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iU610
Coarse Dispersions
Suspensions Preservation of Emulsions
Interfacial Properties of Suspended Particles Rheologic Properties of Emulsions
Settling in Suspensions Microemulsions
Formulation of Suspensions Semisolids
Emulsions Drug Kinetics in Coarse Disperse Systems
Theories of Emulsification Drug Diffusion in Coarse Disperse Systems
Physical Stability of Emulsions
Particulate systems have been classified previously syrups, which normally contain 125 to 500 mg per 5 mL
(Table 15-1, P. 394) on the basis of size into molecular of solid material. When formulated for use as pediatric
dispersions (Chapter 5), colloidal systems (Chapter 15), drops, the concentration of suspended material is
and coarse dispersions (this chapter). The present correspondingly greater. Antacid and radioopaque sus-
discussion attempts to provide the pharmacist with an pensions generally contain high concentrations of dis-
insight into the role of physics and chemistry in the persed solids. Externally applied suspensions for topi-
research and development of the several classes of cal use are legion and are designed for derrnatologic,
coarse dispersions. The theory and technology of these cosmetic, and protective purposes. The concentration of
important pharmaceutical classes are based on interfa- dispersed phase may exceed 20%. Parenteral suspen-
cial and colloidal principles, micromeritics and rheol- sions contain from 0.5 to 30% of solid particles
ogy. These topics have been introduced in the four Viscosity and particle size are significant factors since
previous chapters. they affect the ease of injection and the availability of
the drug in depot therapy.
An acceptable suspension possesses certain desirable
qualities, including the following. The suspended mate-
SUSPENSIONS rial should not settle rapidly; the particles that do settle
A pharmaceutical suspension is a coarse dispersion in to the bottom of the container must not form a hard
which insoluble solid particles are dispersed in a liquid cake but should be readily redispersed into a uniform
medium. The particles have diameters for the most part mixture when the container is shaken; and the suspen-
greater than 0.1 p.m, and some of the particles are sion must not be too viscous to pour freely from the
observed under the microscope to exhibit Brownian orifice of the bottle or to flow through a syringe needle.
movement if the dispersion has a low viscosity. In the case of an external lotion, the product must be
Suspensions contribute to pharmacy and medicine by fluid enough to spread easily over the affected area and
supplying insoluble and often distasteful substances ins yet must not be so mobile that it runs off the surface to
form that is pleasant to the taste, by providing a which it is applied; the lotion must dry quickly and
suitable form for the application of dermatologic mate- provide an elastic protective film that will not rub off
rials to the skin and sometimes to the mucous mem- easily; and it must have an acceptable color and odor.
branes, and for the parenteral administration of insol- It is important that the characteristics of the dis-
uble drugs. Therefore, pharmaceutical suspensions may persed phase are chosen with care so as to produce a
be classified into three groups: orally administered suspension having optimum physical, chemical, and
mixtures, externally applied lotions, and injectable pharmacologic properties. Particle size distribution,
preparations. specific surface area, inhibition of crystal growth, and
Examples of oral sus pensions are the oral antibiotic changes in polyrnorohic form are of special significance.
479 Ph ys.r.s! Phnrnacs
and the formulator must ensure that these and other The initial free energy is
properties' -3 do not change sufficiently during storage C, = 100 )( it" 10' erg/cm'
to adversely affect the performance of the suspension. When the surface area is 10' cm',
Finally, it is desirable that the product contain readily C? 100 s 10 10' erg/cm'
obtainable ingredients that can be incorporated into the The change is the free energy. G 2,. is IC" - 10' a 10' erg/cm'. The
mixture with relative ease by the use of standard free elrgy has been increased b y 1C, which makes Ihe systems more
methods and equipment. thermodynamically unstable.
The remainder of this section will be devoted to a
discussion of some of the properties that provide the In order to approach a stable state, the system tends
desirable characteristics just enumerated. to reduce the surface free energy; equilibrium is
For pharmaceutical purposes, physical stability of reached when AG = 0. This condition ma y be accom-
suspensions may be defined as the condition in which plished, as seen from equation (18-1), by a reduction of
the particles do not aggregate and in which they remain interfacial tension, or it may be approached by .
uniforativ distributed throughout the dispersion. Since decrease of the interfacial area. The hitter oossibih...
this ideal situation is seldom realized, it is appropriate leading to flocculation or aggregation. may be desirable
to add the statement that if the particles do settle, they or undesirable in a pharmaceutical suspension., as
should be easily resuspended by a moderate amount of considered in a later section
agitation. The interfacial tension can be reduced b y the addition
of a surfactant but cannot ordinaril y be made equal to
zero. A suspension of insoluble particles, then, usually
possesses a finite positive interfacial tension, and the
INTERFACIAL PROPERTIES OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES particles tend to flocculate. An anal ysis paralleling this
Little is known about energy conditions at the one could also be made in the breaking of an emulsion.
surfaces of solids; yet a knowledge of the thermod y The forces at the surface of a particie affect the
-namicrequtsdforheucsltabi- degree of flocculation and agglomeration in a susper-
lization of suspended particles. slorL Forces of attraction are of the London-van der
Work must be done to reduce a solid to small particles Waais type; the repulsive forces arise from the interac-
and disperse them in a continuous medium. The large tion of the electric double layers surrounding each
surface area of the particles that results from the particle. The formation of the electric duubie layer has
comminution is associated with a surface free energy been considered in detail in Chapter 14, which dealt
that makes the system therm dinamic&iv vnsfabte. with interfacial phenomena. The student is advised to
by which we mean that the particles are highly review, at this point, the section dealing with the
energetic and tend to regroup in such a way as to electrical properties of interfaces (pp. 386-388)
decrease the total area and reduce the surface free since particle charge, electrical double layer formation.
energy. The particles in a liquid suspension therefore and zeta potential are all relevant to the present topic.
Lend to flocculate, that is. to form light, fluffy conglom- The potential energy of two particles is plotted in
erates that are held together by weak van der Waals Figure IS-) as a function of the distance of separation.
forces. Under certain conditions—in a compacted cake, Shown are the curves depicting the energy of attrac-
for example—the particles may adhere by stronger tion. the energ y of repulsion, and toe net energy. which
forces to form what ars termed ciggreçiaLcs, Caking has a peak and two minima. Wc,, the repulsion energy
often occurs b y the growth and fusing together of is rug-h. the potential harrier is alec hi gn. and collision f
crstals in the precipitates to produce a solid aggre- the particles is opposed. The system remains defloccu-
gate. isted, and when sedimentation is complete, the parti-
The formation of an y type of agglomerate, either cles form a close-packed arrangement with the smaller
floccules or aggregates, is tasen as a measure of the particles filling the voids between the larger ones.
system's tendency to reach a more thermodynamically Those particles lowest in the sediment are graduain.'
stable state. An increase in the work W or surface free pressed together by the weight of the ones above; the
energy .G brought about by dividing the solid into energy barrier is thus overcome, allowing the particles
smaller particles and conseq uently increasing the total to come into close contact with each other. in order to
surface area £4 is given by resusoend and redis perse these particles, it is again
necessary to overcome the high energy barrier. Since
AG = - £4 (IS-I' this is not easily achieved by agitation, the particles
in which _YSL is the interfacial tension between the liquid tend to remain strongiy attracted to each other and
medium and the solid parucies. form a hard cake. When the particies are flocculated,
£7lc 78— 1. Compute the change in the rurface tree energy of the energy barrier is still too large to be surmounted.
solid in a suspension if the wiai surface in increased from )0 czn ie and so the approaching particle resides in the second
10' c2. Assume that the interfacial tension between the solid and the energy minimum, which is at a distance of separation of
liquid medium is — 100 dvne,cn. oernaps 1000 to 2000 A. This distance is sufficient to
chapter 18 • Coarse Disperiisn., 179
- po)g
ZY = ( 18-2)
181)0
in which v is the terminal velocity to cmLoc, d is the
diameter of the particle in cm. p, and p 0 are the
densities of the dispersed ''nase and dispersion me-
dium, respectively, g is the acceleration due to gravity,
and T1. is the viscosity of he dis persion medium to
poise.
Dilute pharmaceutical suspensions containing less
than about 2 g of solids per 100 mL of liquid conform
roughly to these conditions. (Some workers feel that
the concentration must be less than 0.5 gilOO mL before
Stokes' equation is valid.) In dilute suspensions. the
particles do not interfere with one another during
sedimentation, and free settling occurs. In most phar-
maceutical suspensions that contain dispersed particles
(—)
/ -=•= in concentrations of 5, 10%, or higher percentages,
the particles exhibit hindered settling. The particles
interfere with one another as they fall, and Stokes' law
no longer applies.
Under these circumstances, some estimation of phys-
'tO* ical stability may be obtained by diluting the suspension
so that it contains about 0.5 to 2.0% w/v of dispersed
phase. This is not always recommended, however,
Fig. 18—I. Potential energy curves for particle interactions in because the stability picture obtained is not necessarily
suspension (from A. Martin, J. Pharm. Sci., 50.514, 1961, reproduced that of the original suspension. The addition of a diluent
with permission of the copyright owner.)
may affect the degree of flocculation (or deflocculation)
of the sy stem, thereby effectively changing the particle
size distribution.
form the loosely structural flocs. These concepts evolve To account for the nonuniformity in particle shape
from the DLVO theory for the stability of lyophobic sols and size invariably encountered in real systems. Stokes'
( p. 408). Schneider et al. prepared a computer program equation may be written in other forms. One of there
to calculate the repulsion and attraction energies in proposed modifications is as follows ,. 5
pharmaceutical suspensions. They showed the methods
= ye5 (18-3)
of handling the DLVO equations, and the careful 1J'
consideration that must be given to the many physical where v' is the rate of fall at the interface in cm/sec and
units involved. Detailed examples of calculations were ii is the velocity of sedimentation according to Stokes'
given. law. The term € represents the initial porosity of the
To summarize, flocculated particles are weakly system, that is, the initial volume fraction of the
bonded, settle rapidly, do not form a cake, and are uniformly mixed suspension, which varies from zero to
easily resuspended; deflocculated particles settle slowly unity. The exponent it is a measure of the "hinde ri ng" of
and eventually form a sediment in which aggregation the system. It is a constant for each system.
occurs with the resultant formation of a hard cake that
Example 18-2. The average particle diameter of calcium carbonate
is difficult to resuspend. in aqueous suspension is 54 'am. The densities of CaCO 3 and water,
respectively, are 2.7 and 0.997 gicxn3 . The viscosity of water ta 0.009
poise at 25 C. Compute the rate of fall v' for CaCO3 samples at two
different porosities. e, 0,95 and e = 0.5. The a value is 19.79.
SETTLING IN SUSPENSIONS From Stokes' law (equation (18-2)).
As mentioned earlier, one aspect of physical stability (54 x 10) 2(2.7 - 0.997)981
—=0.30cnvsec
in pharmaceutical suspensions is concerned with keep- 18 X 0.009
ing the particles uniformly distributed throughout the 'raking logarithms on both sides of equation (18-3), Ln i'
dispersion. Although it is seldom possible to prevent =lnu — nlne
settling completely over a prolonged period of time, it is For c, 0.95.
necessary to consider the factors that influence the tnt,' - —1.204 - I19.73(-0.961)) —2.210
velocity of sedimentation. = 0.11 clTcsec
Theory of Sedimentation. As discussed in Chapter 16, Analogously, for e 2 0.5. 33 X 10 crnisec. Note that at low
the velocity of sedimentation is expressed by Stokes' porosity values (i.e.. 0.5, which corresponds to a high concentrationof
solid in auspension), the sedimentation is hindered. leading to small t
law:
465 F'iwscal Peanac
l vi 1' fT
-
50 I —1SO
I 50
IiI '
v
I" "cl
-' T
Fig. 13-1 Sedunentatloi, vohum produced by adding varying amounts of fsotisg agent. Examples (b) and (c) are picarmaceuuliy
Chapter 13 • Coarse Dprswas 481
suspension. This situation is illustrated in Figure that, ideally, no settling occurs. In reality, some degree
18-2c, in which sufficient extra vehicles has been added of sedimentation will usually take place. The "shear-
to contain the sediment. In example shown. F = 1.5. thinning" property of these vehicles does, however,
The sedimentation volume gives only a qualitative facilitate the reformation of a uniform dispersion when
account of flocculation since it lacks a meaningful shear is applied.
reference point. A more useful parameter for floccula- A disadvantage of derlocculated systems, mentioned
tion is p, the degree or jlocculacion. earlier, is the formation of a compact cake when the
If we consider a sus pension that is completely particles eventually settle. It is for this reason that the
dedocculated, the ultimate volume of the sediment will formulation of flocculated suspensions has been advo-
be relatively small. Writing this volume as V,, cased on cated.' Optimum physical stability and appearance will
equation (18-4), we have be obtained when the suspension is formulated with
flocculated particles in a structured vehicle of the
F. = V,,/VQ (18-5) hydrophilic colloid type. Consequently, most of the
in which F. is the sedimentation volume of the subsequent discussion will be concerned with this
dedocculated. or peptized. suspension. The degree of approach and the means by which controlled floccula-
flocculation. 13, is therefore defined as the ratio of F to tion may be achieved. Whatever approach is used, the
F., or product must 1) flow readily from the container and (2)
possess a uniform distribution of particles in each dose.
= F.F. (18-6) Wetting ol Particles. The initial dispersion of an
Substituting equations (18-4) and (18-5) in equation insoluble powder in a vehicle is an important step in the
(18-6), we obtain manufacturing process and requires further consider-
ation. Powders sometimes are added to the vehicle,
V/YO particularly in large-scale operations, by dusting on the
= = (18-7)
0 surface of the liquid. It is frequently difficult to disperse
The degree of flocculation is a more fundamental the powder owing to an adsorbed layer of air, minute
parameter than F since it relates the volume of quantities of grease, and other contaminants. The
flocculated sediment to that in a deflocculated system. powder is not readily wetted, and although it may have
We can therefore say that a high density, it floats on the surface of the liquid.
Finely powdered substances are particularly suscepti-
ultimate sediment volume ble to this effect because of entrained air. and they fail
Ii
= of flocculated suspension to become wetted even when forced below the surface
' ultimate sediment volume of the suspending medium. The wetta.bilily of a powder
of deflocculated suspension may be ascertained easily by observing the contact
Example 18-3. Compute the sedimentation volume of a 5% (wlv)
angle (p. 384) that powder makes with the surface of the
suspension of magnesium carbonate in water. The initial volume is liquid. The angle is approximately 90" when the parti-
100 mL and the final volume of the sediment is V. 30 niL. If cles are floating well out of the liquid. A powder that
the degree of flocculation is 3 PiP. 1.3, what is the deilocculated floats low in the liquid has a lesser angle, and one that
sedimentation volume, F. sinks obviously shows no contact angle. Powders that
F = = 0.30 are not easily wetted by water and accordingly show a
large contact angle, such as sulfur, charcoal, and
F. = FI = 0.3011.3 = 0.23 magnesium stearate, and said to be hydrophobic.
Powders that are readily wetted by water when free of
adsorbed contaminants are called hydrophilic. Zinc
oxide, talc, and magnesium carbonate belong to the
FORMULATION OF SUSPENSIONS latter class.
The approaches commonly used in the preparation of Surfactants are quite useful in the preparation of a
physical stable suspensions fall into two categories— suspension in reducing the interfacial tension between
the use of structured vehicle to maintain deflocculated solid particles and a vehicle. As a result of the Lowered
particles in suspension, and the application of the interfacial tension, the advancing contact angle is
principles of flocculation to produce floes that, although lowered, air is displaced from the surface of particles,
they settle rapidly, are easily resuspended with a and wetting and deflocculation are promoted. Schott et
minimum of agitation. al.° studied the defloccul.ating effect of octoicynol, a
Structured vehicles are pseudoplastic and plastic in nonionic surfactant, to enhance the dissolution rate of
nature; their rheologic properties have been discussed prednisolone from tablets. The tablets breakup into
in Chapter 17. As we shall see in a later section, it is tine granules that are deflocculated in suspension. The
frequently desirable that thixotropy be associated with deflocculating effect is proportional to the surfactant
these two types of flow. Structured vehicles act by concentration. However, at very high surfactant con-
entrapping the particles (generally deflocculated) so centration. say, 15 times the critical micelle concentra-
481, I',iyicazZ Poart,v
tion. the surfactant produces extensive flocculation. the electric barrier between the particles, as evidenced
Glycerin and similar hygroscopic substances are also by a decrease in the zeta potential and the formation of
valuable in levigating the insoluble material. Appar- a bridge between adjacent particles so as to link them
ently, glycerin flows into the voids between the parti- together in a loosely arranged structure.
cles to displace the air and, during the mixing opera- If we disperse particles of bismuth subnitrai.e in
tion, coats and se parates the material so that water can water, we find that, based on electrohorotic mobility
penetrate and wet the individual particles. The disper- studies, they possess a large positive charge, or zeta
sion of particles of colloidal gums by alcohol, glycerin. potential. Because of the strong forces of repulsion
and propylene gl ycol, allowing water to subsequently between adjacent particles, the system is peptized or
penetrate the interstices, is a well-known practice in deflocculated. By preparing a series of bismuth subni.
pharmacy. trate suspensions containing increasing concentrations
To select suitable wetting agents that possess a of monobasic potassium phosphate, Haines and Mar-
well-developed ability to penetrate the powder mass, tin'° were able to show a correlation between apparent
Hiestand 7 has used a narrow trough, several inches zeta potential and sedimentation volume, caking. and
long and made of a hydrophobic material, such as flocculation. The results are summarized jr) Figure
Teflor.. or coated with paraffin wax. At one end of the 18-3 and are ex plained in the following manner.
trou g n is placed the powder and at the other end the The addition of monobasic potassium phosphate to
solution of the wetting agent. The rate of penetration of the suspended bismuth subnitrate particles causes the
the latter into the powder can then be observed p ositive zeta potential to decrease owing to the adsorr-
directly. uon of the negatively charged phosphate anion. With
Controlled Flocculation. Assuming that the powder is the continued addition of the electrol yte, the zeta
properly wetted and dispersed, attention may now he potential eventuall y fails to zero and then increases in a
given to the various means by which controlled floccu. negative direction, as shown in Figure 18-3. Micro-
iation may be produced so as to prevent formation of a scopic examination of the va rious suspensions shows
compact sediment that is difficult to redisperse. The that at a certain positive zeta potential, maximum
topic, described in detail by Hiestand,' is conveniently flocculation occurs and will persist until the zeta
discussed in terms of the material used to produce potential has become sufficientl y negative for defloccu.
flocculation in suspensions, namel y electrolytes, surfac- lauon to occur once again. The onset of flocculation
Lants. and polymers. coincides with the maximum sedimentation volume
EiecLroL.es act as flocculating agents by reducing determined. F remains reasonably constant while floe.
J _-. .
V, . c-
005
5°--
C.oz.c.otr,ton HP0,
Fig. 18- 3. CaxirIp diagmni. snowing the Socculation of a bcsmui.h !4lbnitr2te Suspenalon by memo of the fioccialaung agent. monobm,stc poLassluin
ploonphaae. (Fronc A. Maruri and .. Swarbrick, in Sprowis. Arntrwon Pharmacy. 6th Edition, Lippincott. PhiladoJpliia. 1966, p. ZOS. reproduced
with permsIco of the oupyngn. owner.)
Chapter 18 - Covz. Düpersio,ta 483
culation persists, and only when the zeta potential thiazole normally carries a negative charge in aqueous
becomes sufficiently negative to effect repeotization vehicles. The coated material. precipitated from acid
does the sedimentation volume start to fall. Finall y , the solution in the presence of gelatin, however, was found
absence of caking in the suspensions correlates with the to carry a positive charge. This is due to gelatin being
maximum sedimentation volume, which, as stated positivel y charged at the p 1-I at which precipitation was
previously, reflects the amount of flocculation. At less carried out. It has been suggested' that the improved
than maximum values of F, caking becomes apparent. properties result from the positively charged gelatin-
These workers 10 also demonstrated a similar correla- coated particles being partiall y flocculated in suspen-
tion when aluminum chloride was added to a suspension sion, presumabl y because the high negative charge has
of sulfamerazine in water. In this system, the initial been replaced by a smaller, albeit positive, charge.
zeta potential of the sulfamerazine particles is negative Positively charged liposomes have been used as tloceu-
and is progressivel y reduced by adsorption of the tating agents to prevent caking of negatively charged
trivalent aluminum cation. When sufficient electrolyte particles. Liposomes are vesicles of phospholipids hav-
is added, the zeta potential reaches zero and then ing no toxicity and that can be prepared in various
increases in a positive direction. Colloidal and coarse particle sizes. i5 The y are adsorbed on the negatively
dispersed particles may possess surface charges that charged particles. See page 513 for a discussion of
depend on the pH of the vstem. An important property liposomes.)
01 the pH-dependent dispersions is the zero point of Flocculation in Structured Vehicles. Although the
charge, that is, the pH at which the net surface charge controlled flocculation approach is capable of fulfilling
is zero. The desired surface charge can be achieved the desired physical chemical requisites of a pharma-
through adjusting the pH by the addition of HCI or ceutical suspension, the product can look unsightly if F,
NaOH to produce a positive, zero, or negative surface the sedimentation volume, is not close, or equal, to L.
charge. The negative zeta potential of nitrofurantoin Consequentl y , in practice, a suspending agent is fre-
decreases considerably when the pH values of the quently added to retard sedimentation of the floes. Such
suspension are charged from basic to acidic." agents as carboxyrnethylcellulose (CMC), Carbopol
Surfactants, both ionic and nonionic, have been used 934, Veegum, tragacanth, or bentonite have been
to bring about flocculation of suspended particles. The employed, either alone or in combination.
concentration necessary to achieve this effect would This may lead to incompatibilities, depending on the
appear to be critical since these compounds may also act initial particle charge and the charge carried by the
as wetting and deflocculating agents to achieve disper- flocculating agent and the suspending agent. For
sion. example, suppose we prepare a dispersion of positively
Polymers are long-chain, high-molecular-weight charged particles that is then flocculated by the addition
compounds containing active groups spaced along their of the correct concentration of an anionic electrolyte
length. These agents act as flocculating agents because such as rnonobasic potassium phosphate. We can in-
part of the chain is adsorbed on the particle surface, prove the physical stability of this system by adding a
with the remaining parts projecting out into the sninimal amount of one of the hydrocolioids mentioned
dispersion medium. Bridging between these latter above. No physical incompatibility will be observed
portions leads to the formation of floes. because the majority of hydro p hilic colloids are them-
Felmeister and others studied the influence of a selves negatively charged and are thus compatible with
xanthan gum (an anionic heteropolysaccharide) on the anionic flocculating agents. If, however, we flocculate a
flocculation characteristics of sulfaguanidine, bismuth sus p ension of negatively charged particles with a
subcarbonate, and other drugs in sus pension. Addition cationic electrolyte (aluminum chloride), the subse-
of xanthan gum resulted in increased sedimentation quent addition of a hydrocolloid may result in an
volume, presumably by a polymer bridging phenome- incompatible product, as evidenced for the formation of
non. Hiestand 13 has reviewed the control of floe struc- an unsightly stringy mass that has little or no suspend-
ture in coarse suspensions by the addition of polymeric ing action and itself settles rapidly.
materials. Under these circumstances, it becomes necessary to
Hydrophilic polymers also act as protective colloids use a protective colloid to change the sign on the
(p. 410), and particles coated in this manner are less particle from negative to positive. This is achieved by
prone to cake than are uncoated particles. These poly- the adsorption onto the particle surface of a fatty acid
mers exhibit pseudoplastic flow in solution, and this amine (which has been checked to ensure its nontoxic-
property serves to promote physical stability within the ity) or a material such as gelatin, which is positively
suspension. Gelatin, a polyelectrolytic polymer, exhib- charged below its isoelectric point. We are then able to
its flocculation that depends on the pH and ionic use an anionic electrolyte to produce floes that are
strength of the dispersion medium. Sodium sulfathiaz- compatible with the negatively charged suspending
ole, precipitated from acid solution in the presence agent.
of gelatin, was shown by Blvthe' 4 to be free flowing in The student should note that this a pproach may be
the dry state and not to cake when suspended. Sulfa- used regardless of the charge on the particle. The
se q uence of events is de p icted in Figure 18-4, which is Shearing SOTOU (weight x Pt)
self-explanatory.
400
Rheologic Considerations. The principles of rheology
may be applied to a study of the following factors: the
viscosit y of a suspension as it affects the settling of Tragacanth Sodium I
dispersed particles, the change in flow properties of the I t_./ /
3O0- ac
suspension when the container is shaken and when the X
product is poured from the bottle, and the spreading E
qualities of the lotion when it is applied to an affected
Gl^cen n
area. Rheologic considerations are also important in the 2O0 -
manufacture of suspensions. g
The only shear that occurs in a suspension in storage
is due to a settling of the suspended particles; this force
100 Cbocyrnethyl
ar
is negligible and may be disregarded. When the con-
F cellulose
tainer is shaken and the product is poured from the
bottle, however, a high shearing rate is manifested. As
suggested by Mervine and Chase.' 6 the ideal suspend- 00 100 200 300 400
ing agent should have .a high viscosity at negligible
Load (grams)
shear, that is, during shelf storage; and it should have
a Low viscosit y at high shearing rates, that is, it should Fig. 18-5. Ptheologk flow curves of various suspending agents
be free-flowing during agitation, pouring, and spread- ar.aiyzed in a modified Stunner viscometer.
ing. As seen in Figure 18-5, pseudo p lastic substances
such as tragacanth, sodium alginate, and sodium car-
boxymethylcellulose show these desirable qualities. Figure 18-6 shows the consistency curves for bento-
The Newtonian liquid, glycerin, is included in the graph nite. Veegwn (Vanderbilt Co.), and a combination of
for comparison. Its viscosity is suitable for suspending bentonite and sodium carboxymeth y lceliulose (CMC).
particles but is too high to pour easily and to spread on The hysteresis loop of bentonite is quite marked.
the skin. Furthermore, glycerin shows the undesirable Veegum also shows considerable thixotropv, both when
property of tackiness (stickiness) and is too hygroscopic tested by inverting a vessel containing the dispersion
to use in undiluted form. The curves in Figure 18-5 and when analyzed in a rotational viscometer. When
were obtained by use of the modified Stormer viscom- bent.onite and CMC dispersions are mixed, the result-
eter described on page 464. ing curve shows both pseudopiastic and thixotropic
A suspending agent that is thixotropic as well as characteristics. Such a combination should produce an
pseudoplastic should prove to be useful since it forms a excellent suspending medium.
gel on standing and becomes fluid when disturbed. Preparation of Suspensions. The factors entering into
the preparation and stabilization of suspensions involve
cer.ain principles of interest to physical pharmac y and
are briefl y discussed here. The p hysical principles
involved in the dispersion of solids by different tyues of
Canon':
equi p ment have been discussed by Oldshue.1'
nionic (-
ansorbent tiocculani A sus p ension is prepared on the srnaL scale dv
C (—RNl . ') l\j grinding or levigating the insoluble material tr. the
Uncoated particles Coated
(pos i tively charged, particles
negatively charged. Flocculated
particles Micro
or neutral particles:
r-o1 150
7 Sentonne
1'1 r5't'
Sus pendng.-.t't2 loo'. 1 5% Yeegurn
agent I-)
Suspersson ol Finished
flocculated part.cles suspension Micro bentonne
mortar to a smooth paste with a vehicle containing the the polyoxyethyiene groups of the surfactant. The
dispersion stabilizer and gradually adding the remain- attractive energy is increased and the particles floccu-
der of the liquid phase in which any soluble drugs may late. 19 Zapata et at. 20 studied the mechanism of freeze–
be nissoived. The slurr y is transferred to a graduate, thaw instability in aluminum hydrocarbonate and mag-
the mortar is rinsed with successive portions of the nesium hydroxide gels as model suspensions because of
vehicle, and the dis persion is rinaily brought to the final their well known sensitivit y to temperature changes.
volume. During the freezing process, particles are able to
On a large scale, dispersion of solids in liquids is overcome the repulsive barrier caused by ice formation,
accomp lished by the use of ball, pebble, and colloid which forces the particles close enough to experience
mills. Dough mixers, pony mixers, and similar appara- the strong attractive forces present in the primary
tus are also employed. Only the colloid mill is described minimum, and form aggregates according to the DLVO
here; a discussion of the other mills can be found in the theory (see Fig. 15-12, p. 409). When the ice meits, the
book by Fischer. 18 Dry grinding in bail mills is treated particles remain as aggregates unless work is applied to
by Fischer, by Berry and Kamack and by Prasher. overcome the primary energy peak. Aggregate size was
The colloid mill is based on the principle of a found to be inversely related to the freezing rate: the
high-veloctt y cone-shaped rotor that is centered with higher the freezing rate, the smaller the size of ice
res pect to a stator at a small adjustable clearance. The crystals formed. These small crystals do not result in
suspension is fed to the rotor by gravity through a the aggregation of as many suspension particles as do
ho pp er, sheared between the rotor and stator, and large ice crystals.
forced out below the stator, where it maybe recycled or In addition to particle aggregation, particle growth is
drawn off. also a destabilizing process resulting from tamperature
The efficiency of the mill is based on the clearance fluctuations or Ostwald ripening during storage. Fluc-
between the disks, the peripheral velocity of the rotor. tuations of temperature ma y change the particle size
and the non-Newtonian viscosity of the suspension. The distribution and polymorphic form of a drug, altering
mill breaks down the large aggregates and flocs so that the absorption rate and drug bioavailability. 2 ' Particle
they may be dispersed throughout the liquid vehicle growth is particularly important when the solubility of
and then protected by the dispersion stabilizer. The the drug is strongly dependent on the temperature.
shearing action that leads to disaggregation occurs at Thus, when temperature is raised, crystals of drug may
the surfaces of the rotating and stationary disks, and dissolve and form supersaturated solutions, which favor
between the particles themselves in a concentrated crystal growth. This can be prevented by the addition
suspension. If the yield value is too great, the material of polymers or surfactants. Simonelli et al. studied the
fails to flow; if the viscosity is low, a loss in effectiveness inhibition of sulfathiazole crystal growth by polyvi-
of shearing action occurs. Therefore, the yield value nylpyrrolidone. These authors suggested that the poly-
should be low, and the plastic or apparent viscosity of mer forms a noneondensed netlike film over the sulfa-
the material should be at a maximum consistent with thiazole crystal, allowing the crystal to grow out only
the optimum rate of flow through the mill. If the through the openings of the net. The growth is thus
material is highly viscous or if the plates are adjusted to controlled by the pore size of the polymer network at
a clearance that is too narrow, the temperature rises the crystal surface. The smaller the pore size, the
rapidly, and cooling water must be circulated around higher the supersaturation of the solution required for
the stator to dissipate the heat that is produced. the crystals to grow. This can be shown using the
Dilatant materials— for example, deflocculated suspen- Kelvin equation (p. 440), as applied to a particle
sions containing 50 17o or more of solids—are particu- suspended in a saturated solution:
larly troublesome. They flow freely into the mill but set
In = 2-yM
up a high shearing rate and produce overheating and (18-8)
C0 NkTpR
stalling of the motor. Beginning any milling process
with the plates set at a wide clearance minimizes this where c is the solubility of a small particle of radius R
danger. If this technique fails, however, the material in an aqueous vehicle and c0 the solubility of a very
must be milled in another type of equipment or the large crystalline particle; 'r is the interfacial tension of
paste must be diluted with a vehicle until dilatancy is the crystal, p is the density of the crystal, and .1'! is the
eliminated. molecular weight of the solute. N is Avogadros num-
Physical Stability of Suspensions. Raising the temper- ber, k is the Boltzmann constant and N x k = 8.314 X
ature often leads to flocculation of stericaUy stabilized 10' erg deg mole. The ratio dc0 defines the
suspensions, that is, suspensions stabilized by nonionic supersaturation ratio that a large crystal requires in the
surfactants. Repulsion due to steric interactions de- aqueous solution saturated with respect to the small
pends on the nature, thickness, and completeness of the particle. According to equation (18-8), as the radius of
surfactant-adsorbed layers on the particles. When the curvature of a protruding crystal decreases, the protru-
suspension is heated the energy of repulsion between sion will require a correspondingly larger supersatura-
the particles may be reduced owing to dehydration of tion ratio before it can grow. The radius of curvature of
I
456 Physical Pharmacy
in the other liquid phase (the continuous phase), unpleasant taste. More significant in contemporary
stabilized by the presence of an emulsifying agent, The pharmacy is the observation that some oil-soluble
various types of emulsifying agents are discussed later compounds, such as some of the vitamins, are absorbed
in this section. Either the dispersed phase or the more completely when emulsified than when adminis-
continuous phase may range in consistency from that of tered orally as an oily solution. The use of intravenous
a mobile liquid to a semisolid. Thus, emulsified systems emulsions has been studied as a means of maintaining
range from lotions of relatively low viscosity to oint- debilitated patients who are unable to assimilate mate-
ments and creams, which are semisolid in nature. The rials administered orally. Tarr et al. 25 prepared emul-
particle diameter of the dispersed phase generally sions of taxol, a compound with ant.irnitotic properties,
extends from about 0.1 to 10 ILm, although particle for intravenous administration as an alternative method
diameters as small as 0.01 and as large as 100 p.m are to the use of cosolvents in taxol administration. Davis
not uncommon in some preparations. and Hansrani 26 studied the influence of droplet size and
Emulsion type. invariably, one liquid phase in an emulsifying agents on the phagocytosis of lipid emnul-
emulsion is essentially polar (e.g., aqueous), while the sions. When the emulsion is administered intrave-
other is relatively nonpolar (e.g., an oil). When the oil nously, the droplets are normally rapidly taken up by
phase is dispersed as globules throughout an aqueous the cells of the reticuloendothelial sy stem, in particular
continuous phas e, the s ystem is referred to as an the fixed macrophages in the liver. The rate of clear-
oii-in-water (olw) emulsion. When the oil phase serves ance by the macrophages increases as the droplet size
as the continuous phase, the emulsion is spoken of as a becomes larger or the surface charge, either positive or
water-in-oil (w/o) product. Medicinal emulsions for oral negative, increases. Therefore, emulsion droplets sta-
administration are usuall y of the of w tyoe and require bilized by a nonionic surfactant (zero surface charge)
the use of an oiw emulsifying agent. These include were cleared much more slowly than the droplets
synthetic nonionic surfactants, acacia, tragacanth, and stabilized by negatively charged phospholipids. Radio-
gelatin. Not all emulsions that are consumed, however, paque emulsions have found application as diagnostic
belong to the olw type. Certain foods such as butter and agents in x-ray examinations.
some salad dressings are ic/u emulsions. Emulsification is widely used in pharmaceutical and
Externally applied emulsions may be 01ic or wlo, the cosmetic products for external use. This is particularly
former emplo ying the following emulsifiers in addition so with derniatologic and cosmetic lotions and creams
to the ones mentioned previousl y: sodium lauryl sulfate, since a product that spreads easil y and completely over
tnethanolamine stearate, monovalent soaps such as the affected area is desired. Such products can now be
sodium oleate, and self-emulsifying glyceryl monostear- formulated to be water washable and nonstaining and,
ate, that is, giycervl nionostearate mixed with a small as such, are obviously more acceptable to the patient
amount of a monovalent soap or an alkyl sulfate. and physician than some of the greasy products used a
Pharmaceutical w/o emulsions are used almost exclu- decade or more ago. Emulsification is used in aerosol
sively for external application and may contain one or products to produce foams. The propellant that forms
several of the following emulsifiers: polyvalent soaps the dispersed liquid phase within the container vapor-
such as calcium pairnitate, sorbitan esters (Spans), izes when the emulsion is discharged from the con-
cholesteroL and wool fat. tainer. This results in the rapid formation of a foam.
Several methods are commonl y used to determine the
type of an emulsion. A small quantity of a water-soluble
dy e such as meth ylene blue or brillian'. blue FCF may
be dusted on the surface of the emulsion. if water is the THEORIES OF EMULSIFICATION
external phase (i.e., if the emulsion is of the oiw type), There is no universal theor y of emulsification, be-
the dye will dissolve and uniformly diffuse throughout cause emulsions can be prepared using several differ-
the water. If the emulsion is of the wio type, the ent types of emulsifying agent. each of which depends
particles of dye will lie in clumps on the surface. A for its action on a different princi ple to achieve a stable
second method involves dilution of the emulsion with product. For a theory to be meaningful, it should be
water. If the emulsion mutes freely with the water, it is capable of explaining (1) the stability of the product
of the a/am t ype. Another test uses a pair of electrodes and (2) the type of emulsion fox-med. Let us consider
connected to an external electric source and immersed what happens when two immiscible liquids are agitated
in the emulsion. If the external phase is water, a together so that one of the li quids is dispersed as small
current will pass through the emulsion and can be made droplets in the other. Except in the case of very dilute
to deflect a voltmeter needle or cause a light in the oil-in-water emulsions (oil hydrosols), which are some-
circuit to glow, if the oil is the continuous phase, the what stable, the liquids separate rapidly into two
emulsion fails to carr y the current- clearl y defined layers. Failure of two immiscible liquids
Pharmaceutical Applications. An oiw emulsion is a to remain mixed is explained by the fact that the
convenient means of orally administering water-insolu- cohesive force between the molecules of each separate
ble liquids, especially when the dispersed phase has as liquid is greater than the adhesive force between the
488 Phnco.t Pharmacy
two liquids. The cohesive force of the individual phases is sufficient to make the system thermodynamically
is manifested as an interfacial energy or tension at unstable, hence the droplets have a tendency to coa-
the boundary between the liquids, as explained in lesce.
Chapter 14. To prevent coalescence or at least to reduce its rate
When one liquid is broken into small particles, the to negLigible proportions, it is necessary to introduce an
interfacial area of the globules constitutes a surface emulsifying agent that will form a him around the
that is enormous compared with the surface area of dispersed globules. Emulsifying agents may be divided
the original liquid. If 1 cm 3 of mineral oil is dispersed into three groups, as follows:
into globules having a volume—surface diameter d,, of (1) Surface-active agents, which are adsorbed at
0.01 .&m (10 cm) in 1 cm' of water-so as to form a oil—water interfaces to form monomolecujaj- films and
fine emulsion, the surface area of the oil droplets reduce interfacial tension. These agents have been
becomes 600 square meters. The surface free energy discussed in detail in Chapter 14, dealing with inter-fa-
associated with this area is about 34 x 10 ergs, or 8 ciai phenomena.
calories. The total volume of the system, however, has (2) Hydrophilic colloids (discussed in Chapter 15),
not increased; it remains at 2 em'. the calculations are which form a multimoiecular film around the dispersed
made by use of equations (16-15) and (16-17), p. 436, droplets of oil in an oiw emulsion."
from which (3) FineiY divided solid particles, which are adsorbed
at the interface between two immiscible liquid phases
and form what amounts to a film of p articles around the
dispersed g!obuies. The factor common to all three
classes of emulsifying agent is the formation of a film,
Sv == 6 x 10 6 cm 2 = 600 m2 whether it be monomoiecujar, multimolecular, or par-
ticulate.
The work i nput or surface free energy increase is On this basis, we can now discuss some of the more
given by the equation (V = x .\A, and the Important theories relating to the stability and type of
interfacial tension -y.. between mineral oil and water is emulsion formed.
57 dyne/cm (erg/cm'). Exam p les of typical emulsifying agents are given in
W = 57 erg/cm 2 x (6 Table 18-1.
X 106 cm2)
Monomolecular Adsorption. Surface-active agents, or
= 34 x iO' ergs 34 joules amphiphiles, reduce inter-facial tension because of their
and since adsorption at the oil—water interface to form monomo
lecular films. Since the surface free energy increase W
1 cal = 4.184 joules equals 'y,. x 5.A, and since we must, of necessity,
34/4.184 = 8 calories retain a high surface area for the dispersed phase, any
reduction in -s.,,,, the interfacial tension, will reduce the
In summary, if 1 cm 3 of mineral oil is mixed with 1 em' surface free eergy and hence the tendency for coales-
of water to produce fine particles (d5, = 0.01 gm), the cence. It is not unusual for a good emulsifying agent of
total surface is equivalent to an area slightly greater this type to reduce the inter-facial tension to 1 dyne/cm;
than that of a basketball court, or about 600 square we can therefore reduce the surface free energy of the
meters! (In real emulsions, the particles are ordinarily system to approximately one sixtieth of that calculated
about 10 to 100 ttmes larger than this, and the surface earlier.
area is proportionately smaller.) The increase in en- The reduction in surface free energy is of itself
ergy, 8 calories, associated with this enormous surface probably not the main factor involved. Of more likely
Type of Emulsion
Name Claps Formed
Trieihanolarnine oleate Surface-active agent (anionic) 01w (NLB = 12)
N-cetyl N-elhyf morpholinum ethosulfate (Atlas G-263) Surface-active agent (cationic) 01w (HtB = 25)
Sorbitan mono-oleate (Atlas Span 80) Surface-active-agent (nonionic) wia (HLB 4.3)
Poiyoxyethylene sc'Oi fan mono-aleace (Atlas Tween 80) Surface-active agent (nonionic) 01w IHLB = 15>
Acacia (salts of d-Iucuronic acid) Hydrophilic colloid 01w
Gelatin (pelypeptides and aminoacids) Hydrophilic colloid o/w
Bentonite (hydrated aluminum silicate) Solid particle 91w (and wia)
Veegum (magnesium aluminum silicate Solid particle olw
Carbon blacS Solid particle w/o
I
"t1
C Sodium cetyl sulfate close-packed film, but complexation is negligible, and
again a poor emulsion results.
(a) '' oil —* 10—
• Cholesterol Atias1CI a recommends that a hydrophilic Tween be
combined with a lipoohilic Spar., varying the propor-
tions so as to produce the desired 01w or wio emulsion.3°
eN Boyd et discussed the molecular association of
Water Tween 40 and Span 80 in stabilizing emulsions. in
Figure lS-. the hydrocarbon Portion of the Span 80
isorbitar, m000-oleate) molecule lies in the oil globule
• C Sodium Cetyl sulfate and the sorbitan radica] lies in unc aPueou g phase. The
oulkY sorbitar1 heads of the S pan molecules prevent the
(b) -i
• Olevl alcohol
Oi, '-_
nydrocaroon tails from assocatinic closely in the oil
phase. When Tween 40 (polvoxvethvlene sorbita.n
monopalmit.ate) is added, it orients at the interface such
that Dart of its h ydrocarbon tail is jr the oil phase, and
' Water tne remainder of the chain, together with the sorhit.an
C ring and the polvoxvethv)ene chains, is located in the
water pnase. it is observed that the hydrocarbon chair.
- OCetylal:oho of the Tween 40 molecule is situated in the oil globule
e Sodium oleai between the Span SO chains, and this orientation results
(C)
in effective van der Waajs attraction. in this mariner,
the interfacial film is stren-thened and the sta'oihtv of
the ou emulsion is increased against p article coales-
cence. The same principle of mbed ernuLsi.3ying agents
may be app lied in the use of combinations such as
Fig. 18-8. hepresent.at.sons of combinations of emulsifying agents a
the oil-water sm.erfac,e of an emuisior,. (After.3. H. Sonulman and
E. C. Cockbaari, Tari. Faraday Soc. 36, 601. 1930.) Atia surfactants. IC] IJiuted States. inc.. WUrtustgtor.. Del.
490 PIiswoA Pharmacy
sodium stearate and cholesterol, sodium lauryl sulfate droplets are invariably hydrophilic, they tend to pro-
and glyceryl monostearate, and tragacanth and Span. mote the formation of oiw emulsions.
Chun et al.-2 determined the hydrophileIipophiie Solid Particle Adsorption. Finely divided solid particles
balance of some natural agents and further discussed that are wetted to some degree by both oil and water
the princi p le of mixed emuisiflers. can act as emulsifying agents. This results from their
The type of emulsion that is produced, oiw or w/o, being concentrated at the interface, where they pro-
depends primaril y on the pro perty of the emulsifying duce a particulate film around the dispersed droplets so
agent. This characteristic is referred to as the hydro- as to prevent coalescence. Powders that are 'vetted
phile-lzpophiie balance, that is, the polar-nonpolar preferentially by water form 01W emulsions, whereas
nature of the emulsifier. In fact, whether a surfactant is those more easily wetted by oil form w/o emulsions.
an emulsifier, wetting agent, detergent, or solubiiizing
agent may be predicted from a knowledge of the
hydrophile-Ilpop hile balance, as discussed in a previ-
ous chapter p. 371). In an emulsifying agent, such as PHYSICAL STABILITY OF EMULSIONS
sodium stearate, C: 7 H 35 COOa, the nonpolar hydro- Probabl y the most important consideration with
carbon chain. C 17 H.,—, i s the livovhiiic or "oil-loving-' respect to o'narmaceuticai and cosmetic emulsions is the
rroup; the carboxyl group, —COONa, is the hydro- stability or the finished product. The stability of a
philic water-loving" portion. The balance of the pharmaceutical emulsion is characterized by the ab-
ydroohi1ic and lipophilic properties of an emulsifier (or sence of coalescence of the internal phase, absence of
combination of emulsifiers) determines whether an o'w creaming, and maintenance of elegance with respect to
or wio emulsion will result. In general, 01W emulsions appearance, odor, color, and other physical properties.
are formed when the I-iLB of the emulsifier is within the Some workers define instability of an emulsion onl y in
range of about 9 to 12, and wio emulsions are formed terms of agglomeration of the internal phase and its
when the range is about 3 to 6. An emulsifier with a separation from the product. Creaming, resulting from
high HLB, such as a blend of Tween 20 and Span 20, flocculation and concentration of the globules of the
will form an 01u,' emulsion. On the other hand, Span 60 internal phase, sometimes is not considered as a mark
alone, having an HLB of 4.7, tends to form a wlo of insta bility. An emulsion is a dynamic system,
emulsion. however, and flocculation and resultant creaming rep-
It would appear, therefore, that the type of emulsion resent potential steps toward complete coalescence of
is a function of the relative solubilit y of the surfactant, the internal phase. Furthermore, in the case of phar-
the phase in which it is more soluble being the maceutical emulsions, creaming results in a lack of
continuous phase. This is sometimec referred to as the uniformity of drug distribution and, unless the prepa-
rule of Bancroft, who observed this phenomenon in ration is thoroughly shaken before administration,
1913. Thus, an emulsifying agent with a high HLB is leads to variable dosage. Certainly, the eye-appeal of an
preferentially soluble in water and results in the emulsion is affected by creaming, and this is just as real
formation of an 01w emulsion. The reverse situation is a problem to the pharmaceutical compounder as is
true with surfactants of low HLB, which tend to form separation of the internal phase.
wio emulsions. Beerbower, Nixon, and Hill-" suggested Another phenomenon important in the preparation
an explanation for emulsion type and stability and and stabilization of emulsions is phase inversion, which
devised a general scheme for emulsion formulation can be an aid or a detriment in emulsion technology.
based on the Hildebrand and Hansen solubility param- Phase inversion involves the change of emulsion type,
eters (pp. 224. 225). from ()/w to wio or vice versa. Should phase inversion
Multimolecular Adsorption and Film Formation. Hy- occur following preparation, it may logically be consid-
drated lyophilic colloids have been used for many years ered as an instance of instability.
as emulsifying agents, although their use is declining In the light of these considerations, the instability of
because of the large number of synthetic surfactants pharmaceutical emulsions may be classified as follows:
now available. In a sense, they may be regarded as (ci) flocculation and creaming
surface active since they appear at the oil-water (b) coalescence and breaking
interface. They differ, however, from the synthetic' (c) miscellaneous physical alid chemical changes
surface-active agents in that (1) they do not cause an (d) phase inversion
appreciable lowering of interfacial tension, and (2) they Creaming and Stokes' Law. Those factors that find
form a multi- rather than a monomolecular film at the importance in the creaming of an emulsion are related
interface. Their action as emulsifying agents is due by Stokes' law, equation (18-2) (p. 479). The limitations
mainly to the latter effect, for the films thus formed are of this equation to actual systems have been discussed
strong and resist coalescence. An auxiliary effect previously for suspensions (p. 479), and these apply
promoting stability is the significant increase in the equally to emulsified systems.
viscosity of the dispersion medium. Since the emulsify Analysis of the equation shows that if the dispersed
-ingaetshformuliysandthe phase is less dense than the continuous phase, which is
Ch,.zpter 18 Coarse Th.s-vuwns 491
phase above which the emulsifying agent cannot pro- negatively charged polyelectrolyte that causes rapid
duce a stable emulsion of the desired type. In some flocculation in emulsions containing calcium and led-
stable emulsions, the value may be higher than 74% thin. The critical flocculation concentration occurs at a
owing to the irregular shape and size of the globules. specific zeta potential. The value of this zeta potential
Generally speaking, however, a phase-volume ratio of can be determined by plotting the flocculation rate
50:50 (which approximates loose packing) results in against the surface potential and extrapolating to zero
about the most stable emulsion. This fact was discov- flocculation rate. Johnson et al.°° explained the desta-
ered empirically by pharmacists many years ago, and bilizing effect of heparin as follows. Divalent electro-
most medicinal emulsions are prepared with a volume lytes such as calcium bind strongly to the surface of
ratio of 50 parts of oil to 50 parts of water. droplets stabilized with lecithin to form 1:2 ion- iipid
Emulsions can be stabilized by electrostatic repulsion complexes. This causes a charge reversal on the
between the dro p lets, that is, by increasing their zeta droplets, leading to positively charged particles. The
potential. Magdassi and Siman-Tov 39 used lecithin to droplets are then flocculated by a bridging of the
stabilize periluocarbon emulsions, which appear to be a negatively charged heparin molecules across the posi-
good blood substitute. Lecithin is a mixture of phospho- tively charged particles, as depicted in Figure 18-10.
lipids having a negative charge at physiologic pH. The When the oil particles, which usually carry a negative
stabilizing effect is due to the adsorption of lecithin at charge, are surrounded in an 01w emulsion by a film of
the droplet surface, which creates a negative charge emulsifier, particularly a nonionic agent, the electroki-
and consequently electrostatic repulsion. Lecithin pro- netic effects are probably less significant than they are
duces very stable emulsions of triglyceride acids in in suspensions in maintaining the stability of the
water for intravenous administration. However, the system. The effect of electrolytes in these systems has
stability of these emulsions may be poor because in been studied by Schott and Royce. 42 Probably the most
clinical practice they are mixed with electrolytes, amino important factors in the stabilization of an emulsion are
acids, and other compounds for total parenteral nutri- the physical properties of the emulsifier film at the
tion. The addition of positively charged species such as interface. To be effective, an emulsifier film must be
sodium and calcium ions or cationic amino acids—the both tough and elastic and should form rapidly during
charge on the latter depending on the p H—reduces the emulsification. Serrallach et al. 43 have measured the
zeta potential and may cause flocculation. Johnson et strength of the film at the interface. They found that a
al.` studied the effect of heparin and various electro- good emulsifying agent or emulsifier combination
lytes, frequently used clinically, on the stability of brings about a preliminary lowering of the interfacial
parenteral emulsions. Heparin, an anticoagulant, is a tension to produce small uniform globules and forms
Negatively charged
- heparin bridging
Ca 2 ffc+2 across and destabilizing
the emulsion droplets
Lecithin emulsifier
- II ca°° -
nonpolar negatively
Emulsion droplet tail charged head
with negatively charged
lecithin emulsiñer. CH2-0-COR
stabilized with I
calcium ions CH—O-COR
I o- +
CH2 - 10E-OCH2CH2N (CH3)3
0
Lecithin (surfactant and emulsifier)
Fig. 18-10. Parenterai emulsion droplets in the presence of the negatively charged emulaiti..' lecithin, and stabilized by electrostatic repulsion
by calcium ions. The emulsion may be flocculated and destabilized by the bridging effect of heparin, a negatively charged polyelectrolyte, which
overcomes the stabilizing electrostatic repulsion of the Cs ions. (From 0. L. Johnson, C. Wasnington, S. S. Davis and K. Schaupp, liii, J.
Pharm. 53, 237, 1989, renroduced with permission of the copyright saner.)
Chapter J Coaroc Dizverswns 49
Fig. 18-11. Particle size distribution of an emulsion- Such curves ordinarily are skewed
to the right as shown in the figure. and the mode diameter. i.e., the highest point on the
curve or the most frequent value, is seen to occur at the lower end of the scale of
diameters. The arithmetic incas diameter d, will be found somewhat to the right of the
mode in a right skewed distribution and the mean volume—surface diameter d,, is to the
right of the arithmetic mean.
Sherman" has discussed the principal factors that may not be thermodynamically stable. They appear to
influence the flow properties of emulsions. The material represent a state intermediate between thermodynam-
of this section outlines some of the viscosity-related ically stable solubiiized solutions and ordinary emul-
properties of the dispersed phase, the continuous sions, which are relativel y unstable. Microemulsions
phase. and the emulsifying agent. For a more complete contain droplets of oil in a water phase (oiw) or droplets
discussion of these and other factors that can modif y the of water in oil (WI o) with diameters of about 10 to 200
flow properties of emulsions, the reader is referred to nm and the volume fraction of the dispersed phase
the original article by Sherman 51 and the book Rh.eol- vanes from 0.2 to 0,3.
ogy of Encutswm..s.52 As often recommended in the formation of ordinary
The factors related to the dispersed phase include the or macroemuisions, an emulsifying adjunct or cosurfac-
phase—volume ratio, particle size distribution and the tent is used in the preparation of microemulsions. An
viscosity of the internal phase itself. Thus, when anionic surfactant, sodium laui-yl sulfate or potassium
volume concentration of the dispersed phase is low (less oleate, may be dispersed in an organic liquid such as
than 0.05), the system is Newtonian. As the volume benzene, a small measured amount of water is added,
concentration is increased, the system becomes more and the microemulsion is formed b y the gradual add)-
resistant to flow and exhibits pseudoplastic flow char- tion of pentanol, a lipophilic cosurfactan:. to form a
acteristics. At sufficientl y high concentrations, plastic clear solution at 300 C. The addition of pencanol
flow occurs. When the volume concentration ap- temporarily reduces the surface tension to approxi-
proaches 0.74, inversion may occur with a marked mately zero, allowing spontaneous emulsification. The
change in viscosity. Reduction in mean particle size surfactant and cosurfactant molecules form an adsorbed
increases the viscosity; the wider the' particle size film on the microemuision particles to prevent coales-
distribution, the lower the viscosity when compared cence.
with a s y stem having a similar mean particle size but a Shinoda and Kunieda showed that by choosing a
narrower particle size distribution. surfactant and cosurfactant that have similar HLB
The major property of the continuous phase that values, solubiiization of an organic liquid in water may
affects the flow properties of an emulsion is not, 'tie increased and the microemulsion droplet size en-
surprisingl y , its own viscosit y. The effect of the larged without affecting stability . With ionic surfac-
viscosity of the continuous phase ma y he greater, t.ants at normal temperatures, one expects 01w micro-
however, than that predicted by determining the bull-: emulsions to be formed when the phase volume ratio
viscosity of the continuous phase alone. There are favors water, analogous to the rule for macroemnulsions.
indications that the viscosit y of a thin liquid film, of say The rrucroemuision region is usually characterized by
100 to 200 A, is several Limes the viscosit y of the bulk constructing ternary-p hase diagrams, as shown in
liquid. Higher viscosities may therefore exist in concen- Figure 13-23. the axes representing water. mineral oil,
trated emulsions when the thickness of the continuous and a mixture of surfactant and cosurfactant at differ-
phase between adjacent dro plets approaches these
dimensions. Sherman points out that the reduction in
viscosit y wan increasing shear ma y be due in part to a
decrease in the v i scosit y of the continuous phase as the
distance of se paration between globules is increased.
Another com p onent tna: may influence the viscosity
of an emulsion is th& emulsif yin g agent. Tne type of
agent will affect particle flocculation and interparticle
attractions, and these in turn will modif y flow, in
addition for an y one system, the greater the concen-
tration of emuLsi.fymg agent, the higher will be the
viscosit y of the product. The physical pro perties of the
film and its eiecti-c properties are also significant
factors.
MICROEM IJLSIO NS
The term mncrogrnutswr may be a misnomer, since 9:1 Brij 96-Propylene Gtyco
microemuisions consist of large or "swollen" irucelles fig. 18-13. A ternar y-phase diagi-ain of waie. mineral oil. and a
containing the internal phase, much like that found in a rruxwre of £urfactarlts showing the botindar of the mioemuion
solubilized solution. Unlike the common macroemul- region. The ones within the micrvernulsion region are labeled F for
sions, they appear as clear transparent solutions, but fluid and G for gel. From N. I. X.aie and L. V. Alien. Jr., bit J.
Pnzrrr.. 57, 67, 19, reproduced with permu-sJor. 05 the copynght
unlike micellar solubiiized systems, microemuisions owner,)
496 Phy s ic a l PharMacy
ent ratios."4 The phase diagrams allow one to determine transdermal permeation of water from water-in-oil
the ratios oil:water:surfactanc- cosurfactant at the rnicroemulsioris formed from water, octanol, and dioctyl
boundary of the microemulsion region. The rnicroemul- sodium sulfosuccinate. the latter functioning as the
sion appears by visual observation as an isotropic. surfactant. These kinds of rnicroemulsions can be used
54 to incorporate polar drugs in the - aqueous internal
optically clear liquid system. Kale and Allen studied
water-in-oil microemulsions consisting of the system phase. The skin used in the experiments was fully
Brij 96_cosuiiactant-minerai oil-water. Brij 96 (poly- hydrated so as to maximize the water permeability. The
oxyethylene (10) oleyl ether) is a nonionic surfactant delivery of the internal phase was found to be highly
commonly used in the preparation of macro- and dependent on the microemulsion water content: the
rnicroemulsions. The cosurfactants studied were ethyl- diffusion of water from the internal phase increased
ene glycol, propylene glycol, and glycerin. Figure tenfold as the water amount in the microemulsion
18-13 shows the phase diagram for the system upon increased from 15 to 58% by weight. Linn et a1.
varying the ratio Brij 96:propylene glycol, Within the compared delivery through hairless mouse skin of cetyl
microemulsion region, zones of different viscosity, alcohol and octyl dimethyl PABA from water-in-oil
labeled as fluid (F) or gel (G) can be observed. The. microemulsions and macroemulsions. The delivery of
mieroemuision region becomes smaller as the cusurfac- these compounds from mieroemulsions was faster and
tant concentration increases. According to the re- showed deeper penetration into the skin than delivery
searchers, the transition from fluid microemulsion to from the macroemulsions. The authors reviewed a
gel-like microemulsion may be due to the change in the number of studies on the delivery of drugs from the
nature and shape of the internal oil phase. Thus, at low microemulsions. These reports, including several pat-
water content the internal phase consists of spherical ents, dealt with the incorporation of fluorocarbons as
structures, whereas at higher water concentration the blood substitutes and for the topical delivery of aritihy-
interfacial film expands to form gel-like cylindrical and pertensive and antiintlammatory drugs. Microemul-
laminar structures. As the water content is further sions presently are used in cosmetic science, 59 foods,
increased, aqueous continuous systems of low viscosity dry cleaning, and wax polishing products.5°
with internal phases of spherical structures (droplets)
are again formed.
The droplet average molecular weight of a micro- SEMISOLIDS
emulsion can be measured by light-scattering tech-
niques (see Chapter 15, p. 399). Since the internal phase Gels. A gel is a solid or semisolid system of at least
is not usually very dilute, the droplets interact with one two constituents, consisting of a condensed mass en-
another, resulting in a decrease in the turbidity. Thus, closing and interpenetrated by a liquid. When the
the effective diameter obtained is smaller than the coherent matrix is rich in liquid, the product is often
actual droplet diameter. The latter can be obtained called a jelly. Examples are ephedrine sulfate jelly and
from a plot of the effective diameter (obtained at the common table jellies. When the liquid is removed
various dilutions of the microemulsion) against the and only the framework remains, the gel is known as a
concentration of the internal phase. Extrapolation aerogel. Examples are gelatin sheets, tragacarith rib-
to zero concentration gives the actual diameter. 54 bons, and acacia tears.
Attwood and Ktistis 55 have shown that the extrapola- Gels may be classified either as two-phase or as
tion procedure often cannot be applied, since many single-phase systems. The gel mass may consist of
microemulsions exhibit phase separation on dilution. floccules of small particles rather than large molecules,
They described a procedure to overcome these difficul- as found in aluminum hydroxide gel, bentomte magma,
ties and to obtain true particle diameter using light and magnesia magma, and the gel structure in these
scattering. two-phase systems is not always stable (Figure 18-
Microemulsions have been studied as drug delivery 14a, b). such gels may be thixotropic, forming semisol-
systems. They can be used to increase bioavailability of ids on standing and becoming Liquids on agitation.
drugs poorly soluble in water by incorporation of the On the other hand, a gel may consist of macromole-
drug into the internal phase. Halbert et al. studied cules existing as twisted matted strands (Figure 18-
the incorporation of both etoposide and a methotrexate 14'c). The units are often bound together by stronger
diester derivative in water-in-oil microemu.lsions as types of van der Waals forces so as to form crystalline
potential carriers for cancer chemotherapy. Etoposide and amorphous regions throughout the entire system,
was rapidly lost from the microemulsiori particles, as shown in Figure 18-14d. Examples of such gels are
whereas 60% of the methotrexate diester remained tragacanth and carboxymethylcellulose. These gels are
incorporated in the internal phase of the microemulsion. considered to be one-phase systems since no definite
The methotrexate diester microemnisions showed an in boundaries exist between the dispersed macromole-
vitro cytotoxic effect against mouse leukemia cells. cules and the liquid.
ficroemulsions have also been considered as topical Gels may be classified as inorganic and organic. Most
drug delivery systems. Osborne et al. 57 studied the inorganic gels can be characterized as two-phase sys-
Chanter IC Coo nc Dzsrersfrnt 45
C
alcohol hvdrogel for recta] administration that has a C
200
porous, tridimension3i network structure with high
C'-
water content. The reiease of indomethacin from the gel 80 100
0 20 4C 60
foliowed Fickian diffusion over a period of 10 hours.
'lime (riours,
Example B-6. The release fraction F of isdometkiacin in 0.49 at
- 240 min- Compute the diilussonal exponent. it Iaowzng that k - Fig 18- 15. Swelling iss-othermst of gelatin at two tempe ratures: •at
3.1255 min. 25 C: Oat 20ib C. Swelling is measured as t h e increase in weight of
gelatin stripe in buffer solution alter various times. The points a and
b of this figure are discussed on p. 490. (From C. id Omner, Ill and
91 Sämou. J. Phaz-m. S. 72. 790, 198C. reproduced with permission
See Problem 10-11 for calculation Of the rate constant, k. of the copyright owner.)
Compute the initial swelling rate and the equilibrium swetiing. In D = in D. - .j - i) (18-12)
A regression of 11W agathst I gives
r- (a)
i-
(b)
lnF - thk 1n49-inS.1lat
In
8.892 - 1.149
71 = .
o.481
=0.8
In Z40
Fig. 18-14. Representations of gel structures. (a) Flocculated Syneresis and Swelling. When a gel stands for some
particles in a two-phase gel structure, fbI Network of elongated time, it often shrinks naturally, and some of its liquid is
particles or rods forming a gel structure. (c) Matted fibers as found in pressed out. This phenomenon, known as syneresu, is
soap gels. (d) Crystalline and amor phous regions in a gel of
carboxvrnethyiceliulosc. (After H. R. Kruv. Cal id Scsenct. Vol. 11. thought to be due to the continued coarsening of the
Elsene. New Yot-c. 1949.) matrix or fibrous structure of the ge with a consequent
squeezing-out effect. Syneresis is observed in table
tems, while organic gels belong to the single-phase class jollies and gelatin desserts. The term "bleecizng" used in
since the condensed matrix is dissolved in the liquid connection with the liberation of oil or water from
medium to form a homogeneous gelatinous mixture. ointment bases usually results from a deficient gel
Gels may contain water, and these are called hydrogets, structure rather than from the contraction involved in
or they may contain an organic li q uid, in which case syneresis.
they are called orgaowgels. Gelatin gel belongs to the The opposite of syneresis is the taking up of liquid by
former class, while petrolatum falls in the latter group. a gel with an increase in volume. This phenomenon is
Hvdrogeis retain significant amounts of water but known as swelling. Gels may also take up a certain
remain water-insoluble and, because of these proper- amount of liquid without a measurable increase in
ties, are often used in topical drug design. The diffusion volume, and this is called imbibition. Only those liquids
rate of a drug depends on the phy sical structure of the that solvate a gel can bring about swelling. The swelling
polymer network and its chemical nature. if the gel is of protein gels is influenced by pH and the presence of
highly h ydrated, diffusion occurs through the pores. In electrolytes.
gels of lower hydration, the drug dissolves in the Other and Schott studied the kinetics of swelling of
polymer and is transported betweer. the thains.61 gelatin by measuring the increase in weight of short
Gross-linking increases the hydrophobicity of a gel and rectangular strips of gelatin fIlms after immersion in
diminishes the diffusion rate of the dra g . The fractional buffer solutions as a function of timli. t. A plot of the
release F of a drug from a gel at time I may be weight. W. in grains of aqueous buffer absorbed per
expressed in general as grain of dry gelatin against t in hr gives the swelling
isotherms (Fig. 18-15). The horizontal portions of the
F = = (18-9) two isotherms corresp ond to equilibrium sweihng. To
(In') 10 20 30 40 50
C (g1)
0.0182 0.0197 0.0212 00227 0.0242
36
C
Compute the rigidity index f, at time zero and the rate constant k, at
65' C.
•0
o 2C The regression of 1/f versus t gives the equation
000 38.9g
0 0 20 30
Temperature (C) The force seeded to depress the gelatin surface has decreased from its
original value, f0 59.9 g. Therefore, gelatin lost rigidity after
Fig. 18-18. The temperature coeflicien: of thixotropy of Fiastibase heating for 60 how-s.
(E. E. Suuiob and Sons) and petrolatum. (After A. H. C. Chun, M. S.
thesis, Purdue University, June, 1956.) The effect of temperature on the rate constant kfcan
be expressed using the Arrhenius equation,
the worker in the production plant can better control L-= A€ 7 (18-15)
the uniformity of the finished product, and the derma- Thus, a plot of in k1 against VT gives the Arrhenius
tologist and patient can be assured of a base that constant A and the energy of activation E. (see
spreads evenly and smoothly in various climates, yet Problem 18-15).
adheres well to the affected area and is not LaclW or Fassihi and Parker" measured the change in the
difficult to remove. rigidity index If of 15 to 40% gelatin gel. USP type B.
Rigidity and viscosity are two separate parameters before and after gamma irradiation (which is used to
used to characterize the mechanical properties of gels. sterilize the gelatin). They found that the rigidity index
Ling 70 studied the effect of temperature on rigidity and diminished with irradiation and that the kinetics of
viscosity of gelatin. He used arigidity index, f, which is rigidity degradation is ccmpiex. For gels containing
defined as the force required to depress the gelatin more than 20% gelatin, the rigidity dex follows a
surface a ftxed distance- To measure rigidity, a sample sgmoidal curve at increasing radiation . uses, as shown
Of gelatir, solution or gel mass is subjected to penetra- in Ftc-ui-c 1S-19-Gelatin is widel y used ir. table:
tive compression by a fiat-ended cylindrical plunger manufacturing as a binder to convert fine powders into
that operates at a constent speed. lr, thts method, the granules. The loss of rigidity index reduced the binding
strain rate (rate of deformation of the gel) is constant properties of gelatin and decreased the hardness of
and independent of stress (force applied). Ling found lactose granules prepared with irradiated gelatin;
that thermal degradation with respect to rigidity These workers suggested that doses of gamma radia-
followed second-order Idneucs. tion should be held to less than 2 megarad (Mi-ad) to
-dud) = k .f" (18-13) obtain gelatins of acce ptable quality for pharmaceutical
applications.
The integral fo r m of equation (I8-13) is Universe of Topical Medications. Katz hasdevised a
"universe of topical medications" (Fig. 18-20), by
- - = (18-14) which one can consider the various topical medications
such as pastes, absorption bases, emulsified products,
where f is the riqidity index of the gelatin solution or lotions, and suspensions. The basic components of most
gelatin gel at time t, f, is the rigidity index at time zero, dermatologic preparations are powder, water, oil, and
is the rate constant (" hr - '), and is the heating emulsifier. Beg-inning at A on the 'universai wheel" of
time in hours, where g stands for gram. The quantities Figure 18-20, one is confronted with the simple
f and k1 can be computed from the intercept and the powder medication, used as a protective, drying agent,
slope of equation (18-14) at a given temperature. and lubricant and as a carrier for locally applied drugs-
rugs
Fig. 18-20. Universe of topical medication. (From M. Katz. Design C = C,KSl(k 1 i- KS) (18-20)
of topical drug products, in Drag Design. E. J. Ariens, Ed., Academic
Press. New York, 1973, re p roduced with permission of the copyright and the amount of drugs remaining in suspension at
owner.) large values of 1 is
DRUG DIFFUSION IN COARSE DISPERSE SYSTEMS in which Q is the amount of drug released per unit area
of application. C. is the initial concentration in the
The release of drugs suspended in ointment bases can ointment, D r is the effective diffusion coefficient of the
be calculated from the Higuchi equation (p. 336): drug in the ointment, and t is the time after application.
Q [D(2A — C,)C,t)1' ( 18-24) For a small volume of the internal phase,
____ (KD2—D\1
where Q is the amount of drug released at time t per I (18-26)
unit area of exposure, C r is the solubility of the drug in
mass units per cm' in the ointment, and A is the total where the subscripts I and 2 refer to the external and
concentration, both dissolved and undissolved, of the internal phases, respectively, and K is the partition
drug. D is the diffusion coefficient of the drug in the coefficient between the two phases. When D2 >> D3,
ointment (cm 2lsec).
iga et al 76 studied the effect of ethyl rnyrist.ate on D 1 (l ±Sbs)
(18-27)
the release rate of 4-hexy1resorCinOl from a petrolatum - K4
base at pH 7.4 and temperature 37 C. They found that
the release rats was proportional to the square root of D. the effective diffusion coefficient, is obtained from
the relea e studies (equation (18-25)). and D 3 can be
s
time, according to the Higuchi equation. Increasing
computed from equation (16-27) if one knows the
concentrations of ethyl myristate enhanced the release
rate of the drug owing to the increase of drug solubility, volume fraction of the external and internal phases,
and 4, respectively. The drug is released according tc
C, in the ointment (see equation (18-24)). This behav- two separate rates: an initial nonlinear and a linear
ior was attributed to formation of 1:3 and 1:2 com-
diffusion-controlled rate (Fig. 15-22). The initial rates
plexes between hexyiresorcinol and ethyl myristate.
extending over a period of 30 minutes are higher than
Example 18-12. The solubility of hexyiresorcinol is petrolatum the diffusion-controlled rates owing to the larger trans-
base is 0.680 mgicni 3 . Alter addition of 6% ethyl myristate, the ference of drug directly to the skin from the surface
solubility C, of the drug is 3.753 mg/cm'. Compute the amount Q of globules. The high initial rates provide immediate
thug re)eae.ed after 10 hours. The diffusion coeThcientD is 1.31 x availability of the drug for absorption, in addition, the
cn,m.ec and the initial concentration A is 15.748 mg'isr.3.
release of drug from the external phase contributes to
Q [1.31 x 10 < cm 3 /sec [(2 x 11.748 mgicm3 ) - 0.68 mg1cm9[ 2 x the initial rates. Eeuation (15-25) is applicable only to
the linear portion of the graph where the process
(10 3< 3600) secI 0.098 mg/cm becomes diffusion-controlled [sec Fig. 15-22),
0.68 mg/cm' 3<
Alter addition of 10% ethyl mynstate Example 18- 73. Compute the amount of lonapalene released per
cxc i after f c 24 hours from a 0.5% sin' emulsified olnuneni.. The
cm 3/sec 1(2 5 15.748 mg/cm 3 ) - 3.753 mg/crn] x internal phase of the ointment consmLs of the drug eoiubilized in a
Q [1.31 x 10- 1 propyiene carbonate-propylene g)ycol mixture and the external
phase is a white pei.rolatum-glyceryl monoetearate-whit was
[3.753 mg/cs', 3 x (10 x 3600) sec) 0.222 mg;cm mixture. The vaiume fraction of the internal p hase 4 ., is 0.028. the
diffusion coethoent of the drug in the external pease is Li = 2.60 5
The release of a solubilized drug from emulsion-type 10 < cm 2 iaec. and the partition coefficient K
between the internal and
creams and ointments depends on the drug's initial external onsam is 68.
concentration, it is also a function of the diffusion From eouatsen (15-27). the effective diffusion coefficiem is
coefficien t of the drug in the external phase. the
partition coefficient between the interns) and exerna[
phases, and the -volume fraction of the internal phase, If
the drug is completely solubilized in a minimum amount so-
of solvent, the release from the vehicle is faster than r.
is from a suspension-type vehicle.
Ong and Manoukiar. r studied the delivery of Ions-
palene, a non-s teroidal antipsonatie drug, from an
ointment. varvng the initial concentration of drug and <. 40-
v • -
is the partition coefficient between the membrane and The total amount released from the emulsion consists
the aqueous la yer. The subscripts a and tot stand for of an initial stead y -state portion from which the release
aqueous layer and membrane, respectively. Equation rate can be computed- When the formulation is thici<.
(18-29) is analogous to equation (13-55) (p. 338) except ened with carbomer 934P (carbopo]), a gel results. The
that the constant 2 in the denominator has been release rate from the gel and the emulsion is compared
eliminated in this case because we consider onl y one in Figure 18-24- in the gel, the release rate continu-
aqueous layer (Fig. 18-24). ously decreases, owing to the formation of a depletion
Example 78-74. Compute the total permeability F of a 1:1.3 ratio zone in the gel. The thickness of the stagnant diffusion
of lidocoine-prlocaine in the form of a eutectic mixture. The layer next to the membrane increases to such a degree
thickness of the aqueous and membrane layers are 200 e.ni and 127 that the release process becomes vehicle controlled.
oar. respectively. The diffusion coef5cent and the partition coefS After 1 hour, the amount delivered is a function of the
xient of the drugs at the membrane-aqueous lasers are as follows:
lidocatns, D 8.96 s 10' em°'sec, D,. 2.6 x 10'' anisec, and K square root of time, and the apparent diffusion coeffi-
9.1; prilocaine, D. 9.14 > 10' em'/sec D_, = 3 x I0' cm°/sec, cient in the gel can be computed from the Higucln
and K 4.4. equation (equation (18-24)). The release process is both
For lidocoine, according to equation (16-29), membrane layer and aqueous layer controlled for
121 x 10' - 200 x 10-1 cc nongelled systems (emulsions). See page 338 and
2.6 > 10 c?n2,oec x 9.1 8.96 x i° cn1ooc 339 for a descrip tion of membrane and aqueous layer
= 7599.8 seeders control. For gelled systems the initia l release is also
P = 1/7599.8 1.32 x 10- cot/sec membrane layer and aqueous la yer controlled, but
For prilocaine, later, at t> 1 hour, the release becomes formulation or
vehicle controlled, that is, the slowest or rate-
127 x 10 xis 200 x 10" cc
determin-ing step in the diffusion of the drug is passage through
P3 X 1O" cmt/eer )< 4.4 9.14 a 10_ i cm2,5er
the vehicle.
11809.2 Sec/em
P 1/11809.2 8.47 a 10 cm/sec References and Notes
The permeability of the n05ure P 7 can be calculated from the I. K. 3. Frederick, J. Pttarni. Sc. 50, 531, 1961.
proportion of each eontponenL" Since the proportion of lidocame is 1. 2. J. C. Sanvii., J. Pliarm. Sc.. 50. 517, 1961.
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4. W. Schneider, S. Suvehansky, and A. Martin, Air.. J. Pharrs.
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7. E. N. Hiestand,.J. Ploarm. Sd. 53, 1, 1964.
40
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30
11. A. tielgads, V. Ga1rdo, J. Salcedo and F. Gonza)ez .Cabaiiero, 2.
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22. A. ietmerater, G. U. Kuebt yak. S Konoi and C,.]. Feinteister.
C
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Chapter (8 • Course Dispersno'iz 581
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39. H. L. Crennwaiti, J. Soc. Cusmet. Cheni, 6, 164. 1955. 65. H. Schott, 3. Pharrn. Sri. 65. 855. 976.
36. A. King, Trans. Farada y Soc. 17, 168, 1941. .943. K. A1-Khaxnss, S. S. Davis and.!. Haiigrait, Ir.:. 3. Pharm. 40,
37. E. L. Knoechei and D. E. Warmer, J. Am. Pharrn. Assoc., Sd. 111. 1987.
Ed. 45, 1. 1959.
32. W. Ostwald, Kollojd 2. 1, 103, 1910: 7, 64. 1910.
Problems
39. S. Magdassi and A. Siman . Tov. lot. J. Pharm. 59. 69, 1990.
40. 0. L. Johnson. C. Washington, S. S. Davis and K. Schaupp, lot. 18-1. A. hypothetical suspension contains I0 spherical particles of
J. Pharrn. 53, 237, 1959. diameter d 10' cm. (a) .&..aausning that the interracial tension
41. C. Washington, A. Chawla, N. Christy and S. S. Davis, lot. J. between the solid and t he liquid is nç., = 100 dynelcrn. compute the
Pharrn. 54. 191, 1989. * total surface free energy. G. (hi The solid particles are divided to
42. H. Schott and A. E. Ro yce, J. Pharin. Sd. 72, 1477. 1983. obtain 100 particles from each initial particle. Compute the increase in
43. 3. A. Serrallach, G. Jones and K. J. Owen, Ind. F.ni. Them. 25,
the total surface area and the total surface free energy G' for the
816. 1933.
44. A. King and L. N. Mukherjee.J. Soc. Chew, In']. 58, 243T, 1519. divided particles. Hint: Compute the volume of a particle to get its
45. P. Finkle. H. D. Draper and J. H. Hildebrand, J. Am. Chem. new radius and surface area. Assume that the density of the particle
Soc. 45, 2780, 1923. is unity.
46. H. Schott and A. E. Royce, J. Pharm. Sd. 72, 313, 1983. Answers. (a) G = 0.314 erg: (b) G' 1.45 erg
47. K. C. Merrill, Jr., In']. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed. 15, 7'13, 1943. 18-2. A coarse powder with a true density of 2.44 glcm 3 and a
48. K. R. Garrett, J. Phar,n. Sd. 51, 35, 1962; R. B. Void and R. C.
Groot, J. Phys. Chem. 66, 1969, 1962: K. B. Vold and K. L.
mean diameter'] of 100 urn was dispersed in
2% carbosymethylcel-
of 1.010 g/cm 3 . The viscosity of
lulose dispersion having a density p
Mittal. J. Pharrn. Sd. 61, 869, 1972; S. J. Rehfeld, J. Coil. the medium at low shear rate was 27 poises. Using Stokes' law.
Interface Sd. 46, 448. 1974.
calculate the average velocity of sedimentation of the powder in
49. N. Garti, S. Magdassi, and A. Rubenstein, Drug Dcv. hid.
Pharrn. 8, 475, 1982. cm/sec.
50. D. L. Wedderburn, in Advances in Phormuceutical Sciences, Answer: 2.9 x 127 cm'sec
Vol. 1, Academic Press, London, 1964. p. 195. 18-3. Using Stokes' law, compute the velocity of sedimentation in
51. P. Sherman, J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 16, 1, 1964. cm/sec of a sample of zinc oxide having an average diameter of I im
52. P. Sherman, Ed., P.heologij of Emulsions, Pergarnon Press, (radius of S x 10"° cml and a true density p of 2.5 g?cm 3 in a
Oxford. 1068. suspending medium having a density p, of 1.1 g(cm' and a Newtonian
r
53. K. Shir,oda and H. Kunieda, J. Cull. Inte fface Sci. 42, 381, 1973: viscosity of 5 poises.
K. Shinoda and Friberg, Adv. Coil. Inter ace Sd. 44, 281. 1915. An.owe'r: 1.5 x 30corrisec
54. N. J. Kale and J. V. Alien, Jr., lot. J. Pharin. 57, 87, 1989.
18-4. (a) Using the modified Stokes' expression, equation (18-3),
55. D. Attwood and C. Ktistis. Ent. 3. Pharin. 52, 165. 1939.
56. G. W. Halbert, J. F. B. Stuart and A. T. Florence, Inc. J. Pharn,. compute the n value and v of a suspension of kaolin that contains
21. 219, 1984. tragacanth as a flocculating agent. The variation of the rate of fall si
57. D. W. Osborne, A. J. 1. Ward and K. J. O'Neill, Drug Des. 1n4. measured at the sedimentation boundary, and the initial porosity
Pharm. 14, 1203, 1988. (dimensionless) are given in the following table;
58. E. E. Linn, H. C. Ponland and T. K. Byrd, Drug 0ev. Ind.
Pha.rrn. 16, 899, 1990. Data for Problem 18-4'
59. H. L. Rosario, J. Soc. Coamet. Chem. 25, 601, 1974.
60. L. M. P'r.nce, Ed.. ,lfi.croexnulnions. Theory mid Pructice, 0.90 0.95 0.97 0.99
Academic Press, New York. 1977. Le
61. J. H. Wood and J. H. Collett, Drug Des. lad. Pharrn. 9. 93, 1983. O.415j
' lcao/socl 0. 0016.4 0.035 0.127
62. C. Washington, lot. J. Pharin. 58. I. 1990. L
63. K. Morsrnoto, A. Magnyasu, S. Fukancin, K. Morisaka, S.-H.
Data estimated from F. S. .SJe,sander. J. Ansi. B. DoUinscre aM F. A.
Hyon and Y. Ikada. Pharm. Ken. 6, 338, 1989.
Paid. Drag 0ev. Ind. Pharrn. 15.2598. 1989.
64. C. M. Oir.er [II and H. Schott, J. Pharro. Sd. 75, 790, 1986.
65. C. M. Other 111 and H. Schott, J. Ph.arrn. Sd. 75, 715, 1987.
66. J. H. Kou, G. L. Arnidon and P. L. Lee, Pharm. Res. 5, 592, (b) Compute the Stokes' diameter. d,,, of the flocs. The density of
1585. kaolin is 3.15 gem'. Assume that the density and the viscosity of the
67. P. Casparin and K. W. Meyer. Pharni. Acts. Rely. 10, 183, 1935.
68. H. B. Kostenbauder and A. Martin, J. Am. Pharon. Aasoc.. Sin. aqueous medium, respectively. are 1 g/dm' and 0.01 poises. Hint: See
Ed. 43, 401, 1954. the paper by Alexander et al. refer-red to in the table above. These
59. A. H. C. Chun, H. S. Thesis. Purdue
' IJoiversity. Jose. 1955. workers obtain 'a as we slope and si,,. the Stokes '.e(octy of
70. W. C. Ling. J. Pharrn. Sd. 67. 218. 1979. sedimentation, an the intercept of a p lot of logs' (y-axis) versus tog
redisperved.
nomiung
2 a 10 -13.3
-8.83
10 -6.09 1-:
0.0 0.144 Cisar floccine
formation.
eassy
recuspersed,
Ino caking
L5xIC 11.2 -
- j-
2J a Jl° 11.7 0.121 Ciear Floccuic
formation
5.0 a 11] : 21.1 0.123 Clear initially but
PCxibie
a 10 24.1 , 0.140 Clear eaking later
need grants pacer with a four-cycle log scale on the horizontal axis 18-10. A series of mineral nil emtaialsrna was prepared using
Jour -cycle semilog paper) for the concentration of the AICI 5 solution. various combinations of Span SI) and Tween 80 Atlas. iCi). The
IS- 7. Schott" studied the flocculation of bismuth subnitrste Span- Tweenratio of the best emulsion was found to be 40i50.
diameter :1 ivmi in aqueous suspension by bentorute plateiets Compute the HLB of this mixture. S p an SI) has in HLB of 4.3 and
diameter 12 5 m. The negatively cnarged bentomta plates are Tweena iii) an HLB of 150 H:':i: The HUB contributions of each
adsorbed on and coat the mucri larger positively charged and emulsuier are obtalnevi by .'nultioiying the HLI3 of the agent by the
sth-siiapeO (i.e., thin plate-like bodiesi bismuth aubnitrate particles. rsCtiGn it contr,butes to the emuisiher Phase.)
.4naxvrr: HLB 10.7.
Use the data in the accompanying table to plot the sedimentation
t 18-11. (a) Calculate the required KL,B. abbreviated RHLR, for
volume in milliliters and the ze a potential against the weight ratio of
bentonute- bismuth subnitrate. the oil phase in the oil-in-water lotion:
Ia) Explain the significance of the sedimentation volume and the Ilineral oil. light LI) g
:eta potential curves. Petrolaturn 25
fbI Show the regions of the diagram where caking and tioncaking Stearic acid IS
would be ex pected to occur. Beeswax 5
(c) Explain how it is possible for bentonite to act as a flocculating Emulsifier 2
agent similar to an electrolyte such as AICI 5 or potassium phosphate. Preservative 0.2
Partial Answer: (h) See pages 462 to 4513 of the text; (c) Seed. Water 42.8
Pharrn. Sri. 15. 255. 1976. Penl'jme 1.0.
Data for Problem 18-7: Hint: Multiply the percentage (actually the fraction, which is the
Sedimentation Volumes and Zeta Potential of Eonton.ite-Bisniuth
Subr,itrate Mixtures percentage divided by 100) of each oil p na.se ingredient by its RHLB
(Table 14-61 and sum to obtain the RHLB for the lotion.
Sediment Ib) Calculate the amount in grains of an emulsifier pair, Tiveen fi)
Bismuth Volume and Arlacel 50, to produce a stable oil-in-waver emulsified lotoo. The
Mixture Bentonite Subnicrate Weight (after milli- [dUB of Tween 60 is 14.9 and that of Arlacel 60 is 4.7.
number q, ('NW) %('.ij('([) Ratio' 18 '> volts (c) State how you would cconsine the ngredients to produce a
I
stable product.
1 0 13.18 0 5 Answers.' (a) RHLB of the nil phase = 11.88; (h) Tween 60 1.4
grams: Arlacel 60. 0.6 gram.
2 0.00114 13.13 S.,35 x 10"° 1 5 26.8 18- 12. The rate conotant k and the diffusional exponent is of
equation 18-9) can be obtained respectively from the intercept and
3 0.00568 13.18 4.3 x 10 •' 6 +30.2 the slo pe ofa plot of In F versus In I, where F = (MM0) x 100 is the
fractional release of drag from a gel le.opressed as percentage). M
4 0.0114 13.18 3.62 x 10'° 6.5 +6.8 being the initial amount of drug and M the amount released at
time I. Assume the following results for the delivery of a drug from
5 0.0568 13.18 4.35 x L0' 1 7 ...104 a gel:
15 0.932 7.90 1.18 x 10_i 59 -30.6 F (%) 6.28 10.21 19.38 1 31.49 51_1^
5
i
intercept (I/A). Alse. calculate the eçnsiiibriu'n SlorLZsnfJ i.e.. the A) is the concentration remaining at the var ous times, 1 (days).
maiQThUm uptake of the solution of the cationic compound. which it According to the labels, the products are stable for 2 weeks when
given by the reciprocal of the slope (11B). (See example M-7 and refrigerat ed at 5 C. Toe US? requires that the products contain not
Figure 18-15.) less than 90% and not more than 120% of the label claimat this time.
(b) Compute the percent increase or decrease in the W value for (a) Compute the apparent zero-order rate constants. k, (mg/5
cylpyromniuxn chloride in gelatin at 4 hours with respect to the mL)/day and the initial concentration in (mg'S nsL) of brands B and E
increase in the W value for plain gelatin at the same tame. For gelatin. at the time of reconstitution.
(It) Compute the time at which the products decompose to 90% of
hours x gram gelatin their original concentration (i.e., a decomposition of )0'=). Do the
A 0.0755 gram solution susnensions meet the rated requirements under the storage condi-
and B = 0.132 (gram gelathtl/(gramsolution'. tions?
(c) Repeat part (b) for a buffered solution of an anionic compound, Ansu'ero (a)t, 7.758 (mg/S mL)/day (Brand B) and 2.815 (mg/5
dinloxaduin soul/urn, with respect to plain gelatin. For this anionic mL)iday (Brand E): (b) i 3.9 days (Brand B) and 10.6 days (Brand
compound, B) at 5' C. Product E satisfies the Label claim.
X grain gelatin 16-17. Compute the energy of activation E. for the neutral,
A 0.0310 hour acid-catalyzed, and base-catalyzed hydrolysis of fluocmnolone ace-
grain solution
tumide in an oil-water emulsion. The rate constants are:"
and B = 0.110 (gram gelatin)/(gram solution). Regression analysis
may be used in solving this probleir. Data for Problem 18-77
Answers; (a) 1/A initiaJ swelling rate 9.9 gThr: 1/B
equilibrium swelling 6.7 (g eo)uuorzg gelatin): (bl -137c, a Temperature ('C' 80 50 40 21/
decrease; Ic) 22.2%. an mcreas
18-14. The diffusion coefficients D of phenylprcipaxiolamine in kfi (M" month') 759 72.5 44.7 1.32
swollen poly(hydroxyethy) methacrylate .co-methacrrlic acid) bydrt,-
gels were measured at several p11 values, corresponding to different k0,- (M month) 16617.0 13.6 [ 0.372
gel hydration values, lTeu:
F), (month) 0.120 0.0116 0.0007J 0.00117
Data for Probdere 28-14
Plot Q (vertical a)is) against t. Compute the release rate (in,- err.
in in D,kc( 1 hr°) of the drug from the slope, according to the Higunhi equation
16-24. Compute the diffusion coefficient knowing that A is 20 mgicntt
Answer: ii., 2.354: D, 1.81 x iO' cntu,sec and the apparent solubility C, of the drug in the ointment is 2. 12.,
16-15. The values of the In of the rate constant 6 in gram,-' mgicm5. A is the total concentration of the drug, dissolved are
'hours for the rigidity breakdown of a 6% gelatin solution versus the undissolved."
reciprocal of absolute temperature was found to Answer: Release rate = 11 20's mg cm h: Li 1.3
Data for Problem 18-15 15" cio'tfni' or M. x 20n cmnier
16-25. Tne diffusion onefOcier.: of salicylic acid d,sr'ersed is
(itT 2.9-- 2.95 3.0)' lit' 2,22 Pia.stlbase ve'r.icie found to van , with tne particle size of saiic'riic
acid. For particiesof8hpamisdnnieter.D i.11x 10 cmt,sec and
for particles of 5.1 u.nl m dianwtec. ill 1.85 X 20u cm'/sec. where
In 6 -5.978 -6.429 -6.881 - 7 . 783 -6.235 D is the diffusion coeffjoeiit (The diffusion coefficients and solubility
are from A1 . Kliamis cLaLM Compute the amount of drug released per
unit aresat I 9 hr for ban particle sizes using the Higucri
Compute the activation energy. E,, for npdity degradation. Express (
expression. equation 16-2.41. The initial amount or drug is A 60<
use result in the Arrbeniun exponential form iglcznt . and the solubilicy of the drug jr the vehicle is C, 495is
Answer: E, 17939 minle; 6 5.935 s 10° IThRT i,p
ii.g/cin t . is the drug release larger Or smaller when the particle size
hour-) reouced7
IS- 16- Toe results of a mability study of two brands. B and B. of Answe.' Q (88 SiJIS I 112 ji;frcirZ: Q (5.1 usn/cjn° 141 g/c&
arnp)ciliin suspension at 5' C afsr reconstitution of use product are: 16-21). In an effort to oesmne use amount of emsusidier Ia soap
Data for Problem J9_J• such as sodium st.earaze) reqUIred to prepare a SabiE mineral oi.
emulsion, one must ask the loliowing questions. (Answer each
t(days) 2 4 6 6 10 question. (a) through (gi. to arrive at the grains of soap for a 100
emulsion containing oil globule.' of I ,m.m (I a 10' mn) diameter. Toe
[A) Brand B I 204.49 1 209-97 253.46 237.84 emulsion contains 50 & of .)
(ingimL)
I
Brand E 29L37 2SR74 ZS3 .11 277.48 271.81
(a) Toe diameter oføsalglobuleis. on the average. 1 sun. What
to the surface area of each gsile7 Show all caiculationt.
(6)11 the cross-asetsiaml area of a wan molecule is 25 k bow inam
•r)aia celi(sind from rate ai SI. A. Bora*, S A. E(-Fattai soap molecules can be pheed a n the surface of each oil droplet to cover
AM H. M. itean. Drug lies. lad. Pris. 14. at). 19. The mneentrauan'
have b.i mof,ed .ixsr it with a Layer one moecu(e thick?
Chiapier 18 Coarse Dispersions 511
Cc) Uwe produce an emulsion containing 50 em' o(oil and 3)3cm 3 of Or less soa p to cover the 50cm 3 of oil globules with a Layer one soap
water with the oil reduced to partides oil jam diameter, how many molecule thick?
oil globules are there in the 100 cm' emulsion? The density of the oil Answers. Ia) 314 x 10" cm°.'oil globule. ib) 12A million soap
is ASO 'cm". molecules around ench oil globule. id ApproxLmar.ely 100 trillion
dl How many molecules of scan (sodium otearatel are required to drooieaa of oil. (d) 1.26 iv 10 soa p molecules for the 100cm 1 emulsion
cover all the nsjneroi oil gioboies with a monola yer of sijan niolecsues? wh.ich contains Si) em" of oil). ci A p prsxsmae,y 3)3 iv l0'° groin
Ce) What s the welgflt in grams of each of the soa p molecules? Hint: soammolecule. if) About 0.6 grams of osap (or t his IIYJ cm' irur.erai oil
You will reed toe moiecuiar weight of scuium stearate. emulsion.
if) How many gruirn of soap isodium stearatei are required to 18-21 Name one commercial orol100t or LtSP . NF p renarsUon as
cover Oe 50 crrs of oii iiroolel.s with a monolayer of soa p molecules? an exam Die of' sm c:sss of topical reeoics'Jors found in Figure 18-20.
(g) Scati-statoiszed commercial emulsions ordinarily contain Ito 2 .-t tisrimugh J.
percent of soso. Therefore. Ito 2 grams should be plenty for a 100 Pirzsci .-lno-w-. For D. aboortiU g n bases, hydrooiuiic petrolatum
cm 1 ernu.sLors containing oil particles of I Sin diameter. if the oil of the CSP . NF is a good exis.-cpie.
particles were larger, say 10 em on the average, would we need more