughpul of the required to mnkc the nodes compatible; il may not even include (he cable
applic aliOn processes can ob(ain ~hal speed. Hrrwcvcr, [his aulhor has seen ik.clf. II mtty not include other costs, such as an additional computer
systems which have a channel capacily stated w 10 Mbil/s, when in (acl the required to perform tbc duties of a tile or prinl server.
final user throughput was below 60 kbii/s. Low throughput can oflcn be Another potential problem may smiace when an individual moves from
traced (o the limited capacity of the PC per! (board). Some LAN PC ports a skmd-alone PC to a conliguraiion in which tbe PC lies into a LAN. The
have very limited buffers (perhaps even a single buffer), which crcalcs a user is often chagrined to find the stand-alone sys[em, while working very
bottleneck between the PC and the high-capacily communications chmmcl, well by itself, will not work with other compu[ers in the LAN. Tbe solution
of[en composed of broadband coaxial cable, often requires modification to the individual PC software, It may require tbe
Olher problems stem from !hc vcnrlor software. The software may be user to stop using particukw features or particular packages that work well
inellcient and in some instances, bugs (logic errors) may sfill exist in [hc with the stand-alone systcm.
software. Even if the sof(ware works correctly, it is somc~imcs not up to the Fbrally, rrnce the personal computer ne(work is functioning, tbe user
task of the comparable software existing on (hc Iargc-scale computers, For must be careful about adding other fea{ures. For example, (he addition of
instance, large-scale computers long ago solved lhc problcm of multi-user ano[hercomputcr board may present performance or compatibility problems
access into data bases; Iocko”(s are quite common i“ large. ~ca]c ~Y~Lcms to with the currently existing LAN configuration. Often, this is simply a matter
prevent one user from writing to a dala file while another user is reading it. of a trial and error until the user finds something that actually works.
This is not usually (he case wilb perSonaI COIIIPu~er fl~tw~~k~_fjl~

read/wriLc protection is fairly primi(ivc. Moreover, [he relatively straight-

Examples of LANs snd PCs
forward mainframe task of multitasking is much more rli(ficult with the
personal computcr due to its Iimi(cd CPU speed, mcnwry size, and soflwwc. In this section, wc cover several well-known LAN PC products. They
A considerable limitation exists on [he amount of software IIM cim bc pl:,ccd arc chosen bccausc LImy are represcnkdive of tbc offerings in [he industry.
in a PC to perform the camplcx task of sharing software among multiple ~ Several Elheimet-type products are provided for personal computers
users, by 3COM. The term to describe [he product line is EtherSeries. Etherlink is
It should be reemphasized that many of (he PC LANs arc incompatible the data communications product of the EtherSeries, and uses a CMSAICD
with each other, This should come as no surprise, bccwsc most LANs und protocol. E(hcrsharc is a tile-server support package. It manages disks at the
data communications packages among almost till vendors arc incompu(iblc. disk volume ICVCIand provides for multiple use into the files.
 326 PersonalC Ier Networks Chap, 11 Chap. 11 P, d Computersand Lc.A Area Networks 32?
) }
Etbcrsharc provides o[hcr functions, such :1s o print support package PC Nc~work sys(cm. (Also scc Chapter Six for t discussion of lff M’;
called E[herPrin[. (The E[hcrSerics also provirlcs for clecwonic mail support token-ring network.) The product uses coaxial cable mrd opera[es al 2
in a product called E[hermail.) EtherPrint is a powmful print serving Mbit/s. It uses a CSMA/CD protocol and supports file, print 3270, and
function. II allows users to perform muItiple printing simuluuscously without gateway servers. It operates with the MS-DOS operating system. PC
interfering with each other, The server keeps sepam[e buffers on [he disk Network uses a broadband approach which permi~s a more flexible opera-
and interleaves the various users onto the printer as tbcy close [heir tiles, tion (h~n most of the o(hcr LAN PC systems utilizing the CSMA/CD
(For [hose users who have inslallcrl [he E[herSeries, an ol[crnute vendor bascbmxl technology. The IBM PC Network was developed by Sytck. Sy[ek
called Nc[warc/E should also be considered. ) rdso Icascs this pro[ocol to rrlhcr vendors and users.
Most of the Elher.%ries stipulate tha( over 10Q users mn be nelworkcd A somewhat unique enlry in the LAN PC field is HiNet, ofrered by
together, However, performance indica[es that (he actual user base is Icss; Ihc Digital Microsystems. HiNet operates at .5 Mbit/s on a baseband twisted-
actuaf number is highly dependen~ on the mix of trflic. As a general rule, the pair cable. lt provides some powerful file server functions such as record
E[herSeties opera[es well with 10 to 40 users on the network (again, [his is lockout and password protect. It provides for sophisticated line control by
highly variable, depending on Irtic condi~ions at a given time). the use of a modified SDLC protocol. In addi[ion, it is connected to work
Several local area network PC vendors have adopted the ARCNET shdions by 1( S-442, instead of RS-232-C. HiNet operates on a number of PC
Systcm from Datapoint. For example, ARCHNET.PC is offered by Stan- operating systems, such as MS-DOS, CP/M, and CP/M-86. 1[ provides
dard Microsystems Corporation. lt opera[cs at 2.5 Mbit/s and connects to an gttteway servers to IBM bisync systems as well. The IBM server emulates an
1“ ARCNET LAN. The network supports 25S personal computers m well as l13M 3274 con[rol unit. HiNet will olTer gateway servers for SNA access and
numerous options for sharing disks and printers. Nestar offers mrother eventually [he X.25 network access.
ARCNET-like system called The PLAN 4000. 1[ also operates at 2.5 Mbi[/s Table I I-2 provides a sample of the types of IBM PC LAN products.
and supports 255 work stations. PLAN 4000 has extensive server support for It is readily apparent !hal (he market olTerings are qui[e diverse.
disk and for printers 327o, SNA, and TELEX, It also provides a gateway PCs have also begun to move toward more sophisticated protocols,
server to allow one PLAN 4000 network to communicate with another such as [hc CC1’IT X.25 packet protocol discussed in Chapter Eight. Since
PLAN 4000 network. In addi[ion 10 these two vendors, other organizations X.25 is a functionally rich protocol, it has not been used in many PCs
provide an ARCNET system. Davong provides the multilink LAN and 3M because of the heavy resources required 10 provide the func~ions. However,
provides LAN/1. These systems operate at 2.5 Mbit/s over coaxial cable and X.25 chips have now been developed LOsupport personal compu~ers.
support 255 work s!ations. Tymnc[ is curren[ly sponsoring a X.25-(ype prolocol for personal com-
PCnet is another widely used local area ne[work for personal conlput. puters. Namcrl X. PC, il is a subset of the X.25 standard discussed in earlier
ers, PCnc[ was developed by Orchid Tcchnotogy; however, (IIC product is clmptcrs, X.PC allows pcrsomd computers to communicate with each other or
available from other vendors as well. They are all basically tbc smnc systcm. with host compulers thrcwgh a packet-switched network. It also allows [WO
In addi~ion to Orchid, AST Research ‘and lhe Santa CkLra SyStCmS ~Ner a personal. crnnpuiers to conlmunicatc direcO y using a dial-up channel.
PCne! product, PCnet is very sinlilar to the Ethernet IEEE 802:3 CSMA/CD X:PC supporfs concurrent sessions over one physical connection. A
system discussed earlier in this book. Unlike the 3COM systcnl just maximum of 15 sessions can take place in such a mode. Concurrent sessions
discussed, the PCnet requires an external Ethernet [ra”sceivcr, while 3C0M are quite similar (o the logical channel concept discussed in the X.25
offers its transceiver on [he 3COM personal computer board. PCnet is standard, The protocol appears as if the physical connection is multiplexed.
offered as a baseband product; however, the broadband version of the The multiple-session approach will likely prove qui[e useful for PC window-
system is available and is named [he NET/1 Personal Connection. ing, in whicll a PC screen is divided inlo mul[iple windows [o handle mul(iple
PCnet provides two options for sharing a LAN, The first op[ion is applications. Using X.PC concurrent operations, Ihe windows could be
called the “shared PC. ” This option contains a hard disk, which can be working with different sessions across X. PC.
shared with [he other PCs on the LAN. The second oplion, a “user PC” acts The X.PC packet is similar to the X.25 packc!, except that X.PC
as a work station and does not need a hard disk of its own. In this op[ion, [he combines elements of level 2 (da[a-link con[rol) with level 3 (the packet
other personal computers use their own hard disk for storage. nc(work level). Like ils supcrsct, X.PC provides for sending and receiving
IBM entered the personal computer LAN market with [he introduction scqucncc numbers in order to account for packets [transmitted across the
of the cluster network. The network was introduced in 1983 but has not cllanncl. In addition, like the X.25 recommendation, X.PC uses a CRC
achieved much success. A more no(ablc IBM entry into the LAN tram is its calculation for error checking.

,, .,..-
.. . .. . . .. .. ,.,
328 PersonalCc } er Networks Chap. 11 Chap. 1f c! ‘@n 329
...
TABLE 11-2. IBM PC Networks is now used wi[h all i[s PC-micnlcd nc[work prcducls. Netbios provides for
signal Protocol sevmd func(ions not found in MS:
DOS 3.1. (See Table 11-3.)
Vendor Name Capacity Media

3COM EtherShare 10,0 co BA csmclcd TABLE 11-3. Nelblos Commands

AST Research PCnet II 0.8 Tw BA csmatcd Adapter St.41US providesstatusfof focalor remoteadaplec
AT&T St.srLAN 1.0 Tw BA csmclcd Adapler Idenlilicalionnumber
Cowus Omnlnet 1.0 Tw 6A csmdcd Resullsof last self lest
DatapOint ARCNET 2,5 co 6A token
Softwareversionnumber
Oavong MulliUnK 2.5 co BA Ioken
Traificand error$Iatlslics
Oigllal Micro HNet 0,5 Tw BA poloog
Resourcestatistics
Gateway G.Nel 1,4 co BA csmaicdtca
Quantityof names In the local name Iable
IBM PC Network 2.0 co BR csmaIcd Local name (able
IBM Token-Ring 4.0 TW, F[ SA token Add Group N~me pdds @unique 1Gclraractergroupname to the local name table
Intel StarL4N 1,0 Tw BA csmwtd Add Name adds a unique 16.charactarname to the localname table
Neslar PLAN2000 2,5 co BA token Cancel camels a command
Novell Netware/S 0,6 T-w BA pdhrg Chain Send sendsIWObuffersof data
Orchid Tech, PCNET 1.0 co BA Csmclcc Call opens a sessionwithanothernefworkname
PC OHice Net Board 2.5 Tw BA Csmticli Delete Name deletesa name from Ihe Ibcal name table
~,5 co BA Ioken
PROLAN COrP PROLAN Hangup Closesa 96SS10nwithanothernetworkmmw
PrO\eOn ProNET 10.0 CO, TW, IN BA tokml Listen enables a sessionto ba establishedwithanothernetworkname
Quadram (luadnet VI 1,4 co BA csmsdcdlca Receiie rccel.es data from a specifiedsession
Ouadram Quadnel IX 10.0 Tw BA taken Receive Any rsceivesdata from any session
Santa Clara PC.Nei 1.0 Tw BA csmticn Receive Broadcast rsceivesa mescagehcm any stationthatIssuesa Send
Standard h4cro ARCNET 2.5 co BA token Bmcd@sl
SyIek Localnet20 2.0 co BR csmticd Receive Dalagram rscelves any dalagram message drecled to sla!lon
Ungwman.Bass NeVOne 5.0 co BR csmcmd Reset resetsadapterstatusand otherresets
Ungerman-B.sss NsWOne 10,0 co BA csmabd Send sends a buffero! data
Wang Wangnet 2,5 co BR token Send Broadcasl sends a message 10 any station with a Receive Broadcas( out.
Xerox Elhernet 10.0 co 6A csmcIcd slanding
Send Oa!agram sendsa dalagram 10a uniquegroupname
Msdia Signal
SessionS!.901s aels
. status01all active sessionsfor a networkname
CO Cocxial cable BA Baseband
FI Fiber Optic BR Broadband
IN Inlrared The relationships of tllese irnpor~anl producls to the 0S1 model (and
RS RS.232 each crlher) is shown in Figure 11-3. All reside in the upper layers, wi(h an
TW Twi?,ted.pair
application accessing a network through MS-DOS, and then Netbios (al-
though an npplicalion can work direc~ly with Netbios). The lower layers
Personal Computer Networks and the 0S1 Model utilize [be various protocols discussed in the earlier sec(ions of this chapter.
‘f’he Microsofl ‘and lBM products are now very widely used and have
Microsoft offers a release of its PC operating system, MS-DOS 3.1, which become dc fa~~o PC LAN Wmdards.
permits a wide range of networking and LAN functions that were heretofore
unavailable. Many vendors are using 3.1 for developing their specific products.
Conclusion
MS-DOS 3.1 also provides for the Redirector program, which supporls access
to remote computers and data bases. Redirec[or also performs the functions of Wi(hin a shor( span of ten years, the personal computer has reshaped the
a file server. In addi[ion, IBM’s Network Basic InpuUOutput System (Nctbios) conlpu[cr imlus(ry dranm[ically. Conservative estimates state (hat over 30

..
330 personal Corr j - Networks Chap. 11 Chap. t 1 33t
c“”’ )’n

Cwpcntcr, Robert, “A Comfmriwm o(’f’wo ‘Gutmmrleed’ Loed Network Access “

Application
Z=El Mcthuds,’’ D[lt,l Cotrt!,!tt!!ivoti,)tts, February 1984, PP. 143-152.
Phillips, Chcri Kennedy. “A Brief History of Communications,” Unpublished

El=
Pi$pcr, AnlcricwrUn
ivcrsi[y, 1979, P.9.
... Held, Gilbcrl, and Sarch, Ray. Dam Cor]t,?lltlticalio!!s: A Comprclwnsi%e Approach,
P,e,e”zwic,n
MS.DOS and Red;roc,or Ncw Yurk:McGruw-Hill Publicrttions Company, 1984.
session ‘.. N,,l,i.n Jurd:m, Lorry E.. und Churchill, fJrucc. C,>rtttl#t[,,ic(tli,jt!.sojrd Nct).c~rki,lg for fltc
lUM PC, fJowie, M:myiand:Robcr tJ.llrudyCompany, 1983, P. 237.
Tran,Port
Orr, L:wry. “GMCWOYS to SNA f.)fTcr Multivendor Network Solutions,’” Data
Co,,t,,t(,!tico!ic,)ts, February J985, pp. 153-160.
Rubcnstcin, PollY, and Smilh, Glenn. “The Async Route—Best Suited for a
Micrucomputcr’s Local Traf7ic,”’ Dam Co!rtr?!!itticatiofts, October 1984, pp.

Cl Physical Figure 11-3.

Model
PC Networks and the ISO
177-18S.
Sawicki, Edward J. Ncowvkiltg IDMPcrso!,u/
Miconl Dcvclcumm, hrc., 1986.
Cot?tpltrcrs. Lake Oswego, Oregon:

million PCs exis[ in the Uni[crl States ulonc, The PC is accclcraling our Skdlings, William. Loud Ne:works, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
movemen[ to the information society, mrd, wi[h i[s incrcwing facilities wrd 1984, p. 381.
ease of use, i[ is becoming as f~miliar as the typewriter and calculator, Ye{ Wnllcr, Lwry, “TIAntcs Up It”s Chips for IBM Token-Ring LAN,’’ E/ecrronics,
its full po[en[ ial has not yet been released. As artificial intelligence imd Jldy!5, 1985, PP. 16-IS.
digitized voice technologies malure, [he PC will integrate these fea(ures into
i[s architecture to crca!e a machine of considerably more diversity und
p0wer,4

NOTES

‘The initials PC are often used m describe [hc IBM personal cmnputcr product
. .
line. This chapter uses PC in the generic sense, describing any personal computer.
2Thc reader should cxcrcisc cau[ion when using [he V..?2 bis mudcm wifh
North American and European connections. ‘h North American spccifirations
require a 2225 Hz answer tune; however,, the CCITI’ rccommcmfs n 21(10Hz answer
tom. In Ihe United Slates, bo(h tones will usually work, but in Europe must systcnls
only respond [o [he 2100 Hz tone.
‘The IBM S/34, S/36, and S/38 computers represen~ some of the most widely
used small-to-medium scale machines in use today, They communicate wiR1 (he 5251
or 5294 clus[er controllers wilh either SDLC or X.25 virlual circuit p’ro[ocols, The
controllers connect to their devices with onc of several intcrfaccs: (rI) RS-232.C; (b)
twinaxial cable; (c) AT&T’s Dalaphone Digilal Service (DDS); or (d) X,21 (see
Appendix C). Chapter Four describes cluster controllers,
‘My thanks to Ed Sawicki and Rick Watkins for [heir contributions w this
chapter.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Bradley, Bob. “lnterconnr.c[ion Draws Dee, IBM Networks Closer, ” LJ,,I,, Cont.
mwriccxiom, May 1985, pp. 24i-248,

, -,, .. . .. . . .,, ,,,.

 Chap. 12 E“, ~’ of the PBX 333
)
con[r’oiling u tclccommunicu(ions system. Fifth, as discussed in Chapter “’”
CHAPTER TWELVE Nine, (he intcgra[imr of voice and data makes good sense from many
standpoints. Since the PBX is now an integrated voice/data digi!al device, it
provides a valuable tool 10 accelerate the trend toward transmitting, switch-
ing, and managmg all transmissions in digital images.
The PBX and Data Communications
Networks Evolution of the PBX

Like rzmny hardwurc and software syslcms, PBXS have evolved from
relatively simple devices with limited functions to powerful multifunction
systems. This section provides a brief description of [he evolution of the
PBX. Tnblc 12-1 summarizes the central processor architecture of both early
and modern PBXS. 1
The P13XS designed and sold in the [970s were essentially telephone
circuit-switching systems (see Chapter Seven). Consequently, earlier PBXS
Introduction TABLE 12-1. PBX Procemors
In the iate 1970s and early 1980s, the private branch cxch~ng~ (pBX) was Procassor Organizationof
used predominantly as a telephone switching device for the ooice. Tele- Type Prceassor(s) Key Points
phones were cbnncc[cd through wires into the PBX, which pcfiOrmed the
8 BIT SinglelCenlml Lowhorsepwec singlepointof Iailur%small
[ask of switching calls belwcen ollicis wi~hin an org~nization and (Iw trunks mamo~ capacilfi small sys(emssupporl
to [he telephone cen[ral o~lce. During [his time, scvcml PBX manufacturers Reliabilityquestionable
8 BIT Dua!JRedundant
decided to design PBXS to handle voice and data [riafllc. Through a series of
8 BIT MultVHierarchy Hqher horsepowachigherhardwareCOSI;
gradual changes, the PBX has cvOlvcd 10 becOmc a POwc~ul tOOl ‘Or complicatedsoltware
integrated voice/data transmission and networking. 8 BIT MuWDisbibutad Retiable;very complicatedsoftware;highercost
The PBX is called by several o[hcr names: priva(c au[omalcd branch hardwarmlarge memoryrequiredfor
exchange (PABX) and computerized branch cxchangc (CBX). This clwptcr opsrallngsystem
uses the generic term PBX 10 dcscxibc (lx Jcvicc ml provides a gcncml, 16 BIT SinglelCenlral Higherhomepawer;singlepoint01failure;larger
introductory discussion of the P13X. msmorycapacl!y;largersyslems
OIIC might reasomibly ask, why shOuld the PBX bc usc~ fOr data 16 BIT Dua!iRedundant Rellabillryquestionable
conlmunications? There are several answers (o (his qucsl ion. First, two 16 BIT Mul!ilHierarchy Higherhorsepower;largersystemcapacity
Iinewlfunks;complicatedsofrw’am;higher
separate technologies have been used to support communications itl the
hardwarecost largermemoryrequired;
office: analog [ethnology for voice communications and digital technology redundancyrelativelyexpensive
for data communications. This approach has often resulted in redundant and t6 BIT MulWOislributed Ve!y highhorsepowe~high memorycapacit~
conflicting etTorts between ~WO scpara~c Wems. The f’~x mvi~es [he very large systemscapacitfi very cumplca!ed
opportunity [o in[cgratc some of these sys[cms (m well as the personnel) to Solrware;ve!y highcost hardwar%
reduce rcdunduncy, decrcasc costs, and take udvim[;igc of (IIC superior redundancybuiltIn; high retiabllily;trendof
future
aSpCCM of digikd [cchnology (SCC chap~er Nine). SccOnd, since mOsl da[a
32 BIT DualiRedundant Very powerful; very large system capacltfi very
communictitions systems use the !clephonc sysicm, [hc PBX
provides a
large memoiy capaciw very highcost
convenient conduil IO the local telephone ollcc and the telephone network. hardware;reliabilityqueslionabla
Third, the telephone wires already inshllcd in a building provide (he 32 BIT MullI/Hierarchy Extremelypowerful;vefy high-costsystem%
palhs for a local urea ne[work (LAN) wi(hou( the very significant problem of very complicaksdsoliware;redundancyverf
pulling sepamle wire or cable. Fourth, for scvcml years the PBX has had the
ncccssary architecture [o provide adminis[mtivc md nwmgcmcn( support in
,. ... .,
334 The PBX and Data Communicant ~Nelworks Chap. 12 Chap. 12 Evolut } the PBX 335

I .,.
had dab capabili(ics “tacked” on[o the sys[cms without much rorc(bougbt,
which often rcsulIecl in poor pcrrormancc. In these cm-ly sys[cms, difl’crcnt 1
wires were used [o accommoch[e voice and data trallc. 2
The major problem hampering early PBXS stemmed rrom their clcsign. A
3
Voice-only PBXS were built with the,expec[a[ion or handling connections B
which lasted only a short period of [ime, which is characteristic or most 1.5
c
voice calls in a typical office environment. However, cla[a co]ls arc oRcn of
0
much Iongcr dura[ ion. A lcrminal-[o-crrnlputcr session oflcn kmls several
minutes, sometimes several hours. Moreover, durin~ the [imc Ibc datu calls
20
are taking place, the communications cbannc[s and other rcsourccs m’c used
in in[ermi[[en[ bursts, because many communications devices (e.g., termi- t
nals operated by humans) do not use the resources continuously. However,
[he earlier PBXS dedica[ed resources to each connection. Dcclica[cd con-
nections require a fixed bandwid~h [hrough {he switch during (hc cn[ire
connection. The PBX [bus wasted valuable switching and sys[cms manage-
,,
I.-k+-
(, I A alocklmjSwitch
men[ capacity for extended data calls that had periodic bursts or traffic to
[mnsmit or receive.
Because of [he design, [hc earlier systems ORcn e~pcrienced blOcking
(busy or engaged signals). Tbe problem with blocking is illustrated in Figure
12-l(a).2 A blocking swi!ch is one in which a finite number of connections
a switching ma[rix controls the number of end-user connections
switch. This swi!ch shows a blocking ratio of 5:1 in which bur connections
~hrough the
in
-/’L1 1

can be made simultaneously through the switch to service Ibc 20 ports

coming into and out of [he switch. Figure 12-l(b) ilhrstrrclcs a nonblocking
switch in which the swhcbing matrix provides a path through the switch ror
each port. (Later PBXS adapted a nonblocking design. )
The earlier systems also supported data interfaces [hrough a conven-
tional RS-232-C conncc[ion. The Pf3X rcceivcd tbc data and converted it
into a PBX channel rormat.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the PBX manuracturcrs began to
move away from [hc RS-232-C connection (which required nlOdcms) toward
lbl A N.n-blockiw Switch
a digital data interface conncc~ ion (SCC Figure 12-2). With (hk apprcrtich, the
data bits were :mnsmitted digitally [o ihe PBX through Ihe digital data Figure 12-1. SwitchingMalrix
in(crfacc (DDI) translation. ARcrwald, as in the earlier illustm( ion, the data
was switched by the PBX as if it were voice trallc. This approach was an facilities to a voice or cla[a communications connection. Cabling costs were
improvenlent in [ha~ it did not require an associated [clcphonc to set up data substantially rcducerJ with this approach, but (he swi[ch itself is still worked
calls through [he modem. Rdthcr, the DDI provided dircc~ communimtions in an incfkicnt mode.
wi[b [be user DTE, such as a [crminaI keyboard Or ~ CRT nlOnitOr. Today, tbc newer PBXS have developed full digital swi[ching. Digital
However, this approach required [he PBX to know it was dealing with a switching provides conccpM quite similar to packe( switching in that a
[transmission that was dirfercnl from voice tralTrc. switching brmdwidth is’ not cledicatcd [o one particular connection. Rather,
More recently, PBXS provided an integration of voice and cla[a across mul[iple users can shm’c one physical pa[b by the switch interleaving data or
the same local twisted-wire pair, and while this serves as a significant voice conncctimrs during periods of voice silence or during absences of
improvement in eliminating an additional set orwircs from each user station, transmission from !hc DTE. This concept (called virtual or logical channels)
(hc in[ernal architecture of the PBX still proviclcd dedicated switching is in[cgrrdcd into most PBXS with the digital-switching concep( discussed in
,.;,,
“~.,,..
 Chap, 12 Lss.c ~ ?Inga PBX In a LAN 337
336 The PBX and Data CommunlcL ) N.(works Chap. 12

~. ., Cmtrd Of!ice remains wilh us IwJay. In most orgmrir~ lions, voice it!,cl daIa ~ommunica. ‘,
LccalOlfim
Line, Trunks [ions have evolved in separa[e dcpartmenfs. In the past, a company’s
t I

3
telephone syslems were suppor[ed by a staff, as were (he data communica.
(ions systems, usually in [he data processing department. The segregation of
voice mrcl d:~ta transmission often resulted in a lack of continuity of services
TelePhone
set%or Plrx 10 the cnd user, some redundancy of services, and certainly political conflict
DTE, bclwccn Ihc IWO different dcpm-lmcnts, The issue is still with us today, even
though [hc nlocfcrn PlfXs arc moving (U full-function, in~cgmtcd vcriceldata

l+-.__J-J systems. Huwcvcr, tllis book is noI intended to adctrcss peDple communi-
cations bu[ data ccmmwf!ica(icrns, so wc will focus crur attention on the
latter.
❑ : Digital D,,, !nterface IDDII
Presently, less than 30 percent of the line cards placed in a PBX are
used for data. Pf3Xs, although moving toward full-functicm capabilities, are
Figure 12-2. The PBX Dgilal Dala Intoriace(DDt) Translation
still dominated by voice connections. TD integrate voicekfata or not tD
in[egrn[c voice/datia is u qucs( ion that is of major concern if an organization
Chap[er Nine. Moreover, many Df the modern PBXS todaY arc built wi[h
is using Pf3Xs developed in the early 1980s. The ncw PBXS are powerful
nonblocking lrchi[cc~ure.
enough to obviate many (but not all) voice/data integration issues.
While the earlier PBXS were rckc~ively simple tclcphcmc circuit
As a general rule, this writer does not recommend the use of an older
switches, today’s PBXS are very powerful processors with provisions fm
PBX for data communications switching and networking in an environment
such features as Icas[ -cost routing (rOuting the call OntO (he CllcaPcst carrier
in which the DTE usage is at a very high level (for example, non-’’bursty”
cDmrectiDn, such as WATS, AT&T, or MCI). The ncw PBXS also provide
transmissions hnd long holding times for a DTE session). The earlier
such features as rc-dial capabilities, call waiting, and call forw”?rding. generkdion of PBXS afso do nut support large data base retrieval requests.
A significant trend in the indusky is the acquisi~ibn or mci’ger of PBX
Perhaps the best use of Ihe older PBXS for handling DTE communications is
companies with conventional data proccssicrg organizations. For cxtample,
in sitwctimrs of sporadic termirrd usage (approximately 30 percent of the
IBM has set up operations with Rolm; Wang and lnteCom are opcmting
total PBX capacity) and in situations where (he DTE sessions are relatively
!ogether; Honeywell and Ericsson have entered into coOPera\ive Wrccmen[s
shor[. Multipoint transmissions m-c supported very well through a conven-
as well.
tional PflX. As we shall sce shortly, (he four[h-generation PBXS are
PBX architecture is rapidly evolving to the integration of voice and
exceptions to these guidelines rural provide support for many voice/data
data and addi~ional data communications network capabilities. Ccrtain!y,
applications.
the PBXS arc more powerful. For example, the rcmjor product ofTcrings
The basic questions about PBX use for data revolve around the DTE
Ioclay provide small PBXS (2C!-30 Iincs), mcciium PBXS (200-1500 Iincs), and
prolocds, liuc speeds, ckria formats, throughput, and response time support
large PBXS (over 2000 lines). Some of the fOur(h%cnc~~[iOn systems
capabilities of the PBX, which means a PBX evaluation for data usage is not
(discussed la[er) provide capabilities of over 10,000 conlmunications lines.
unlike a typical evaluation for other data communications components.
In addi[ion, [hese systems are designed 10 suPPOrt data cOmmuniCatiOns
functions such as X.25, SDLC/HDLC, [he 802 IEEE local area network
standards, and the emerging PBX-CPI and PBX-DM1 in[crface shrcfarcls Issue of Using a PBX in a LAN
(also discussed later).
Onc problcm dealing wi[h lhc PBX today is its usc as a local area network
(LAN) to support the autonmlcd oflicc. Without question, the issue of office
au{omalimr has come to fruition because of the intelligent work slation and
Issue of Voice/Data Integration the personal .compuLcr rcvohdion in the o~lce environment (see Chapter
Ten). The supporters of the PflX for office automation have cited numerous
From (he previous discussion, it is evident that [he early PBX industry
advantages to using PBXS for the LAN. In contras[, LAN vendors have
conccn~rated primarily on voice [transmission and voice swi!ching. Conse-
ci!ed [}}e LAN acfvanlagcs and the PBX disadvantages for use in o~ice
quently, for historical reasons and the large number of voice PBXS currcnlly
automation,
in exiskmce, the problcm of [he integration Df voice and dala syslems
.,,.,., ,... ,,, . ,,. ,, , ,. .. ,=,7, ,,...,, ,,...,, .: “ . .. ......
.’->-? :!,:. ;:’!:m,.,T;:
 338 The PBX and Data Commun’ “j,, Networks Chap. 12 chap. i 2 Tlv j rth-GeneraOonPBX 339

The PBX will certainly play an impor[an[ role ill OIICC mslom[~litm ml and OIC PBX should ccrcxist to suppai lhc automated oflce. The practical
local area networks, if for no o[hcr reason km the fact thal the PllX is well approach isn~~ lochoose oneovert heother,b uttode~ erminein what fashion
entrenched (it is a pervasive (001 in offices today), and it connects to [he they can be integrated to support the end-user application in the best way.
ubiquitous telephone lines. Toillustrate thepresence ofthc PBX, Northern i,
Tclccom ([he SL-1 PBX) has installations in over 40 countries and supports W/ring,, Costs .
over 8,000 users (8,000 individual companies). The SL-I suppm’ls over Another problem surrounsfing the use of a LAN or PBX for office
3,000,000 voice-grade lines Iocxtcd in various otliccs wound [hc world. automm[ion focuscsonthc cost of wiring lhcbuilding to support !hesys( em,
What arc (IIC imdcotTs of using PflXs for local W’COnctwurks”? First, Ict Rcccnt sludics bavc focused on the cost breakdowns for average da[a wiring
us cite some adwmmges. costs. The figures in Table 12-2 include the wire costs, the cost of the
comscctor to the wire, and [he labor 10 pull the wire and provide the
● As sta~ed previously, the PBX uscsthete[ephone Iinesconncctinglhe connect ion.) The figures do not relate to specific dollar values, but rather a
offices to each other, as well as to the telephone comptmy network. ratio of costs. The rstio number 1 identifies the basic costs, and the ratios
● The PBX is a [ratTc-eNlcient circuit switch—its capabili(ics are well above or below 1 identify lhcincremenlal ordecrementaI cost in relation to
understood; it has bcendcsigncd to bevcryctT\cicn( for voicctr~T1c. the rcfcrencc value of 1.
● The ovcrdl Lcchnology of the PBX is m~~urc and WCll PrOvcn.
TABLE 12-2. Wlrlng COsts
c The PBX provides long haul’interfaces to communications systems
around the world through the telephone syslem. Svslem Tvne WirlnoMode Cost Factor
● The modern PBXsprovide full-function integration ofvoicc and data,
Prsx Wire 1,0
thus permitting the use of voice and data transmissions in the end-user
RS-232.C 22.Gage 1,96
oflice (perhaps from a single terminal).
Coaxial RG513 2.25
Elherriet EthernetCable 3,57
I The critics of the PBX for usc as a LAN ci[c the disadvantages:
IBM Cabling System Typel \ocbetand T~e2to Computer 3.59

● The lack of adequate da[a-switching capability in the PflX is still

evident, (With four[h-gcncralion sys(ems, this is notasbigaproblctn,
These wiring costs do not tcfl the whole story. Quality and flexibility
but still remains.)
fzac[ors are invulved that must be considered o~her than costs. For example, at
● Some of [he archi[ccture of the PBXS still revolves around voice first glance the 1EM cabling system (see Chapter Six for its description) appears
technology. to be prohibitively expensive, yet the high-qualily shielded pair system provides
● The PBXS’ multifunction suppor[ of thediversc world ofda(acolnmu- considcmble ffexibili[y in moving DTEs and reconfiguring a local network,
nications is not as extensive as equipment such as fmcket switches and Moreover, while the Ethernel configuration is also quite costly, it provides for
intelligent mukiplcxers. considerably more funclions than the straight RG58 coaxial-line setup, The
I
“ace in the hole” for the PBX is its use of cmendy e.ris[ing telephone wires in
● The PBX is not fast enough to support multiple CPU-to-CPU traoic.
I The basic speed of a typical PBX port is 64 kbit/s<ertainly fast
the office. As we shall sec in the next section, the new PBXS are exploiting this
media to provide poweflul voice and da~a communications support functions [o
I enough tosuppor[ most traffic. However, asdiscusscd in Ch:~ptcr Nine
the user, (In fairness, most other vendors are doing the same.)
(Digital Switching), thedigilal swi[ch(PBX) muslbcfi~st cnougllto
support the switching of all lines attached (o i[. II must prcvenl
congestion, avoid blockage, and provide high throughput and low
The Fourth-Generation .PBX
response time.
Several Pf3X firms have brought forth their “fourth-generation” systems,
The two technologies of the PBX md LAN arc not mutually exclusive. which arc toutcrl [o successfully blend the functions of local area networks,

Theautomate do~lccc~nbencfi lfronl tllcusc of bolltapproacllcs ;indeed, PBXs, atfditllcgrated voicc/dafa support. Inthisscction we examine some
recent P13X announcements.
the o~lcccan certainly bencfii from intcgmting thccapdbilitics. The LAN
. . , . ..... ... . ,...,.,,..:
.:.’.,,.:”.””’:’’,,.:
‘.’ ,,
340 The PBXand Da!a Comm,,r,, ‘j Networks Chap. 12 Chap. 12 Tt ) th.GenerationPBX 341
. .
?herc is no concise dctinilion as 10 what cons[itulcs a kmrlh-gcncru!icm Zlcl has inlrtxfucctl its Priva!c Nclwork Excbangc (PNX) as a fourth-’”
PBX, However, it is generally agreed [ha[ such a system has [hc following generation s yslcm (Figure 12-3). The PBX provides for linking many types
capabilities: of D? Es, such as personal computers, word processors, work stations, and
mainframe computers, onto a single communications system (wilb tele-
● The switch is all digitd and integrates voice and data togclher. phones as well). The technology is built around the modular concept. A
● The system provides for the use of LANs with PlfXs and provides module is called a sys[cm processing unit (SPU). Each SPU suppor[s up (o
gatcwoys to wide arwa ne[works as well. 1500 voice and &ala Icrmimds. A full Zlel PBX can incorporate up to 256
● The PBX is modular in its design, boih fronl the stmv-lpoint of hm’dvmrc SPUS; thus, lhc system can grow from a relatively small system to a very
and sof(warc. The modular design provides for growth [O accommo- large system supporting up to 20,000 users.
date a larger user base. III mony inslanccs, the modules (added on) cmr
be dedica[ed to specific applidions, such as word processing. The IEEEB02.5Token Ring
modular growth allows for small or Iargc numbers of users (from 1 [o

w---n---w
[ \
20,000 user conncc[ions) ml aggregate [hroughput mtcs to 300 kbit/s.
● The switch is nonblocking.
● The PBX supports communications with tclcphoncs and convcn[ionai
lerminals as well m mainrl-amc ceniral processing units.
● The PBX provides for a high level of security.
● The design is built to handle an evolution [o the ISDN (see Ch~p[cr Nine).
● The PLIX suppor[s a cOnvcfl[fOn:d pCM (PUISC COdC m~ula@n)
transmission of 64 kbil/s as well as higher T13M (time division

L--#
Switch
mul~iplexcd) speeds, such as 1.544 MbiUs or 2,048 Mbi[/s.

The following functions tire common olTcrings from the new PBXs:
1 t
● Physical level supporl TOMLMS
RS-232-C (X.21 his)
RS-449
Speeds of 1200 bi[/s [o 56 kbit/s

c Data-link Ievcl support

Internal or external clocking
%
HDLC Telephone Analog Digital CITES
office Telephones Telephones
LAPB
Figure 12-3, Ztel PrivateNetworkExchange(PNX)

● Network level suppml

The PNX provides conventional capabilities found in PBXS such as
X.25 switched calls
least-cost riouting, call forwarding, and call waiting. However, this PBX also
X.25 features such m D and Q bits provi~es for rather extensive data communications capabilities. Tbe SPU
X .2S facilities can connect to either a circuit ring or a token ring. The circuit-ring
connection provides for voice/data transmissions up to 56 kbith. The circui[
● Protocol Conversion Support ring can ex[cnd up to five miles; however, for greater distance requirements,
X,3 (X.28, X.29) Packet Assembly/Disassembly users have the option of moving to optic tiber, microwave ?1, or even
 suq]do X%J UUOH .vz L a1n61d

X93

- IP..W3 1-1

xx)

4zz
Jamduq ,,q.(
mw.a,lpuk~ m
Wal Iey$
110 110

(m
ad”)
INO
5ZX
JU.dWQDV.”
no 110 Sn.au.a,qwfiv

Wal
 344 T,. Ptl.z and D.(, COmmL ) IS Networks Chain 12 Chap. 12 TI ) ““ th-Genwatlon PBX 34s

for protocol conversion fcillurcs @ ullow OSYIICIIKMIOUS tcrnlimrls 10 upcratc These features by no mmrns cxhrwst the cnpabili[ics of ESN, but ““
as lBM 3178 or 327K on-line devices. illus(ra[c some of Ihc powerful fealrrrcs of the fourth-gcirerrition PBXS,
In addition, ano{her converter provides features 10 allow the same Other vendors provide similar capabilities.
terminals to func(ion as IBM Sys(cm 34, 36, or 38 conlpn(iMc dcviccs, The The CXC Company has introduced another modern fourth-generation
SL-100 also provides for lhc IBM pcrsomd compu[crs [o connect directly P13X called (he Rose System (Figure 12-5). Like other ofJerings discussed
wi[h i{, via twis[crl-pair tclcphmrc wirillg. previously, Rose is a fully integrated PBX. Each node supports 192
Enhanced versions of [hc SL-I and SL-lW arc avtrikrblc in [lx Meridian full-duplex nonblocking porls. The Rose System provides for expansion of
prorluc[s. These sys[cms provide ptckc[ lranspcwl equipmcn! 10 curry IWO 40 UP 10 64 norfcs, lhus providing a 12,000-port capability, CXC intends to
Mbil/s redundant buses for digitized voice md tkaia. Northern’s 4020 work expand [u 25,OOO ports in the fuiure.
station uses Unix-based sof[wwe to emulate a number of rr[hcr vcmfor
S*..lti”,
terminals. The Meridian DV- I cm] be configured as dam or voicclrltda; it can

E
*., ,*M
suppori up 10 IMl simultaneous notlblocking voice and dab calls.
volt+ m D.!.
Northern Telecom’s SL- 1 and SL- 100 PflX family is otso illustra[ivc of
D,,,
the PBX vendors’ thrust in[o priwr(c voice, circrri(-swi[chcd networks. To
illustrate, SL-I in a network can bc configured 10 serve Ioc:i[ions of 40
each . .
& $:,, & ~:$,

(o 5,000 lines and mul!iple SL-IS can be inskdlcd for adcli[iomd Iinc support.
Tbc PllX family can also bc configured w provide (be clec~rOllie $wi!ched
network (ESN) wilh such features as:

Network Class oJService. Selection of parlicrdar routes such m a lie or

WATS line and a warning that such routes arc not aw.iikrblc and lhc cdl can

3
be completed only on more expensive facilities. Two P.!. 1,.!!’ hck.! s.’ %,,,, ~,h,m,

work swim f“td.c.

Ethwnc, LAN

Nefwork Queuing. ESN allows a calling user to rcnmin off-book for a

awl,.h
short [imc until a network fficilily becomes available. Also, an ESN user can
activste (he PBX ring-agiiirr fca(ure and receive a call-back from (he ESN V.h BIN V.;<, Rad).
IEEE SC?2,5
Fmqmu,
Mod,”, TokmRl,q
node swi(ch when a network facility becomes availtiblc. ,Both qucrring f-
RS-?32.C
features can be es[ablisllcd with priorities. C.nm,iom

I
1,.”, m E,

Network Au fhorizatio)l Codes. These features prccludc cer(ain users

from using ESN facilities.
for unusual conditions
Likewise, ~uihOri~~[ion cOdes may bc Ovcrriddcn
,.
II
Figure 12.5. Tha CXC Rose
Coordino fedDialiag Pkrn. Users with Nmlhcrn Telccom”s equipmcrd
can coordinate wifh o[her users [o es~ablish a numbering and dialing plan 10 The capacity of (he PBX is shared dynamically. The dynamic band-
save employee lime. width is a proprietary package olfered by CXC and allocates the PBX
capaci~y based on aclua[ user need. For example, a relatively low-speed data
Network Tmfiic Sio[is(ics. ESN provides cx[cnsivc daur for the network transmission of 4.8 kbitk would have fewer resources alloca[ed than a 64
nxmagcr. For example, the following reports ctm bc produced by Ihc system: kbit/s or a 512 kbil/s conncciion.
Rose supports conventional DTE connections such as RS-232-C. In
● routing mcmuremcnts addition, i[ provides for LAN support in (WO areas:
● queuing mcasurcmcu[s
,
● cl~lss of service measurcnrcn(s 1. A broadband ring irr[egrales voice mrd data and operates at 50 Mbit/s,
● incoming trunk g!-oup !ncasuwncnb. This large-capacity channel permits combined voice/da[a [rmsmis~ion
. . . ... ... .. . . . . ,,, .
,! ,, .,.
346 The PBX and Data Comm.n: ) , Networks Chap, 12 Chap, 12 Tt ] {al Mulllple.xedInterlaceimd Cmnp.{er-lo.PBX Interface 347
..
M 33 Mbitfs. The remaining bandwid[h is rcscrvcd for [hc cvcnhial ● provide for tlcxiblc intcgmtion of voice, synchronous data, and asyn-
in[egra[ ion of the IEEE 802.5 loken-ring protocol. cbrunous data
2. The secolld support is an Ethcrne~ LAN for the use in data and ● provide a universal interface adaptable through multiple vendor prod-
message applications. Rose intends to discontinue [he Ethernet sup. ucts
port and use it as a ga[eway to Ethernet ne[works if necessary, 11
appears the LAN support will focus primarily on the broadbmd ring In the absence of Ihcse two standards, a lypical communications
operating under IEEE 802.5. slruc(urc lbrougll a PBX appears m in Figure 12.6(a). Each DTE connection
rcquiccs a da[a.access module (DAM) between il and Ihe PBX. Each of !hese
Like other modern PBXS, CXC has designed an integrated phone/DTE DAMs pmrvidcs for scparalc RS-232-C cables plus any line cards required
work station, which includes an 80-cllar~ch.x display and a kcybom’d. The for (hc connection bc(ween [hc PBX and the DTE. The DAM “conditions”
keyboard and phone can be used ccmcurrcnfly over two-pair wires wi[h the the DTE to work with the PBX. The problem wilh this approach is the
192 kbit/s digital frame depicted in Figure 12-5. Data terminals plug direc[ly multiplicity of connections required in the otIce. A simple connection of
in [he PBX RS-232-C porl without external modems at speeds of up 10 19.2 only 10 DAMs and 10 terminals prevents significant wiring problems in the
kbitis asynchronous and 128 kbit/s synchronous. Rose permits messages 10 computer room. A connection of many of these connections produces what
be recorded on disk, with [he recipient [hen notified of the (mffic. The can bcs[ bc described as a wiring mess ,in the building.
messages can be scrolled, acknowlcdgcd, or have other messages transnrit-
[ed as replies. Priority mail is also suppor!cd.
The preceding examples make clear ~hat the newer PBXS are becoming
full.feature voice and da[a service macllines. As with rrthcr examples in this

LL-H-iJcpu
book, i[ is inlpossibIe to cover [hc entire vendor market. These products tire
provided for illustrative purposes.
PBXS con[inue to grow in power and function. For cxanlplc, AT&T
Information Sys[cms has implemented i[s powerful 5ESS digital central
— —
office switch as a high-performance PBX. (The 5ESS is discussed in Chap(cr
Seven.) The move toward a digikd switch in place of a convcn!ional PtfX (I4 CurrentTechnology

relates [o the digital switches’ line handling cap~bilities-often two to four

times grea[er Lhan a large-scale PBX. Sys~ems such as a SESS were no[

H
dcsigocd wi[b some of [bc local area ne(work and oflicc uu~onmtion fca[urcs
found in the Pf3Xs today, but the 5ESS sys~cms o(Tcr the full range of a Psx CPU

telephone cenlral office cen[ral switch capability,

The Digital Multiplexed Interface (DMI) and Computer-

to-PBX Interface (CPI) Proposals (b) New Techno!.w

Recently the PBX industry has at[crnpted to develop standards for Ihc in[cr-
Pacing of computers and tcnninals with DTEs, Two competing stmrdards have 1% Data AccessModule (DAM]

emerged: the digikd multiplexed intcflacc (DMI) and the compu[er-to-PBX Figure 12-6. CP1/DMl Goals
in(etiacc (CPI), Both standards purpofl to achieve four goals,
However, [hrough the use of a $Iamfard inferjiace, the connections to
● provide a low-cost connection from DrEs through a PBX 10 o(her ~he P13X become gread y simplified [see Figure 12-6(b)]. The DMI or CPI in[er-
DTEs facc permits (IIC removal of or decrease in the connection lines in the
● provide a non-constraining link, which is no slo\ver dmn my o[her link systcnl.
to the PBX The prinlory ditTerences between DMI and CP1 are summarized below.

. . ,: ,.. ~,,,.,.. ,.
● *9... ● *a, m
 .
I Chap. 13 N( )- Security 351

CHAPTER THIRTEEN crrmputcr ;md nc{work usngc.

The prcrblcm is cxcmplificd in Figure 13-f’
which depicts n lrcnd in (hc industry toward inure people who have sufficient
knowledge 10 do damage 10 a computer installation in an organization,
Bcrause of Ibis trend, increased at[ention and preventive measures have
Upper-Level Protocols been dcvo(ed [o network security.

Mm” ~

Introduction
F.L Little Gmst
B
The earlier chapters of this book focused on Ihc Iowcr four levels of the 0S1 A: Nu:mb+,
01L&@, whocm dod,nu~ B: Arm.., .1 de,n,w ,h,t c,” bedo”,
model. The upper three layers are surrlmarizcd in this chapler. Less detail is Figure 13-1. VulnerabtlllyCurve
presented on the upper three levels because many of thp standards for these
layers have either not been de finc~ or are currently under rfevelopmen[. Before discussing security measures, it will be beneficial to explain the
Moreover, most of the upper-level protocols do not deal direc[ly wi[h major types of security violations. One of the most common and simplest
communications, and networks. security brrdchcs is cnlled “data diddling,” which is the modifying of data
Several standards that are more defined and crmcre[c will be cxptained prior 10 i[s entry into lhc computer system and network. A famous example
in this chap~cr. For example, s[imdmls rela(ing 10 high-level tcrmintal usage occurred several years ago when an individual modified a check deposit slip
and electronic mail are fairly well-defined (oday. In addition, rcccn! infor- at .thc courrlcr of a bank, resulting in illegal funds being deposited to the
mation has been released on file- and job-transfer standards, which have individual’s account. Another very common security violation is called the
crea[ed considerable interest in the industry. This chapter presents an “salami attack. ” This consists of small, repetitious acts, which in them-
overview of these emerging s[andards. Network security will nlso bc selves arc trnnoliceable. A well-known illustration of this securily violation
discussed, due to its incrcming imporkmcc to the data communimlions user. occurred when u progmmmcr rounded fractions of a penny and moved the
Wc will examine various emerging standards on nc(work security m WCIIm fructions to the progmmmer”s own bank account. Onc of the more pervasive
some curren[ly existing [echniqucs. Also, these topics huvc been chosen sccuri[y violations in a nelwork is called “piggybacking” or “imperson-
because ~he author’s clicn[s and seminar studems have cxprcsscd more ation, ” which occurs when an individual breaks into a network {hrough the
interest in Ihese areas than in other upper-level pro!ocols. use of unau[horizcd passwords or codes. The password is usually obtained
The reader might wish to review Chapter Three (Figure 3-6) for directly from the au!horizcd user of the nelwork, often through inadvert-
a review of the 0S1 model and a description of the func[ ions of (be ence. Some network log-on systems can be broken by using a compuler to
layers. calculate (he many possible password combinations.
One technique to combat unauthorized password use is to install a
password security device between the communications channel and the
Network Security computer. The device, upon receiving [he password, automatically discon-
nects the line, consuhs a table for [he password and i(s associated telephone
Newspaper ar[iclcs citing the breach of a compulcr or cornmunica[ions number, [hen dials back the user al the designated telephone number. With
network have become almosl a daily occurrence. The violations often arc this approach, the intruder must have the password and be physically
done to ob[ain financial and/or poli[ical gain; olhers w simply ncfurious present at the site where the authorized user is supposed to be located. (One
acts. Security is becoming an incremirrg problcm in the compulcr and can imagine the havoc the dial-back might create with PBX features such as
communications induslry as more individuals bccomc sopllisticNcd in automatic cdl-back or call-forwarding 10 other numbers. )

...
I 352 tJpper-L ] ?rotocols Chap. 13 Chap. ~3 Nel~ ,);ecurily 353

1
Networks can also bc viokilcd through wlm[ is known :1s n “IWP &ror” Pi:timcxl: AUCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ ‘“
breach. This problem involves network security srrf~wzme m’ hardworc ~hat is Subs{ i[u~ion Lct(ers: FGQRASEPTHUIBVJWKLXYZCONMD
inadequate or has bugs (logic errors) in it, so that an individual finds lhc
vulnerability of the system—in esscmm, goes (hrough Ihc “[rap rfoor” [o This appwmch is called the monwdphrrbelic substitution cypher because
gain access to the network. Trap-rloorcrimes of[en stem from rmivck! on the each key is substi[ulcd with anolherlel(erof the full alphabet. While this
part of the network manager, which is especially evidcn[ ifa network has spprmrch yichfs 4 x 102Gpossible keys, the keys themselves can reveal a
cryptographic capabilities. The marmgcr msunlcs the cypbc!’[cx~ is com- considcr~blc ;lrnol!nt ofin(clligibility. If the keys are not known or (he keys
ple@y immune to intelligibility, but many systems [oduy tlmt usc sinlplc l)uvcno pat[crll, itiscstirra[cd lhatacompu[er would take [OIJycmsto try
cryptographic wchniques can bc fairly easily brcttcbcd (more about this Alkcysb yusingo ncmicroscconcl( .000Wl second) tocompu!eeachkey.l
problem shortly), However, Iungua.gcs cxhibi! certain properties which enable them 10 be
Networks are also compromised with channel monitoring and inter. dccryplcd much faslcrtban 101] years. For example, vowels occur more
CCP[S. Forexampie, microwave and fi!tclliLc signals can bcintcrccplcd if[l1c frequently !hdn consonants. O[her combinations such as in, ott, arrd the
in(crlo per searches and finds the proper channel frequency. Scvcml in- (callcr ldigrams )aretrls oquitccommon. Trigrams areuscd often in most
stances of sa{cl[i[e signal in[erccpfs of this nxture have crcttlcd significant kmguagcsm well; fhe. and, ioltare examples oflrigrams. Thelask of the
security problems for companies transmi([ingsccr’et, sensitive information. cryplomml yst is to anal yzc Ihe occurrences of the individual Ielters, digrams
and trigrams, and even words. Once the cryp[oanalyst and (he crypto-
Encryption w/th Pr/vate Keys analys(’s computer establish the cypherof tbe frequently occurring letters,
digrarns, Irigrams, or words, the cryptanalyst can then develop a tentative
A technique widely used in computer networks to enhance security is pkrintcxt b~scd on the decoded tfa(a. The final decryption of tbe code then
encryption. Encryption makes plain ~exi unin[clligiblc by means of some becomes a rekitively simple maRcr, especially with the use of a high-speed
[YPC of rcvcrsiblc encoding scheme developed around a privalc key known computer.2
only (o the transmitter and reccivcr. The reverse of cncryp!ion is dccryp[ion, Olllcrnlclhods improve upon thcsubs[itu[ion cypher approach. For
in which [he cypher[ext is reversed [o (he original plainlexl. E?rcryp! ion example, prrlyulphabetic cyphcrs are found in some systems. They allow for
normally occurs at the transmitting site; decryption occurs at (he receiving multiple cyphcralphnbets, which can be used in ro(ation. One variation of
site. Theencryp[ion/decry ptionproccss isdcpiclcd ill figure 13-2. (hc substitution cyphcr approach is to make the key longer than the
pk~irr(cxt. Ardombit strcamis generated asthckcy, andlhen changed
Smder N,,w,,k Receiver pcriorlicully.
A principal dixadwmtage ON any type of private key structure is that all
sites of lhc nclwork must Irave knowledge of the comnmn key. Some
adminis[mtive and Iogis[ic problems arise in the distribution (and cordiden-
titdi(y)ofthckcys. Until rccent[y, tbeidca of theprivate keyhasbecn the
Private P,i.ate
Key
dominant approach for providing network cryptography. Nelwork sites will
W
change Ibc key periodically; for example, every 24 hours or, if necessary,
Figure 13-2. EncrypUonand Damyption
every few minutes.
Encryption is classified by two me(hods: f{{b$/i/f~/io~~ $ypherv and A uwre sophisticatcrl apprwach to cryptography is the use of rratwpo-
framposifiol! cyphers, Substitution is the simpler form ofcncryption. YOU sifiotl cypherj, in which the keys of the Ie([er are reordered but are not
have probably used substitution cyphcrs in your own personal uctivi[ics or necessarily disguised. The following illustration shows an example of a
may even have used it as a youth while participating in some childhood trmrs~osition cypheruppronch. This example uses SECURITY as the key
games. Substitution cypbcrs entail UIC replacemcn[ of n lclicr or a group of (obvioukly IIUI a very good key for a security system). The key is used to
letters for the original Ict[cr or group of letters, Ttte simplest form of nurubcr [he columns. Column 1 is placed uuder [he key whose letter is
subs[i[ulion cypher is called (I1c Ccic.!nr cyphrr, Wi[h this opprooch, ihc closest to (he stwt c$lhc:dpllabct; i.e., ’A, B, C, etc. The plainlcxt is then
Ie[[ers 0[ the alphnbct are simply subs[i[utcd with o(hcr Icttcrs of (he writ(crr zsascricso frowsundcrncalh !bckcy. Thecypher[ext istbenremJ
:dpb~bc[. For example: out by columns, star{ing with the column whose key Ieiter is [he Iowcst in
.,. . . .. . .. . .
 354 Upper+ %okocols Chap. 13
) 355
.,,
the alphabet. The phrase “buy low SCII high aocl do i[ lmkry” is Iis[ccl m
follows: 0— —4
1— —3
2— —7
3— —1
SECURITY .4— —6
5 2 I 74 3 68 5— —0
DUYLOWSE 6— —2
7— —5
L L HI G HAN
DDOITTOD
AYABCDEF (3) Permutation
F..mion

To produce ibis cyphertext: YHOAULDYWHTDOGTCBLDASAOELII -

0
BENDF. - i
: c
0 0
D D
The Data Encryption Standard (DES) E E -
- R n -
In 1977, the Department of Commerce and [he National Bureau of
Standards published the DES (dahencryption standard, FIPS Publication L
5 8.X
46). The DES, a monoalpbabetic system, was es!ablishcd in conjunction
with lBM and released to the general public with the goal of providing a lb) SubstitutionFunction

standardized cryptography algorithm for networks. Figure 13.3, DES and PemulatloWSubsfitution
DES is based ondcveloping anencryption algorithm that cbanges the
plain(ex~ with so many combinations tha! acryptomralystco uld noltigure As shown in Figure 13-3(c), in the DES approach, plain~ext LO be
out [he plain[ext even if numerous copies were available. Theidca of Lhc
encyphercd is subjected to an initial permutation (1P) with a 64-bit input
DES is shown in Figure 13-3. The encryption begins with (he permutation
block permuted as:
function (P function); in [his case 8 bits are input into tbe P function. As seen
inside the box, the bits arc changed in accordance with rules of logic. The
58 50 42 34 26 18 10 2
output results in [he bits cllanging in order. The P box can consist of wires
60 52 44 36 28 20 12 4
or use programmable software [o perform various kinds of permutation. The
62 34 46 38 30 22 14 6
second function, the subs[itudnn function, is shown in F[gure 13-3(b). In this
64 S648403224168
situation, a 5-bit infput (decoder) selects one of tbe eight possible Iincs into
5749413325179[
an S box. The S function performs the substitution of the lines resulling in
the encoding (encoder) of the 8 lines back to the S input bits. S9 S1 43 35 27 19 11 3
I
The idea of the DES is to provide for several stages of permutation and 61 53 45 37 29 2( 13 5
substitution, as illuslra[ed in 13-3(c), Tbe DES provides a key consisting of 63 55 47 39 31 23 15 7
I
64 bits, of which 56 bits are used directly by the DES algori[hm and 8 bits are
used for error dc[ection. There arc over 70 quadrillion (70,000,000, ~0,000,000) That is, the permuted input has bit 58 of the input as its first bit, bit SO as its
possible keys of 56 bits in leng!h. Obviously, a tremendous amounl of second bit, and so on, with bit 7 as its last bit. The permuted input block is then
computer power is neecicd to break this key. However, it can be done: the input to a complex key-dependenf compufaf;orI consisting of 16 stages. The
high-speed computers, through the use of statistical analysis, need not cover slages are (he same in aclcral operation, bcr[ (he cypher function uses (he key (K)
all possible key combirmtions to find the key. No[withslanding, the objective in difTcrent ways.
of the DES is not to provide absohrlc sccuriiy bu( ra[hcr to provide a The final calcukr[ion is (hen subjected {o the following permutation (lF1),
reasonable level of securi[y for busiricss-oriented networks. which is the inverse of (he initial permutation.
,
..
,-, .,, ... . .,.. ..-. —. . ,,,, ., . . .. . . . . . .
,., .,, . ....’...,
 1 356 Upper-Le ‘j OIOCOIS Chap. 13 Chap. 13 Nelw )%curily 357
1
Input164ml,) 1 408481656246432
i

I (
t
InitialPermutation
11P)
)
39
38
37
7
6
5
47
46
45
15
14
13
55
54
53
23
22
21
63
62
61
31
30
29
I 32 Bits ~ 32 Bits
36 4 44 12 52 20 60 28

I Permuted
+
LO %
i 35 3
2 42 10
43 II 51 19 59 27

/’ Input -J L
KeY
K,
34
33141949175725
50 18 58 26

[: The 16 sMge3 usc the two blocks (L and R) of 32 bi[s to produce two
I
32-bit blocks of output. The left and right copies are exchanged before
,, each surge. The function (F) performs four steps on the right OUIPUI through
a“ clch,sivc or tmnspoaition fin Figure 13-3(c), + denotes bit-by-bit addi-
I L, . flo R, -L. @ f(Rc,.K,) tion].
I ~
Key
K, 1. The 32-bit R is expanded by a transposition and duplication rule to a 48-
bit number E.

,v~-?+, ,,
2. E and K are combined together by e.rc/lisivc or, At each stage a

-----
different block K of key bits is chosen from the 64-bit key.
3. The 48 bits produced in step 2 nre divided into eight 6-bit groups and
input into S boxes, each of which produces 4 output bits.
4. The resulting 32 bits m-e inpul into a P box.

I
&..&--q-- L____ .-----J
‘: The DES has been a controversial issue since its inception. Part of the
problem stems from the secrecy in which it was developed. IBM worked in
----
--= ------- conjunction wi(h the National Security Agency to develop DES and both
r --l
I orgmrintions were requested to keep the design aspects of the DES secret.
L,, -8,, R,, -L,4 @l IIR,,, K,, I : lts principal criticism stems from what marry consider 10 be the short key
Key length of 56 bits. IBM’s original design provided for a 128-bil key, which
K,, would essentially eliminate a search to break the key, even on high-speed
compu[ers. Some critics believe the government does not wish an urrbreak-
able key 10 be available 10 the public domain. As stated in previous chapters,
digitized voice is now being implemented today in telephone handsets. Using
semiconductor technology, il would not be too dilTicult to build the DES chip
inside the handset of (he telephone, along with the digitizing circuitry. Some
critics of government oversight and surveillance believe the government
InverseInitial Perm OP-’I wishes 10 have the ability to decypher any transmission from its citizens
( )
in order 10 prolecl national security and combat crime. The issue rests
i
on political philosophies, not only on technical aspec[s. Encryption of
output
I telephone transmissions will become an increasingly controversial issue as
{,) The DES&mxoxh voice digitization and encryption find their way into the mainstream of
Figure 13.3. (Conllnued) sOciely.

,.=, ~...,-,.,. —,---,,.,..,, , ,..--., ;,, ~,,.,7, .,,.:,,..,.

;.. ., ,,: .,..,:,,,:,: .:. ,.,.,.
--..,=.: .-,.:, :,.-..-..,..-,: :-T-.... :.. - m.,. ....~.,-,,,:,... . . y.= :f.~T.w-w-
, .,..,.,,
 358 Chap. 13 Termln :Iems and Protocols 359
uPPer+l ] otocols Chap. 13
)1

Encryption with Public Keys Approxinm[cly so pcrccn~ of [hesc devices lmvc rrp[ed lcr use the DES .
s[andzrd wrd several use [he public key approach.
The devices typically link
Many commercial systems use public key encryption/decryption sys- (o the DTE and some operate between the DTE and the DCE. Most of the
tems. Separate keys are used to encypher and decypher data. The errcypher- devices use the conventional RS-232-C, RS-449, or CCllT V.35 interfaces
ing key and algorithm can be known to anyone; only the decyphcring key is in[o [he DTE.
,!
kept secret (see Figure 13-4), The Iogis[ical and adminish-rdive problems of
public key distribution and management arc c[imina(cd wi[h [his :Lppruach. ISO Security Recommendations

Sender lr,cei.,w The Inkmmtional Orgm}ization for Standordizr4ion (1S0) recommends

I r [ha~ cncryp[ion bc provided in Ihc preserr~a[ion layer of an 0S1 model
1 — 1am going1. sendenc”Phe@ddata— 2
Generate,key, implementfl[ ion.The 1S0 explains its reasons for [his recommendation:

.!
(E, N. D)

Key, E and N ● 1[ is generally agreed that encryption services should be at a higher

mcei”edan’i ~
—OK, here,,, ye”, key, {E, NJ— 3 level in a nclwork to give an easier end-to-end encryption capability.
usedto
6nc,yPtdata Tbe transport layer is the lowest possible layer where end-to-end
N and different
services arc provided; consequently, encryption should be performed
5 — cwher text i%transmitted_ 6 key (0) used at the fourth Icvel or above.
to decyohw
● However, encryption services should be higher than the transport layer
Generatey,t in order to minimize the amount of software that must be secure or
7 —lam,en&nq mor,6ncyPh,,,d data_ 8 mother set
trus(ed with plain[ext. That is, the less software that deals with
, i 01 key,
vulnerable plainlext, Ihe belter. This rationale would move encryption
I
I
-!+ Etc. —OK, hereare ‘iourke”, [E, Nl—

. Ewe”!
L
Q
●
proccsscs up 10 a higher level than the transport layer.
Encryption must be implemented
syntax transformations
below tbe application
on encrypted
Moreover, ifs ynfax transformations
layer because
data would be quite difficult.
are performed aI the presentation
layer, they must be done before encryption occurs.
•1
● Since sclcclive protection is desirable (not all fields or records need to
Figure 13-4. Public Keys
be cncryplcd), the 1S0 believes selection can best be done at the
presentation level or higher, since knowledge of the actual fields in a
The mctbods pioneered a[ .$tanford University and MIT entail lhc user data strcmn is transparent below the presentation layer’s level.
generation of a pair of posilive in~egcrs (E and N) which are used to encrypt
● While encryption can be performed at every level, the resulting
the data with the formula: clear[ext E + N = cyphertex(. The Szimc
overbead does nol appear to be worth the additional protection given
generation of E and N also produces D, which is used to decrypt the
to the user data.]
cypberlexl with: cyphertcxt ~ + N = ~leartext, In[egers E, N, and D are
derived bygencrating lwo large, random primcnumbers (aprimenumbcr
1 leaves a remainder when divided by any number o!her than ilsclf or 1).
Public key systems can also be broken. However, as Figure 13-4 Terminal Systems and Protocols
suggests, a different key could be gencra[cd wi[h each transmission, or more
The number of tcrminel- and personal-computer-based services has been
realistically, a~pcriodic or random in[crvals. Frequent keychangcsincreasc
increasing dramtitically (hroughout the world. These services have a number
security of the data because a network viula[ur must attempt to break (hc
of mtmcs a~tachcd to thcm: Teletext, Videotex, Teletex, public data banks,
key every time it is changed. Anolber Ievcl of sccurily cmr be added by the
and information services.
use of a private key sysIem 10 cncodclbe public keys. In o~hcr words, two
In this scc(ion, we define these terms and focus on the technology that
Ievcls of encryption can be used for highly sensitive data.
has gnincd incrensed interest and use lhrougbout the world, Teletex.
There are a wide varie[y of da[a-cncryp[ion units on (he market today.
. .. . .... .. . . . . . . . . .
 360 up,er.tme, L?!DCO,*
chap 13 Chap, 13 Termina ~Iems and Proloculs 361

Tefemafics
TABLE 13.1. Vldeolex services

The term /e/cmaIicJ is used [o describe two broad rcmgcs of service, United Fln- Ger- Hol.
Te/efc.xI and Videorex. Vidco[ex describes Ihc provision for two-way Applications Kingdom Canada land many Japan land France
information services between a user’s device and an information source, The
InformationRetrieval ,, X x xx xx x
term Tcletex~ describes one-way transmission services. These two systcrns
Messages
arc illustrated in Figure 13-S. The Teletext ~echnology uscs a convcntiomd
(a) Directional x
TV broadcasting systcm to allow [hc onc.way cycling of dav~ in(o the user (10particularusers)
terminal, Typically, a page remains on the screen unlit a rcpktccmcnt page (b) Systemwlde x x xx x
is automatically cycled or is rcqueslccl by [he user. In contrast, Vidcrrlcx (to all users)
approaches the system ~i~h a da[a communications struclurc—a Iermina[ Transactionswithdirect x x
keyboard can be used to Inlerac[ wi[h a remo[ely Iocatcd data base. As seen paymenl
fronl Figure 13-5, conventional componcnls, such as modems and [clcphone Transactionswlthoul x x x xx x
payment

-----
networks, are used to provide [he full [we-way capability.
Dab Pmces6ing
! 7 (a) Local
~:~~e-------
C.w.,., ~
L-t (b) Flemole x

L/
W o, Cab!, Tdevisio.
GamesiEnteria(nment x x xx x x
y MCI Limited
K,”bo.rd EducaUon x x x
ElectronicDkadow x
R ee,-.-em

The information is disseminated by electronic means [or display on low-cost

(d Telelext terminals. The recipien[ of the information has selective control of the
display by using easily understood procedures.
Telcma(ics provides services which many of us may take for granted

q
computer
“II
Modern
CommonCarrier
\
today. For example, ltrc Teletext
involve these major applications:
and Videotex uses in North America

ct-El-
\
\ Videmex _ news, wca[her, and sports

B
●
1“,,,1,,,
● shopping by terminal (Icleshopping)
Modem
Textand D,,. ● advertising through Telelext broadcasts
● banking transactions through the use of a telephone or terminal
lbl Video,,.
Figure 13.S, Telemalics
● electronic newspapers available in some cable TV areas
● financi:d information, such as stock market reports
Teicma[ics technology is fairly widcsprrmd throughout tbc industrial- ~ ● ‘games anti cnter(ainmcrrt
ized The iypes of systems implcmimted
world. in Europe, Canadu, and ● program captioning
Japan are depicted in Table 13-1. The U.S. has been slower 10 embrace
● pcrsmml computer support
telematics due to (IIC lack of a national organization such as a PIT to fosmr
the use of the technology. . elccwonic directories, such as shopping lists or mailing lists
The basic idea of Video(eflelc[ext is 10 provide a sys(em wi[h ● clcclronic mnil
widespread dissemination c~pabili[ies for bo~h graphic and lcxt infonrm{ ion. ● (clemctry.
362 LII)p.w-L )Pmtmols Chap. 13 Chap. 13 Term
●)
sysIernsa“d Protwk 363
.

Teletex switching and Chapter One for time division multiplexing.) Store-and- “
forward services are available in most TELEX ,systems, which provide for
In addition to Telelext and Videotex, another technology has emerged
useful electronic mail functions (more on [his Ia[er in the chapter). Even
in the last several years, and from all indications it will become (he pervasive though the modern TELEX services still involve terminal-to-terminal com-
Ierminal-based network system standard. The term used 10 describe this
munications, loday the system is controlled by all-electronic computer
[ethnology is Te/eIe~. This service evolved from the original TELEX and exchanges utilizing digital and [ime division multiplexing techniques.
TWX (teletypewriter exchange) services. Before discussing the Tclc(ex The term TELEX is used in ditTerent contexts. 1(s meaning depends on
[cchnology, it shmdd prove USCfUl 10 give a brief histOrY Of ihe T~f-~X and in what part of tllc world the system operates. Outside the U. S., TELEX is
TWX industry. [he generic name for u worldwide lelecommunicmions service. In the U. S.,
TELEX and TWX: Te/efex Forefa(/~er$. SOme ~wcnty Years agO, as tbc the scrvicc is provide’d as a vendor product specifically by Western Union.
electronic typewriter began to find ils way into the office, it was recognized Throughout (he world, the TELEX terminals are designed to accept 50-baud
that the use of the telephone lines could provide a means for electronic baudot coded in international alphabet No. 2. In the Uniled States, Western
typewri[crs to communicate with each other. The TELEX service evolved Union installs a TELEX line adapter (TLA) to interface a user’s device into
as a result of this need. Inifially, the TELEX service provided call setup by the Western Union TELEX network. TELEX lines are dialed using 6-digit
using a telephone as an attachment to a Wlcprinter. The teleprinter contained numbers assigned by Western Union. The teleprinter connected to the
a unit which converted the direct currerr[ (DC) tcleprin[cr signals to Weslern Union network provides a unique and registered answer-back code
alternating curren~ (AC) [elephone:line signals. A 1500 Hz signal was consisting of up to 20 characters before a call can be completed. When [he
modulated LO give tone-off and tone-on for binary data. incoming call arrives at the communications port, the calling terminal must
Teleprin[cr communications ac[ually began in 1933 with the first public automatically ask for the identification of the called terminal. The commu.
network of [he Reichspost bc[ween Berlin and Hamburg. This system had 21 nica[ ions port will then automatically answer with the assigned answer-back
subscribers, initially connec~ed by Siemans equipment. code built into the system. This does not require operator intervention. For
The first systems were limited to point-to-point communications. an international TELEX call, the procedure is quite similar, except an
Shortly thereafter, people recognized that [he power of Ihc Ieleprinlcr and intcnmtionnl record carrier (IRC) is used.
[teletypewriter communications could be greatly enhanced by the use of The TWX system is used in North America. It provides text commu-
swi~ching facilities, The inilial switching facilities for TELEX were the nica~ions between compatible terminals in either 60 words per minute using
s[ep-by-step and crossbar swi[ches designed for the telephone network. a 50-character graphic set, or 10Q words per minute using a 95-character set.
CCITT soon became involved in the TELEX standards, and publisbcd TWX operates at 110 baud using the international alphabet No. 5 (ASCII
several documents which described sigmdling and control functions. Orig- code). The communicmions lines are installed by Western Union and
irmlly CC ITT recognized two different kinds of signals, referred 10 as Type terminated wi(h an RJ- I I telephone connector (like the “jack” in the
A and Type B signals. Both types of signaling provide for the same lelephone at our homes and ollices). When this jack is installed, the port
functional signals; [he dilTerence primarily is in Type B, which has been in[erfacc is connected directly 10 the 1IO baud modem. The TWX network
generally used for dial-up sysicms. uses dialing numbers consisting of a three-digit area code followed by a
As TELEX evolved into intcrcontinen[al systems, the cost of seven-digi{ number. As with TELEX, an answer-back code of up to 20
transoceanic cable and satellite circuits required a high usage of the circuits characters is assigned to the terminal port, so all incoming calls arriving at
10 pay for the channel overhead. Consequently, multiplexing techniques the port will be asked to identify themselves
evolved [o allow multiple users to share a channel. A worldwide TELEX
numbering plan also evolved, which greatly fzzcilitated the intcrrmtional use Telete.s Development. Teletcx research began in the mid- 1970s when
of TELEX. In addition, CCITT developed a new and improved signaling the German government set up a commission 10 explore the possibilities of
standard known as Type C. TELEX also improved its keyboml functions, implementing a Iex( communications service with improved capabilities over
such as acknowledgment signals, and devised proceed-to-select signals (to TELEX. The goal was to establish a terminal that offered text generation
avoid the effec! of long propagation delays). with communications capabilities and used the full character-set repertoire
Today virtually all the modern TELEX systems use s[ored program of a [ypewriter. Also in the mid- 1970s, the Swedish P’fT Televerket began
con[rol (SPC) switching wiih sophisticated Iimc division multiplexing (TDM) work on a system to support oflice equipment with word processing,
techniques.(see Chapter Seven for a description of Nored program control communications, and document filing and retrieval capabilities. S[udies such
. .
364 UPPe j}, Protocols CfmP 13 Chap 13 Terr “j Wems and Protocols 365

.,.
as these paved the way towtird Tclc[cx. Shmtly (hcmdlcr, CC1l-~ bccnmc mcntcd 10 ensure (hat cfocumcnts sent be(wecn countries Cm bc rcccived i“
involved in projects to improve TELEX and dcvclopcd u series of tlcr~ilcd all the diiTercnt languages. As noted in Table 13.3, the graphic set provides
documents ou!lining recommended swmlards for Telctcx sys(ems. In 1980, for symbols to hanrlle some 35 different languages,
[he CCITT adop[ed the following recommended standards. The Telctex service requires a terminal [o have an up-lime of 9S
percent of [o(al operating time. Tele(ex also requires that a terminal operate
● F.200 Telc[ex service a[ 2400 bits per second, both within its country and at the international
● S.60 terminal equipment for usc in lhe TELEX scrvicc boundary, All Tclctcx terminals mus.[ have ful[y a“lOma[ic call ~~tablish.
● S.61 cllarttctcr r’cpcr[oirc onrl coded cbomctcr’ SC(S ror TCICICX mcni and unswcring 10 remove any manual intervention. Obviously, for a
dial-up nc[work, human OpCKIIO~S can be i“vO]ved,
● S.62 control procedures rm’ the Tclctcx scrvicc
Euch Teletcx Icrminal must be assigned a unique terminal identification
● S. 170 network independent basic support service ror Telctcx. code [see Figure 13-6(a)]. The identificzdion consists of four parls: Part I
identifies Ilre country or a network within a country; par[ 2 ide”[jfies the
The Deutsche Bundepost of Germany introduced ils Tclc(cx systcm in address of the terminal (this address is assigned by the PIT or its designate);
1980. Since that lime, several countries have implcmenlcd Telclex services, part 3 is optional additional information still under study by CCIIT; part 4
and Tclccom Canada and Western Union (U. S.) have both announced
TABLE 13.3. Teletex Gmphlcs set
Telctex systems.
One or the major reasons Telelex is gaining in usc is its Pavorable
comparison with the postal scrvicc ad the oklcr TELEX scrvicc. The
German research revealed significant cost and performance dilTcrcnccs
between tbe postal service, TELEX, and Tclctex (see Table 13-2)3 The
postal scrvicc COS!Sshown in lhc Iublc include posl~gc mlcs and rr[hcr COSIS
to handle a Ic[(cr, such as the ovcrbcw-1 of opcra[ing a m:iil room. The COSIS
are based on [he [981 exch:tngc rate bc[wccn German dcuk.chc marks and
U.S. dollars. in essence, the study reveals both cost and pclformance
advantages for the use of the improved technology of Tele[cx.

TABLE 13-2. Document Dellvery Costs

(German Deuts.he Sundepost Study)

TELEX Telelex
Numberof Postal
Pages. Smvice ‘rime”’ Minimum Maximum Time’” Minimum Maximum

1 $0.94 3:45 $0.22 $1.02 008 $0.03 $0.07

2 $0.94 7:30 $0.44 $2.00 0:14 $0.04 $0.11
3 $0.94 15:00 $0.89 $4.00 027 $0.06 $0.19

‘each page conlains1500 characters

..amount d time for document transmission [minutes and seconds)

The CCITT Tclc(ex rccomrncndadons arc mv~nt to ensure compatibil-

ity among diLTerent manu~ac[urers and vendors. In so doing, the Tclctex
terminal must have [he following capabili~ies. First, all Tclctcx lerminals
musl use a sfmdard graphic se[. The TELEX grapliic SC( is dcpictcd in Table #o” ; - ,. ,ti IWO .,!,* =4 !.. *-.* * 11,1.. .Ika,d . ti<m ,. .. ... . .. ,h . . .J ,,,, ,.+,,,, ,
d!,m.wtd m,-.., ?,,.,4,,. . ,* h.”,!.
13-3. A receiving Telc[cx tcrmind musl be cap:tblc of sloring imd rcspooding .x, , - y., ‘Wti .E4,rl?l. k -. . ..7M.’I ..,4 ‘“4 . ..- “m++..d -m .q ,,.!4. ,,.- d,,, ,,,”,. ,W”.+..

“..+ , , ,*, ,...,!, ..4 ..”( ..,, !. “*, ,“,, -d ,Wt k. mm,. cm... jy d . .,m,l .,,, WM.,.,,,., * ,,,
to [hc en[irc TeleIcx gwpbic chamctcr set. This rcquircmcnt was implc- d ,/4 !“”!<”.!. .. . . h!?! .,! !*... “ .d m

,,. . ,., ,,, .,. ,

366 Upper-L< kotocols ChaD. 13 ., ~.
)
-Dlkl LIC)-rl CA-
.,.
Teletex Mo(!+I 1s0
Model

Packet. circuit. Futl.d”Plex H,lfd”plex UPPW

Switched Switched T,tephord Tele$.bond L,”,,,
15 Ch, ract, r, M,ximum

24 CharactersMaximum

[a) Teletex Terminal Idendfimtion Code Network

L,”,,

Pa” 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 @@@@

— — —
Callfd calling Document
0,,, andTim.
Terminal
2,,,,,,.,,,, ,4%%,, ‘4 ““r”’’’” 7%:;:, 0.1, Link
I 1 1 , La”,,
72 Characters

(b} Telewx Call Ide.dlkation tine @@@@

Figure 13-6. Telelex Formats Phy,lcal
~@pyqy L,yer

contains an abbreviated name to iden[ify (he specific termirml owner. All B

Tele[ex terminals must be able [o receive calls 24 hours a day, and they must PSON C3DN PSTN PSTN Channel
be able 10 provide simultmrcous (crminal usage and cfocumen[ ml claltr
reception. All lerminals mus~ be capable of handling the following page- S.lD: Network IndependentBasic Tranqmrl Serviti
format s[anclards: for Teletex
S,71: LAP B Extendedfor Half.d.plex Physical
Layer Facl!ilv
. adherence to 1S0’s printable area (210 mm x 280 mm and 216 mm x v.24: lntertam BetweenDTE end DCE
280 mm in Nor’[h Amcricl) V.25 Auto.call andAnswe,ingTelephoneNetwork
Control Procedure
. horizontal chiwacter spacing of 10 characters per 25.4 mm X.21 : Public Data Netvmrk DTE/DCE Interface
● vertical Iitrc spacing speeds of 0.51, 1.5, and 2 a~ Iincs per 2.54 mm X,21 bi. PublicData Network DTE l.lerlme !. Serie!
V Mcdum
. Each terminal must provide a call identification line, which is a x,22: M. NiDlexa DTEIDCE Interface
four-part, 72-character identification line of information used to eslab- x,25 PacketMode P.bIic Data Network
DTEIDCE Interface
lish the connections between devices [see Figure 13-6(b)l.
X.75 PacketMode Internationalcircuit Interface
PSDN: PeckelSwitchedOats Network
The standards also establish various procedures by which Telc(cx CSDN: Circuit %vltchedData Network
syskms communicate. Figure 13-7 illustrates the possible connec~ions of a PSTN: PublicSwltch,d TeleDhoneNetwork

Tclctcx device through a packet-switched data network, a circuit-switched Figure 13-7. Telo!ex ProlocvlLevels
data network, and a public switched (clephone network. Notice that [he
standards discussed elsewhere in this book are used on the Teletex systcm developed. LAPX is qui(e similar 10 HDLC except il opera[es in a half-
as well (for example, X.21, X,25, X.75, and V.24). dudcx- nalurc in conformance wi[h the nature of a half-duplex [elephone
LAPX. Teletcx uses a subset of HDLC, asynchronous balanced circuit.
mode (ABM). (HDLC is described in Chapter Four; also see Figure 2-5. ) in The LAPX technique is called the half-duplex transmission module
addition, for the use on the telephone half-duplex nelwork, LAPX h~s been (HDTM). This HDLC subset extenrfs the use of LAPB for operation of the

.,,. .,.,,. ... . .... ..,.,.,

368 Upper-1 ) Protocols Chap. 13 ~,,min. Jy,tem, ,nd ~ro,ml,
Chap. 13 369 .

Teie[cx terminals conncclcd to Mpublic swi[chcd tclcphonc network, using ~._-––-_,

half-duplex 2400 bit/s modems (for example, (he V.26 modem). Since

‘s
HDLC/LAPL3 are primarily designed for full-duplex operations, Ihe Teletex LAPB /

mode of operation must modify LAPB to inhibit LAPB from sending frames 7
/ LAPBExtmded
during certain phases of the half-duplex transmission procedure.
The LAPX s(ate diagram is depic[ed in F[gurc 13-8. The state dctini. HOTM [
lions arc m follows: L——_____! -1
[.1 LAPB and HDTM (Half o.plm
● Id/c (ffarc 0) The DTE is in an inactive sta[c, which is Ibc SW(C prior TrmwnisalcmM.ad.l.)
to call establishment and the s(a[e after call termination.
.! ~
● Ifs/f-duplex fendiflg (sIaIe f) Tbe DTE is in a half-duplex sending H,lf.diplex

.
slate. All signals generated by LAPB are passed 10 the physical Icvel.
Wait for receiviftg ($fafe 2) The DTE is awai!ing indication
remote DTE has entered the half-duplex
that [he
sending state. No signals A-1 Sendirq state

●
generated by LAPB are passed to the physical level.
● Ffa/~-dup/ex receiv;ng

Waif for sending

availability
(JIa(e 3) The DTE is in a half-duplex receiving
state. No signals generated by LAPB are passed to [he physical Ievcl.
The remo[e DTE is considered to be in [he half-duplex sending shile.
(j[ate 4) Tbc DTE is awaiting
of the physical Icvcl for transmission
indication of lhc
of frumcs to the
remole DTE. All signals gcnermed by LAPB are passed to the pbysicd
level, but LAPB is inhibited fronl sending frames.
““”’’’
‘%’FY”
The following information amplifies Figure 13-8. (The rearfer MAYrefer to
Appendix C, which describes the V,24 circuits.) The idle state O requires that
V.24 circui[ 107 (da[a set ready) remain off. State 1, which is the half-duplex
sending s[atc, requires that circuits 105 (request to send), 1M (t’cad y for
sending), and 107 (data SC(ready) remain on, LAPB is [hen conncctcd (o circuit
103 (transnli[@d data) and is able [o send frames across the link.
The wait-for-receiving sta[e (slate 2) requires that circuit 107 remain on,
but 105 mus~ be off. In this manner, LAPB is inhibited from sending frames and
is disconnecPcd from circui[ 103. The half-duplex receiving state (state 3)
requires circuit 107 to be 011 with circuit 105 off. The wait-for-sending state
(s[ate 4) requires tha[ circui[s 105 and 107 remain on wi~h circuit 106 off. LAPB
is connected to circuit 103 but is inhibi[ed from sending frames. I Seize Right to Transmit

,! (b) LAPX State,

Other Suppotiing .Wmdards. The other .Wmdards used for Tcletcx
sys[cms arc X.70, which defines a header to the HDLC frame and S.70, Figure 13-8. LAPX for Teletex
which is used in the network layer, as shown in Figure 13-7. At the session
layer, CC1’fT recommendation S.62 is used to detine session connection and menl msd is dctincd in CCIT? recommendations S.61 and S.62. These
[germination procedures and control over the rfirec[ion of the document to standards provide guidance for document initiation and termina~ ion for
transfer. The session layer also defines how lhc call-identification line is continuation of the transmission and even forcbeckpointing on specific page
used. The presentation layer (which is cailcd the document layer in the boundaries to bmldlc error recovery.
TelcIcx system) provides the information necessary to gencrmc (he docu- The presen[alion layer also defines four types of documents used by
 ..

:.
..

---l r-=5--l
—.,
“q.”,u.l

,“I.,*
1— “H
S“,,,!n..,
“m

.-1s
.m.l.,

lm
-PI
Uwls P“-,
w,
to
I

.,

,,

.;.
..
“.,.*.
01 ,Pa

,*!JM”W”

T
-m
,—0 ..,s

,.Lf$+”2”*v
mu!w411 ,m m“i.w-=w>,
—, I“wdw.vv
..*$ #..a w!””aJ UO,,..!W.L
Ilm Uu,.1 -!2
WmJrcOcl ,Lwkw-,w
,,MUU, nn”l”=c !.=$s WW”+I!W”3 -i
IMm

U1.L v>
-(”=--v

..WI
?!.!,!”,
I--5&i X.,.L

mmm mmm ~
“,3,, ,Kl “,0, , ,,.J

.-

● ● 00

——— ___—_=_—
—.— .4.-......—. .—-—
372 Chap, 13 Protr ) for File Management 373

m
in[crcmrncclion (0S1) rercrcncc model. These electronic mnil slandards fall ““’
wihin the 0S1 qrp/icufio)t layer. X.400 describes how an originator interscls
with the user agent system to prepare and edit messages as well as receive
user UserAgent mcsszages. II describes how the user agent, irrteract3 with the message.lransfer
Mailboxes Machine
sys[em for the movement of electronic mail into and out of [he message-transfer
nc{work. X.400 dcscribcs (he interaction between the user agent entity (UA)
mrrl [hc MT and also dcscribcs naming and addressing conventions,
X.40 I dcscribcs the services and facilities for bo(h MT and 1PM modes.

rfll
Name M 00, X,408 provides recommendations for code and formal conversion; for
example, conversion between international alphabet #5 (ASCII Code) and
the S.6 I Teletex characler set. (See Table 13-3 for a summary of the Tele[ex
character se[ and Appendix A for a summary of IA5.)
X,409 defines the presentation transfer conventions. It describes seveial
Directory types of syn[ax, such m 1A5, or other data streams, such as integer or Boolean
Figure 13-10. ElectronicMail Systems syntax notalions. X.409 is still under further definition at this lime.
X.4 10 describes a substantial part of the electronic mail standard. 11
“user-friendly” interaction (for example, selective viewing on the screen), provides for remote operations and an entity called the re/iable fransj’er
securi[y, priority provision, delivery notification, and rfishibution subsc(s. $errm (RTS). The recommendation describes tbe handling of remote appli-
The me~$age-tram.fer agenf is orierr!ed toward Ihe aclual routing of the cations and also provides for the handling of remote error conditions. The
electronic mail. This function is responsible prirrwrily for the storc-mrd- RTS is a part of lhc application entity, although X.410 also describes SUPPM
forward path, channel security, mMJ [hc actual mail routing through the functions in the prescnr~tion and session services as well. The services from the
communications media. RTS are passed from !he application layer through the presentation layer to the
The CCITT describes these three major functions in a series of session layer and provide for the following basic functions: data transfer,
documents errtiiled Mes~agc ffanrJ/ing ,SYstem$ (MHS). These standards are release of session, reporting of any exceptions, managing the ongoing activity
(such as interrupts, starts, and resumption of electronic mail sessions).
published in the X.400 documents. The MHS series of recommendations
X.4 11 describes the message-transfer layer (MTL) service. This rec-
provides electronic mail service wi(h two op{ions to end users: (1) message
ommendation describes how (he user agent lransfers messages and delivers
transfer (NIT) supporls applica~ion-independent systems, and (2) !hc inter-
messages within a specilic period. It also describes how the MTL provides
personal messaging service (1PM) supports communications wi[h existing
for a type conversion of the message contents.
CCITT, TELEX, and [elcmatic services. The message-!ransfer (MT) scrv-
X.420 dcscribcs the interpersonal messaging service (1PM). This layer
ices are covered by the X.400 recommendations. They arc m follows:
describes the semantics and synlax involved in Ihe receiving and sending of
ititerp”crsonal traflic. In addition, it recommends the operations for the
X.400 Sys[em Model Service Elements
transfer of the electronic-nlail protocol da[a units through tbe system.
X.401 Basic Service Elcmen[s and Optional Facilities Finally, X.430 describes the interface between [he MHS logic and Teletex
X.408 Encoded Information Type Conversion Rules dcviccs.
X.409 Presentation Layer Transfer Syntax and Nou~tion ,!
X.410 Renlote Operations and Reliable Transfer Server
X.411 Message Transfer Layer Protocols for Filr+ Management
X.420 Interpersonal Messaging User Agcn[ Layer An interesting aspect of the cvolvirrg upper-layer protocols are procedures
X.430 Access Protocol for Teletex Terminals and standards for user da[a-bosdile management. Each vendor has devel-
oped specific products and [cchniques 10 provide for this important function.
The ISO is now actively engaged in the development of a number of
proposals for user file and data-base management systems. Much work
 Chap. 13 F ) houghls 375

remains to bc done in [his arcu, and it is unlikely IhaI spccilic vcmkrr Typic:d]y, orgunir,~(ions have humircds of subschcmns and individual
I products using an 1S0 model will cnlerge in the near fu[urc. users oflen have mllltiplc subschemas to va[isfy different kinds of retrieval
/, Notwithstanding, [he reader may wish to delve fur[hcr in[o [hc ongoiug and Ispdatc rcquiremen!s. This prescnls a challenging problem for the data
eLforts.5 A brief sumnlary of [he draf( proposals follows. base and network designers: They musl provide for a physical design that
I
Daia usage of(cn varies among dith’cnt applictalions. However. a cum- su[isfics all user subschemas at all nodes in the network. The emerging 1S0
i, mon model for all cfaIa files and do[u bases can provide ~ ccmlmml foundation skmrfards provide mc[bods (ojoin dilTerent subschemas between systems at
for file [mnsfer, access, and management amung diverse upplimtious. This [hc prcscn[tl[ion MYcr and oddi~imrat procedures [o manage tile service
model is called [he uirrmr//ilcsfor’e. Virtual filcslorc conkiins lbc lilt’.s clmmc- di:doguc M the session layer.
teris[ics, structure, and at[ributcs. Its objective is kr rcducc the amount of dc(ail Tbcsc proposals also include specifications for managing a data-base
needed to communicate with a tile loca[cd in o renlo[c par[ of {he network. aclivi[y across muhiplc sites in a nc(work. This is a very ambitious underlaying,
The basic idea of vir[ual fileslorc is to provide a nmpping of file since such a sys[cm musl provide for con$i$fent sta{es for all da[a operating in
definitions to/from actual files, which arc called rea/ji/csfures (see Figure viriwd filcslorc. A consistent slate means that all da[a bases arc accurate and
I tori’cct, nnd mry replicalccl copies con[ain tbe same values in the data fields.
13-1 1). The lilcstorc dciinitions form a $chcm[t of tbc file; subset descriptions
of files form subschcmos, The concepts of schcmas and subschemas arc very This is a very complex operation for multiple data bases [bat must have
well known and understood in the dala base managcrnen[ industry.f The real-time transactions applied to them, because failure and recovery of data is
I much more diflicull. TO illustrate: The efTorts [o achieve data reliability and
schema provides a map of [he data, shows the nsmcs of (I1c a~lribu[cs, and
establishes relationships of da[a elemen[s. II provides [he overall view of the consistency in a network are quite dilTerent than i.n a conventional ccnh-alized
data base, II says nolhing abou[ the physical struclure of [hc file or the environmcn[. The cenwa[ized approach assumes [he awdilability of much
information nbout a problem or failure. The operating system can suspend [he
physical access method. The subschema is (I)c specific user view of the data
execution of tbc problcm progmm and store and query registers and control
base, [ha! is, lbe user subset of the schema.
blocks, during which the problem component dots not change. Moreover, [he
evctrts m-c Iocd and lime delays in the problem analysis arc very short.
In a ne{work, the time delay in gnthering data for analysis may be
significant. In some cases, [he data may be outda[cd upon receipt by the
compmren! tasked with the analysis and resolution. The problem may not be
1’
suspended as in a centralized system, since some networks have horizontal
topologies mrd autonomous or near-autonomous components,
. .

‘Conclusion
This chap[cr c:m only give (he reader a general idea of [be many upper-layer
protocols that cxisl or are in various stages of development. These conccpls
arc becoming more than just ideas, and several draft standards on data bases
and virtual files hove been approved. However, much work remains to be
done. II is doubtful that all tbe enlitics for the upper layers will ever be
completed because of lbcir number and divcrsi[y.

Final Thoughts
ReelSwm Realsystem
E“,>,o”,nm! Etwlmnmeo,
The protocols, stundmds, and inte!faccs at the lower levels are relatively
skrblc’mrd muturc. Tbcy form a very solid foundation on which to build the
Figure 13-1 i. V!rrual and Real Fileslore upper layers. M~fcOver, mosl vendors and s!andards groups have now

,. ... ...
 376 Upper.L } OIGCOIS ChaP. 13 ChaP, 13 FIOB J #Ils 377

..
recognized thnt everyone’s
it is in best interest 10 work [owml common
approaches 10 service the end user, and (11c protocols, stmrrkmds, and ISO Nwnber ISO TIOe
interfaces discussed in this book are now widely used. Much of (his
OP 8571/3 Informationprrxessingsystwn~pen sys!emslnterconnecOo+File
conformance has come from the insistence of the user community who were
Iran?.fer, access andmanagemenl, Part3, File semicedel{n{Uon.
(and are) weary of the constant problem of interfacing different vendors’
OP 8571/4 Informationprocessingsyslemz-open systemsInterconnection-File
‘closed systems” to service an application.
lransler, access andmanagement. Pati4, Fi!eprotmwl
Notable progress has been made in the field ofco!npulcr nc!wrrrks with sp4cifica00n.
the acceptance of pro(ocol conventions and stanckrrds. My hope is [hut this 1s07496 lnlormallonProcessingSystems-Open systemslnterconn9cllm-
book has given the reader an added awareness Of how cOmPu(cr nctwOrks Baslc referencem.md.
function. 1 also hope you now have [he founcfalion on which [o build and OP 8831 InformationProcessingSystems--open systemslnlero3nneclkni-
.!
acquire more knowledge about computer networks. Job translerand manipulationconceptsand sewices.
OP 8.932 fn!ormadon ProcessingSystems-open systemslnterconnecllOm.-
s~ll~lion of I* basicclass profocot 10,fob lmlwfer .snd
NOTES mampulation.
DP 8509 lnlormattonPrwessing Systemepm systemslntercOnnectlon-
lAndre w .$, Tanenbaum, Compufer Networks (Englewood CIilTs, NJ: Prcnt ice- Sem4ceconventions,
Hall, IoC,), p. 390. OP 8822 lnfOrmationProcessingSystem@ pensystems lnterc0nnectlo+
lWhilc working in a drug store during my undergraduate years, 1 Icarned (and The presentationsewlce definition.
still use) a substitution cyphcr. The store managers encoded the wholesale prices on OP 8824 InformationPrm2essln~Systems-Open syslems intemOnnecOon-
tbe packages of over. the.counter medicine and other products. The store owners did AbslractSynlax NotationOne (ASN.I ),
not want the customer to know the markup on the product, so they devised this DP 8825 lnlormafionPrOcesslngSyslem9-0pen system8intermnns.ctlW
simple cypher: Saslc encodingmiss forAbstractSyntax Notalio” One (ASN,1).
01S 8326 InformationProcessingSyslemsA3pen systemsintera3nnection-
PHARMACIST The basic connectionwfenled sesslcmservicedefinltiom
1234567890 DP 8G4913 Irrfmmatton PrccessJng Syslswrs-+pen .syskms lnkwcOnnscliOn-
OeflnltiOnof commonapplicationsewlce elemenls-Part S-
(Obviously, certain Iiccnsc needed to be taken in the spelling in order for (Iw commitmerd,concurrencyand recoveV.
OP 86soi3 lnlormatkmPrmesslng Systems-.-open sysmmslnterconneclion-
cyphcrto work.) Hence, acanof Similac wmcoded with areV~il priccof$O.99a”d
awholesale price of OC. Mycolleagucswbo work insecurity donotlhinkmucllof SPecificationof protowls for eomnvm*ppllcalionservice
elemenls—Pati ~mltmen!, comtmency and recove~.
this code, and 1 learned how primitive it is when 1 served m a communications o~!ccr
in the Navy. However, something like this simple approach isquite useful[ur{hosc
of us who constantly misplace or forget log-on codes or bank teller-m&cllinc 6A more dctiiilcd dcscrip! ion of network and data management can be found in
passwords. For my use, a substitution cyphcc writ[cn directly onto my bank cwd Chapters 4, 10, and 1I of Dar,! Cr,r?#!?8tt!?irntiott.r nnd Di.r@ibtded Nef works by U yless
offers a reasonable compromise. Blzdck,Rcs[on, Va:Kcs[on Publishing Co., Div. of Prcn(ice-Hall, 1987,
llSODocumcnt Number 1643, “WorkingDrafLfora nAddendumlol S07498
on Securely,” lSOJTC 97/SC 16fWk l, Oc{oher 1983.
~(tTeletex_A worldwide ~“k Among Office Systems for EleckOnic DOCW SUGGESTED READINGS
I
merit Distribution,’’ IQMSys!e!?rs Jo!tr!tol, VOl.22, N0s. 1/2, 1983. Black, Uylcss D. “An Automnlic Pilot for the Growing Dk[ributed Ne[work,,, Data
The following are the primary rcfcrcnccs from 1S0 on file and dxta b~sc Co!?!t)t!it!ic[t(ivtrs,November 1980, pp. 81-s8.
management.The address of 1S0 isin Appendix D. “CCITf High Level Lrmguage (cHILL),” Volume VI, Frmcicle V1.12, CC/ZTRed
Book, CCJTr Plerrary Asscn]b)y, Octobers-19, 1984 (Mala@-Torremoiinos),
ISO Number ISO Title “FunclionalS pccificationand Description Ltwguage(SDL), ” Volume VJ, Fascicle
VI.lO, CC/~ Rcd Do,jk, CCI~P[enary Assembly, Oc~ober&l9, 1984 (Malaga-
DP 8571/1 Information processingsystems-Open systemsInlercannectio*Rle
Iransler, accessand management.Parfl. General description. Torremolinos).

DP 8571/2 kdormationprocessingsystems-Open systemslnterconnectlo*Flle Green, Paul E.Jc, `$Tclecomn>unicalions in198+What Orwell Overlooked, ',1EEE
transfer,accessand management.Part 2. Thevitiual lileslore. Cot,t!r#ttt!icnti,,,t,<,February 1984, pfh 47-50.
 378 Uppl ) I Protocols

“Man-Machine Language (MML),” Volume Vl, Fwciclc VI. I 3, CC17T Red Uook,
Chap. 13
I APPENDIX A
CCITf Plenary Assembl y, Oclobcr E-J 9, 1984 (Malxga-Torrcmolinos).
“Telematic Services: Operations and Quality Service,” Volume 11, Fascicle 11.5,
CC1lT Red Book, CCfTT Plenary Assembly, October S-19, 1984 (Mzdaga-
Torrcmolinos). A Data Communications Tutorial
“Terminal Equipment and Protocols for Telema[ic Scrviccs,” Volume VII, Fasciclc
V11,3, CCITTRed Book, CCIII’ Plenary Assembly, October 8-19, 1984 (Muklga-
Torremolinos).
Tydeman, J., Lipinski, H., Adler, R., Nykan, M., and Zwimpfcr, L. “Tclctcx[ mrd
Videotex in Lhc United States, ” Marke[ Pofenficd, Technology, PI161ic Policy
Issues, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.

The Communications Circuit

‘In order to understand a dam communications nelwork, we should know
something about its components and how they function. Most communica-
tions systems and components are designed around electronic equipment.
Consequently, it is appropriate to begin with a review of some of the basic
aspects of electricity that most of us learned in science classes or physics
scminar3.1
Elcctricily provides the basis for storing and conveying information in
tbc compu[cr network (oplic fibers using light sources are also used and will
be discussed later). The effects of electricity can be seen in all phases of our
lives; for example, in the operation of a simple automobile battery, (he
functioning of radio and television sels, and many other applications. All of
these applications have something in common: the exis[ence of particles of
electric charge. In fact, all the materials with which we deal in our
day-to-day lives—solids, liquids, and gases—are described as containing
two kinds of electric charge, called e/ecfrom and profons, The electron is the
snrdlest amount of clcclriczd charge that concerns most engineers in the data
communications world. The cleclron is said to have negative polarity. The
proton is the basic par(icle (hat has positive polarity. The negative and
positive polarities indicate two opposi[e characteristics that, for our “pur-
poses, are fundamental in most physical applications.
An analogy 10 elcc!ricity is that of the north/sou[h poles in magnets,
The opposite poles of a magnet attract each other and the like poles repel. In
electricity, elcclrons anrJ protons attract each other and like charges repel.
Electrons repel olhcr elcclrons, for example. It is the arrangement of the
electrons and protons that determines the electrical characteristics of the
many parts of the communications network.
Protons and cleclrons arrange themselves together to form an atom.
The formation achicvcs electrical stability. For example, a hydrogen atom
has one prolon and one electron. Their countervailing forces compensate
each other [o provide stability.
.,i,, .,. ,, .,.... Ii ,,
,,, ,,. , ,“. . . . .. . . . ----
- .-
380 A Dala Communic Tutorial Appendix A Appendix A Commun!callons Clrcult 301
f
.
-.. , ---------
,. --” ‘.,
//”
// ,,0----= “\\
/
(’”@
\
““)
/’ ,(3 .--e-..< “Q,, “\
‘\\ ~..”
Figure A-1. The Hydrogen Atom
//4 p“”/----.,‘Q,, Q “1,
‘,, ‘+ ‘~
/“.!+.
Figure A-1 shows one elcc[ron in the hydrogen utom us tm orbital ring
around lhe nucleus of the atom. The nucleus contains also [hc prcr( on, dle
w“ :“Q@”&@
posi[ive charge. The stabiii~y of the atom is based on two properties:
elecmon’s attraction toward the proton, which is counterb~lanccd
(1) [hc
by (2) the 1 9--%%;::
outward mechanical force of the elec[ron rotating around the mom. The
i, ,? “), i\, ; //’ p ~
‘---””’’/g’
distribution of ekx[rons in the orbital rings determines Ibc clec[rical smbil-
ity. Introducing a means to make (he atom unstable where the clcctrcyrs
“,\ ‘Q,‘b,, d’ /’
move to other a[onls produces energy in [he form of an clcctricd
The currents cm) bc used [o symbolize dam in the da[a communimtions
cttrrcnf.
\\\ ‘Q “-e-””” J ,“
system.
There are many other kinds of a[oms and they are usually more
\ ‘\
“=.-e--e ,’”
complex than the hydrogen atom. In fact, they usually have more than one ‘. .“
~,-
‘.
orbital ring. One of the common atoms is the copper a[om, and the copper ------- --”
wire is a common means of providing connections between Icrminals wrd
Figure A-2. The Carbon Atom
compu[crs in the nc[work. We examine [he copper atom in Figure A-2. This
atom has more than one ring around it. Especially imporlanl is [he number
components, a dbTerence in po[endal exists. Potential actually refers to the
of electrons in the ring farthest from the nucleus. This outermost ring
possibility of moving electrical particles such as the electrons.
requires eight electrons for stability. Less than eigh! electrons creates an
Figure A-3 shows the effect of potential difference. We assume one unit
uns!able force. (The rings vary widely among different atoms and the
of charge can move three electrons (in reality, billions of electrons are
number of electrons actually presenL) The outermost ring of Ihc copper involved). The left side of the circuit has a difference potential of zero and
atom contains only one electron. When many atoms arc CIOSClogcthcr in the the righ( side has a positive three difference in potential. This means that
wire, [he outermos[ clcclrons (in this czasc, only onc in the copper Nom) are nine electrons can be moved, because a difference of three exists between
not sure where [hey belong and they wander, migrating freely and at random the right and left ends of tbe channel.,
fronl a[om [o atom. These electrons are called Jree ek’cfrom because [hey Figure A-3(b) shows thal the left side of the channel now has a potentisl
move freely from one atom to the next. It is the movement of these free difference of plus one. The right side of the channel has the. same difference
electrons that can provide ct{rrcr!l in a conduc[ or, such as (he copper wire. of plus three, The relative difference in potential is now two, which allows
The electron movement crea[es electrical current, which
can be used to the movement of six units or six electrons. One last example’is shown in
convey information across the data communications Due to ils
channel. Figure A-3(c). In this instance, the left side of the channel now has a nega(ive
electrical instability, copper wire is a very good conductor of electrical potential of minus one. The right side now has a positive po[ential difference
signals, and consequently it is widely used in data communications systems. of plus one. The difference belween these two ends of the channel (the
A goal in communications and clec[ricd components is to provide for relative difference) is two. Again, a relative ditTerence of two exists, giving

a means to move the clec[rons in a nonrandom manner, which is in contrast to move six electrons across the channel. An important distinction
the ability

to the random movement we have jus! discussed. The primary mctms to should be emphasized: i; is the diflereflce in pofenfia/ that actually deter-
move electrons through a copper wire and hcncc cl-cate a cotll!?titlriculiotr$ mines the movement of the quantity of electrons. Moreover, electrical
$igjta[ is ttlrough a concept called the unit of po(cnria( diflerctlcc. Simply current consists of the movement of billions of electrons, A current of only
stated, when onc charge is dilTcrcnt from nnothcr clmrge bctwccn two one Ampere (Amp) moves 6.25 x 1018 electrons in one second.
,.. , .. .... ,,, ,, . . . ,,,. ... :. .,, ,.’,,:;;’
,::..!
 1
;’”1
“j,:
,!
382 A Data Comm ) .$ Tutorial Appendix A Appendix A ~” Comm.nicatl.ns Circuit 383
...

/ “j
‘~ 9 Electrons—
crettlcd.
!crms, a
Tllesc
channel,
poinls
line,
rrre conncclcd lhrou~h wires (in communications
or circnif). Placing a voltage at one end of the
link,
line will cause a disruption in electron slability, because the electrons are
!,. / (a) DlffemnceP.,enthl 013
repulsed from the negative terminal and attracted toward the positive
/:”:/ terminal. The charge at the negative terminal introduces excess electrons.
The simple eiectricrd circuit shown in the figure also contains a light
bulb. As [be electrons flow through the wire, lhey enter the bulb. The
lungs[en filument wire in [hc bulb acts as a stronger resis[or to the cument
flow [ban drres {hp copper wire, This rcsiskmce-[he opposition to the
current--causes [hc filament to become white hot and the filament dis.
j ‘1 clrwges light. :
1!
The circuit can be configured to perform the functions of a communi-
,; “1
cations system by manipulating a key on (he channel. By opening the key,
-~
i’ ~ 6 E!ecwm$ the circui[ is no longer complete and the current is halted. The difference in
Figure A-3. Eflect of Potential Dilfee potential be(wcen the positive and negative terminals is now irrelevant. The
(cl Difference?oie.tial of 2 ence
key is, in effect, a swifch that is opened and closed to produce the effect of
I II
a flashing light. If a person (an operator) opmrs/closes the key al specific
In summary, current (and dlereby the ability to carry information intervals, the flashing light can convey a code.
through current) occurs when between two charges
the potential difference The code conveys some form of intelligence to the receiver. For
forces electrons to move through the circuit. The diUcrcncc in charge is ~example, during a rive-second interval, a key operator could open and close
measured in a unit called the wif, A volt is really no!hing more U)an what i! the swi(ch to produce: no light, light, light, light, no light. This code could
takes in an applied charge to create a potential ditTercncc to get [he free represent the letter C (in fact, some codes aclually use this format for C). An
electrons moving through the circuit. individual watching the light flashes would know the prearranged code and
The reader may now realize why a battery has positive and negative interpret the signals as a C.
charges on the terminals: [o create energy wi[hin the battery, repulsing Let us now extend the circuit to Iwo different cities. The battery and
electrons at [he negative terminal, in order to move current through the key (swi(ch) are located in city A and the light source is in ci[y B. Thus, the
wires connec[ed to the poles of the battery. The higher the vol[agc (or SKIICIJ system has a transmitter at city A and a receiver at city B. The wires
anolher way, the grealer [he dill’ercnce in poIenlial bc~wecn the lerminals on connecting the two sites is the conlmunicafions channel (line, link, or
the circuit), the greater the current ilow will bc. This memrs a grcmcr circuil). In order to transmit data to city B, a person enters the proper codes
irr[ensity of free electrons moves through !he circuii. Wc will scc Iatcr how by closing and opening the circuit by manipulating [he key. An individual at
either current flow or vol[age levels can be. made [o represent rluta and data city B watches the flashing light and decodes the signals. We now have a
communicaliom signals, data communications system (similar to the telegraph system developed in
Figure A-4 shows a picture of a simplified electrical circuit. The circuit the 1840s).
has a positive poin( and a nega[ive point where differences in voltage cmr be Of course, a communications network is not quite as simple as this
scenario. However, in concept, networks are very similar because they are
‘i comprised of transmitters, receivers, and channels which send and receive
1 Switch [K,”}
,; codes conveying data and, ultimately, intelligence.
:. fi ,ran,mi,,,, _ ~,,on,lom The circuil in Figure A-4 shows thnt two channels are involved in the
ii f
;, ~~ {Battery or ~ Light Bulb system. IA Ibis instance, a circuit is connected to the negative terminal to
;,, Other Energy {Receiver) provide f’or !be signal propagation toward the receiver, and a return circuit
~ ,, source, + ~ _
~is connected 10 the positive terminal for the current to complete the entire
1, $! a ‘
. !,
, ‘path.
—Ci!y A ——— —city B+ In the early contlgurntions of data and voice communications circuits,

i ,1
I Figure A-4. An Electrical Circuil the rehtrn circuit was earth. This technique provided one wire for the data
!.,
..,,,..,,,. .,,. ,,, ,..
,. ... .
,, ,”,
3rJ4 A Dal. Cormn.nic } , T.lodd Appendix A ‘ ApPandlxA ‘j e Comm.nkatlons Circuit 385

flow and the earth medium for Ihc rc[uru circuit, also cdlcd the ground (or tAtw. Slmnnml rlcmons[mlccl (I1c Iinilc limits of a transmission path with the
ground electrode). The grounding occurred against some piece of mcud, following formula:
such as pipes; it rcsul[ed in terminating the connection into the earth, the
actual ground ilself. In such a system, [he cartll or ground rcplaccd the wire c= w log, (1 + sm]
as the return path for the current flow, and [hc carfh bcrame (he rclurn
where
conductor.
Figure A-5(a) illustra(cs how the posi[ivc terminal from Ihc butlcry find C = maximum cupaci[y in bits pcr second (bps)
the ou[going wire of lhe reccivcr arc conncc[ed to ground. Tbc rcccivcr is W = tmndwid[h
now a communications terminal like (he onc YOUhave in your ONICCinstcud S/N = m[io of signal power (S) to noise power (N)
of the light bulb. The terminal’s circuitry decodes the offhr current flow,
both for transmitting and receiving. The wmismitting side of [he tcrnlinal If the rrmder studies {his formula, it will be evident that increasing
uses the keyboard and switching logic to create the bimrry images on [he barrdwirhh, increasing signal power, or decreasing noise levels will increase
channel. While [his example shows current as the logic source, many the nllowablc bps rate. However, changing these parameters may be
devices use voltage Icvels to provide the binury images. physically or economically prohibitive.
Onc method [o incrmse the signal-to-noise ratio is to place more signal
ClosedSwitch amplifiers on [bc Iinc, Amplifiers strengthen the signal periodically as it
1 travels down the communications path. Since noise is conslanI throughout

-1
4
the Iinc, the amplifiers must be located close enough toge[her so that /he
Trmwnitter = Receivu signal power does not fall below a certain level. However, while close
{Currentsource) (Terminal)
spacing of omplbicrs improves the S/N ralio, it can also be quite costly.
T
Moreover, [he amplifiers musl be csrefrdly designed to minimize the amount
L Ground &
of noise [hat is amplified along with lbe signal.
(al Earth Grounding To deal with !hermal noise (as well as olher types of noise, such as are
caused by, lightning, power Ilucluations, etc.), a communications sys!ems
receiver must check for “damaged” data and ask the transmitter for a
rclmnsmissimr in (I1c event of an error. These errors are classified broadly as
rutnrfom, bnr.r:, and compoumf errors, For random-error channels, each bit
~
, has:a probability P of incomeci reception nnd a probability of P - 1 of
(b) Twis!ed W!re Pair
correct rcccp[iorr. Errors occur randomly in [hc received data block. Most
Figure A.5. A Communications Circuit line-of-sight ch:!nne]s (as well as sate!litc links) are atTected by random
er,rors.
All communications channels have Iimi(ations in their capacity to A 6urst-crr”r channel exhibits an error-free state most of the time, but
[ransmit data between conlpu(ers and terminals. Onc major impediment is on occasion experiences errors (bat occur in groups or bursts. Radio signals
wise, (Many others exist, but are beyond the scope of this tutorial.) arc subject (o burs[ errors, as are cable and wire links, such as twisted-pair
lelephone lines.
The noise on a line is a problem that is inherent to the line itself and
Many scclions of Ibis book describe how the data communications
cannot be eliminated. Noise (called thermal, Gaussian, whi[e, or background
system attempts (o deliver error-free dala over error-prone communications
noise) results from the constant, random movement of elcc[rons on tllc
cha!mels.
conductor and provides a Iimi[ to the channel capaci[y. The hiss you hear on
a telephone line is such a noise, Any elec[ric conductor is a source of noise.
The power of the noise is proportional to the bandwidrlz (range of frequen- Twisted-Pa/r Cable and Coaxial Cable C/rcuita
cies contained in the chmmcl), so an increased b~ndwiclth will also conlnin
increased noise. During the ettrl y days of k’/e@o/ty, all circuits used ground return (and
Onc of the fundtimental concepts in communicu!ions is SImnnon’s some syslcms in remote locations may still use the [cchnique). However,

. . .. .. . ... .... . .. .... . . ... ... ... .. . . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . ... +.,. ,,, .. .

.’ - ? .3 <. .. ..4 ,,.. ,. .. . . . . . “ ..... ”~... .. . .. .. . .. . .m.-.#. . . . .. . ..-- . ..— —
386 A Dala Comm.nlc? ~ Tutorial Appendix A Appondlx A ~ Y Numbers 387
)

signal quality was quite poor; conscqucntly, in 1883, a scccrml wire wos SPUCC.The wires can bc spr’cmf, and incrcasctl rrrdiotion occurs bccausc they
added to provide a non-ground re[urn. This approach inlprovcd the signal have ICSS opportunely to cnnccl out each o[hcr’s signals,
quali[y but resulted in the signals on U1e two wires interfering with each An antenna essentially converts high-frequency current into waves
other. As a result, [he pairs were [wistcd around each other to compensate which are propagated into space. Tbe antenna usually consists of a collec.
for (and caoccl) the dTec[s or pair-intctiercncc. These circuits arc widely tion of wires designed 10 permit maximum escape and minimum reflection of
used today and are called (luisfed pairs (also wire p~irs) [SCC Figure A-5(b)l. [he signal on an open-circuited transmission line.
As the telephone systems expanded, mul[iple wire jmirs were conlbinecl in Since currcnl on a wire creates a magne[ic ticld around it, both the
onc sheath from the telephone o~)cc to the customer silts. Today, most dutz magnc[ic and electric fields arc radiated from the mrtenna as an electromug.
communications systems use these ~wistcd pairs for tmfismi Uingdat:i. nctic wave. The wave Imvcls outward from the mrtenna in various radiation
Figure A-6 depic[s the circui[ wi[h a compu[er and a terminal replacing patterns 10 receiving anlcnrm.
the battery and bulb, We assume one site is providing the vol[agc source and Today many communications systems use electromagnetic propaga-
swilching logic to create the generation of signals ([he codes) 10 the rccciving tion. Radio, television, and satellile sys[ems are all designed around the
site, and vice versa. For simplicity, most data communications illustrations principles of mrtennas. Chrrptcrs One and F!ve have additional information
show [he circuit as a line between [he slridons. The ground crmncc[ ions or on [hcse syslcms.
return circuils are usually not shown. Increasingly, the indus[ry is using optic fiber channels for the [tran-
smission of data, voice, and video images. Instead of electrical signals, optic
fibers utilize light as a signal source. The light is generated by a light emitting

d
diode or a laser and then transmitted, lhrough a tiny reflective glass-like
cable. The transmitter switches the Iigh! on and off to represent user data
Figure A.6. A Computer-Terminal
C,...,
with binary codes. Optic lrmrsmission bas several significant advantages
over electrical systems: (a) greater capacity; (b) immunity to electrical
intcrfcrcncc; (c) very small and lightweight; (d) more secure, z
Most cable pairs are bahrnced transmission lines. The two wires wc
referenced to each other regarding [heir relalive voltage. dill’crcnces, so (I1c
circuil is balanced with respect [o electrical ground. An ud-mla~tccrf Iinc uscs Binary Numbers
onc wire a: ground potential and the other wire cmrics the currcnl.
An example of an unbalanced circuit is cou.ria/ cable, It consists of a Communications systems and networks trmrsmit data in the form of binary
shield around a conductor, The shield is held al ground potmrlizd and lhc images; that is, as a I or a O. Most of us are familiar with [he decimal number
center conductor carries ihc current. The shield prcven[s the signal from system, consisting of the numbers O-9. However, computers and terminals
are designed to represent only two signal (voltage, current, radio wave, or
being radiated into space.
The balanced pair carries i swongcr signal lhan unbakmccd crmxial optic) stales: a O or a 1. Communications networks also convey intelligence
cable. Typically, [he cable pair suffers much less signal loss at low and higll in [hcse binmy images.
transmission rates. However, coaxial line can be mounted almost anywhere. Both decimal (base 10) and binary (base 2) systems are founded around
the ideas of positional notation, a concept that originated many years ago in
Since the outside shield is at ground potential, it can be placed against metal
India. In a number systcm, a numeric symbol (O-9 or O-1) has a fixed value
objects without any effect. The balanced pair mus( bc kept clear of o[hcr
that is onc greater [hmr the symbol to its righl. A number or character is
conductors and stand-off insulators must be installed between some mul[iple
cable sys[ems. con;tructcd by coprbining several symbols (digits). The magnitude of the
mrmbcr or the memring of the charac[er depends on [he relative position of
the imJividual digits and (he digit values.
A transmission line, such as [WO wires, curl bc conligurcd us on open Let us first consider a numeric viluc; [hat is, a number. The increase
circuit. For example, (I1c two wires arc not !crnlinatcd, or arc lcrmiw~[cd of the wduc of each digil in a number as”one moves from right to left through
such that all the power is not absorbed, and [hc rcnmining power is rcjlccfed [he number, depends on the base used, In our discussion, wc are using base
10 (decimal) and base 2 (binary), so the decimal system increases by a power
back to (be genera[or.
of 10 with each rclx[ivc position to the left and (he binary system increases
However, the circuit can iso be designed to prevent the energy
from [hc systcm and bc mdiatcd in[o by a power of 2.
reflection and allow i[ to “cscopc”

. . ... .....,.... . .. ,.. ,.. .

388 A Data Cotmn j ;.s Tutorial AppendixA Appendix A .’4e5 ahd Pr0h2m19 389
;

Two simple emmplcs illustrate [hesc conccpls. Firsl, lbc rlccinml W, 7 0 0 0.0 1 1 1 1 ..
P.M..* ~ ~ ~ ,
number 394 is established by the positional nora[ion: 1 0 0 1 I

3 2 1 50 1 0 1 0 1 0 t
4
3XI02 + 9XI0’ + 4 x 100
+ + 4 o 0 0 0 NUL DLE SP o e P \ p
or 300 90
or 39470 o 0 0 1 SOH DC1 I 1 fi a . q

o 0 1 0 STX DC2 ‘q 2 P .,.

. . ,
!
Computers, terminals, mrrl nclworks usc binary notation. The binary
equivalent of 394 is [ 100010(0. Its decimal value can bc csiirblishcd cwily
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
ETX
EOT
DC3
DC4
n
$
3sic
4 D
s
T
C*
d *
1
through positional notation.
o 1 0 1 ENO MAX % 5 E u e “
IX2B+IX 2’+OX2’+OX2’+0 X2”+ IX2’+OX27+1X2’+OX 2
0 1 1 0 ACX SYN & 6 F v f w
Orl+l+ 0+0+0+1+0 +1+0
o t 1 1 6EL ET6 ‘ 7 G w 9 w
or 256 + 128 + O +0+0+8+0+2 +0
1 0 0 0 S$ CAN ( 8 H x h x
0: 394,0
1 ----
C.*UT -...
CM ,
1 -.
Q IV I ‘i
1
A summary of decimal to binary equivalency should help Ibe rcarlcr in
~, 0 1 0 LF sua . : J z I r

“li-tMb
understanding the binary sysfem.
““1”7 ESC + ; K I k {
.-. Fs ‘ < L \ I :
Decimal einary 4-
1 1 0 1 CR GS - - M 1 . I
o 0
1 1 1 0 so RS 7 N ~ n -
1 1
10 1 t 1 1 sl us / ) 0 - 0 OEL
2
3 11
Flgmre A.7, ASCll(lA5) by ANSland CClTT/lSO
4 100
5 101 Figures A-7 and A-8 are examples of two widely used codes in da[a
6 110 comm~tnication-lhe EBCDICcode, developed and sponsored by IBM, and
7 111 the ASCII code, developed tmd sponsored by the American National Standards
8 10CO lnslitule. The ASCII code is an international standard, in conformance with [he
9 1001 International Alphabzl S or IA5. The EBCDIC code is quite popular primarily
10 1010 becausc oflBM’s posilion intheinduslry. It wasdevelope dfromthesix-bit
11 {011 BCD(binary coded decimal) codeusedontbeoid 1400computer series. (The
12 1100 six-bh code did not provide for enough combinations of bits to represent
13 1101 characters and cordrol funcdons 26 = 6-$. ) EBCDIC is an eigbl-bit code. The bit
14 1110 posi(ions in Figure A-8 are arranged 10 show the first four bits at the top of the
15 1111 table with(hcrenmining fourbhs[otheside ofthetable.The ASCllcodeisa
seven-bit code, allbough many vendors add an eigh[h bit for emor-checking
purposes. This bit, cniled a parhy bit, is explained in Chap!er Eleven of the book.
Codes and Protocols ‘ These codes arc responsible for performing three important functions:

lrraddition tonumber representations,Computerland networks mus{ also ● device control

represent other symbols, such as the Icttcrs of the alphabet or special ● d;l[a represcn[ ation
characters (like the pound sign, #). The binary sys~em is cx.lemicd to
● protocol conlrol.
represen~ these symbols through codes.
. ..
 . . . . . ..

. 6 8 ( 9 s t c z 1 0 t 1 1 1

z A x M A n 1 s 0 t 1 1

M 0 d o N w 1 Y r [ 0 t i

1 H 9 a 3 0 3 a v 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

z A x . . n , s 0 1 0 t

, b d o “ . I 7 ! 1 0 0 1
! q 6 , a p 3 q e 0 0 0 1

,, . . a # : 1 1 1 0

i < - % < I - 0 1 1 0

L ! ( . $ i w 1 0 1 0

I + ,1 > ~ as o 0 1 0

13s Xw 0N3 ?6 3 Md S03 41 dA13 Si SOs so 0 1 0 0

sru Snl SW S41 33 W3 Nb’3 11 S8 -IN S3U %a ’30 ’30 310 1 0 0 0

I
Is 0s 130 31 lH +d x13 Xls Hos lnN 0 0 0 0

I
Ho +4 LA NW I
I I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I II ‘21$11L18,
,$
1 I 1 I I I 1 # 1 1 1 ! 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 i o 1 0 1 0 L 0 1

1111010111 1[01011111 010111100 Z ... .. .....

. .. .
I ( ( 1 ! ! , , ,
I I ! ( ! I t
i 1 ,,0 I
lllt OO 001111 10 IO IO IOIC .z-
1 L 1 t 111 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 b
1
.292 A Dala COmmunica Tutorial AppendixA
) ,,
},
on [he communications charm], and a binary zero m +3 VOIIS. This .!
APPENDIX B“”
agreement is one aspect of an eleclricrd protocol.
Another form of protocol is usual] y software or microcode oriented and
placed into etTect with these codes. For instance, the protocol control
character of EOT often signifies the end of the [rarrsmission
When one device transmits
of user data,
to another device, it sends a block of user data
Translation Tables
and then appends the series of bits rcpresmrting EOT to tell [he receiving
device that the receiver has received all [hc data, Obviously, the two dcviccs
must recognize EOT under [hc same format and context, or [hey cmnot
communicate with each other, This example illustrates one of the biggest
problems in the industry: Vendors often build protocols that in(erpret code
formats differently, resulting in incompatible products among vendors.
An example of the problem with pro!ocols can be seen by examining
EOT again. Some vendors establish EOT to signify the end of the transmis-
sion with the station signing off the system, sinlilar to a “log-oO” on a The tables in Appendix B should assist the reader in understanding some
computer. Other vendors interpret it m end of transmission, but not as a jargon used throughout (be book.
Appmrdix A explained how the binary number system is used to
sign-off, since at a time later the station intends to send more data. Thus,
represem data. Large binary numbers consist of long strings of zeros and
these [WO protocols are incompatible because of {he different interpretation
ones, which are ditIlcult to read and interpret. Tbe hexadecimal (hex) system
of the protocol control codes. The recent acceptance of international
is often used 10 provide a‘ ‘shorthand” in represen[irrg large binary numbers.
protocols discussed in several chapters of the book will play a key role in
This !cchrrique uses 16 symbols, wilh each symbol representing four binary
moving the industry to common standards and prolocols.
digits:
We have learned from previous discussions that communications
signals are subject [o distortion due to noise and other problems. Sevcml
chapters in this book describe Iirre or link protocols, and one of their Osdmal Binary Hex8d@nd
principal functions is (o provide the error-free delivery of user data across
o OcsnJ 0
the communications line.
1 (YM 1
2 0010 2
NOTES 3 eon 3
4 0102 4
‘An excellent rcicrence irr[roducing [hc basic concepts of electricity and 5 0101 5
electronics to beginners is Basic Electronics by Bernard Grob, McGraw-HiJl, Inc., 6 0110 6
1971, 3rd Edition. This book is also a well presented text on more advanced 7 0111 7
concepts.
6 Woo 8
21f the reader wishes mote information on transmission media, see DoIo 9 lGVI 9
Communications al!d Distributed Networks by Uyless Black (Reston, VA.: Reston
10 1010 A
Publishing Company, Inc., 1987).
11 lot f B
12 1100 c
t3 1101 D
14 If lo E
15 1111 F

The convenience of hexadecimal’is evident in the fo[lowirig example.

The decimal nunlbcr 714 is represented by binary 1I I I 100110 . . . not an

393
,...
 ,., ..,...,

,-..:- -—:----- -—---, -.: -.=. .. . . . ... ... -— -- ...-. ——=-—-- :

 APPENDIX C . dcfi”ing contrei } d, :icross the irdcrfirce
● moving user dt... .wruss the inlerfrrce
● Irrursmh!ing clocking sigmds 10 synchronize data flow ...

Physical Level Interfaces ● forming {he uctual clcc[rictd chmactcrislics of the inler~~ cc.

RS-232-C cmrvcys dida across lhc inlerface by changing voltage Icvcls.

A birmry O is represcn[erf by a rtinge of +3 10 +-12 volts. A binury I is
rcprcsmrlcd by a range of –3 10 -12 volts. The actual Icngth of Ihc KS-232-C
c:tblc depends uprm lhe clcclrical chirmctcristics of Ibc ctihle, al[lwugb some
vendors prohibi[ a Icnglh greater than 50 feel. The international slarahnl
\:.28 slipulaics an electrical intcrfttce similw [o RS-232-C.
F’igurc C-1 ilhlslndes the circrri]s of RS-232-C which consists of 25 pin
connections (i.e., chmmcls). All 25 channels ure MM USCII. A DCI?-10-DTE
Introduction inlcrfuce typically requires only four to eight channels.
The func[icms of the 25 pins (chmmcls) are as folluws:
Physiciil lCVCI in!erfficcs arc used to conncc[ user devices into Ihc commu.
nicntions circuit. TcI perform [his impwt;mt fu!w[ ion, most physical level
Pin I Circl!it AA Protective Ground: Conductor is clcckically con-
inte!-fuces describe tour ullributcs of [he inlcrfkc. The e/ecrricd a[lribales {
nec[cd trr cqttipment frame chassis.
describe [he voltage (or currea[) Icvels and Ihc timing 01 (he electrical J~; ~ Circuit All Sigrrd Ground: Common ground for all cirduits.
changes 10 represen! a binary O or 1. The fn,tcfirma/ attributes describe tbc
This establishes the voltage ground reference for all other
fu}lc[ions (o be performed by LIm physictd intcrf’ace, Many physical Icvcl
Iincs. II actually has nolhing to do wi(h ground, but is a
protocols classify (hesc func!icms M control, timing, data, snd ground. The
conlmOn rcfcrcnce circuit,
mechanical attributes describe the conncc(ors and the wires of the inlerface,
Usually, all date, sign~llling, uml con[tol wires arc enclosed in one c;tblc mal pin 2 circuit 13A Transmit ;Ialz Data signals transmitted from DTE
connwlcd [u [crmiwtling plugs u{ c:tch cml of Ihc c:d~lc. ‘J’hcsc plugs are IO D~E. “f’his USUUIIYrcprcscnls !hc user dtdu.
similar in function 10 o(hcr power plugs (like Ihose in residences), but [hey Pin 3 Circui( Ill] Receive fhla: User ck~[a signals Irimsmillcd from
look much different :Ind perform dill’crcnl functions. The procedural al. DCE IO DTE.
lrih{,tc,v dcscril>c wlml [he Cotmcciors mm[ do I,IK1 II)c sqkict,ce of CVC”lS Pin 4 Circui!s CA Rcqu&l to Send: Signal from DTE to DCE. This
required 10 cllccl uc(ual LIUIU Iransl’cr ;Ic Ioss (Iw i!llcrf;wc. circuit nolifics lJCUllr~[ lllclermintil Orcolnp{l(cr llasdula 10
This oppendix provides ii brief overview of’ physical Ievcl inlcrfi!ccs, Inmsmii. Circuil CA is also used on half-duplex lines to
htore dcl;{;lcd itt{<wm;itioj? is av;lil;!hlc Irom olhcr smwccs.l conlrol Ihc dircclion of dots Wmrsntission. The lrttnsi[ ion of
OFFIOON nt>lifics [llc[lCl; lolakctiny necessoryticlionlo
prcpart fir Ihc transmission.
Pin 5 Circtiit Cf3 Clew 10 Send: Signal from DCE indicating the
RS-232-C
13’1’Ecim Ii’ansmil the Mo. “Hle Clew 10 Send signal may be
DTEs mrd DCES nre USU:IIIYconnected by ihc RS-232-C s!mlarcl interface. [arncd ON irftcr rccciving a cirrrier signal from [he remole
A DT13 (dol:l Icrlnin:!l equipment) is [ypic;llly :111CMI-USCI-dcvicc, such m a mode’m. The [iming of Cf3 varies from modem 10 modem.
(crmin:tl or cumpulcw, ‘Me DCL (dills circllil-lcrlllill:lling cquiprncnl) pro- Pin 6 Circuit CC Dal~t Sei Rcwfy:Si gmdfromD Cliirrdiculirrgthe
vides !hc DTE ;, connection inlu IIIC ct>tl>nltlnic:! tiolls circuit. (Chaplcr Onc mnchinc is (ii) cdThook: conncc[cd 10 channct on a switched
(ur(hcr dclincs l)Clls aml DTlls, ) ‘Il!e C IqWCSCn[S IIIC (ouI’111 vcisior], wl,i~h Iinc, (b) f)C12 is in dala transmit mode (not [es[, voice, etc.),
wiis ;!ppmvcd ir[ 198 I, “1’hc CCI’l -l’ sl:tml:nrds organiuli on] hm similm (c) f3Cflhuscomplcml Iimingfuncliwrs wrdanswcrtoncs.
slandorcls called V.24/V.28 (discussed lMer), RS-232-C (V.24 and V,28) Circuil CD fhta Terminal Ready: Signal from DrE indicating
Pin 20
dcscribc fOuv funcliuns Of IIIC inldwx:
icnqinal o? cumputcr is powered up, has no detectable

396

]
, “.. :’..... ,, ...,,.
 I

— — .— __ ..._ .—. ,—— —. _____ . . ._,

.J

-.
 difference of +3 volts menns [he rcceivcr would sce +2 “. .an ,lndefined,
series ph ysicul level prc” ~ .“sto~ludc ftt) the DTE-10-DCE interface, and (b)
lmf]silio(r tcgio r!. A pulcnltirl dilkrcncc ot’ – 10 VU([S ) ,,s [b~ re~eiv~r lhc DCIHO.I)C1l imwl,,.. other s[mzdmds, such us 1{S-232, encompass only
mislukenly sm!s a [ (MARK) instc:d nf Ihc intended 0 (SPACE).
the 13T11-10-DC13 itdcrfucc, but mnny vendors usc Ihc relcvnnl porlion uf Ihe
Due IO these problems, other interfaces arc designed to be balanced (e.g.,
CCIT~ V series recmnmendulions 10 describe ibis pall of the physictal-level
RS.4X?) where ii circui( is rcfcrenccd (o WWIIVXciwuii ;md IWZI10 grOUMI.
in[aft!ce. CNhcr veudors usc (be “Lfcll Modem” specifications, which in many
l:i~urc C-2 illuslrn[cs J [ypic:d usc d’ RS-232.C 10 send &I[a t’rom one
ins{mrces conform to [he V series spccifkxdions (see ‘f’xble C-3).
f)TE 10 ano[her. DTE U could rcspmrcl 10 DTE A lo!cr by using !he same
prOCcss in I-everse,

V.24

[qq;,+q-q-q V.24 is msofticr widely used sfimdard in many phrts of [hc world. Many of
the products in your Mice ark described as V.24 compatible. V.24 contains
the dctinilions of [he channels (pins) between DTEs and DCES. RS-232-C
— — — Ewm
uses diflercnl channel (or pin) identifiers, but the channels pelform quile
Fr.m, GND Ill — --- (1) F,,,’n. GNLI similw func( ions. V.24 dciincs more channels Iban does RS-232 -C, bccwse
1
S<q”.1 GNO (11 — — (7) SW*I GND olhcr inmrfnce sl:urdokfs u(ilize V.24 M well. In a sense, RS-232-C cmr be
OTE ROY tlw — — (20) CITE ROY considered a subse[ uf V.24. Tuble C-1 shows the V.24 inicrchtinge cil-cui(s.
2
— (6) DCS ROY DCE RD” ,8, —-
The V.24 circuils perform (he following (unctions:
REO<oSND (41 —

cNf;.r — C.<ri., 06 T (s) 4 3 Circuit ]02-Sigmzl Ground or Common Relurn. This conductor estab-
‘(5) CLR KJSNO
lishes the common return for unbalanced circuits according to Recommen-
0,,. SNo {21 — MOD Dat, st4D —- MOD Da,, REC ,3) _
SNDTim;rq 1241 — Timiw
d:l[ion V.28 and (Iw DC reference for circui[s according to Recommcnda-
REC (17) —
EOTsNO 4 dons V. IO, V.11 and V.35.
(1) — MOD EOT SND - EO1 REC 131—
SNOTiming (241 — RECTi,nirq (111 —-
REOOFF ,?, —- E,,., Check Circuit 10211-DTE Cormnon Refmn. This conductor is used as the
Car,,,r0!1 — C“<141
OFF 6 reference polcntitd for the unbkmcetl Recommendulion V. 1[)-~ypc circuil
(s) —

(?4: 0,, .“ top .1 c.!” “Umber indk,,,s ,!!. ,Iqn.1 1,,.,n,d .,,
rcccivcrs within the DC12.

Circuit 102b-DCfl ComMorI Rcfurn. This conductor is used aS the

EVENT DESCRIPTION
reference potenl iid for the unbahrnced Recommendatirm V. 10-! YPC circuit
1 Signaland gm.nding ean.e.tio.s mad.. receivers wi[hin Ihc DTE.
2 DTE, and OCE, ,.,,, .“ pin, 20 and6,. Indicate,ealin,,,.
3 DTE 4 req.e,ts a trmm,iwicm wlm pin 4, DCE send% out ● Circuit 102c-Commm Return. This conduclor estublishcs the signal
carrier,Lz”,l m DCE 0 and turn, on pin 5,. DTE A. DCE @ conlnmr re[urn for single-cumcnt circuits will] elcclricd chartacteris[ics
detectsthe carriers!gmlam+turns.. oh 8 to OTE 0,
according (o Recomny.wdu(ion V.31.
4 Arwlicatiw dot, trmsmit!odwet pin 2 to oCE A, Pin 24
.Swl to Vfnc!,rot,i.e 07S A and DCE A, Cl.,. tran,,,,i,,.~ ,0 Circuit 103—Trqmrrdfted Data. The dulfi signals originztled by the
DCE 0, which t,, n,mi!, i, to CITE 8 u,i,,g P,”s3 and 17,
5 EOT signal(end of t,m,mini.n) ,Urn, Din4 e,,, ~h,ch
DrE, I’or lrwwmiUtd 10 one or more WNions, tire lmnsfcrred on ibis circuit
inslr.cf! DCE A 10 t.,. .11 i!, car,icr $ig.al. DCE B delec!, I(I [he DCE.
came, %igna!going.I1 and turns off pin)8 to its DTE.
Circuit 104—Received Data. The data signdls genera[ed by (he DCE,
Figure C-2
in response to CIWI clmnncl sifgmls received from * dulu st~~ion, or in
11 is assumed by some people III:It ;I physic;l].levci in(crfilcc ~ncom. Icsponsc {o (IIC I)T[l muin~cntmcc ICSl signals, arc lnmsfcrrcd on \his circuil
passes only the itl/~,rc/mr!gc circ!{ir(s) between [ht D1’E ond [he 13CE. While
IU lhc DTE.
(his view is correc[ for some pruducts ond s(iindurds, IIIC physic:d ICVCI UISO Circuit 105—ReqIIest to .%7td. Sigmds control the dtim channel [rans-
inulildcs Illc siglldls llcl\vcco tlw [wu I) CIIS, “1’IIc (.’Cl’l”l’ pl!h[isl)cs ils V
mil fllnc[iml UI Ihc 1X1;.

. . ~.,... . .. .. . . ,,. ,.... ... ,. .

. :.
 The ON condi[ion indicates (hot the received :
) . is within qrpro.
prit!te linuls. The 0):1: comlition indic;!!cs Ih I]w 1..eivcd SjgJItiI is IIQI

within ~]ppropria[e ]ill}i[s,

Circuh 110-Dnta
rcwonoblc prolmbilily
Sigmrl @//alitY Detector.
of un error in IIw duta re~civcd.
Siglfids imfi~i[c if(her~ is ~ ‘“l Circuir [[?--.fkmdby
conditioned loowr:/tc
bysttmrlbys. “
indicator.
ins!; lndbymode
Signals inclicNew hc!her{l!c DCEis
wi[ll the primary f;!cilities repluced
..

The ON condi(iori indicates a probability of no error. Tl,e OFF Tbe ON crrntfilion indicules IIm( the DCE can operirte in ils standby
condi! ion indicates a rcasonahle probability of WI error. mode. The OFFcondilion indicates lhalthe DCEcanoper~le in its norrnd
mode.

1 Circuif

flsyncbronous DCE.
J 1I—Data Sigttalling ftote .$etector (DTE
used 10 select one of two dom sign; dlingrules of a dunl-r~[c
SOI,I.C~). si~nal~ are
synchronous or
equivalent
Circtdit 118—Tronsrs]illed
to circui!
ilackward
103 for b~ckwwd
Channel
(reverse)
Data. This circuii
~ha}~nel transmission.
is

I ,?fre ON condilion selccls [he higher rate or mnge of rates. TIIe OFF
Circltit 119—ReceivecI Backwati Chatt/tel Dola. This circuit isequiva-
cond!llon selec[s the lower ra[e or rtmge of mtes.
lent to circuit 104 ~urlxackwwd (reverse) channel lransmi$sion.
Circuit 112—Data Signaling Rote Selector (.OCE source). SjgnaI~ ~rc Circuit 12Grrortstttil lJackward Chata81el Line Sigttu!. This circuit is
used (O select one of [he IWO data sigmdling rates in the DTE (o coincide wit},
equivulmr~ [o circuil 105 for Imckward (reverse) Wmsmi[ function of the
the data sigrwdling rate in use in a dual-rate synchronous or asyncllro”ous
DCE.
DCE,
The ONcon~itionc at!sesiheDCE toassume lhe backward chmrnel
I The ON condiiion
the Iowcrra[e.
selecls the higher m[e. The OFF condi[ion se]ec(s
transmit mode. The OFF concfition causes /he DCE 10 ossume (he backward
channel norr-transmil mode, afler all data ll-ansferred on circuit 118 have
Circuit JJ3-Tra1ts,tliller Sig],al Ele#l!erJf Tifrii,tg (DTESource). Signafs been h-wrsmitted to line.
provide the DCE with signol elemcnl timing information,], Circuit 121-@ckward Cltanne IReady. This circuil is equivalent 10
The comlilion on [his circuil shall bc ON aml OFF for equal periods of circuit10b fqrlmckwmd (rcverse)chafinel transmission.
lime and the hxnsiliun from ON ICIOFFcondi[io,l SII:III indicu[c [IIC Cen[er The ON condition indicates that lbe DCE can tmnsmi~ data on the
Of each signal on circuit IO]. b~ckwarcl chunncl. The OFF conrfkion indicMes (h~t (he DCE cannot
fmnsmi[ rfitta on the backward channel.
Circri(t l14-Trn]ls]J1ilter Si8~:n/Ele~]]e,Jl Ti],]it&g (DCESource). Signals
provide (he Df’f3 will] sigmd elcrncnl timing inlornralioi}, Circuit f22—fSackword Channel Received Line Signal Defector. This
The condilion on [his circuil shall be ON mrtl OFF for cq”al periods of circuil isequiwdenl locircui[ 109, except lhal if is used 10 indicate whe[her
lime. The OTE shall present a signal on circuit 103 in which lhc tmnsitions the rcccived btickwurdchannel iinesigrmlis wi~hin appropriate limits.
I be[wecn sig!ld tlcmcnis occur tit Ihc lime of the Iwnsiliol]s from OFF 10 ON
( Circc,it 123-Ifackward CltanttelS~gnol Qt8alily Defector. This circui(is
condition of circuit 114.
equividenl tcrcircuil 110, except that i[ is used loindicale Ihe sigmd qmdily
t Circnit J15—Receiver Sigt,a/ Element Timing (L)CI; Source). Signals of!he rcccivcd fmckwm’d lille signal.
provide (he DTE with signal clement [i!lling in fornlalion.
Circuif 124-Select Freqlmncy Groups. Signals arc used to sclec[ [he
The condilion of this circui[ shall bc ON imd OFF for equnl periods of
rlcsircd frequency groups ovnilable in the DCE.
liillc, t]!ldil tri![lsi[it~n fronlON tool:l~condi!it]!l stud] indictltc ~heccn[erof
‘The ON cmwli[iun cmlses the f)CE IO use all frequency groups to
coch sigmd clcmcnt un circui[ 104.
I rcprcseni &~lasigm,\ls. 'l'l~c OF Fcondition cikt}scslhc DClllouse uspccified
I
Ch!it ! ]Welect Strmdby, reduced number of frequency groups to represent rlala signals.
.$ignnls arc USCCIlo select (he norm;d or
1 sl; mdhy f;lcililic+ , such w sigm!l cnnvcrlcrs :indd;u;t C/UtItjICIS. Signals indicate whelhcr a calling
Circuit 125-Ccdling }ncficalor.
, lhe ON condi~ionsclcc[$ lllcst~t!ldby t)lodcofopcrution, causi”g the signill islrcirqsr cccivcdhylhe DCE.
DCE!o replace predetermined facili[ics bylheir reserves. Tl]e OFFcondi. The ON condition inclictit:s IIMI a calling signal is being received. The
~ liunc:wscs (1}CI)Cl; io rcpidcc lhc slnndby fwili[ics will, olhcrs, “rtlc OFF
OFF condition indicties no culling sigmd is being received.

t
1
I , :,
 Circf,if /264e/cct Tra/!sf/fif /:req((e,!cy. Sigm,l- :uscd{osel~c(ih~ The ON CO!V1:,,” n indicates the data which represent information
required [r:msnlil frequcncyol’llw [ICE. 1 mess:lgcs. Tbc () I ] ,llJiliOn SIIUO be mninlaincd al till ofhcrlimcs.
The ON condition selcc[s [IN higher tmnsmit Irequency, The OFF
comliliml sclccls lhc Iowcr Imnsmil I’rcxpwncy.
Cim$,if 13&New ,Signal. Sigmds me used [o cOn[rOl Ihe response ..
(imcs 01’lhc l)CI1 wccivcr.
Circuil 127Ae/ect Heceit,e ).’req,,et,cy. Sign; llsnw used tosclcc[ the The ON cundiiion inslrucis (Iu? DCE rccciver 10 PI’CPM’Cilsclf lo dcIccI
required receive I’rcqucncy of the DC13. rapidly Ibc disapp$wmnce of [he line signal (e.g., by dis~bling lhc response
The ON cnndi[ion SCICCIS [hc lower rcccivc frcqmmcy. The OFF timccircuilry WsociiWcd willlcirct[il 109). After lhcrcceived line signal Fdlls
cOmliliOll sclecls lhc Iligher rcceivc frequency. below [lle(llresllo)d oft}lcreceived line signal dclcctor, (he DCII will turn
circuit 128—Receiver Sigtlal E/erttertt Tjt,,j,jE (DTK Sottrce). Sign:llS OFFcircui[ 109, andprepare itself [odetecl r~pidly lhcapl]eur~nce of anew
provide l)C~ ivi(llsigfutl clc[llen( timinginforil]i,(io(].
Iirw signal.
The condilion of this circui~ shun be ON find OFF for equal periods of Circftif 14&Loopbock/fifaitt(eJtanceTesl. Signals are used 10 iniliale
[ime. The DCE shaO present a da(a signal cm circuit 104 in which Ibe andrehme Ioopback oro(her rndintenance test candilions in DCES.
lr;lnsilic~flsbc[tvccll signtllcic,l]eo[soccllr;t[ (be li,l]co~ll,c(fi,nsi(iOns frOm lbc ON condition r~tlses initiation ortllcmtiiillcnunce [eslcondi[ion.
OFFlo ONcondi{ion ofthcsign;{l cm circuit 128, Tbe OFF condhion muses releme of (he nminte!rmce (CS[ condi[ion.
Circui/ 129—Requesl 10 Receive. Signids are%ised 10 COntrIJl [he Circuit 141-Local Loopback. Signals areused tocon[roltheloop3
rcceivc func[iou of the DCE. [esi condiliom in [hc hrctd DCf?.
The ON condition cimses the DCE to assume !he receive mode, The The ON condition of circuit 141 causes the eslablishmen~ of the loop 3
OFF condition causes the DCE fo ttssume [he mrn-receive mode, teslcondi!ion intllelocal DCE. The OFFcondilion of circuit 141 causes the
Circuit 130-Transrtiif Backward TotIe. Signals conlrol Ihe transmis- rclczmeofthcloop3 (eslcondilion inlhelocal DCE.
sion of a backward channel tone. Cjrcaj(142—Te$//,/dita/Or. Sigmds indicate whelhcro m~in[endnce
The ON condition cmIses [he DCE to !ransmit a birckwmd channel condition exists.
[one, The OFF condi[ion couses [he DCf3 10 slop Ihc transmission of a The ON codcliiion indica[es that a maintenance condition exists in the
backward channel [one, DCE, precluding recep{icm or lmnsmission of dala signals from or to a
C’ircui( 231—Received C/laracter Titning. Signals provide [he DTE rcnmle DTE. The OFF condi lion indicates !hat (he DCE is not in a
with chamc[cr timing information. mai”ienancetes[ condition.

Circui/ J91yTransnjiffed VoIcc Answer. Sisnalsgenela~e~byavOice

Circuit 132 —Refurl) (O Nondafa Mode. Signals nre used 10 restore the
nondfl[n !llo[lc prc~vidcll\vitll (I1c DCf3, wi(houl rclciisi!lg llicliilc cor)nccl ion amweruni[ in thp DTE are transferred on Ihiscircuil Io!he DCE.
to ihc siation.
remote
Circuit 192-Received Voice Answer. Received voice sigmals, gener-
The ON condition causes the f)CE 10 restore the nondala mode. When nmd by a voice answering unit at the rernOle DT~, are transferred On this
Ihenondala modcl>as becnest;!blist]ed, l},iscirci!il isluri]cd OFF. circuil” lo the DTE.
Circtiif lJ3—Reo,ly for Receilmirlg. Signtds control the lrmsfer of data V.28 spccilics lbc electrical chtrmclerislics for unb~hmced DTE/DCE
on circuit 104, indicating whe{her the DrE is cap~blc ofaccep[inga given interfaces. 1~ is quhc simOarto RS-232-C wi[h lhc ON condhion (0) of more
wnoun[ of dit[n M spcci lied in (I1c wcomrlcudalimr for intct-mwliue equip. posi{ivc [him 3 VOIIScurd Ihc OFF condifion (1) of more negative than minus 3
men!. Volls.
The ON condi[ion mus[ be maint~tinecl whenever [he DTE is ciqmble of
nccep[ing data, and cmlses the inlcrmedhlc equipment to lmnsfer tbc received
d;im 10 (I1c lYf’E. The C2FI: cmdiLiou indicoks tlwu (Iw 1)’~l? is 110( ub[c m X.21
accep( dam, and ci!uses the intcrnlcdiillc eq[!ipmcnl 10 re[ain thcdnta.
x,21 is yet another in[crf~ce s(andard that hus received considerable
Circuil 134—t/eceived [)0(” l>mw,tf. Sigrmls mused 10 scpxmte a[tcn( ion in [Iw induslry, but has nol seen us exlensive implementor ion as
in forrlli!l i<>tltllcss;igcs (rc]lllst] pcrvisory l~,css:tgcs, lfiil]s(errctl <j!1circl!iL 104. l\ S.232.C.Z ‘Ihc SkllldW’d W firs[ puhlishcd in 1!72 uml WM mnemfcd in

., ..-. -. .. . .. ... . . . . . ... .—...-..—.-.——-

 ..
Staw State Nam
Number
Ilmeive (R1 heady
1
Call Request
Indication (11 2
07E DCE
p,- 10 Selsd
3
99”,1 Timing (s1 ssdeclion signals
4
DTE Waiting
5
Byte Timing (B) DCE Walli!r9
6A
6B
DCE WanIns
C.”mlo” u, (“r. {GI
OCE pmvld.sd Information (Call Progress Sl%OalS)
7
8 Incomlw Call
Figure C-3 cdl AcZeplsd
9
WE Provided lnlormation [Called DTE Lme Identilwailm)
10
oCE pmvidrd l“bmvdia” (calling OTE Line Identification)
1976. 1980. and 1984. Unlike RS-232-C. X.21 uses a 15-oin comrcc[orla 10bls :
,.,!
supposed replacement ~or KS-232-C, 1<S-449, provides a mnpping of its
Ready (or Data
circui[s 10 [h~l ot’X.2i). The circuits are defined in 1S0 document 4903. See 12
Data Transfer
Figure C-3 for an illuslra[iorr of ~hc primary circuits. 13
13s
send Data
The T mMIR circuits transmit mrd receive ckda across the interface. The aedeive Dais
13R
dalaisci[ller ~lscror con[rolsig[]~ls. UnlikeRS-232-C ,X.21 uscsthe Tand DTEcontrdted Not Ready, DCE Ready
14 I
R circuits for user data am7 control. The C circui[s.provicle an o!T/on signal Call COllir.&n
15
10 the ne(workancl (he I circui[ provides thcoffkm 10 lhe DTE. These ~wc DTE Clear R8qUO@!
16
circui~s serve [o activale and deactivate [he DC E-DT13 in[eflacc session, DCE Clear CWIfi9Urat10n
17
The S and B circails provide for signals 10 synchronize the sigmds Im(wecn DTE ResdY. OCE Not Ready
18 1
[llc DTE:ind DC E. The Gcircl!il ;lc[sas iisig!]ul groul]d oracoinn1onreturn. ocE clear Indidon
19
This book discusses X,21 irrscveral sec~ions, prirrmrily inhowil is to .. OTE ck3ar C.3nllrma00n
.“
beusedin compu[er andterminal ncfworks. Foravwicty ofrensons, X.21 21 OCE Ready
h;u not been implemented ex[ensivcly. Nonc[lwlcss, i[ is n suikiblo in[crf~lcc DTE Uncontrolled Not Ready. OCE Not Ready
22
opliot] for ccrluin applications and shoakl be considered for situations DTE Chkolled Not Ready, DCE NOI ReadY
23
requiring duplex, dedicated circuils opemfing in synchronous mode. DTE Um%mlrolled Nol Ready, DCE NcA Ready
24
X,2( ;~"d,>[[jcr st;)l>,li,cds ;tvc<lcsig(~c<l ;\rk)\4t\4 lllect>t~ccpt ofsl[tlc.r:lnd
we cxpl:lincd by Jlo/c di,igr(lnf~. TIIC tdlow.dic X.21 stttlcs zwc shown in
Table C-2.
Figures C-4 and C-5expl:iin ll[~\vt(~rc;tll &ts[;llc [li:lgr:1t1]rl#1d IIIcc: III
cuniwx plmsc I’or X.2 I. 1[ the rcdx wim[s II shorlh;md cx;!mple olhcrw X,2 I
works, the following explanation summwizes Figure C-5.
Cnllcs[;,blisl) n!ctlt is~!ccomplislml by [he [7~E*ndDCEbt>il)sigmal-
ling Rcody[S(~ltc l). l:rt}ll] lllisstiitc, tl}clY~li cJl[crs [ltc C.!ll-l{cqucst s[:1te
(State 2), which llle DCEacknowlcdges byen[ering [he Proceed-[ o-Selecl
smle(Slate 3). Nex[, [he DTEprescn[s i[sidcnl ifyingdigi[s (Sl;t[c 4). A[ Ihc
other cud. (IIC rcmolc I)CE signnls i[s D~li hy en[cring (IIC lncOnling-Cnll
slate (Slate 8) mrd [hc t)T~rcspcMMJs with aCidl-Acccptcd sl~[e(S[ale 9).

.. . .. ... .
 z= !
00
0..5
J i;
,

\
—. __, —. .—
4

. .-
-. ..

. .-, . .
 , TABLE C-3. V Serlea Interfaces

Sedes Line FJX or synchronousor Mcdulalicm Switched Leased

.-,,:..
... . .....
,,,. .,. ,,, f I
C.(Id s,,,., Number Sped HDX Asynchroncnm Technique Lines Lines ...

V,21 3410 FDX Ellhw FS Yes o

V.22 t 200 FDX Eilher Ps Yes PP 2W
V.22 60tl FOX Either Ps Y*3 PP 2W
---- /,s\7
OAM Yes PP 2W
V.22bis FDX Either
7 c,,,c~m.m \-
V,22bis 1200 FDX Either C)AM Yes PP 2W
.= V,23 600 HDX Either FM Yes o
r——’’.—=’ ,6,. 0!,
{ cat,,, ACm,ted \ V.23 120U HDX Either FM Yes 0
V.26 2400 FDX Synchronous Ps No PP MP 2W
V.26bls 2400 HDX Synchronous Ps Yes No
V,26bls 12W HDX Synchronous Ps Yes No
V.261er 2460 FOX Eit>er Ps Yes PP 2W
V,26ter 12CQ FDX Either Ps Yes PP 2W
Se(mo:SW,,,
V.27 480il Ellher Synchronous Ps No 4W
,,M, 0“
+, off
V,27bls 48W ! Eilher Synchronous Ps No 2W 4W
V.27bls 240Q Either Synchrom3us Ps No 2W 4W
V.27ter 4600 HDX Synchr0n0u6 Ps Yes NO
V.271er 240tl : HDX SynciwOrous Ps Yes NO
I 00 V,29 9600, Ellher Synchronous QAP.4 No PP 4W
DCEP, G+Jed
,.l.,”,.! 1.” V.29 7200 Ellher Synchronous Ps No PP 4W
V,29 4s00 Either Synchronous Ps No PP 4W
tA5, Ofl
V.32 96OU: FDX OAM Yes PP 2W

z
V,32 9600 j FOX Synchronous TCM Yes PP 2W
1 V.32 4SW ! FOX Synchronous QP?d Yes PP 2W
DcE V,35 4sooa ~ FOX Synchronous AM.FM No Ye9
OCE?,,,,., 11.,d, ‘L D,,,
LEGEND
1,0. t, 0“
Sm. ott 1, 0. Line Speed: In bllh FM: Frequencymodulalhm
FDX: Full duplex AM: Amplitudemodulation
DCE
DCE HDX: Hall duolex 0: Optional
., FS: Frequencyshill PP: POlnt.to.@nt
7/, 0, 33 ~.
DCE Prwid.d
Ps: Phase shlfl MP: Mutllpolm
D,,. 1,,”,,.,
l“(o,n,,,,o. .c~ OAM: Ouadraturaamplltudemodu!atbm 2W Twwwlre
!, 0!! 0, 0. TCM: Trellisccdad mmbdallon 4w. Fow-wlro
165, 0,( D, 0,9
8
I
(b) X.21 mu,,, S.i,,h,d ,2,,, c..,,., ,.,”
NOTES
Figure C-5 (Con fin”ed)
lBl:tck, UYICSSD., IVlysicnl Level Interfaces, Arlin@m VA: Information Engi-
rmcring, Inc., 198S.
‘CCITI’ RcconlmcndWion x,21, “[nted2tceBe1weenDalaTeminal Equipment
(OTE) wnl lkdo Circuit Twminating Equipmcnl (DCE) for Synchronous (3pcrtition on
Public I);!IU Nclwwks,” Gcncvd, 1980.

,-, .X,- . . . . . . .
 Appendix D ‘jalent Stamlards 415
.,.
..
APPENDIX D M the USA
Amerlcsn Nalinnal Standards Institute (Address akave)
ECMA Eumpsan Computer Manufacturers Asswiation
114 nm du Rhone, CH.I 204 Geneva, Switzerland
Commonly Used Standards Telephone +41 2235-36.34
IEEE Inslltwe of Electronic and Electrical E“gl”eers
345 East 471h St., New Yo,k, NY 10017
Telephnne (212) 705.79011
National Bureau of Standards
Institute for Computer Sciences and Technology
Technology Building, Frm, B-253
Gailhersborg. Maryland 2Q8s9
Telephone (301) 921.2731

Standards Organizations’ Addresses Prevalent Standarda

Chapter Three describes the funclions of the organizations responsible for The more widely used communications standards are listed here for your
developing and publishing standards for computer/lermimd communica- convenience. CCITf publishes revisions to its standards every four years.
tions. The major organizations are iis[ed belnw. In its Plenary Assembly (Oclober S-19, 1984), CCITf’ approved new and
revised recommendations for the ensuing four years. These recommended
ANSI American National Standards Institute
1430 Broadway, New York, NY 10018 standards arc now available in the “Red Book” series and can be obtained
Telephnne (212) 354.3300 from CC1’fT, [he United Nations Book Shop, or Omnicom, a reader service
EIA E15coonic Industries Association in Vienna, Virginia.
2001 Eye St., Washington, DC 20006
Telephone (2o2) 457-4966 CCIT7 V-Series Recommendatlon8
FED.STD General SetVices Administration
Specification Distribution Branch Numbsr me
Buil&ng 197, WasMngton Navy Yard, Washington, DC 20407
Telephone (2o2) 472.1082
V,l Equlvalencs between binary notation symbols and the significant condiOons of a
rwmcorrditlnn de
FIPS U.S. Depsdment of Commerce
National Technical Information Service
V,2 Power levels fnr data transmission over telephone bnes
5285 Pod Roysl Road, Springfield, VA 22161 V,3 International Alphabet No. 5
Telephone (703) 487.4650 V,4 General Slructuro of s!gnals of International Alphabet No. 5 code Ior data IranS..
Ccli-r Outside uSA mission over public telephone nelworks
General Secretarial V,5 S{andardizaOon of data signaling rales Ior synchronous dala Uansmission In
International Telecommunications Union lhe general switched Ielephone network
Place de$ Nations, 1121 Geneva 20, SY+itierl.snd V,6 Standardization of dala slgnalling rales for synchronous data transmission on
Telephone +41 22995111 leased telephone.typo circuits
In the uSA v,? Definitions of terms concerning data communications over the telephone n8t-
United States Department of commerce work
National Technical Information Sewice
V,to Electrical characteristics Ior unbalanced doubls.currenl interchange clrculls for
5285 Porl Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161
(X.26) general use wilh Inlegraled clrcuil equipment In data communications
Telephone (703) 487.4650
V.11 Electrical’characlerisllcs for balancsd double. current Interchange circuits for
1s0 Ou!s]de USA
(X,27) gene,al use with Integrated CIICUOequipmen! In data communications
InternaUonal OrganlzaOon for SIandardizalion
V,15 Use of acoustic coupling for data transmission
Central Secretariat
1 rue de Varem be, CH.I211 Geneva, Switzerland V,16 Medical analog data transmission modems
Telephone +41 2234.12.40 V,19 Mod6ms for parallel data transmission using telephone signalllng Frequencies

,. , . . .. .. .. . ... . ..,, . ... .,,,,.. .:..-,... .,..>..... .... ,.;, . . ..

, ~~~
416 Commonly U: \!a”dards Appendix D Appendix D walenl Standards 417
)
..
CCII? X-Series Recommendations
V.20 Parallel data transmission modems for use In the general switched telephone (Several 01 these recommended sfandards are explalned in more detail in AppendIces D and
network E and in several chapfers In the twok.)
V.21 300 bils per second duplex modem for use on general swilched telephone net-
work Number T,fle

V.22 1200 blls per second duplax modem for use on general switched telephone “et-
International user classes of set-vice In public data networks
X.1
work and on leased circuits
x,2 In!ematlonal user services and facifitlos In publlc data networks
V.23 2400 bits per second duplex modem sta”dardhd for use o“ general switched
Ms telephone network and on leased circuits
x.3 Packel assemblyidisassembly Iacllily (PAD) In a public data network

V,23 x,4 General structure of signals of International Alphabet No, 5 (lAS) cede for data
600/1200 .baud modem for use in the general switched telephono “ekwork
transmission over public data nefwmks
V,24 List of definitions for interchange circuits between data terminal equipment
X,15 Definitions of terms COncwrni”gpublic data networks
(DTE] and dala circuit.terminating equipment (DCE)
V,25 X,20 interface bsfween data temdnd equipment (CITE) and data clrcull.lermlnallng
Automatic calling andlor answering equipment on the general switched (ete.
equipment (DCE) for starllstop tran$misslon services on public data nefworks
phone nofwork, including disabling of echo suppressors on inanually estab.
fished calls X.20 Use on publlc data nefworks of data terminal equipment (DTE) which Is designed
bis for Inlwfadng to asynchronous duplex V-series modems
V,26 2400 bits per second modem Ior use o“ foumvlre teased circui(~
X.21 Interface be fween data terminal equipment (DTE) and da!a clrcull-terminating
V,26 240Q/1 200 bits per second modem for use In the general switched telephone
equipment (DCE) for synchronous operation on pubfic data networks
bis network
x.2f Use on public dala !mIworks of data terminal equipment which is dedgned for
V,27 4600 MS per second modem with manual equalizer telephone. type circuits for
Ilk Inlerfacimg to synchronous V-series modems (similar to RS.232-C)
use on leased circuils
x.22 Multiplex DTEIDCE interlace Ior user classes S-S (see X.1 in Appendix E)
V.27 4600/2400 tits per Seconti modem with automatic equalizer for use on leased
Ms telephone.lype circuits ‘ X.?24 List of dofinlt!ens fw Inlerchacge dwults Mween data terminal eqtdpment (DTE)
and data Circuit-tennlnatlng equipment (DCE) on public data networks
V.27 4600/2400 bils per second modem for use in the general swilched telephone
ter network X.25 Interface befween dala terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuil.terminating
equipment (DCE) for Iermlnds operating In the packet mode on public data
V.28 Electrical characteristics for unbalanced double.current interchange circuits ., networks
V,29 9600 tits per second modem for use o“ point-to.point Iour.tvim fessed
X.26 Eleclrlcal Maractedsllcs for unbalanced double. current Interchange chculls for
telephone. type circuits
(v. 10) general use with integrated circuit equipmenl of data communka!ions
V.31 Electrical characterisUcs for single-current interchange circuits controlled by
X.27 Electrical characteristics for balanced double.current Interchange circuits for gen.
contact closure
(VII) eral use with integrated circuit equipment In data communications
V,35 Da!a transmission al 48 ki!otits per second using 6C-180 kHz group band cir-
x.28 DTE/DCE Inteffaco for a slarlhlop mcde data terminal equipment accosslng the
cui(s
packet assemblyldisassembfy facility (PAD) in a pubfic data network situated In
V.36 Modems Ior synchronous data transmission using 60-160 kHz group band cir. the same county
cults
Procedures for the exchange of control information and user data between e
V,37 SYnchrOnOusdata transmission at a data slgnalfing rate higher than 72 kbils packet assemblylfisassembly lacifity (PAD) and a packet mode DTE or ano{her
using 60-180 kHz group band circui!s PAD
V,40 Error Indication with electromechanical equipment X.40 Standardization of frequency-shift and modulated transmlsshm systems for the
V.41 Cod&independent error. controlsystem provision of telegraph and dala ch.a”nels by frequency division of a group
V,50 Standard hmils Ior transmission quatily of data transmission X.50 Parameters of a multipfexlng scheme for the In!emalional Interface between syn.
V.51 Organization 01 maintenance 01 inlernatio”d !el~phww..
type circuits used for chronous data networks
dala !ransmisslon X,50 Parameters of a 48 kblus user dala dgnalfing ra!e transmission scheme for the
V,52 Characteristics of distortion and error.rata measuling apparatus for data trans. bis international interface between synchronous data networks
m[ssion X.51 Parameters of a mulliplwd”g Scheme for lhe international interface between syn-
V,53 Limifs (or {he maintenance of telephone. type circuits used for data transmission chronous da!a networks
V,54 Loop4est devices for modems X,51 Parameters of846 kbifJs user data dgnalfing tale hansmlssion scheme for the
V.55 Specification for impulse noise measuring instrument for !elephorm.type circufls bls international interface be fween synchronous d81a networks udng 10.bll enve-
lope structure
V,56 Comparative tesls of modams Ior use over Ielephone.type circuits
x.53 Numbering of channels on Inlemational multiplex finks al 64 kblws
V,57 Comprehensive dam lest se! for high data signalbng rates ,,

.,, ., ,,, . ... . ,, ,. ~, ~..=, ,.l. . ... . ,.*;

418 Commonly Us )dndards Appendix D Appendix D ~al.nl Slandards 419

x,54 Allocation of channels on {nternalional multiplex links at 64 kbil& “ 1s0 “309 Data communkatlor+Hlgh-level data.link control pmcedures-hame sbuo.
X,60 Common channel signaling lor citcuit.swilched data applications lure

X.61 Signaling system No. 7 1s0 4335 Data communlcarlokHlgh.level data-link control procedures-Elomen!s of
procedures 1979-Addendum 1, 1979-Addendum 11,1981
X.70 Terminal and transit conlrol signaling system for starllstop services on
international circuits ISO 4902 Data communlcaUoti7.pln OTS/DCE Interface connector and pln assign.
ments
X,71 Decenlratized terminal and Iransit control signaling system on International cir.
cults between synchronous data networks 1s0 4903 Oala cohImunlcallor+ 15.pln DTE/OCE In!edaco connector and pln assign.
ments
x.75 Terminal and transit call control procedures and data. transler system on Inler.
national circuits between packel. switched data networks ISO 8159 Dam cummunlcatloWHDLC unbalanced classes of procedures
ISO 6256 Data communlcallon-HOLC balanced class or procedures
X,80 In!eruorking of Interexchange signaling systems for circuil. switched data sem’ices
X.87 Principles and procedures for realization 01 international user Iacililies and net.
work utililles in public data networks European Computer Manufacturers A890clat10n (ECMA)

X,92 Hypothetical reference connections for pubic synchronous dala netwocks Number nu.9
X,96 Call. progress signals in public data nolworks
ECMA-40 HOLC Ftame Structure
X.llo Routing principles 10I international pubic data se fvlces through switched public
data nelworks of the same type ECMA.49 HDLC Elements of Procedure
X,121 International numbering plan for pub~c data networks ECMA-60 HDLC Unbalanced Class of Procedures
X,130 Pmvisionat objectives for call setup and clear.down times In publlc synchronous ECMA-61 HOLC Balanced Class of Procedures
data networks (circuit swibhing) ECMA.71 HOLC Selected Procedures
X.132 Provisional objectives [or grade 0( se fVlce In International data Communlcalions ECMA.?2 Transporl ProIocol
over circui[.switched public data networks ECMA.75 SesslOn Protocol
X,150 DTE and DCE IE.sl loops in public data networks ECMA.80 Local Area Networks, Coaxial Cable Syslem (CSMA.CD Baseband)
X.180 Administrative arrangements for International closed user groups (CUGS) ECMA.81 Local Area Nefworks, Physical Layer (CSMA.CD Saseband)
ECMA.82 Local Aree Networks, Link Layer (CSMA.CD Basoba”d)
Inlernatlonal OrganlzaOon for Standardlzrdlon (ISO)
ECMA.84 Oata Presentation Protocol
(Several other ISO specifications ate referenced In Chapter 13.)
ECMA.135 Virtual File Pro!ocul (File Transfer]
Number Tine
TECHNICAL REPORTS
ISO 646 ?.btt character set Ior information processing interchange —1 973, confirmed TR.13 Network Layer Principles
1979 TFI.14 Local Area Nerwodw, Layers 1 to 4 Architeclule and Pro(ocols
1s0 1155 Information processing—Use cd longitudinal parity to detect errors in infor-
mation messages CCllT Telematlce Ffecommendatlons
1s0 1177 lnformafion processintiharacler struc!um for s!afflstop and synchronous (Chapter Thitieen discusses Telematlcs, TeleWx and TELEX.)
transmission
Number Title
fso 1745 inrormarion processing-Basic mode control procedures for data communi.
cations systems
F.60 Operational provisions for Ihe international TELEX service
1s0 2022 Code extension rechnlques for use with ISO 7.bil coded character set F.61 Measurement of the chargeable duration of an Irdernarionaf TELEX call for
ISO211O Dala communication-25 .pin DTEIDCE inlerface connecror and pin assign- charging and accounting purposes
ments
F.s2 Duplex operation In Ihe TELEX service
1s0 2111 Data communication--Basic modo control procedures-Code independent
F,63 Additional fadlitles In the international TELEX service
information transfer
F.64 Determination of !he number of lnlernaUonaf TELEX circuits required to carry a
ISO 2S93 Connector pin allocations for use wilh high-speed data terminal equipment
given volume of traffic
1s0 2628 Basic mode control procedures-complements
F,65 Time-lo-answer by operators al fnternal{onal TELEX positions
ISO 2629 Basic mode control procedures-conversational information message Iran%
F.66 Regional tariff recummendallons for the Inlernafional TELEX sewice
rOr
FJ37 Charging ~nd accounting [n the international TELEX serdce

,.,. ..: ,,, .. ....... .,:.;.,.,,,: ...”.

420 Commonly Use j“dards Appsndix D Appendix D “ w Refererne of Standards 421
}

rclcrcnccs 0[ lhcsc skwbmk. 1 Ilc nwwrc [Iml swnc dilfcrcnccs do exist

F,68 Establishment ol the automalic Inlerconlinenlal TELEX network
F,69 Plan for TELEX destination codes bctwcmr these slandmls. The specific document should be read (or the
F.70 Obsewaiions on the qualify of service in the international TELEX service
vendor qucricsf) 10 properly judge !he true compatibility of the standards. In
F,71 Interconnection of privale teleprinter networks with the TELEX network man y instances, the differences are minor, but can affect communications
F,72 I“tematicmal TELEX store and Ionvard-general principles and Operal[onal as- significantly.
pects ., 1s0
F.79 lnsfmclions for the international TELEX semke
Series De8criplion Relaled Standards
F.200 TekIex serwice
--.—. ,-
F,20i lnlemefworki”g between Telelex arni TELEX Sewice ISO 646 7-bit characler set for information Drcxnsshw Util I I V.?, ANSI K3,4;
F,300 Mdeotex service Inkrchange FIPs 1-1, 7, 15
1s0 1155 Information processing-Use of IOngltudinal CCITT V,4, X.4 ANSI
T.o Classification of facsimile apparalus for dccument bansmisslon over the public
parity !0 detect ermm h hdorma!lon roes. X3.1 5, X3.16; FEO.
networks
STD 1010, 1011; FIPS
T.2 Standardization of Group 1 lacsimile apparatus for document transmission
16.1, 17-1
T,3 Standardization of Group 2 facsimile apparatus for document transmission
1s0 1177 Information prmessing-Character structure CCIT7 V,4, X.4; ANS[
T,4 Standardization of Group 3 facsimile apparatus for document kansmkslon for sladlslop synchronous transmission X3.15, X3,16 FED-
T,5 General aspects of Group 4 facsimile apparatus STD 1010, 1011; FIPS
T.6 Facsimile coding schemes and coding control Iuncfions for Group 4 facsimile ap. 16.1, 17-1
paratus MO I 745 Information frmcesslng-aesk m6de-wnlrol ANSI X3.28
T,1o Document kcsimlle transmksions on leased telephons.fype circuits procedures for data communkaOons sys-
tems
T.1o Document facsimile transmissions In the gBneral switched telephone network
‘m Iso 2022 Code extensknr lschniquea for use with ISO ANSI X3.4 t; FIPS 35
7-bil ccdsd characler set
T,l 1 Phototekgraphic transmissions on Ielephomr-lypc circuit
ISO211O Dala cmmmunk6flo6-25pin OTEIOCE lnter- EIA RS-232.C
T,12 Range of photoielegraphic transmissions on a lelephons4ype circuit
fao3 c.mmrclor and pin assignments
T,15 Phototelegraphic transmission over combined radio and Metalfk circuits
IS02111 Dala communlcatisaaslc mode-control ANSI X3,26
T.20 Standardized test charl lor facsimile transmissions
pmcsdure~e Independent Information
T,21 Standardized test charfs for document facsimile transmissions transter
T.30 Procedures for document facsimile transmission in lhe general $wilched ISO 2593 C.mnedtor pin affocatlons for use with hlgh- None
telephone nelwork speetf data terminal equipment
T,35 Procedure for [he allocmion of CCHT members’ codes ISO 2628 L3ask mode-control prcceduretiomple. ANSI X3.28
TSO Intemakmal Alphabet No, 5 m6n1s
T,51 Coded charac!er sets for !elematic services ISO 2629 Basic mode.c.mtrol pmcsduretionversa. ANSI x3.2a
T.60 Te,minal equipmenl for use in the .Teletex service tional information message transfer
T,61 Character repertoire and coded character sets for lhe International Teletox ser. 1s0 3309 Data communk6ti-High-level datdink CCITT X.25, X.7$ ECMA
vice control prmedules-Frame structure 40; ANSI X3.68 FED-
STO 1003; FIPS 71
T,62 Conkof procedures lor Tele!ex and Qroup 4 facsimile setices
1s043s5 Data communication--f-ligh-kvel dale.llnk CCITT X.25, X.73 ECMA
T.63 Provisions for verification of Teletex terminal compliance
Control procedures-Elements of proca. 49: ANSI X3,66 FEO-
T.70 Nehvork.independent basic transporf service for the Ielematic services
dures Addendum 1, 1979 STD 1003; FIPS 71
T.71 LAPB extended !or hall. duplex physical fevel facifily
ISO 4902 Data communlcaOon-37 .pln and 9.pln EfA RS-449
T.72 Tem?lnal CaD3bh@S for mixed mode of oDetation OTEKICE Inlerface connscfor and pin as.
slgnmenls
so 4903 Data communicctioel 5-pin DTE/oCE lnler- None
face connector and pln asslgnmants
Cross Reference of Standards
ISO 6159 Oala cummunlcallon-HOLC unbalanced CCITf X.25 ECMA 60,
Many of the slanckmls of [hc orgonizttlions Iis[cd in the previous section arc cla8ses of procedures 71; ANSI X3,66: FED.
duplicates or near-duplicwcs of d~ch other, This scc[ion provides cross STD 1003: FIPS 71
 Commonly Used S }ards Appendix D Appendix D C p!e(e”ceo,s,wldard, 423
422

EcMA .,,
Dala communicatio*HDLC bdaoced class cC17? X.2.5, x.75; ECMA
ISO 6256
01 procedures 61, 71; ANSI X3.6& Series Description Related Standards
FED.STD 1003; FIPS
71 ECMA.40 FiDLC Frame Structure CCllT X.25, X,7Ll ISO 33o9; ANSI
X3.6& FED+TD 10W FIPS 71
EIA ECMA.49 HOLC Efemenk of Procedure CCIT7 X,25, X,75; ISO 4335; ANSI
X3,66; F7D-STD 1002; FIPS 71
Descdplion Relaled Standards ECMA. 60 HDLC Unbalanced Class of CC ITT X.25, ISO 6159: ANSI
Series
Procedures X3,66; FED-STD 1003; FIPS 71
Interface between data terminal equiPment and CCllT V.24, V.28; ISO
RS-232.C ECMA.6t HDLC Balanced Class of Procedures CCl17 X,25, X,7S ISO 6256 ANSI
ckla communications equipment emPloyin9 $e- 2110
X3.66; FED+3TD 10@ FIPS 71
rial binary data In(erchaigi
ECMA.71 HDLC Selected Procedures (HDLC CCITT X.26, X,75
Synchronous Signaling rates for data transmission CCl17 V.5, V.6, X.i ;
RS-269J3 Subsel)”
ANSI X3,1 ; FED-
STD 1013; FIPS ECMA-72 Tmnspofi Pro(ooo( None
22.1
ANSI X3.24 CCITT
RS.334.A Signal quality at interface between data terminal
equipment and synchronous data communica- Series Description Related Standards
tion equipment lor serial data !ransmlssion
RS.363 Standard for 5pecilYing signal qUaIily 10r 1r8flSmit. V.3 Interna!lonal Alphabet No, 5 ISO 646 ANSI X3.4;
ting and receiving data processing terminal FiPS 1-1
equipment using serial data {ransmlsslon at the V.4 SlrucOne of signals 0! lntemaOonal Alphabet No. 5 CCITT X,4; Iso 1155,
interface wi!h nonsynchronOus da[a communlca. code for data transmission over publlc telephone 117% ANSI X3,15,
tion equipment networks X3.1 6 FED-STD
Inmface between data terminal equipment and CCITT V.25 1010, 1011: FIPS
RS.366.A
automatic calhg equipment for data communl. 16-1, 17.1
ca lion V.5 SlandardlzaOon of dala signaling rates for ANSI X3,1 : EIA RS.
Slanda[d for stafvslop signal quality between data None 6ynchr0notts data lr6nsmiss[on in the general 269-B; FED-STD
RS-404
terminal equipment an6 synchronous data conv swilched Ielephone network 101% FIPS 22-1
m.nicalion equipment V.6 Slandardkallon ot data signaling rates for synchr- ANSI X3,1 : EIA RS-
Standard for Ihe electrical characteristics of Class None onousd6(a transmission of leased telephone-type 269.6 FED-STD
RS.41O
A closure interchange circuits Cftcuils 1013; FIPS 22-1
Electrical characteristics of balanced voltage dlgl. CCITTV.11, X.27: V.lo Eleclriaf characleds(lcs fw mba(~ dwL&c~ct CCI?7 X.26: EtA RS.
RS.422.A
FED.STD 1020A interchange drmlls fw generaf use with Integrated
tat in(eriace circuik 423-#v FED+.TD
RS.423.A Elecldcal characteristics of unbalanced vollage CCITT V.lo, x.26 circuit 6quipment In lh6 IIe!d of daka comrmmkalkmm 1030A
tigilal interlace circuits FED.STD I030A VII Electrical characteristics for balanc6d double.current CCITT X.2Z EIA RS.
.!
General. purpose 37.position and 9.position inter- CCITT V,24, VS4, Inlercha”ge chculls Ior general use wllh Integrated 422A FED-STD
FIS-449
face {or data terminal equipment and data X.21 MS circuit equlpmenl In the Iield of data 102OA
circuil.terminating equipment employing serial commtmimllons
binay data in!er;haigi , v.2q 120Q bits per second duplex modem Sta”dardked for FED.STD 1008
use on the general Swilched telephorm network and
on leased circuits
V,24 Llsl of defi”ilions for Interchange drcul!s between EIA RS.232.C, RS.
data terminal equipment and data clrcuil.terrni”ati”g 449, RS.449 ,1, RS.
equipment 266A
V,25 Automatic calfi”g am%r answering equipment on the EIA RS.366.A
general switched telephone network, inchdlng
disabfirhgof echo suppressors on manually
eslabllsh6d catts

- ,, . .- ., ....>...
424 Commonly Us ‘Iandords Appendix D Appendix D loss Referemee olStamia:ds 425
)
1

ANSI .
FED.STD 1005 ,
V.26 2400/1200 blls per second modem standardized for
bis use in lhe genwal switched lelephone network Serb Desoriptlon Related Standards
V,27 4600/2400 bils per second modem with automatic FED-STD 1006
equahzer standardized for use on leased telephone X3. 1 Synchronousslgnatllngrates (or data CCllT V,5, V,6. X, 1: EIA
bis
type circuits RS-269J3; FED-STD
FED-STD 1s06 1013; FIPS 22-1
V,27 4800/2400 ‘Ms per second mcdem standardized for
use In the gonerauzed switched telephone network X3.4 Code for In formation Inlercha”go CCll_7 V,3; ISO 646;
!er
EIA RS-232.C FIPS 1.1, 7, 15
V,28 E\ec\dc?tl chat actwistics for unbalanced
X3.15 Bit sequencing of the American Nallonal SIendard Ccn-f v.4# x.4; 1s0
double-current Interchange circuits
Cede for Information Inlefchange In sedal-bybJl 1$55, 1177; FED-STD
V,29 9600 bils per s%cond modem standardized for use on FED.STO 1007
data hansmksion 1010; FIPS lE. i
point-to.point leased Ielephone.type circuits
‘ ~3.16 Characier sbvctuw ad character parfly sense for CclT-r V.4, x.4; 1s0
V.54 Loop-test devices Ior modems EIA RS-449
serial.by.bit dala communkation in the 1155, 1177; FED-STO
x,1 Interna!)onal user classes of service in public data ANSI X3,1 , X3.36
American Naoonal Sland8rd Code for 1011; FIPS 17-1
neiworks EIA RS.269-6
Information Interchange
FED-ST13 1001,
X3,24 Sgnal qu6flty al Interface befween data te,miml EIA RS.334-A
1013; FIPS 22.1,
equipment and synchmaws data
37
communlcallon equipment forserlal data
X.2 International user services and Iacifitias In public data INT.FED-sTD 001041 Iransmkslcm
networks
X3.25 Characler structure and character perky sense for FED.STO iOl 2 FIPS
x.4 General structure cd signals al International Alphabet Ccn-r V.4; 1s0 1i55, parallel-by-bit 03mmunkation In the American !8-1
No. 5 code for dala transmission over public dala 1177, ANSI X3.15;
National SlamJard Code for Information
networks X3,16; FED+iTD
Inlorchange
1010, 1011; FtPS
X3.26 Procedures for !he use of Communlcafion control ISO 1745,2111,2626,
16-1, 17-1
characlem O( American National Standard Code 2629
X,20 Use on pubtic dam networks of data terminal EIA RS.232.C
lor Inlomnation interchange In specified data
bs equipment (DTE) which is designed for interfacing comrnunicaticm links
10 asynchronous duplex V. Series modems
x3.36 Synchronous high.spa6d data signalllng rates CCITT X,1; FED-STO
X.21 Use on pubfic data networks of data terminal EIA RS.232-C, RS
Wween data Ierminal equipment and data 1001; FIPS 37
bis equipment (DTE) wtich is designed for interfacing 449
communication equipment
[o synchronous duplex V. Series mcdems
X3,41 Code extension Iechnlque$ for use with 7.bi! ISO 2022 FIPs 35
X.25 Interface between dala terminal equipment (DTE) and INT.FED.STD 001041
tied character set of Amerlcm Nalio”rA
data Clrcuik!erminaling equipment (DCE) lor SWIdard cede fOt Informatii Interchange.
terminals operating in the packet mode on publio
x3,44 Delermlnatbm of the performance of dala None
data nehvorks
cummunlcaOon systems
X,26 Electrici3 characteristics for unbalanced double.circuit CCllT V.1O; EIA RS-
x3.57 Structure for formatting headings for Information None
interchange circui!s for general use wilh integrated 423-A, FED-STD
inlerohange using the American National
circuit equipment in (he Iield of data I030A
Standard Code for Information Interchange for
communications
data communication syslem w“trol
X,27 Electrical characteristics for balanced double. currerd CCITTV.11 ; EIA RS-
X3,66 For advanced data communications control CCITT X.25, X,75; ISO
interchange circuits for general use with integrated 422-A, FED.STD
procedures (ADCCP) 3309,4335, 6159,
circuit equipment in the field of data 102OA
communications 6256; ECfJA 40, 49,
60, 61, 71; FED-STG
X,96 Call. progress signals in publlc dam networks INT.FED+.TD 001041
1003; FIPS 71, 78
Determination of performance of data None
communication systems Ihat use bit-oriented
control promduws
Data encryption algorllhm FIPS 46

. .. . ... . . . .,
,.
,.--’

-—
 428 Supp@h9 Standards to X.25/X.; Appendix E
“} ‘“’k’ AppendixE ) commendationX.10 429

TASLE E-f. Recommendation X.2 Ckcult-awltched Data Transmlsslon Service ““

9 481Mbil/S X.25
10 9600 bkk x.25 1. Opllonal User Facilities Asdg”ti for a“ Agreed
11 48000 tiUS X.25 rhlracrual Pe~ad - Category.
12 1200 biw x.25
1.1 D[recl cdl A
20 50-300 MA Terminals in StatVStop mode using X.28 Inletiace
1,2 Closed user group E
21 75-200 biUS Terminals in SladfStop mode using X.28 interface
1.3 Closed user group with oulgolng acsass A
22 200 bitls Terminals In Stad/Stop mode using X.28 Interlace
1.4 C!eacd user group with l!wrmd”g rICCeSS A
30 64 kbius ISDN terminals for reference S lnlerface (as an
lnk.rim measure, X.21 and X.21 L4scan be
1,5 Inmming calls barred wilhln a clos6d user group A
used at reference point R) f,6 Oulgolng CCIISbaned wilhin a closed “ser ~w”p A
i.7 Calling line klentlfiiatlon A
Each carrier in a country or an administration (PIT) may or rrmy no~ 1.S Called line Idenllfkation A
1.9 Bilateral dosed user group A
support all these classes of service.
1.10 Sila(eral dused user group vdth O“IgOIng a~9.s A
1.11 Incx.mlng calls barred A
1.12 Reverse charging acceptance A
Recommendation X.2: international Data
1.13 Connect when bee A
Tranamiasion Services and Optional User Facilities in 1.14 Walling allowed A
Public Data Networks 1.15 Rsdlrsction of calls A
‘Thechapkr on the packet-swilchins recommended standard X.25 (Chapter 1.16 On-line Iadlity parameter A
mgistrationrcancellaticm
Eight) discusses al some length user facilities for X.25 networks. Recom-
1.17 OTE Inatiwe reglstratioti~ncellailo” A
mendation X.2 describes these Facilities and indicates if they arc on csscrrtial
1.18 Dale and time indicall.m A
facility that must be made with the network, an additional facility (which is
1.19 Hunt Emup A
optional), and if they are applicable fora swilched call (VC) orpermancnt
virtual circuit (PVC). The recommendation also stipulates lhe facilities that 2. Optional User Facilities Requested by Ihe DTE
are to be used with a circuit-switched network or a packet-switched on a Per-Call Basis Categofy’
network. Tables E-1 and E-2 summarize [he X.2 facilities for circuit- and
2.1 Direct call A
packet-swi[ched systems.
2,2 Abbreviated address calling A
2,3 Multi-address Celling A
2,4 Re+#ersecharging A
Recommendation X.1O: Categories of Access for Data 2.5 RPOA selection .4
Terminal Equipment (DTE) to Public Data 2.6 Charging information A
Transmission Services Provided by PDNs and/or 2.7 Called fine Identification A
ISDNS through Terminal Adapters
‘E = EssenOal SewIce or Facilily A = Additional Ser.+se or Facility
This recommendation was adapted at the 1984 CCI’IT session in Spain. X.10
defines the rliU’ercnt categories of access for DTEs into ditTerent kinds of
networks. Specifically, [he standard delincs how DTEs in[crfiacc into (a)
circuit-switched networks, (b) packet-swi(chcd nclworks, mrd (c) Ieascd
circuit networks. In addition, the standard defines how terminals inlerfircc
into the ISDN nelwork (described in Chapter Nine).
This recommendation has been used by mmry vendors and orgmliza-
dons in the pas~. However, to clear up any possible misundcrs[anding, the
standards groups published this recommendu(ion to codify what many
..... . .,, ..
 430 Supporting Standards b X.251Y ) Ielworks Appendix E APpendix E ~ aecommendaOon x.1O ,, 431
.,,
TABLE E-2. Recommenda!lon X.2 Packet Switched Data Transm18slon Service TABLE E-2. ConOnued

Categoty” Ca!mow.

8-11.” 20-22- 6.,,6. 20-22”’

1, Optional User Facilities Assigned for an Agreed — — 2. Optional User Fadlilles On a Per.Call
Conbactual Petiod Vc Pvc Vc Pvc Basis Vc Pvc Vc Pvc

1,1 Exlended packet sequence numbering (modula A A 2.1 Closed user group selection E— E
128) 2.2 SWeral closed user group sehc!km A— FS
1,2 Nonstandard default window sizes A A — . 2.3 Reverse chargl”g A— A
1.3 Nonstandard default packet sizes 16, 32, 64, A A FS FS 2,4 RPOA seldo” A— A
256,512, 1024, 2048, 4096 2.5 Flow control parameter negoUaUon E——
1,4 D61aull throughput classes assignment A A FS FS 2,6 Fas( selecl E— FS
1,5 Flow conbol parameter negotiation E FS 2.7 Throughput class negotiation E—-
1,6 Throughput class negotiation E FS —
2,8 Abbreviated address calling FS — A
1.7 Packet retransmission A A 2.9 Charging Information A— A
1,8 Incoming calls barred E A 2.10 Transit delay seleclii and Indlcallon E—-—
1,9 Oulgoing calls barred E A 2.11 Ca!l Mirection notification A— FS —
E — —
1.10 One.way logical channel oufgoing 2.1,2 Callad line address mcdified notllicallon A— FS —
A —
1.11 Ooe.way logical channel incoming 2.i3 Ne4work user Idenllflcation A— A—
E E —
1.12 Closed user group 2.14 Closed user group wbh outgoing A— FS —
1.13 Closed user group with outgoing access A — A access se16cli0n
1.14 Closed user group wllh incoming .3CC?SS A A
— ‘E - Essential Setice or Facllltx FS - For Fwlher Sludfi A = Additional Service or Faciiky;
1.15 Incoming calls barred within a closed user group A A
— = NoI Af@icable
A — A —
1,16 Oulgoing calls barred within a closed user group VC: Virtual Call (Switched)
1,17 Silaleral closed user group A A
PVC: Permanent Vklual circuit
A A —
1.18 Bilateral closed user group wilh outgoing access “User Classes of Service (Recommendation X. 1)
1.19 Reverse charging acceptance A — A
1.20 Fast select acceptance E — FS
‘i II people were already doing. Moreover, the recen[ release of the ISDN
1.21 Mul!ilink proceduro A A
s[wrdards ncccssila[ecl some additions to handle [he digital network inter-
A — A —
1.22 Charging inlormatlon fidcc.
FS A —
1.23 Direct call The following categories of access are provided by X. 10:
1.24 Hunt group A — A
1.25 Oo.iine facility regis bation A — FS StarVSlop Dheci ConnectIon 10 a Cbcull.Switched Data Transm!sslon Service
A A FS —
1.26 O. Lit motitication
Category of Oata Sig”alling
1,27 Local charging prevention A — FS
Access Rale DTE/DCE Irdertace Requlremenls
?.28 Call redirection A — FS
i .29 Network user Identllicalion A A Al 50-200 bitis Recommendations X,20 and X,2O bis
1.30 Exlended frame sequence numbering A A — AZ 3W bilk Recommendations X.20 and X,23 bls
1,31 RPOA $elecWm A — A
432 Supporting Slandards to X.25LY . etworks Appendix E Appendix F ]“ {ecommendallon X.1O .433
?
.
Synchronous Direct Connecllon:0 a Clrcult-SvAtched Data Transmission Seiwlce SlatI/Slop Swl!ihed COnnOCtlOn by Means 01 the PSTN to a ClrcuN-Swllched Data
Transmlsslon Service
Calegory of Data signaling DTE/DCE Intedace
Access Rate Requirements CategO~ of DaIa Signalllng DTE/DCE Interlace
Access Rate Rwqulrements
S1 600 bVS RecummendaOons X.21 and x.21 bis
B2 240il L161S Recommendations X.21 and X.21 bis G1 3041blVs Further Study
B3 4S00 blth Recommendations X.21 and X,21 bis
B4 9600 blVs Recommendations X.21 and X,21 bis Synchronous Switched Connection by Means of the PSTN to a ClrcuN-Switched Data
Transmlnslon Service
05 48000 bills Recommendations X.21 and x,21 bis
Category 01 Data Slgnallfn~ DTE/DCE Interlace
StarVStop Direct ConnectIon to a Packet. SwUched Data Transmlsslon Service Aceass Ra!e Requirements

Category of Data SlgnaNing DTS7DCE Interface 11 6DU bitk Further Study

Access Rate Requirements 12 2400 bitls Further Study

cl 140 bilk Recommendallon X.28 13 48011 bit?s Further Study

C2 200 bills Recommendation X,28 14 960fJ blus Further Study

C3 300 bius Recommendation X.28

Synchronous Swllched ConnectIon by Means of an ISDN D Channel to a
C4 1200 biVs Recommendation X.28
Ckcult-switched Data Tranmnlsslo” Service
C5 75/1 200 bills Recommendation X.2S
Categow of Lkda Slgnallktg DTWDCE !n!erlace
Synchronous tlbect Connection to a P8ckehSwltched Data Tr8namlssian Service Access Rate 13equlmments

Calegory of Data .$ignalling DTE/DCE In!efface J1 600 biW Recommendations X.21, X.21 bis and X,3O
Access Rate Requirements J2 2400 tdVs Recommendations X.21, X.21 bis and X.30
J3 4s00 MA Recommendations X,21, X.21 bis and X,30
D1 2404 bius Recommendation X.25
J4 9600 blus Recommendations X.21, X,21 bls and X,30
D2 4s00 M/s Recommendation X.25
J5 4s000 biVs Recommendations X.21, X.21 bls and X.3O
D3 9600 bilk Recommendation X,25
D4 48000 biVS Recommendation X,25
Start/Stop Connection by Means of a CSPDN to a PackeI-Switched Data Transmlsslon
SewIce
SWVS1OP Direct ConnectIon to a Leased Chcult Data ‘hansmlsslon Setvlce
category of Dala Slgnalling DTE/DCE !OtWfL3Ce
Category of Data S,gnalting DTWDCE lntedac8 Access Rate Requirements
Access Rate Requirements
K1 3W blvs Recommendallon X.26
El 5C-200 bilh Recommendations X.20 and X.20 bis
E2 3W bitA Recommendations X.20 and X.2O bls
SlarVStop Switched ConnectIon by Means of Iho PSTN to a Packet-Switched Data
Transmi8slon Service
Synchronous Okect Connection to a Leased Circuit Data Transmls. NonSeWlce
Ca(egory of Data Slgnalllng DTVDCE Inleriace
Category of Dala Sgnalling DTE/DCE Intetiace Access’ Ra!o Requirements
Access Rate Requirements
,Lt, t 10 blvs Remmmondallon X.2S
FI 600 bitls Recommendations X.21 and X.21 bis L2 2W bitis Recummondatlon X.28
F2 2400 blL/s Recommendations X.21 and X.21 bis ,,
L3 3W biVs Recommendation X.26
F3 4800 blVs Recommendations X.21 and X.21 bls L4 12W M/s Recommendation X.2S
F4 9600 bilk Recommendations X.21 and X.21 bls L5 75/1 200 blVs Rmmmendation X.2S
F5 48000 MIS Recommendations X.2t and X.21 MS
434 S.ppo fling Standards [o X.25, ~itehvorks Appendix E Appendb ~- Recommendatlon X.92 435

Synchronous Switched Connection by Means of a CSPDN to a Packel-Swllched Data Synchronous Dkecl ConnectIon Vla the B Channel to a Packet-Swl!ched Daia
Transmission Service Tran8m18810n SP-,--
,.! . . . .

Category of Data signaling DTE/DCE lnlerfaco Categov of Data Slgnalling DTWOCE Intetface
Access Rate Requirements Aseess Rate Requirements

01 2400 MIA Recommendation X.32 T1 2400 bl!4s Recummendwlons X.25 and X.3!

02 4800 billS Recommendation X.32 T2 4803 bitl$ Recommendations X.2S and X,31

03 9604 bilk Recommondalion X.32 T3 96OO bith RecummendaOons X.25 and X,31

04 4800 bws Recommendation X.32 T4 4rJd03 bitl$ Recommendations X.2S and X.31

Synchronous Switched Connection by Means 01 the PSTN to a Packel-Switched Data Synchronous Dlrecl ConnectIon Vla the D Ch8nnei 10 a Packel-Swllched Data
Transmlsslon Sen4ce Trensmlsslon Sewlce

Categow of Oata .?Jgnalhua DTUOCE Interface Cetegofy of Data signaling DTWDCE Interface
Access Rate Requlr6menls Access Rate Requirements

4800 bws Recommendation X.32 U1 2400 blUs R6commendaOons X.25 and X.31
PI
P2 2400 biUS Recommendation X.32 U2 4803 bilh Rewmmendatlons X.25 and X.31

P3 4800 bitls Recommendation X.32 U3 adm bws Recommendallons X.25 and X.31
9600 biUs Recommendfdion X.32 U4 480S0 blth Recommendations X.25 and X.31
P4
U5 64s00 btU8 Recommendations X.25 and X.31
Synchronous Switched Access by Means of an tSDN S Channel to a Packet-Switched
Data Transmlaslon Sen4ce Synchronous Swllched ConnectIon by Mean@ of an ISDN B Channel to 8
Pc.cket-Switched Data Transmlsslon Service
Categow of Oata Signaling OTuOCE Inleriace
Access Rate Requirements Categow of Data Signaling DTE/DCE Inlefface
Access Rate Requlremenls
Q1 2400 bivs Recommendations X.25 and X.31
4800 biUS ,, Recommendalbns X.25 and X.31 YI 24W bills Recommendations X.25 and X.31
Q2
Recommendations X.25 and X.31 Y2 48Cil bltk Recommendations X.25 and X.31
Q3 9600 bitIS
Y3 9600 blU$ RecommendaOons X.258 nd X.31
04 48bO0 blUs Recommendations X.2S and X.31
Y4 . 4BOO0 blvs Recommendations X.25 and X.31
Synchronous Olrect ConnectIon to a Chcult-Switched Data Transmlsslon Service Y5 640C0 M/s Recommer,datlons X.25 and X.31

Ca(egOW of Data Signaling OTWDCE Interface

Access Rate Requirements
Recommendation X.92: Hypothetical Reference
S1 600 M/s Recommendations X.21,X.21 blsand X.30 Connections for a Public Synchronous Data Network
S2 24OObi!/s Recommendations X.21, X.21 bis and X.30
This recommendation establishes (he specific connections availab[e for
S3 4800 MIS Recommendations X.21, X.2t bisand X.30
DTEs, DSES, and DCES in!o data networks. X.92 is referenced in many of
S4 96oObitk Recommendations X.21, X.2t bisand X.30
the other data network standards, such as X.25 and X.75. Consequently, like
S5 48000 bilfS RecommendaOons X.21,X.21 blsand X.30
lhe other standards in this appendix, it serves as a foundation for higher level
S6 64000 bills Recommendations X.21,X.21 blsand X,30
suurdards. The reference connections are illustrated in Figure E-1. The
legends in the figure explain the various options for connections. The
following links are permitted within the s(andard:

Link A data link between two adjacent data-switching exchanges in

a national network
.. ,, .,,.
436 Supporting S!andards 10 X,25/X,75 F’ ~ ,iks Appendix E Appendix E } ,ommendatlon X.96
.
Link Al data link between two adjacent gateway data-switching

-—__.
exchanges in an international connection
Link ‘B data link between a source DSE and a desti”atio” DSE
Link’ B1 data link between a local DSE and a gateway DSE
Link G1 data link between a source Sateway DSE and a destination
gateway DSE in an international connection

H
G----

Link C data link between scirrce DTE and destination DTE

,2.WO ,“,4 ,*.5C0,..
Link D data link between source DTE and the source local DSE or the
-A, —--- Al —-
data link beiween destination DTE and destinationlocal DSE
mokm’ wok.” Link E data link between communicating processes

4 -@ Recommendation X.96: Call Progress Signals In

lm 01
+ z Public Data Networks
N,,!.”,, l.,.!”,,,m., N,,bwl
This standard establishes the signals that may be used 10 inform DTEs (such
L-,1 ,-,,
as calling DTEs) of the progressof a connectioncall or connection request
_-- .!-. - --*_ -!_ _~t _ -A __ -A _- ________ througha public network. X.96 defines the signals to be returned to the caller
I ‘- -- -- -- - + -$-
to indicate connections that were not made (and why) and to indicate
}--._!+---+--+___?!_____ I
I circumstmrces regarding lhe progress of a call through a network. IL can be

I~-------------- l-------------:------------+
—-——_ :—— —________________ -
I very valuable for a calling DTE 10 know if(a) [here is a problem detected at
the DTE/DCE interface, (b) if a virtual call has been reset or cleared, or (c)
-- —- ——----— —_-- ——__________________________ if a pcrmanenl virtual circuit has been reset. These services can be provided
by the X.96 standard. The call-progress signals wi[hin (his s[andard are:

A Call not cleared. Calling DTE is expected to wait,

,B Call cleared because the procedure is complete.
CIIC2 Call cleared. The calling DTE should call again soon; the next
attempt may be successful. The interval between successive at-
tempts and the maximum number of attempts will depend on a
. L-. r“!.,,!,,, co.-,.”
number of circumstances includ@
(mm ,“,,

“ T&.J :7 Cw,,o” — nature of [he call-progress signal

. 1“,,.1 cm,,.. d
— user’s tratlc pattern
hid,,,,, L,w!h ,,lml ,“,,
— taritTs
u’, A - 0.!. ,,., M.,e” @ .*-,”, d,,, ,+,c.,q ..ch,m ,.. “.,,m,, ~-,
.,.. ., . D,,, w, M@mn ,... ,4X,.! wt.,, d.,, !.l!e,l,w .Kh,w ,.,. — possible regulations by the Administrations, or reset (for packe~-
,.,,, ”,!,.”,, ,O”m,, m
L!”* B -0,,, ,,., M.R” , ~,c, m, . . . . *,,”,,,.” m, swi[ched services only).
,,., a, . ,,!, ,,,, *-., ,k,, .,, ,ti , *!m., ,$6
m, ,, -0,,, ,., &,.”m. , ~,ti *, M,, OS, ,-, d“,,.,, &.,,,,”,,, Ll,c ,.,. D 11D2 Call cleared. The calling DTE should take other action 10 clarify
,n,.r”. !!..,l ,.. -,,..
.“, c -,,,, ,,., L.-. W,- .,, ,ti ,“,,”,,;m 0,6
when the call a[tcmpt might be successful, or rese( (for permanent
,!., 0. c’,!, IK”k !,.-. m+ U,. ~,c, h,, OK ~ ,F. ,“, bwm
k,,,m!?m DT,
W.,re,

.M IW,( C&
.,, d,,,
virtual circuit only). The DTE should cease data transmission and
L!., $. .,!, ,,”, Mm. ,mm.,k.,m .,-
take other action as appropriate.
cllDi Due 10 stlbscriber condition.
Figure E-1. X,92: Hypolhelical Relerence Connections for Synchronous Public
Data Nmwoks C21D2 Due to network condition.

.,. .,. . .-’,.,.,.. ‘ ,~,‘.“ , ““ ;“,.!::.’:J:-.;.,:.”“’?’.

”,’ ~’~
438 Supporting SIand.srds to X,251X.. ,tworks Appendix E Appa.dlx E ~ iecommendati.nr X.2t3
1 ..439

Recommendation X.121: International Numbering Plan Recommendation X.213: Network Service Definition
for Public Data Networka for Open Syetems InterconnectIon for CCITT
Applications
This recommendation has received considerable attention throughout the
This standard is used by several higher level standards in the 0S1 Model. It
world because its intent is to provide a universal addressing scheme,
defines the service provided by the nelwork layer 10 the [ransport layer at
allowing users to communicate with each o[her through mul[iplc networks.
tlic boundary bclwccn the two Iaycrs. The rccommenda[ion of the recenlly
X. 121 esmblishes a standard numbering scheme for nil countries’ nc~works
rclctiscd transporl layer standard (discussed in Chap[er Eight) covers many
and individual users wi[hin those networks.
of the X.213 spccificadons. Consequently, it will not bc discussed in detail
A DTE wi[hin a public data nelwork is addressed by an intcrnaliomd
here, since il was covered in the previous chapter. In summary, the
data network address. The international da[a network address consists of a recommendation defines Ihe network services in terms of the primitive
data network identification code (DNIC) plus a network terminal number actions and events provided be[ween the layers, the parameters associated
(NTN). Another option is to provide the international dam number as the wi{h each action and the interrelationships of the events,
da[a country code (DCC) plus a national number (NN).
The four codes consist of the following identifiers: the DNIC consists
of four digits—the first three digits idcn[ify the coun[ry and can be regarded
as a data coun~ry code (DCC). The fourth digit identifies a specific data
network within a country. The network terminal number can consist of 10
digits or, if in place of the NTN, a national number (NN) is used; 11 digits
are allowed. Figure E-2 shows the configurations allowed under X. 121.

DATA NETWORK IDENTIFICATION CODE (DNIC1

FOUR DIGIT CODE: XXX Y
XXX. WORLD ZONES [Europe,North America,etc.) and
an came m link with Telex andtelephone.Wwmks
,.
Y - Smcifk Network
XXX al,oc,lled a 0,1, Country Code [DCCI

INTERNATIONAL DATA NUMBER

TWO APPROACHES:
ONE P + DNIC + Network TerminalNumber
(1) (4) [10]
Two P + DCC + National Number
(1) (3) (11)

pfll VATE DATA NEmORKS

INTERNATIONAL NUMBERING PLAN
CCITT X.121
p + DNIC + Network Term;naINumber (NTN)
WhereNTN: P!iva,e Nwm,k \d.ntifiiation Code IPNIC) (6)
And E“d TerminalNumber IETNI (41

Figure E-2

,., ,. ....,,, ,.,.,.,.,,,. . ,,..,..... ... .

 )

Index

A hlW, 2S7 rmtenna, 113, 116, 125, 387

A type packets, 214, 215 antenna-oriented channels, 386,
ABM (see asynchronous balanced 387
mode) AP (see application process)
ACCUNET, 297, 301-2 application layer, 76, 77, 373
Acknowledgment (ACK), 33, 44, application process (AP), 2, 3,7,34
45,82,231 Ariane, 303,304
A/D (see analog-to-digital) ARM (see asynchronous response
adaptive JITcren[icd PCM (.ADPCM), mode)
262 Arpanet, 181
adaptive directory, 180 ASC1l, 76, 363, 373, 389, 391
adaptive routing, 186, 187 asymmetric, 194
address field, 89-90, 211, 276 asynchronous, 25, 151, 292, 313
ADPCM (see adaptive di~crential asynchronous balanced mode (ABM),
PCM) 88,89,95, 101, 103,36.5
Aloha, 119-23 asynchronous response mode (ARM),
alternate mark inversion (AM1), 87,89,95
23-25, 258 AT&T (see American Telephone &
American National Standards ln- Telegraph)
stimle (ANSI), 53, 72, 73, 76, attenuation, 253
131, 159-61, 391,414,425 Automatic Electric Company, 170
American Telephone & Telegraph Autonet, 293, 294
(AT&T), 24, 129, 132, 152, 153,
170, 172, 189, 190, 256, 295-99,
301, 309, 336, 346 B channel, 282
AM1 (we alternate mark inversion) B type packets, 214-15
amplilude, 15, 20 BA (balanced asynchronous) ($ee
analog, 15, 20, 252, 253, 299, 332 balanced configuration)
analog-to-digital (A/D), 260-63 balanced, 88, 386
ANSI (see American National balanced configuration (BA), 89,
Stwxlards lnstitutc) 106
,.,,. ., .... . ,.,
 Index
442
1 Index \ 443
.,
bandwidth, 16, 17, 19, 114, 384 133, 138-43, 165, 324-27 unnumbered, 97-98 D bi[, 213-17, 342
baseband, 20, 133, 139 carrier signal, I 33 X.28, 224 D channel, 273, 276, 282
baud, 15, 16, 24 CBX (see computerized brmrcb ex- X.75, 238 D/A (see digital-to-analog)
bearer services, 268, 269 change) common channel interolTice signal- data circui~-terminating equipment
Bell Canada, 30S CC (see cluster corrtrollcr) ing (CCIS), 189, [90 (DCE), 4, 5, 11, 16, 25, 27, 54,
Bell Labs, 171, 252, 287, 288, 299 CCIS (Jee common ch~nncl inter- crrmmunicalions, 29, 41, 65, 69, 70, 193
Bell Opem{ing Companies (BOC), office signaling) 275, 371 data communications, 15,332,379-
24, 129, 282, 301, 310 CCITf (~ce Inicrna[iomd Tclc- bctwccn Iuycrs, 23848 92
binary, 19,20,23,253,287-88, 393, gropb & Tclcphonc ConsulMtivc charmci, 383, 384 data encryption s[andard, 354-57
395 Commiltce) circui[, 379-85 daks link, 89, 273
binary synchronous con[rol (BSC) central oflcc, 1I, 12 local area ne(works, 313-15 dala link control (DLC), 41, 327
(bisync), 78-81, 83-85, 91, I II, channel. 7, 14, 15, 17, 19, 38, 41, network, 2-6 data link layer, 75, 77, 101, 139,
117, 127, 220, 248, 293 57, 58, 80, 117, 118, 258, 260, PADIDTE, 227 153, 194-97, 237+8, 340
bipolar code, 23, 24, 257 272,295, 383-84, 399 pOti, 27 data service unit (DSU), 28, 260
bisync (see binary synchronous channel service unit (CSU), 260 signal, 380 data switching equipment (DSE), 6,
control) characler-crrie n[cd, 78, 79 systems, 2, 34, 75 11,28,37
bit oriented, 86, 106 checkpoint, 9S, 10I, 104, 369 comparrding, 254, 256 data terminal equipment (DTE), 3,
bit ra[e, 14, 25, 78 circuit(s), 4-6, 383, 384, 397-99 computerized branch exchange 5, 8, 11, 25, 27, 28, 35, 59, 132,
bits per second (bit/s, bps, bs), 14 circuit switched digital capability (CBX), 332,342, 343 193, 216, 260, 270
bi[ smffing, 93 (CSDC), 298 Comsat, 117 datagram, 40, 187, 201,296
bit transparent, 273 circuit swi[ching, 166, 167, 177, concen[ralors, 155, 157, 160 Datapac, 293, 307, 342
block, 26, 80, 334 189-99, 278, 366, 429 conductor, 19, 380 DCE (see data circuit-terminating
BOC ($ee Bell Operating Compa- clock(ing), 21-23, 122, 157, 266, conneciionless, 38, 39, 41, 135, equipment)
nies) 323, 340 137, 201, 227, 286 DDS (see Dataphone digi[rd ser-
bps (see bits pcr second) closed user group (CUG), 218, 291 connection-oriented, 38, 39, 40, vice)
British Telccom, 304, 305 clus[cr controller (CC), 30, 45, 83, 135,200,227 decapsulation, 139
broadband, 133, 139,345 84, 318 corr[en[ion, 143, 152 decryption, 352
broaclcast,10,114, 121, 130, 158 CO (me ccrr[ml 00ice) continuous ARQ, 4f?-51, 54, 86, 94, decypher, 357
bs (fee bits per second) coaxial cable, 19, 24, 83, 129, 153, 117, i18, 119, 139, 323 delay, 117
BSC ($ee binary synchronous con- 160, 339, 385, 386 continuously variable slope delta delta modulation (DM), 261
trol) coaxial multiplexer, 318 mmfula[ion (CVSD), 262, 305 DES (see data encryption standard)
BT (fee ,Bri[ish Telecom) code, 23-26, 78, 161, 162, 383, C/R (see commands and responses) diagnostics, 171, 206, 207
burst(y), 178,285,301,385 388-92 CRC (see cyclic redundancy check) dial-up, 8, 167, 178, 300
bus, 10, 138,150 collision, 56-61, 121, 140, 143 crossbar, 170-71 ditTerential pulse code modulation
byte-oriented, 78, 82, 84 combined station, 87, 88 CSDC (see circuil-switched digital (DPCM), 261,262
commands and responses, 276, 278 capability) digital, 19, 20, 171, 172, 256, 332
high-level data link conlrol, CSMA/CD (see carrier sense multi- digital-to-analog (D/A), 256
cabling, 155, 156,335,342 94-98, 105 plt access wi(h collision detection) digi[al multiplexed interface (DMI),
Canadian Na!ional/Canadian Pa- LA PBIX.25, }97 CSU (Jet chwmcl service uni[) 346, 347, 348
cific (CNCP), 307 LA PD. 277 CUG (SCC closed user group) digi[a[ ne(works, 111, 252-88
carrier, 20, 84, 178, 295 LCC, 138 CVSD (see continuously variable digital signals, 19-21, 299
.: carrier sense, 56, 57, 58, 61, 142 supervisory format, 95-97 slope delta modulation) digital switching, 283-85, 335, 346
carrier sense multiple access wilh synchronous data link control, cyclic rcdunrfmrcy check (CRC), directory routing, 181
collision dc(ection (CSMA/CD), 109 27, 34, 91, 316, 322 distribu[cd routing, 180
 .,.
Index
444
1 Index ) 445
.,
.,
13LC (tee data link control) Ethernet, 139, 143, 153, 164, 325, four-wire,6, 171 histories
DM (see del[a modulation) 326, 339, 346 frame, 26, 27, 86, 89, 95, 98, 99, digi[al networks, 252
DMI (see digital multiplexed inter- European Computer Manufactur- 125, 127, 197, 250, 276 electromechanical systems,
face) ers Association (ECMA), 73, frame check sequence (FCS), 27, 169-70
DNHR ($ee dynamic nonhierarchi- 131, 228, 232, 415, 419, 423 91 personal computer, 31 1–12
cal routing) European Telecommunications Sat- frequency, [5,17, 19,20,114,115, satellites, 116-17
DPCM ($ee diiTeren[ial pulse code ellite Organization (EUTELSAT), 313, 384, 387 TelexrTWX, 362
modulation) 124, 303 frequency division multiplexing host, 83, 84
DS13 ($ce data switching equip- (FDM), 117, 133 HZ (see Hertz)
ment) frequetscyspectrum, 17, 18, 115
Fbit,95, 103 frequency shift keying (FSK), 313
DSU (see data service unit)
facilities, 194,216-19 front-end processor,, 28, 83 IBM (see International Business
DTE (we data terminal equipment)
fast selec[, 198,202,203 full-duplex, 5, 6,48, 49,86, 88, 95, Machines)
dynamic directory, 180
fast select wi(h immediate clew, [00, 102, 104, 108, 109, 117, 118, idle, 89, 92
dynamic nonhierarchical rou~ing
198, 202 273, 313, 323, 345 IDN (~ee integrated digital net-
(DNHR), 13, 186
FCC (fee Fcdeml Communicrdions work)
Commission) IEEE (see Ins~i[uteof Electrical &
earth stations, 116, 117, 125, 303, FCS (see frame check sequence) gateway, 232, 233 Electronic Engineers)
304 FDDI (see F]bcr Distributed Dala geosynchronous, llb inclusive acknowledgment, 51, 93,
EBCDIC, 389-9 i In[erface) Go-Back-N, 51,103, 104,119 100
echo, 295, 315 FDM(Mw frequency division mcd- group polling, 46 information field, 92,93, 98
echoplex, 315 Liplcxing) GTE Sprint, 296, 302 information format, 89, 92
ECMA (see European Computer FEC (see forwwd error correction) initialization state (1S), 87
Manufacmrers Association) Federal Commurrica(ions Commis- Institute of Electrical and Elec-
half-duplex, 5,6,47,79,81,85,86,
Electronic Industries Association sion (FCC), 309 tronic Engineers (IEEE), 73, 415
88, 100, 101, 117, 127, 128, 367
(EIA), 73,414, 422 Computer Inquiry 11, 309 802 standard, 111, 131-33, 137,
HDLC (see high-level data link
electronic mail, 35, 291, 293, 294, Compu[cr Inquiry 111, 309-10 151-52, 202, 336
con[rol)
370-73 Fiber Distributed Datia lntcrfwe 802.1 standard, 133
header, 70, 71, 80 802.2 standard, 133, 153, 163,
electronic swi~chcd network (ESN), (FDDI), 159-63
hertz (Hz), 15, 16, 17 164
344 tixed directory, 180
flag(s), 89, 93 hierarchical topology, 8, 10,46,467 802.3 standard, 56, 133, 139,
electronic switching, 173
encapsulation, 139 flow control, 187, 188, 193, 203, high-level data link control (HDLC), 140, 141, 143, 163, 164,325,
encryption, 115, 352, 3S9 216, 229, 232, 237 46,52,86107, 195-97,213,273, 326
cn[ity, 66 formulas 276, 278, 316, 340, 342, 348, 366, 802.4 standard, 133, 149-51, 163
error(s), 7, 52, 91, 139, 189, 256, CRC calculation, 34 367 802.5 standard, 62, 133, 134,
286, 295, 315, 385 Cyphcrtext, 358 code [mnsparency and syn- 144, 146, 148, 149> 153-54,
error check, 26, 27, 33, 34, 39, 316, clclay, 144 chronization, 91-92 157, 158, 162, 342, 346
322 FCS, 91 commands and responses, 94- 802.6 standard, 133
error detection, 229 satellite poll/selcc[, 117, 118 100 integrated digital network (IDN),
error handling, 295, 315, 316 satellite voice transmission, control fiehl,92-95 282
error rate(s), 132 {25, 126 frame format, 89-91 integrated services digital network
error recovery, 100, 103-4,208,369 Shannon’s, 385 options, 86-98 (ISDN), 264, 26673, 281-84,
ESN (see electronic switched net- qumr[izing, 254 subsets, 105-7 287, 297, 348
work) fOrWiWd-c!Tor correction (FEC), 295 transmission process, 100-5 channel, 272-73

,, ,:,,,. :;;..:..:: :,:; ’;J.:,,:

........ . .. . :
 I
446
Index
) Index
\
447
in[crfaccs, 267-72 LCDM (we krgwi[hmic cornpdcd .,
LPC (see linear predictive coding) Nelbios (fee Nclwork Basic Input/
sta[es, 279-80 delh modulation)
LU (see logical unio OWput System)
lNTELSAT($cc International Telc. LCN (see logical chmrncl number)
communications Sa[elli[c Orga- leased lines, 6, 293 network, 1, 35, 38-39, 65, 179,
nization) line(s) 32, 41, 80, 293, 383, 392 M bit, 213, 215 232-38, 269, 273, 344, 350-57
interexchange carrier channels, line control, 81 MAC (see medium access control) components, 21-26, 2s_30
295-96 linear, 19, 253 Munchcslcr code, 24, 26, 141, 161 laYer, 75, 77, 194, 236, 34o
inlerfttce,”4, 20, 21, 24, 27, 65, 152, linear coding, 256 Mmrufacturing Au[onm[cd Proto- routing, 179
196, 266, 292, 396-413 linear predictive coding (LpC), col (MAP), 163, 164 topologies, 6-1 I
International Business Machines 262, 286 public, 290-95
MCI, 295s 296.336
(IBM), 83, 84, 107, 108, 153-59, medium access control (MAC), network addressable unit (NAU),
link(s), 32,41, 80, 86,319, 383, 392
326, 327, 336, 339, 357, 389 181
LLC (see logical link control) 134, 141.153
International Record Carriers message switch, 172_75
Network Basic Inpul/Output Sys-
local area data transport (LADT),
(IRC), 293,363 298-301 MHS (see message handling sys- tem (Netbios), 154, 328, 329
International Standards Orgmriza- tems) net work control program (NCP),
local area network (LAN), 24, 35,
Iion (1S0), 64, 72, 76, 86, 131, 181
38, 40, 62, 131-65, 313-15, 323- mkrOWW, 113, 127, 129, 295
136, 164, 232, 268, 330, 373, 407, 28, 332, 345-46 MLP (see muitilink procedure) network virtual terminal (NVT),
414, 418-19, 421, 422 291
American National Stanclards mode(s), 87, 88
securily recommendations, 359 nodes, IO-II, 65, 72, 142, 151, 162,
Instihslc, 159 mode selting commands, 93
International Telecommunications modem, 20, 28, 84, 125, 313, 314 J79, 186, 345
AT&T lSN, 152
Committee (ITU), 72, 73, 74 attributes, 132 modulation, 20 nOiSe, ]9, 157, 253
In[crna(ional Telecommunications nonblocking, 336, 345
CSMAiCD, 139-43, 324 modtdo, 128, 216, 276
Sa[elli[e Organization (INTEL- mu law, 257 nonpolling, 52, 53, 54, 119, 124
802 standards, 134, 135
SAT), 117 multidrop, 4 non-return 10 zero (NRZ), 23-25
IBM, 153
International Telegraph & Tele- mullilink procedure (MLP), 237, 238 normal response mode (NRM), 87,
IEEE standards, 133-34
phone Consultative Committee Manufactured Automated Pro- multiplexer(ing) (MUX), 28,30, 84, 89, 95
(CCIIT), 72, 76, 193, 216, 232, tOCO] (MAP), 163 NRM ($CC normal response mode)
176, 229,269,276
262, 268, 282, 283, 297, 301, 302, protocol data unils, 137, 138 mul[i~int, 79,82,86,88, Ifll, 109,2% NRZ (see non-return to zero)
342, 362, 364, 365, 368, 372, 400, Technical & Ollice Pmcluc[s MUX (see multiplexer) NVT (~ce network virtual terminal)
414-20, 423, 424, 439 System (TOP), 163 Nyquist sampling theory, 254
in[ernetwork(ing), 232, 235 token bus, 149
lRC (jee International Record Car- token ring, 144 NAK (see negative acknowledg-
riers) men[) Open Systems Interconnection
10Cd ]OOfI, 11, 298
ISACOMM, 295 logarithmic companded delta mod- narrowcastj 121 (OSI), 64, 65, 73.273.439
ISDN (see integrated services digi- ulation (LCDM), 264 National Bureau of S[andards mOdel, 74, 75; 134: 227, 323,
tal network) logical, 3 (NBS), 74 350, 373
1S0 (see International Standards logical channel, 185, 212, 247, 335 Na[iomd Comnrunica(ions Syslem optic fiber, 24, 127, 129, 152, 157,
,, 159. 2S7. 387
Organization) logical chmrncl number (LCN), (NCS), 73, 74
,,’;
ITU ($ee International Telecom- 194, 198-99, 209-10 NBS (fee National Bureau of S[an- 0S1 (;ee Open Sys!ems Intercon-
munications Committee) logical channel states, 88, 207, 208 dards) nection)
logical link control (LLC), 52, 86, NCS (~ce National Communica-
106-7, 133, 137-38, 149-50, 158, tions Syslem)
layer(s), 66, 74, 140, 274, 238..48 Pbit, 95, 101, 103
,159, 163 neg;tive ,ackn~wledgmcnt (NAK),
layered protocols, 64-72, 74, 139 k),giCd Unit (LIJ), [82, 194 PABX (fee private automated
33, 44,231 ~
branch exchange)
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 .
450 Index Index 451
) “ )“ .,.

SREJ (w? Selective Reject) tcm (TOP), 163, 164 lrmrsit routing [able, 183, 184 voice chmrnel.s, 17, 2S8, 295, 302 “
SSCP (Jee system services control Telecom Cmmda, 306 Irimsmission, 15, 17, 25, 85, 113, voice communications, 15, 333-35
poinl) TELEGLOBE Canada, 308 143, 256-57, 285, 386, 387 voice/data, 336, 337, 340, 341, 348
stacking station, 147 Telematics, 360, 419 transmission errors, 91, 102
star topology, 10,324 Telenet, 193, 290-92, 342 transmission groups, 183
startlslop, 25, 26, 323, 427, 431, lelephone, 6, 84, 253, 332 TRANSPAC, 249, 301, 342 Wait Before Transmit—Positive
432, 433 telephone channel, 15 trnnstrondcr. 114. 115. 125 Acknowledgment (WACK), 82
sta[e diagrams, 408 tclcphonc network, 11-14 Irmrsporl layer, 75,76:77,227.231, WAN (see wide area nelwork)
state variables, 49 lclcphone switching, 166-69 233, 238 WATS, 171, 294, 336, 344
s~opand wait, 5,47,48,51,81, 118, teicporl, 129 TS1 (~cc lime slot intcrtace facility) waveforms, 15, 253, 260, 261, 262
159 Telesat Canada, 309 TTD (see Temporary Text Delay) Western Electric, 169
store-and-forward. 173 Teletex, 360,362,363-66,369,370- TWA (see Iwo-way alternate) Western Union, 296, 302, 304, 363
stored program coktrol(SPC), 167, 71,373,419 Iwis[cd pair, 153, 157, 160,334,385 wide area network (WAN), 35, 36,
169, 171-73 TELEXiTWX, 294, 296, 303, 326, twisted pair cable, 385, 386 38, 40, 51, 132, 134, 139
S[rowger system, 169 362, 363, 370, 371, 372, 419 two-way allernale (TWA), 47 window, 49, 50, 58, 86, 94, 119,

Temporary Text Delay (lTD), 82 two-way simultaneous(TWS), 48, 151, 159, 216, 327
subnelwork access function, 232
subnetwork dependent conver- 3270 family, 83, 84, 128, 153, 316, 95 wiring, 155, 339

gence function (SNDCF), 232 320, 327, 342 fwo-ivire, 6, 169, 346 wiring closets, I 55
subnetwork independence conver- time compression multiplexing TWS (jet two-way simultaneous)
gence function [SNICF), 232, (TCM), 299 TYMNET, 185, 193,292,293,327
X series, 417, 418, 427-29
234 time division mul~iplc access
X.1, 236
swi[ch(ing),6, 10, II, 13,14,32,88, (TDMA), 53,55,56, 117, 124-27,
unbalanced, 88, 89, 106, 386, 399 X.2, 216
115, 166, 171,283,334-35,383 152, 264, 266
unipolar code, 23 X.3, 179,219-24,248,340,342
symmetrical configuration, 89, 106 time division multiplexing (TDM),
up link, 113, 121 X.21, 268, 366,407,408
sync by[es, 26 55, 56, 61, 117, 127, 133, 176,
user data, 6, 26,27, 35, 79,91, 208, X.25, 84, 98, 111, 179, 193-
synchronization, 21, 22,25,26 177, 254, 263, 285
23 I 250, 285, 291, 300,302, 327,
synchronous, 151,432-35 TDM channels, 258, 305
340, 342, 366, 417, 418, 427
synchronous dala link conlrol TDM fmmc, 259
facilities, 216-19
(SDLC) 46,52,84, 107, 108, 109, time division switching, 284
V series interfaces, 20, 75, 236, features, 193, 198-208
220, 293, 316 [ime slot intcrP~cc Facility (TSI), 249, 269, 359, 401-[3, 415-16, forma[s, 208-16
sys[em network architecture (SNA), 284, 285 423-26 options, 208, 209
181-84 TME (see tralTc multiplication ef-
value added, 173 X,28, 2!9, 220, 221, 236, 248,
sys[em services control point fccl)
value-added CdrrierS (VAC), 178 340, 342
(SSCP), 181, 182 token, 59, 62, 162, 324
VC (see virtual circuil) X.29, 215, 219, 220, 225, 248,
token bus, 60, 61, 138, 149-51
Videotext, 299, 359, 361 340, 342
lokcn ring, 59, 60, 138, 148, 346
TI carrier, 15, 16, 153, 257, 258
virtual chmrncl, 335 X.75, 98, 234-38, 273, 301,
TOP (Jee Technical & Office Prod- vir[wd circuit (VC), 198, 199, 204
TCM (.ree time compression multi. 366, 427
ucts Sys[em)
virtual routes (VR), 182 X.92, 236, 237
plexing) ~opologies, 6, 8-I 1, 45, 57, 138, vocodcrs, 262 X.121, 301
TDM($ee [ime division multiplex- 139, 156, 160 ‘“
voice, 15, 16. 113. 159. 175. 189. X. i80, 236
ing) traoic, 6, 32, 82, 125, 157, 172-74, 2r55, 266, 2a5, 286,287, 335, 336: X.400, 372, 373
TDMA (see time division mulliple 178, {89
337, 342, 357 Xon/XolT, 53, 54, 248
access) [raOic multiplication CITCCI(TME),
Technical & Otlicc Products Sys- 180, 181