Thales

 Outward Philosophy

Thales (the "father of Western philosophy"), initiated a search for the

fundamental substance of all matter. Thus did Western philosophy begin with the field
of science (aka "natural philosophy").

Parmenides

 Inward Philosophy

Parmenides, the first major practitioner of "inward philosophy"; that is, philosophy
that examines the mind itself (as opposed to the "outward philosophy" of the natural
sciences). He argued, like so many philosophers since, that we cannot trust our sensory
perceptions to accurately inform us of reality; dreams and hallucinations, for instance,
illustrate how misleading our senses can be.

Socrates

 Persistent Critical Reflection

Socrates is remembered primarily for his tireless campaign that philosophers

should constantly reexamine their beliefs, in order to clarify vague arguments and
purge logical inconsistencies. This notion of persistent critical reflection constitutes his
outstanding contribution to Western thought.

As the people in the School of Education would say, the Socratic teacher is not
"the sage on the stage." In the Socratic method, there are no lectures and no need of
rote memorization. But neither, as you might expect, is the Socratic teacher "the guide
on the side."

Plato

 Theory of Forms

At the core of Plato's philosophy is the theory of forms, which asserts that every
physical thing is merely an approximation of an eternal, non-physical "form". Although
this theory (which Plato inherited from Socrates) may sound odd today (given our
modern scientific perspective), it proved massively influential throughout the history of
Western thought.
  Philosopher Kings

Plato did not limit himself to lofty, abstract metaphysics, however. His most
revered work, the Republic, is the founding document of Western political thought. It
provides a detailed proposal for an ideally governed society, which features the
absolute rule of its wisest members ("philosopher kings").

According to Plato, a philosopher king is a ruler who possesses both a love of

wisdom, as well as intelligence, reliability, and a willingness to live a simple life.

Aristotle

 Four Causes

The most famous concept within Aristotle's philosophy may be the four causes.
(In this context, "cause" means "aspect".) As noted above, Aristotle argued that
understanding of the universe is rooted in careful observation. The "four causes" are the
four observable aspects of any particular thing. To be specific, the four causes of a
thing are the material it is made of, the form the material takes, the cause of the thing
coming into being, and the purpose of the thing.

ARISTOTLE'S "FOUR CAUSES"

material form cause purpose

(material cause) (formal cause) (efficient cause) (final cause)

horse flesh, bone, etc. horse parents mating to grow and thrive

chair wood chair carpenter to be sat upon

 Three Forms of Government

His Politics (Aristotle's chief work of political thought, and one of the two foremost
ancient works of political philosophy, along with Plato's Republic) famously identifies
three basic types of government: rule by one (monarchy/tyranny), rule by a few
(aristocracy/oligarchy), and rule by many (polity/democracy).

Augustine

 Platonic Christian Philosophy

Beyond the world of the senses there is a spiritual, eternal realm of Truth that is
the object of the human mind and the goal of all human striving. This Truth he identified
with the God of Christianity. Human beings encounter this divine world not through the
senses but through the mind—and, above the mind, through the intelligible light.

His De civitate Dei (413–426; The City of God) presents the whole drama of
human history as a progressive movement of humankind, redeemed by God, to its final
repose in its Creator.

 Christian Political Theory

Even though the ostensible reason for the state’s divinely appointed existence is
to assist and bless humankind, there is no just state, says Augustine, because men reject
the thing that best could bring justice to an imperfect world, namely, the teachings of
Christ.

Aquinas

 Aristotelian Christian Philosophy

As a Catholic Thomas believed that God is the "maker of heaven and earth, of
all that is visible and invisible." Like Aristotle, Thomas posited that life could form from
non-living material or plant life.

 Christian Political Theory

As Aquinas argues, God's authorship and active role in prescribing and sustaining
the various natures included in creation may rightfully be called a law. After defining
law as "an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by someone who has
care of the community, and promulgated."