NATIONAL RAILWAYS OF ZIMBABWE

TECHNICAL COLLEGE

COMPUTER SKILLS 2017

Preamble
The subject is designed to develop an artisan with knowledge and enhance computer skills.
Aim
To equip and enhance students with computer skills.
Objectives
By the end of the course the students should be able to:
Demonstrate an understanding of computer functions.
Identify and describe the operation of major computer hardware components.
To set up a personal computer and install software.
Demonstrate methods of handling computer equipment and resources.
Explain different types of software.
Perform operations using appropriate DOS commands.
Use computerized data processing packages to compile process, store and output business
management information.

Topics
Introduction to Computers
Computer Equipment
Computer System Architecture
Configuration
Computer Security
Software
DOS
Windows
Data Processing: Word
Data Processing: Spread sheets

Definition of Terms:
Computer
• An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accepts,
process & output data/information for use by the operator.
 • A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program,
generates results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic,
and control units.
• A Computer is a device that works under the control of stored programs automatically
accepting, storing and processing data to produce information that is the result of that
processing.
• A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes, displays information
and has an ability to store information.

Data

Basically data is a collection of facts from which information may be derived. Data is
defined as an un-processed collection of raw facts in a manner suitable for communication,
interpretation or processing.

• Refers to raw facts which can be in various forms like text, numeric, alpha-
numerical.
• Data is unprocessed information. Basically data is a collection of facts from which
information may be derived.
• Data is defined as an un-processed collection of raw facts in a manner suitable for
communication, interpretation or processing.
Hence data are
- Stored facts
- Inactive
- Technology based
- Gathered from various sources
Information
- Refers to processed data. Information on the other hand is data that has been processed in
such a way as to be meaningful to the person who receives it.
- On the other hand information is a collection of facts from which conclusions may be
drawn. Data that has been interpreted, translated, or transformed to reveal the underlying
meaning. This information can be represented in textual, numerical, graphic, cartographic,
narrative, or audio visual forms.
Hence information is
-Processed facts
-Active
-Business based
-Transformed from data.
Hardware:
Refers to all the physical tangible components of a computer e.g. the Central Processing
Unit (CPU), Visual Display Unit (VDU), keyboard, mouse.
Software:
Refers to the intangible programs which commands/instructs the computer.
Software is a collective term for computer programs and related data files that makes the
hardware run.
 Examples of software are: Operating Software (O.S)
Application Software

Information Technology
• It is an organized combination and use of hardware, software, telecommunications,
database management and other information processing technologies used in a
computer-based information system.
• Information technology transforms data into a variety of useful information products
specifically by the use of a computer.
Information Communication Technology (ICT)

• Refers to all the digital technology in form of computers and communication systems
used to process and transmit information.
• Information services of ICT includes:
Computers SMS MMS IM
Scanners Digital Cameras Software programs
Internet Video conferencing

System
• It is set of interrelated components that work as a unit to perform specific functions. A
computer system therefore consists of input and output devices, primary and storage
devices, the central processing unit, the control unit within the CPU and other
peripherals Hardware- refers to physical components of a computer e.g. CPU,
keyboard, monitor etc.
• Software- various kinds of programs used by computers and related devices e.g.
windows, Microsoft office etc.
Program-

• A set of instructions, written in a specific programming language, which a computer

follows in performing an operation, or solving a logical problem. Data – are raw facts
and figures from which information is produced.

Electronic –Office (E-Office)

• Is a concept meant to reduce to a minimum the amount of paperwork in an office.
• Also known as paperless office.
Advantages of E-Office
1. Easy and fast retrieval of files- e.g. searching for a misfiled client’s record by a
different user.
2. Back –up of files in the event of catastrophes like floods, fires
3. Allows fast and easy transmission of files through e-mails.
Disadvantages of E-Office

1. Security threats – illegal access of confidential information.

2. Files might be distorted by viruses
3. Unemployment – filing clerk, messenger
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
a) Business- for administration, payroll and accounting.
b) Government- keeping database records.
c) Education- Record keeping, accounting and training in the classroom.
d) Health-Record keeping, life-support systems.
e) Sport- fitness monitoring.
f) Art and Design-desktop Publishing, technical graphics, Computer Aided Design.
g) Homes- PCs for home accounts, games, e-mail, online shopping, home education etc.
h) Banks- Record keeping and updating, on-line Automated Teller Machines (ATMs).
i) Supermarkets- Electronic point Of Sale Machines (EPOS) – tills.

COMPUTER LAB RULES (Dos and Don’ts)

Computer lab rules for protecting yourself
• Do not run in the computer room
• Take note of all exists in the room , and also take note of the location of fire
extinguishers in the room for fire safety
• Keep bags and coats in the designated areas, as they can cause people to trip if they
are simply lying around the room
• Do not touch any exposed wires or sockets
• Do not touch the backs of machines when they are switched on.

Computer lab rules for protecting equipment

1. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
2. Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in
order to minimize spread of viruses.
3. Do not plug in external devices without scanning them for computer viruses
4. Always switch off machines if not in use.
5. Does not use chalk in the computer room, dry wipe markers are encouraged.
6. Operate the equipment with respect and care.
7. Software may be installed by Computer Lab staff only
8. Do not run in the computer lab
9. Do not plug peripherals without knowledge, pins may bend and cause device
malfunction
10. Ensure that machines are cleaned regularly, dust may affect machines adversely
11. Do not unscrew your computer when power is on.
12. On-line chatting will be allowed only for academic purposes
13. Access to pornographic sites will not be allowed
14. Do not behave in a manner that affects the ability of others to study.
15. Do not copy any College software. Site licenses must be maintained accurately.
16. Do not delete computer files and other people’s files.

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR AN IDEAL COMPUTER ROOM

ENVIRONMENT.
1. Cleanliness
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates.
3. It should be dust free
4. No carpets, they can catch fire more easily.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed to
direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded
24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against
electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power
failures
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered
16. Room should be spacious to accommodate users, equipment and furniture
17. Smoke detectors to be installed
18. Should be enough power points
19. Room should have comfortable furniture like swivel chairs, foot rests etc.

Basic Elements of the Computer

Processing
Input Control Unit Output
Arithmetic Logic Unit
Register

Storage
 The Elements of a computer system

The Processor

Control Unit
Interprets stored instructions in
sequence. Issues commands to
.all elements of the computer.

Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU)

Performs
arithmetic and
logic operations

Input Output
Data and Information the
Instructions result of processing

Main Memory
(Main Storage). Holds
data, instructions and
results of processing

Auxiliary Storage ( Backing Storage

To supplement the main storage

 Key Data/ Instruction flow
Command/ Signal flow

The CPU has the following components:

1. The Control unit (C.U)
2. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
3. Registers

The Control Unit

Input devices
• Allows the user to enter the program and data and send it to the processing unit.
The common input devices are keyboard, mouse and scanners.
The Processor
• More formally known as the central processing unit (CPU) has the electronic
circuitry that manipulates input data into the information as required. The central
processing unit actually executes computer instructions. Memory from which the
CPU fetches the instructions and data is called main memory. It is also called as
primary memory and is volatile in nature.
Output
• Devices show the processed data – information – the result of processing. The
devices are normally a monitor and printers.
Storage
• Usually means secondary storage, which stores data and programs. Here the data
and programs are permanently stored for future use.
The hardware devices attached to the computer are called peripheral equipment. Peripheral
equipment includes all input, output and secondary storage devices.
Input Devices
A computer uses input devices to accept the data and program. Input devices allow
communication between the user and the computer. In modern computers keyboard, mouse,
light pen, touch screen etc., are some of the input devices.
Keyboard
The most common input device is the keyboard. Keyboard consists of a set of typewriter
like keys that enable you to enter data into a computer. They have alphabetic keys to enter
letters, numeric keys to enter numbers, punctuation keys to enter comma, period,
semicolon, etc., and special keys to perform some specific functions.
The keyboard detects the key pressed and generates the corresponding ASCII code.
Mouse
Mouse is an input device that controls the movement of the cursor on the display screen.
Mouse is a small device; you can roll along a flat surface. In a mouse, a small ball is kept
inside and touches the pad through a hole at the bottom of the mouse. When the mouse is
moved, the ball rolls. This movement of the ball is converted into signals and sent to the
computer. You will need to click the button at the top of the mouse to select an option.
Mouse pad is a pad over which you can move a mouse.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device that allows information such as an image or text to be input into
a computer. It can read image or text printed on a paper and translate the information into a
form that the computer can use. That is, it is used to convert images (photos) and text into a
stream of data. They are useful for publishing and multi-media applications.

Bar Code Reader

The barcode readers are used in places like supermarket, bookshops, etc. A bar code is a
pattern printed in lines of different thickness. The bar-code reader scans the information on
the barcodes and transmits to the computer for further processing. The system gives fast
and error-free entry of information into the computer.
Microphone
Microphone serves as a voice input device. It captures the voice data and input to the
computer. Using the microphone along with speech recognition software can offer a
completely new approach to input information into your computer. Speech recognition
programs, although not yet completely exact, have made great strides in accuracy as well as
ease of use. The voice-in or speech recognition approach can almost fully replace the
keyboard and mouse. Speech recognition can now open the computer world to those who
may have been restricted due to a physical handicap. It can also be a boon for those who
have never learned to type.
Light Pen
A light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen and is connected to a monitor. The tip of
the light pen contains a light sensitive element which, when placed against the screen
detects the light from the screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the pen on
the screen. Light pens have the advantage of ‘drawing’ directly onto the screen, but this can
become uncomfortable, and they are not accurate.
Touch Sensitive Screen
Touch Sensitive Screen is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive panel. It is a
pointing device that enables the user to interact with the computer by touching the screen.
You can use your fingers to directly touch the objects on the screen. The touch screen
senses the touch on the object (area pre-defined) and communicate the object selection to
the computer.
Digital Camera
The digital camera is an input device mainly used to capture images. The digital camera
takes a still photograph, stores it and sends it as digital input to the computer.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

MICR is widely used by banks to process cheques. Human readable numbers are printed on
documents such as cheque using a special magnetic ink. The cheque can be read using a
special input unit, which can recognize magnetic ink characters. This method eliminates the
manual errors. It also saves time, ensures security and accuracy of data.

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

 The OCR technique permits the direct reading of any printed character like MICR but no
special ink is required. With OCR, a user can scan a page from a book. The computer will
recognize the characters in the page as letters and punctuation marks, and stores.

Voice data Entry

Also known as voice input or speech recognition. It analyses and classifies speech or vocal
tract patterns. The device converts speech into digital codes for entry into the computer.
However, their use is limited by the limited nature of recognisable vocabulary.

Uses:

• Control of machinery remotely or in dirty/busy situations such as a machine room/

warehouse.
• Direct input to a text editor.
• For handicapped people unable to use other means of input of data.

Advantages

• Hands free
Disadvantages

• Needs complex software to enable accurate identification of words. Small

vocabulary and limited regional accents.

Output Devices
Output refers to anything that comes out of a computer. An output device is capable of
presenting information from a computer. There are many output devices attached with the
computers. But the monitors and printers are commonly used output devices.
Monitors
Monitor is a commonly used output device, sometimes called as display screen. It provides
a visual display of data. Monitors are connected with the computer and are similar in
appearance to a television set.
Plotter
COMPUTER CLASSIFICATIONS

By basic type or logic

1. Analogue Computers
• Analogue computers measure physical quantities (e.g. Voltage, Pressure,
Temperature, Speed etc.) These quantities are continuous and having an infinite
variety of values.
• These computers recognize data as a continuous measurement of a physical
property.
• Their output is usually in the form of readings on dials or graphs.
• Analogue Computers are used mainly for scientific and engineering purposes
because they deal with quantities that vary constantly.
• These computers are mostly used in medical science.
• They give only approximate results.
• analogue computers are faster than digital
• Analogue computers lack memory whereas digital computers store information.
• Digital computers count and analogue computers measures.

2. Digital computers
• These process data presented in form of discrete values (0 or 1)
• Examples are micros, minis, mainframes and supercomputers
• These computers are high speed programmable electronic devices that are
capable of performing mathematical calculations, comparing values and storing the
results.
• They are capable of recognizing data by counting discrete signals
representing either a high ("On") or a low ("Off") voltage state of electricity.
• An array of 1s and 0s represent all the Special Symbols, Alphabets and Numbers.
• The results of digital computers are more accurate than the results of analogue
computers. Some are used in hospitals.

3. Hybrid
Hybrid computers are a device that are designed to provide functions and features that
are found with both analogue computers and digital computers. The idea behind this
combined or hybrid computer model is to create a working unit that offers the best of both
types of computers. With most designs, the analogue components of the equipment provide
efficient processing of differential equations, while the digital aspects of the computer
address the logical operations associated with the system.
By creating this type of integrated computer, the benefits of both analogue and digital
computing are readily available. A hybrid computer is extremely fast when it comes to
managing equations, even when those calculations are extremely complicated. This
advantage is made possible by the presence of the analogue components inherent within the
design of the equipment.
It has the speed of analogue computer and the memory and accuracy of digital computer.
They have the speed of analogue computers and the accuracy of digital computers.
For example a petrol pump contains a processor that converts fuel flow measurements into
quantity and price values. In hospital Intensive Care Unit (ICU), an analogue device is used
which measures patient's blood pressure and temperature etc., which are then converted and
displayed in the form of digits.

Classification by purpose
Computers can be classified as general purpose or special purpose.
General-purpose computers
Most computers in use today are General-Purpose computers — those built for a great
variety of processing jobs. Simply by using a general purpose computer and
different software, various tasks can be accomplished, including writing and editing
(word processing), manipulating facts in a data base, tracking manufacturing inventory,
making scientific calculations, or even controlling organization’s security system,
electricity consumption, and building temperature. General purpose computers are
designed to perform a wide variety of functions and operations.
Special purpose computers
Special-Purpose Computer are designed to be task specific and most of the times their job
is to solve one particular problem. They are also known as dedicated computers, because
they are dedicated to perform a single task over and over again. Such a computer system
would be useful in playing graphic intensive Video Games, traffic lights control
system, navigational system in an aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch /
tracking, oil exploration, and in automotive industries, keeping time in a digital
watch, or Robot helicopter.
Computers can be classified by size
Categories of Computer Systems (by size)
(i) Microcomputers
(ii) Minicomputers
(iii) Mainframe computers
(iv) Super computers
Microcomputers
• They consist of a single processor or a chip
• They are designed to be used by only one person at a time
• Small to medium data storage capacities
• These are relatively small and inexpensive.
Common examples include desktops, laptops, palmtops, embedded computers etc.
• It has a hard disk capacity ranging from GBs
 • Have capabilities for networking.
• They occupy little space.
• They are capable of multiprogramming.
• They are compatible with a wide range of software.
Applications
Accounting, statistical analysis, teaching project management, entertainment, office work,
personal use, graphic designing.

Minicomputer System (Mid-range Computers)

• They are systems the size of a small table that can support a number of users at
a time.
• They have storage capability larger than micros.
• They can support a variety of transaction processing activities
• Possess large storage capacities and operates at high speeds( many hard disks and
more than one processor)
• They are less expensive than the mainframe systems
Applications
-Used to control and monitor production processes
-used to analyse results of experiments in laboratories
-used as servers in LANS
-used as front-end-processors (FEP) in large are networks. In this case, they assist
mainframe like partially process data from user terminals and send to the main frame for
further processing.
Mainframe computers
• These are large, powerful computers with a lot of processing capabilities.
• Multi user machines
• They are suitable for medium-size to large corporations.
• They can also be linked together to form a powerful and flexible system.
Air conditioning required supports many I/O, processors and secondary storage devices.
Their performance may be enhanced by slotting a smaller system, like a minicomputer
between the terminal and the main processor –called the front end processor (FEP).
Both processors run concurrently with the FEP passing on partially processed data to the
main frame for further processing.
• They, however, are expensive to buy and maintain, they need special and very
expensive software and they also require a special environment.
• They can be used for large corporations (such as large international banks) and
government departments as servers to hold large databases.

Applications
-Used to process large amounts of data at very high speeds such as in Banks, insurance
companies, multinational companies which need online processing of large amounts
of transactions and massive data storage.
-used as servers in WANs.
-used to manage large centralised databases
Super computer Systems
These are extremely powerful mainframe computer systems. They are specifically
designed for high-speed numeric calculations. These an process hundreds of millions
instructions per second (mips)
-high cost, very fast CPU speed, high precision, large and fast memory
-use multiprocessing and parallel processing
Applications
-In Aerospace industry- to simulate airflow around an aircraft at different speeds and
altitude.
-In automobile industry- to do crush simulation of the design of an automobile before it is
released for manufacturing- for better automobile design
-meteorological centres for weather forecasting
-military sector-for weapons research and development, sending rockets to space etc.

CLASSIFICATION BY USE
Personal computers- a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at
work or home.
Lap top- a microcomputer sufficiently small and light for its user to carry comfortably on
the lap. A typical lap top computer operates on mains electricity or by rechargeable
batteries.
Desktop computer-designed for use on top of desk at home or office environment
Workstation- is PCs but have added capability of being networked with other
computers.
Embedded computer- a computing element which is within some device or system and
cannot be accessed directly e.g. in petrol pumps etc.

Printers
Printer is an output device that prints text or images on paper or other media (like
transparencies). By printing you create what is known as a ‘hard copy’. There are different
kinds of printers, which vary in their speed and print quality.
The two main types of printers are impact printers and non-impact printers
Impact printers
An impact printer creates images by using pins or hammers to press an inked ribbon against
paper. Each hammer or pin is embossed with the shape of a letter, number or symbol; that
shape is transferred through the inked ribbon onto the paper resulting in a printed character.
Examples of impact printers are:
Dot Matrix.
Line Printer
Band Printer
Daisy Wheel Printer
Characteristics of Impact Printers
The printers are reasonably fast, inexpensive to operate and can produce both text and
simple graphics. They also accommodate various paper sizes but are however noisy.
 Non-impact printers
These are quieter printers and examples include LaserJet and inkjet printers. The Laser
Printers are a more popular choice for business use. They use a printing technique similar to
that used in a photocopying machine. A laser beam is used to form an image onto the paper
using toner. The print quality is high. Lasers are fast, and quiet.
They print graphics but are more expensive.
The ink-jet printers are mainly colour printers which mix ink depending on the image
colour and spray it onto the paper. The toner has the 4 basic colours. They are slow,
expensive and have a high print quality.
Factors considered when choosing printers.
• Duty Cycle (pages per month)
• Resolution (image quality measured in dots per inch i.e. dpi) the more dots per inch a
printer can produce the higher its image quality.
• Speed (pages per minute i.e. ppm)
• Duplex Printing
• Color
• Durability
• Quality (dots per inch)
• Cost (i.e. initial cost, cost of operation)
• Cost and availability of cartridges
• Multipurpose?
• Size
• Network capability
Differences between Impact and Non-Impact Printers

Impact Non-Impact Printers

Print head makes contact with the paper No contact creates an image without striking a ribbon against the
surface without contacting it.
Makes noise when printing Quiet printers

Strike ribbon against the paper Use a laser beam which form an
image onto paper using toner
Slow printer Fast printers

Has too many moving parts hence Has fewer moving parts hence they
unreliable Are reliable.
inexpensive expensive
Impact Printers Non-Impact Printers

Dot matrix Laser

Daisy wheel printers Inkjet

Line printers LED

Chain printers Thermal

Electrostatic

Xerographic

Magnetic

Laser printer
-A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum.
The light of the laser alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is
then rolled through a reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the
drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and
pressure. Laser printers use toner, which is powder, rather than ink, which is liquid, and are
more suited for a larger-scale office environment.
Advantages-
• Monochrome or four colour
• -High-quality print
• -Capable of printing an almost unlimited variety of fonts
• -Quiet operation
Disadvantages
• -Colour laser printers tend to be about five to ten times as expensive as monochrome
• -Cannot print on multiple-copy paper.

Steps in Laser Printing Process

The laser printer uses electrostatic charges to
1. Create an image on the drum (Writing)
2. Adhere toner to the image (Developing)
3. Transfer the toned image to the paper (Transferring)
4. Fuse the toner to the paper (Fusing)
5. Electrical charge is removed from drum (Conditioning)
6. Toner is removed from Drum (Cleaning)
Ink-jet printer
• A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper.
• Ink jet printers create an image directly on the paper by spraying ink through tiny
nozzles.
• Magnetized plates in the ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes.
Inkjet printers are capable of producing high quality print approaching that produced
by laser printers.
Advantages
-Inexpensive way to print full-colour document
-Easily portable due to smaller mechanical parts than laser printers
-Quiet operation
Disadvantages
-Slow output
-Require a special type of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive copier paper
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper.
Thermal transfer printers
-A type of printer that applies heat to a ribbon and the image or barcode is then transferred
to labels or tags.
-This technology produces a higher quality, longer lasting image on the tag or label.

Advantages
• 1 to 2 years media shelf life
• Media is not heat sensitive
• Medium to high image quality
• Wide range of available types
• Recommended for industrial use
Disadvantages
• Special ribbons required.
• Average operational cost.
• Cannot print on multiple-copy paper.
• Single-pass ribbons only.
Thermal transfer printers
-A type of printer that applies heat to a ribbon and the image or barcode is then transferred
to labels or tags.
-This technology produces a higher quality, longer lasting image on the tag or label.
Advantages
• 1 to 2 years media shelf life
• Media is not heat sensitive
• Medium to high image quality
• Wide range of available types
• Recommended for industrial use
Disadvantages
• Special ribbons required
• Average operational cost
• Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
• Single-pass ribbons only

Dot-matrix printer
A type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins against an ink
ribbon to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape. However, they can print to
multi-page forms (that is, carbon copies), something laser and ink-jet printers cannot do.
Also used to print very wide sheets, as data processing departments often use when
generating large reports with wide columns of information. Widely used in business set- up.

Advantages
Moderately priced
They are able to use continuous paper rather than requiring individual sheets, making
them useful for data logging.
Dot matrix printers are used for massive, bulk printouts
Dot matrix printers are highly durable.

Disadvantages
Noisy operation
Low-quality output
Slow print speed
They can only print low resolution graphics.
 Daisy Wheel printer
A printer that uses a wheel with all the characters on it to produce output. The wheel spins
to the desired character and makes an imprint, then spins to go to the next character. It
sounds like a little machinegun.
These printers generally aren't used much anymore due to the decreased cost of other
printers that can produce graphics as well as text. The one good thing about a daisywheel
printer is that the text is generally very crisp, but even that advantage is nullified now with
laser printers that can produce very crisp characters as well.
Advantages
-Best print quality of impact printers
Disadvantages
• Very slow
• Only one font can be used at a time because you must change out the Daisy Wheel to
change fonts.
• Cannot print graphics

Chain and band printers

• Uses characters on a band or chain that is moved into place before striking the
characters onto the paper.
Advantages
• Very fast
Disadvantages
• Very loud
• Very expensive

Line Printer
Line printers works like a dot matrix but uses a special wide print head that can print an
entire line of text at one time however with low resolution.

Assignment Question

You have been delegated the task of selecting a new printer from a range of
different options currently on the market. The machine has to serve a small
network of microcomputers in your office. Software used includes a word
processing package, database, spread sheet, and presentation packages. Assuming that
cost is not a major constraint, list 10 features of the printers, which you would
investigate in your evaluation.

1. Print quality, for example the print from dot matrix printers varies with the number of
pins and even the best are inferior to laser printers.
2. Character formation, whether made from dots as in matrix printer, or full characters as
with daisywheel or laser printer
3. Multi-part, i.e. whether several copies can be printed at once, as with an impact printer.
 4. Fonts or type style; early computer users were satisfied with any quality whatsoever, but
the advances into areas such as word processing and desk top publishing have stimulated a
demand for varying typefaces or fonts within the same document.
5. Letter quality, whether the quality is equivalent or superior to that of a good typewriter
and so acceptable for the word processing of mail. Some printers have a choice of two print
modes, draft quality and letter quality.
6. Speed, in terms of characters per second.
7. Graphics capabilities.
8. Flexibility, for example is it suitable for one task only, such as good letter quality but not
graphics, as with daisywheel printers, or good graphics but slow speed and indifferent letter
quality, as with some dot matrix printers.
9. Sheet feeding, in terms of single sheets, friction feed or sprocket feed.
10. Capital cost or what it costs to buy.
11. Running cost or what it costs in ribbons, print toner, special stationery & maintenance.
12. Compatibility with standard packages; many programs support a range of printers by
generating the correct control characters for fonts, features like italics and underline, and
for graphics.
13. Robustness; some very cheap printers are ideal at home but would not last very long in
an office.
14. Reputation of the manufacturer as a supplier of printers.

Storage devices
A computer has the capability to hold data that it is currently using, that will be referred to
at a later time (semi-permanent) or that starts a computer. Storage is divided into 2 namely:
• Primary Memory
• Secondary Storage
Primary memory
• Is also known as the internal memory or main memory. It provides fast access and
limited in capacity. Its directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads
instructions stored on primary memory.
• It’s divided into:
1. RAM
2. ROM

Random Access Memory Read Only Memory

Also known as the working memory of the Referred to as firm-ware. The

computer as it stores all the current programs. contents are hard-coded by the
manufacturer.

Holds information on a temporary basis. Holds contents on a permanent

basis.
It’s volatile. (Once power is switched off or Its non-volatile
refreshed the contents are lost.

The user can alter or change the contents hence its The user cannot alter or change the
read and write. contents its read only.

The different types of ROMs:

1. Read Only Memory – ROM
2. Programmable Read Only Memory – PROM
3. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory – EPROM
4. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory- EEPROM
Read Only Memory - ROM
In ROM, the information is burnt (pre-recorded) into the ROM chip at manufacturing time.
Once data has been written into a ROM chip, it cannot be erased but you can read it. When
we switch off the computer, the contents of the ROM are not erased but remain stored
permanently. ROM is a non-volatile memory. ROM stores critical programs such as the
program that boots the computer.

Programmable Read Only Memory - PROM

PROM is a memory on which data can be written only once. A variation of the PROM chip
is that it is not burnt at the manufacturing time but can be programmed using PROM
programmer or a PROM burner. PROM is also a non-volatile memory.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory - EPROM

In EPROM, the information can be erased and reprogrammed using a special PROM –
programmer. EPROM is non-volatile memory. An EPROM differs from a PROM in that a
PROM can be written to only once and cannot be erased. But an ultraviolet light is used to
erase the contents of the EPROM.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory- EEPROM

EEPROM is a recently developed type of memory. This is equivalent to EPROM, but does
not require ultraviolet light to erase its content. It can be erased by exposing it to an
electrical charge. It is also non-volatile in nature. EEPROM is not as fast as RAM or other
types of ROM. A flash memory is a special type of EEPROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed.
Secondary storage Devices
Also known as external memory or auxiliary storage. These are devices that store
information permanently. Secondary storage differs from primary storage in that it not
directly accessible by the CPU. The computer usually uses its I/O (input/output) channels to
access secondary storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary
storage. Secondary storage is non-volatile i.e. does not lose data when the computer is
switched-off. Per unit it’s less expensive than primary storage. Access of stored information
on a secondary device is slower as compared to information stored on primary memory.
Some examples of secondary devices are: hard drive disk, floppy disks, magnetic tape,
cartridge, punched cards, CDs, DVD
Hard Disk
Hard disk is a magnetic disk on which you can store computer data. The hard disk is direct-
access storage medium. This means you can store and retrieve data randomly. Disk storage
systems are essentially based on magnetic properties. The magnetic disk consists of high
speed rotating surfaces coated with a magnetic recording medium. The rotating surface of
the disk is a round flat plate. When writing data, a write head magnetizes the particles on
the disk surface as either north or south poles. When reading data, a read head converts the
magnetic polarisations on the disk surface to a sequence of pulses. The read and write heads
are generally combined into a single head unit. There may be more than one read/write
head. Data is arranged as a series of concentric rings. Each ring (called a track) is
subdivided into a number of sectors, each sector holding a specific number of data elements
(bytes or characters).

Magnetic Tape
A recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of a fine magnetic strip, used
for recording digital data. The tape itself is a strip of plastic coated with a magnetic
recording medium. Bits are recorded as magnetic spots on the tape along several tracks.
Usually, seven or nine bits are recorded simultaneously to form a character together with a
parity bit. Read /write heads are mounted one in each track so that data can be recorded and
read as a sequence of characters. Data is stored in frames across the width of the tape. The
frames are grouped into blocks or records which are separated from other blocks by gaps.
Magnetic tape is a serial access medium, similar to an audio cassette, and so data cannot be
randomly located. This characteristic has prompted its use in the regular backing up of hard
disks.

Floppy Disk
The floppy disks are usually 3.5" in size. However, older floppy disks may be in use; these
would be 5.25" in size or even 8" in size. A 3.5" floppy disk can hold 1.44 MB of data.
Once data is stored on a floppy disk it can be ‘write protected’ by clicking a tab on the disk.
This prevents any new data being stored or any old data being erased. Disk drives for
floppy disks are called floppy drives. Floppy disks are slower to access than hard disks and
have less storage capacity. It is less expensive and are portable. It can be accessed
randomly. Data is recorded as a series of tracks subdivided into sectors.
Advantages of floppy diskettes
1. They are cheaper than Hard disks and CD-ROMS
2. They are portable hence used to transfer data or information from one computer to
another.
3. They offer direct access and they are faster than magnetic tapes.
DISADVANTAGES OF FLOPPY DISKETTES
1. They are prone to viruses
2. They are difficult to handle
3. They can easily be corrupted
4. They have a relatively short life span
5. They hold relatively small amounts of data
6. They are not always 100% reliable
Optical Disk
Optical disks are a storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by
lasers. The optical disk is random access storage medium; information can be easily read
from any point on the disk. CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk - Read Only Memory.

Cartridge Tape
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on an iron oxide coating of a plastic tape.
Gaps are used to separate individual data records. The tape is similar to audiotapes. Access
of information from the tape is in sequential form and thus slows.

DVD (Digital Versatile Disks)

A form of optical disks similar to CD ROMS but has much more storage capacities of up to
3.9GB. They support audio and video as well as data on the same disk.

Primary Storage(RAM)/Main Memory Secondary Storage/Backup/Auxiliary

• Temporary storage • Permanent storage

• Small storage capacity • Large storage capacity

• Wholly internal • Mostly can be taken away from the

terminal with the exception of fixed
hard disk

• Access speed is fast • Access speed is relatively slower

• Cost per bit stored is high

Measurement/ Capacity of Storage Devices

Bit (b)
 • Binary digit is the smallest element of data storage which can either be a 1 or 0.
Byte
• Consists of 8 bits and is also known as a character.

Kilobyte 1000 bytes KB

Megabyte 1 000 000 bytes MB
Gigabyte 1 000 000 000 bytes GB
Terabyte 1 000 000 000 bytes TB
Petabyte 1 000 000 000 000 bytes PB

Software
Computer software refers to the various programs or instructions that are stored in the
computer (stored program concept) and used to either manage or control the operation of a
computer system or to direct the computer in solving specific problems. Software is divided
into two major types.
Software Hierarchy
Software

Systems Software Application Software

Operating Software - Commercial software
Utility Software - User Software

OPERATING SYSTEM
• The main control of a computer system.
• It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer
programs and may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, system
accounting, compilation, storage assignment, data management and related services.
• The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer
functional. On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. UNIX and Linux are
other operating systems often found in scientific and technical environments.
• Are programs that create an environment, which enables us to use computers?
• Is an integrated system of program that manages the operations of the CPU, controls
the input/output and storage resources and activities of the computer system, and
provides various support services as the computer executes the application programs?
• Is a set of software routines that communicate between application programs and the
hardware
• All communications go through the operating system.
E.g. when a user issues a command to print, the O/S receives the command &
processes it according to priorities with the use of interrupts. Once the processor is
free to execute the command, the O/S sends the message to the processor & receives
the output, which is then directed to the printer.

The operating system has various roles:

1. Management of the processor: the operating system is responsible for managing
allocation of the processor between the different programmes using a scheduling
algorithm. The type of scheduler is totally dependent on the operating system,
according to the desired objective.
The OS is responsible for managing the allocation of processor time to the different
programs that will be using the computer. The processor can only execute one
instruction at a time and in a multi-user system, conflicts are bound to arise when
several user programs request usage of the processor at the same time. The OS
therefore allocates processor time to all users either in a round robin fashion or using
a system of priorities.

2. Management of the random access memory: the operating system is responsible

for managing the memory space allocated to each application and, where relevant, to
each user. If there is insufficient physical memory, the operating system can create a
memory zone on the hard drive, known as "virtual memory". The virtual memory lets
you run applications requiring more memory than there is available RAM on the
system. However, this memory is a great deal slower.
The OS is responsible for managing the memory space allocated to each application.
If there is insufficient physical memory the OS can create a memory zone on the hard
drive known as virtual memory which lets you run applications requiring more
memory than is available on the system.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
memory management.
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.

3. Allocate and reallocate memory space as needed

4. Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control of

access of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral
administrators or input/output administrators).
 5. Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for
smooth execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to
operate. This means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".
6. Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security
relating to execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only
by programmes and users with the relevant authorisations.
7. File management: the operating system manages reading and writing in the file
system and the user and application file access authorisations.
The OS manages reading from and writing to files and also controls the creation,
manipulation and access to files.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
file management:
File creation and deletion
Directory creation and deletion
Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
File backup on stable (non-volatile) storage media
8. Information management: the operating system provides a certain number of
indicators that can be used to diagnose the correct operation of the machine.
9. ERROR DETECTION
The OS is responsible for detecting and any hardware or software malfunctioning and
reporting them to the user
10. USER/SYSTEM INTERFACE
The OS acts as an interface between the computer and the user, hiding all the
complexities of the computer from the user and making the computer more user
friendly
11. PREPARATION OF A SYSTEM LOG
The OS compiles a report on the events that take place in a computer from the time a
user logs on to a computer, what he/she does up to the time he/she logs off
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
• Applications software comprises programs designed for an end user, such as word
processors, database systems, and spreadsheet programs.
• Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the
completion of specific tasks of computer users e.g. electronic Spread sheet and word
processing programs or inventory or payroll programs.
• Software that is designed and written for a specific personal, organizational, or
processing task, such as graphics software.
• These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while operating system
software allows the computer to work. A computer aided dispatch system is
application software, as is each word processing program.

APPLICATION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

SOFTWARE
Word Processor A word processor is used to produce documents such as Ms word,
letters, memos and reports. The latest versions of word Word
processing software contain many features and can also
perfect,
be used for "desktop publishing" to create newsletters,
brochures, business cards, signs and more. The latest Word star,
 word processing software will allow you to easily type • Ms works
into columns, add pictures and charts to your page,
word
create custom borders, and experiment with a variety of
typefaces (fonts) in a wide range of sizes. You can even processor
combine different fonts on the same page. ,WordPro
• Word processing software offers many exciting
formatting and editing features to make your work
easier. You can easily check the spelling of a word or
the entire document. The built in thesaurus will help
you find an alternate word to use. Blocks of text can be
easily moved, copied or erased.
• Use this kind of tool to create worksheets, type letters,
type papers, etc., e.g. MS Word, WordPerfect.
Spreadsheet A spreadsheet is used to manage, analyse and present Ms Excel,
numeric information. Some common uses of Lotus 1-2-3
spreadsheet software are financial reports, personal
finances and business finances. Spreadsheet programs
can also create a chart from the numeric data.
The working screen is laid out in rows and columns,
much like a ledger.
The information is typed into a "cell." A cell is the
intersection of a row and a column. The cell can contain
a number, a word or phrase (generally used to identify
what the number represents, such as a column or row
heading), or a math function or formula.
• Spreadsheets allow you to use simple math
expressions such as add, subtract, multiply or divide, or
advanced math such as the type of calculations
performed by architects, engineers, economists and
scientists.
Spreadsheets also have a special group of built-in
formulas, called functions that let you perform
calculations without having to type long, complex
formulas. Functions are grouped into categories, such as
financial, statistical, engineering, logical, math and
trigonometry, database and list management, date and
time, and information.
• One of the reasons many people use a computer for
their spreadsheet projects is because it is easy to change
your information once it has been entered. If you
change a number, the spreadsheet will automatically
recalculate the results. You can also take advantage of
this feature to perform a "what-if" analysis. For
example, you input the data for a small business venture
you are considering and the spreadsheet calculates your
net profit for the first year of business. If you are not
pleased with the result, you can change a few numbers
to see how the change would affect the outcome.
 • Use this kind of tool to compute number-intensive
problems such as budgeting, forecasting, etc. A
spreadsheet will plot nice graphs very easily, e.g. MS
Excel, Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3,
Database Allows user to prepare reports based on data found in Ms
management different records. DBMS is an important managerial Access,
decision support tool for managers at all levels of the
software organization. A database is an organised store of DbaseIV,
information, for example an address book, list of Oracle
employees, list of students, customers or items of assets.
Database package is used to store records. Data can be
sorted or filtered for separate viewing.
Also Calculations and comparisons between data items
can be done.
Popular database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus
Approach, Paradox, dBase IV, Data Ease.
• Use this software to store data such as address,
membership and other text information. A database can
be used to easily sort and organize records
Presentation • Lets users or managers prepare slides containing Ms
graphics charts, text and images. Presentation graphics software PowerPoint,
software usually provides libraries of clip art images that can be Lotus
cut and pasted into a slide to make the slide more
attractive and informative. These are applications freelance
designed solely for designing graphs and text graphs
charts/posters and often used to produce slides for use
on overhead projectors, or presentations on computer-
projectors. They can also produce various types of
charts.
Examples of graphics packages are: Microsoft
PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Harvard Graphics and
Corel Draw,HyperStudio, Flash, Director.
• Use this software to create multimedia stacks of
cards/screens that can effectively present a lesson or a
sales pitch.
Desktop Use this software to make signs, banners, greeting Ms
Publishing cards, illustrative worksheets, newsletters, etc. publisher,
• Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users Aldus
powerful and versatile page design capabilities. The
user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact
page layouts. These applications produce magazines,
catalogues, invitation cards, business cards and other
sophisticated documents. It links up well with other
applications as the user can import text and graphics
from the other applications. Examples of DTP packages
are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura and
Frame maker.
Multimedia Internet Browsers Internet
This software allows one to surf the Web. Often they explorer
can read email and create Web pages too, e.g. Netscape Netscape
Navigator (or Netscape Communicator), MS Internet
Explorer, AOL Browser....
ii) Email programs
These programs send and receive email, e.g. Netscape
Messenger (part of Netscape Communicator), MS
Outlook Express, MS Outlook, Eudora, AOL browser
(has email built in)....
iii) Graphics Programs (pixel-based)
This software allows one to touch up photographs and
create graphics from scratch, e.g. Adobe Photoshop,
Paint Shop Pro, MS Paint (comes free on Windows
PC's), Painter, ....
Communication This software allows two computers with modems to Ms
communicate through audio, video, and/or chat-based Outlook,
means, e.g.MS NetMeeting, AOL Instant Messenger,
IRC, ICQ, CU-See ME Ms
Exchange
Design AutoCAD, Corel Draw AutoCAD,
CAM
Accounting • e.g. Pastel, Turbo Cash, QuickBooks Pastel,
Tetra 2000
Payroll Pay plus ,
Pay well

Factors considered when selecting Application Software

1. Easiness of installation i.e. user friendly

2. Technical support- is support available? Is it very costly?
3. Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
4. Cost- includes the original cost of the package, technical support and upgrades.
5. Compatibility with existing hardware and software i.e. will the package run on
existing hardware? Can files be easily transferred from existing systems without
rekeying?
6. Relevance of the software to the task at hand.
7. Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety.
8. Sophistication, simple programs are usually easy to learn, cost less and are
appropriate for those who use the software frequently.
9. Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in that
area.
10. Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions, system
requirements.
 Utility software

Utility software(also known as service program, service routine, tool, or utility routine) is
computer software designed to help manage and tune the computer hardware, operating
system or application software by performing a single task or a small range of tasks.
Some utility software has been integrated into most major operating systems.

Examples of Utility Programs:

Disk storage utilities

1. Disk defragmenter scan detect computer files whose contents are broken across
several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase
efficiency.
2. Disk checker scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted
in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently
operating hard drive.
3. Disk cleaner scan find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete
when their hard disk is full.
4. Disk space analysers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for
each folder (including subfolders) & files in folder or drive showing the distribution
of the used space.
5. Disk partitioner scan divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with
its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an
individual drive.
6. Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either
the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of
accidental deletion).
7. Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a
disk, increasing the capacity of the disk. Disk /compression utilities output a shorter
stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file.
8. File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management
tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloguing, moving, copying, merging, generating
and modifying data sets.
9. Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a
set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression
or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate unarchive
utility for the reverse operation.
10. System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and
hardware attached to the computer.
11. Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
12. Text and Hex Editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be
data or an actual program.
13. Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided
with a stream or file.
14. Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
15. Launcher applications provide a convenient access point for application software.
16. Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry
keys that are no longer in use.
 17. Network managers check the computer's network, log events and check data transfer.
18. Command line interface (CLI) and Graphical user interface (GUI). Allows the user to
contact and make changes to the operating system.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS

1. Commercial / generic Packages/Off the shelf software

Commercial software is computer software sold for profit; such software represented, until
recently, the vast majority of all software used. These are bought from a vendor. Also known
as off the shelf packages e.g. MS Office, Pastel. Also known as work enhancement
applications .Generic or off the shelf software has the advantage of cost effectiveness due to
larger market & the ability to incorporate available technology in the shortest possible time.
These increase the productivity & efficiency in the work place i.e.

• Word Processing packages

• Spreadsheet packages
• Database /Information retrieval Packages
• Graphics packages
• Data communications Software

Off-the –shelf/generic or Commercial Software

This is software that can be purchased, from a software company that develops programs and
sells them to many computer users and organizations. Applications such as financial
accounting, business graphics and pay roll may be bought.

Advantages
• Cheaper - the software company is able to spread the software development cost over
a large number of customers, hence reducing the cost any one customer must pay.
• Less risky - the software is in existence, hence you can analyse the features and
performance of the package.
• The program is a well-tried and tested product with few errors.
• Less time - Off-the -shelf software is often installed quickly and easily.
• The package is well documented
• The packages require little maintenance
• There is continued support from the supplier through upgrades.
• It is cheaper than custom-written software. The development costs of the package
may be millions of pounds, but the customer may be able to buy it for a few hundred
pounds, since sales are made to thousands of other customers.
• It is immediately available and already thoroughly tested so is unlikely to have major
bugs in it.
• Documentation is usually available in the form of reference manuals, user guides and
tutorials
• Training courses may be available form third party trainers.
• Technical support is usually available from the manufacturers via a Web site or
telephone line [at a price].
• Other users of the package can be consulted as to its suitability before purchase.
 • Upgrades are usually available every year or two

Disadvantages
• The package may not do exactly what you want it to do;
• It may not run on the firm’s existing hardware
• It may not interface with other software already in use in the organization.
• The organization might need to pay for the features that are not required and never
used.
• The package may be for general needs and therefore not ideal for the user.
• The user has no direct control over the package,

2. Homemade / Customized packages/ Tailor-made Software

Customized software is software designed around a company or other organization's

processes to make those processes more efficient. It is distinct from market software
[commercial or generic], which approaches problems in a general way so that the product can
be sold to more than one customer. Has been written by the vendor specifically for a user’s
needs. Also known as in-house
packages, tailor-made packages e.g. most payroll packages, billing software, product design
applications. Is that application that has been written for a specific user’s needs by a software
vendor? It is non-standard software. In-house/Custom made/Tailor Made/Bespoke software
This approach requires a development team from within the organisation. The team is
usually comprised of programmers and analysts. The team members should be of high
calibre, highly trained and reliable.

Advantages
• Internal professionals understand operations better and therefore can produce an
accurate solution.
• The Software usually meets user requirements.
• Management are in total control of the development process
• More flexibility - there is more flexibility in making modifications.
• Problem specificity - in-house developed software can give an organisation software
programmes that are easily tailored to a unique problem or task.

Disadvantages
• Time and costs of developing the program may be greater than other options.
• In-house staff may lack the expertise needed for the project.
• Reliability of the resultant software is highly questionable.
• In some cases the developers may attempt to gain fraudulently from the system.
• Being customized, the non-standard software may not be used by any other
organization.
• It has huge support costs after implementation.
• Dependency syndrome with the supplier. There is heavy reliance on the developers of
the software for its continued existence & maintenance
• Future support may be difficult if the supplying company goes under, shuts down, or
liquidate or if its development staff leaves.
• May not be upgradeable and may not run if moved to a new hardware platform.
• You are tied to a supplier of which you may not be willing to have a maintenance
contract with.
 • Written or Custom-built software performs a defined function and is expensive to
build.
• Custom built is expensive to maintain.
• Custom built software has reduced lifespan due to high speed of technological
advancement in the field of computers.

n.b: Off the shelf software

Describes software that is ready made and available for sale to the general public. Any
individual software package, whichever of the above types it falls into, can be either generic
(or 'off-the-shelf') or it can be bespoke (custom-built). Generic software is mass produced
with the intention that it will be used by a wide variety of different users in a range of
different situations. Bespoke software is created for a specific purpose which will be used in a
known environment.

Often generic software is used when there is a package available that meets the needs of the
user. Because it is used by many more people the cost of creating it is spread over a greater
number of people or organisations and so the cost to the individual is much lower. It also has
the advantage that it is available immediately there's no waiting time involved while the
software package is designed, created and tested. Bespoke software has the advantage that it
can be tailor made to exact specifications but it significantly more expensive and will take
time to create.

INTEGRATED SOFTWARE

Integrated software is software for personal computers that combines the most commonly
used functions of many productivity software programs into one application. The integrated
software genre has been largely overshadowed by fully functional office suites, most notably
Microsoft Office, but at one time was considered the "killer application" type responsible for
the rise and dominance of the IBM PC in the desktop business computing world. In the early
days of the PC before GUIs became common, user interfaces were text-only and were
operated mostly by function key and modifier key sequences. Every program used a different
set of keystrokes, making it difficult for a user to master more than one or two programs.
Programs were loaded from floppy disk, making it very slow and inconvenient to switch
between programs and difficult or impossible to exchange data between them (to transfer the
results from a spreadsheet to a word processor document for example). In response to these
limitations, vendors created multifunction "integrated" packages, eliminating the need to
switch between programs and presenting the user with a more consistent interface. The
potential for greater ease-of-use made integrated software attractive to home markets as well
as business, and packages such as the original AppleWorks for the Apple II and Jane for the
Commodore 128 were developed in the 1980s to run on most popular home computers of the
day. Context MBA was an early example of the genre, and featured spreadsheet, database,
chart-making, word processing and terminal emulation functions. However, because it was
written in Pascal for portability, it ran slowly on the relatively underpowered systems of the
day. Lotus 1-2-3, which followed it, had fewer functions but was written in assembler,
providing it with a speed advantage that allowed it to become the predominant business
application for personal computers. The integrated software market of today is exemplified
by entry-level programs such as Microsoft Works which are often bundled with personal
computers as "starter" productivity suites.
EXAMPLES OF INTEGRATED SOFTWARE

• Microsoft Office 97
• Microsoft Works
• Claris Works
• Lotus SmartSuite 97
• Microsoft Office 2003,2007,2010 & 2013

Advantages of integrated applications

• Easy to use
• Generally costs much less
• Require or needs less RAM
• Ability to pass data from one module to another.
• Takes up much less hard disk space
• Better organization of information. Data is stored in the database, calculations in an
electronic spreadsheet & images in a graphical application package

SOFTWARE SUITES/BUNDLED SOFTWARE

A software suite or application suite is a collection of computer programs, usually application

software and programming software of related functionality, often sharing a more-or-less
common user interface and some ability to smoothly exchange data with each other.
Sometimes software makers introduce "suites" that are little more than repackaged versions
of older programs offered at a lower price. The solution might be "software suites" or
"bundled software." A "suite" is a collection of the full-featured versions of each software
application- word processing, spreadsheet, database management, graphics, communications
and sometimes organizers. These applications are from the same software manufacturer and
are packaged together in a large box and sold at prices that are much lower than if they were
purchased individually - usually less than half of the original collective price! The software
applications contained in a suite or bundle are the same applications a professional user might
purchase individually. No corners have been cut, and additional features may have been
added such as a "common interface" that allows any of the programs to be accessed from the
same "main menu," a consistent screen layout used by each of the programs, and the ability to
easily exchange data from one program to another.

The advantages of bundled software suites are

• Low cost compared to buying each application separately

• Option to install all of the programs at the same time or only the programs you want
to use
• Consistent interface from one application to another
• The ability to share information between applications
• Future upgrades can update each application all at the same time
• Ideal for personal use, professional use, large or small business
• Each application is the full-featured version

The disadvantages of bundled software suites are

 • High initial cost
• All applications are from the same manufacturer - you might prefer a word
processor from one company, a spreadsheet from a different manufacturer, etc.
• May be purchasing more software than you actually need
• Installation of the entire suite of applications takes up a large amount of storage
space on your internal hard disk.
• Several large manuals to study if you plan to master each application, or the
package might not include printed manuals in order to keep the cost low.

OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE

Open source is a type of software which is freely available and its source code is
available for further development, modification. Generally all open source software
have a community of developers who provide support, documentation and even
binary versions of the software to people who may be interested in it. These additional
services, though, may not be free monetarily. There are several ongoing open source
software projects. The open source nature of these projects means that there will be
several people working on modifying and improving the software from around the
world. Some such examples include the Web browser Mozilla Firefox, content
management software like Drupal, Joomla etc.

SOFTWARE COPYRIGHT

The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act

Copyright is a legal concept, giving the creator of an original work exclusive right to
control its distribution for a certain time period. Copying computer software is
therefore a breach of copyright and a criminal offence. The Act covers stealing
software, using illegally copied software and manuals, and running purchased
software on more machines than the license allows. The legal penalties for breaking
the copyright law include unlimited fines and up to two years in prison. All the
software that you use should be fully licensed. When you purchase software you
usually are licensed to use it on just one computer. It is illegal to make copies of the
software to use on other computers, even if they are your own.

Software licences can be:

1. Single user - licensed for installation on one computer

2. Multi-user - the license allows you to install the software on a named number of
computers
3. Site-licence - the licence lets you install the software onto an unlimited number of
computers, as long as they are on one distinct site such as a school.

Software protection
 Software companies try to prevent illegal copying of their disks using the following
methods:

• Copy protection- the disk (or CD-ROM) may be formatted in a special way so it cannot
easily be copied.

• Restricting the number of installations- each installation is recorded on an installation

disk and only a certain number are allowed.

• A registration key- a unique series of letters and numbers that is asked for when running
the program. The software will not run if the registration key is not typed in correctly and
online multiplayer games will not to run if another user is online who has used the same
key.

• A phone or Internet activation code- this requires the user to call a number or go online
to register the product. They then receive a unique computer-specific serial number.

• Encryption- data can be scrambled up and cannot be read without the correct software.

• A Dongle- a piece of hardware that must be plugged into the computer to run the
software. Each one contains a unique electronic serial number and as they are expensive
to produce they are mostly used to protect high-end software packages.

• Details of the user are built into the software- when the software is run it displays the
original users’ name. This does not prevent the copying but it makes is obvious that the
copy is illegal.

• A Keyfile- a small file with a unique code that is placed in the same directory as the
program. If the code is not valid then the software will not run.

SOFTWARE PIRACY

Unauthorized copying of software.

Unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted patented material.

Unauthorized copying of software

The production of illegal copies of software.

By far, the biggest legal problem affecting the computer industry today is software piracy,
which is the illegal copying or use of programs. Piracy is a huge problem mainly because it is
so easy to do. In most cases, it is no more difficult to steal a program than it is to tape a music
CD that you have borrowed from a friend. Software pirates give up the right to receive
upgrades and technical support, but they gain the use of the program without paying for it.
Implications of Software piracy

• Loss of business to software companies.

• Lack of technical support, no connection with supplier upgrades.
• Software incompatibility, may require a key, which you might not have, as a result
you can’t install it.
• Virus Spread
• Lawsuits for copyright, which may be very costly in terms of reputation and money.
Piracy harms all software publishers, Regardless of their size. Software publishers spend
years developing software for the public to use. A portion of every dollar spent in purchasing
original software is channelled back into research and development so that better, more
advanced software products can be produced. When you purchase pirated software, your
money goes directly into the pockets of software pirates instead.

Software piracy also harms the local and national economies. Fewer legitimate software sales
result in lost tax revenue and decreased employment. Software piracy greatly hinders the
development of local software communities. If software publishers cannot sell their products
in the legitimate market, they have no incentive to continue developing programs. Many
software publishers simply won’t enter markets where the piracy rates are too high, because
they will not be able to recover their development costs.

Software piracy harms everyone in the software community including you, the end user.
How?

1) Piracy results in higher prices for duly licensed users,

2) Piracy reduces levels of support, and

3) Delays in the funding and development of new products, causing the overall selection and
quality of software to suffer.

FREEWARE
• Public domain software that is freely available in magazines and on the internet at no
charge to users though manuals may be offered at a cost. Freeware may or may not
have copyrights and may or may not have distribution restrictions.

SHAREWARE
• Refers to software that is widely distributed in much the same way as freeware BUT
is always copyrighted and includes a software license that requires its users to pay for
the privilege of using the software beyond a certain trial period. If you decide to use
it, you are expected to pay for the license. There is usually a disabling system in the
program after a certain period of time i.e. a month.

Networking
Computer Network: is a group of connected computers that work as a single unit sharing
resources like printers or a common program, a common internet connection. For example,
if 20 computers ate to be connected in such a way as to use one printer.
Refers to the linking of at least two or more computers by different medium i.e. physical
cables (Twisted wire, coaxial cable, optical fibre) or through propagation of waves (Wi-Fi,
radio link, microwave, satellite).
Reasons for networking computers
-need to communicate and share limited resources.
-Networks also allow for even distribution of work and maximizing human resources. As an
employee you may not waste business time to go to other offices to print, or notify
members of a meeting.
-Distributed systems are also used to speed up the processing of data and share work load.

Data in a network can be transmitted using:

Physical cable Propagation of waves

Twisted wire infrared

Coaxial cable Bluetooth

Optical fibre cable Wi-Fi

Wi-max

microwave

satellite

Types of Networking
1. LAN
2. WAN
Local Area Network
Local area network (LAN) refers to a group of computers connected within one building or
site. They transmit data using coaxial cables or twisted pair cables or fibre optics.
Wide Area Network
 The computers are on different sites and are linked by telephone links. these are networks
that are spread over large geographical areas. It is connected through public
networks such as the telephone system or satellites. It is a long distant network of
interconnected computers on separate sites, cities or even different countries.
Network Topologies
• Refer to the layout or structure of a network in terms direction of flow of data and the
controls that manage data transmission. A network is a number of computers
connected through some channel so that they may share some of the resources
and allow access into them by users from other points. Computers are networked
for various reasons depending on the nature of the organization, the most of these
being the need to share limited resources and to communicate
Advantages of networked computers
a. Resources can be shared e.g. printers, computer files and programmes.
b. More even distribution of processing and other work by the computers and users.
c. More economic and fuller use of computers.
d. Allow for the provision of local facilities without loss of central control.
e. Mutual support and a spirit of cooperation exist.
Disadvantages of networked computers
a. There could be congestion at the shared resources.
b. Control of information and confidentiality may be lost.
c. The costs of the system may be considerable.
d. Viruses and other forms of corruption to programmes spread faster.

Topologies are ways in which a network can be structured or arranged

depending on the resources, the needs and the structure of the given organisation.
Point-to-Point (PTP)
This connects two devices directly together for example:
· Two computers communicating
· A workstation communicating along a parallel cable to a printer
Because the medium is not shared, a mechanism is not needed to identify the computers.
Therefore, a simple, two-device point-to-point network has no need for addressing.
Point-to-Point links can be simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.

Forms of Data Transmission

Data is transmitted in two forms
1. Analog data transmission
2. Digital data transmission

Analog data transmission is the transmission of data in a continuous waveform.The telephone

system, for instance, is designed for analog data transmission. Analog signals are sometimes
modulated or encoded to represent binary data.
Digital data transmission is the widely used communication system in the world. The distinct
electrical state of ‘on’ and ‘off’ is represented by 1 and 0 respectively. Digital data
transmission is faster and more efficient than analog. All computers understand and work
only in digital forms
Simplex
Transmission occurs in one direction only i.e. signal flows in ONE direction. Only one
station transmits and the other receives. This is used in radio and television transmission.
These include broadcast systems where one station transmits and the other one listen, and
some missile guidance systems, where the launcher needs only to command the missile
where to go, and the launcher does not need to receive any information from the missile.

Transmitter (TX) Receiver (Rx)

Half Duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive but NOT at the same time.
This is used in two-way radio transmission. In Half duplex mode data can be transmitted
back and forth between two stations. But at any point of time data can go in any one
direction only. This arrangement resembles traffic on a one-lane bridge. When traffic moves
in one direction, traffic on the opposite direction is to wait and take their turn. The common
example is the walky-talky, wherein one waits for his turn while the other talks.

Transmitter (Tx) Receiver (Rx)

Full Duplex
In full duplex mode a device can simultaneously send or receive data. This arrangement
resembles traffic on a two-way bridge, traffic moving on both directions simultaneously.
An example is two people on the telephone talking and listening simultaneously.
Communication in full duplex mode is faster. Full duplex transmission is used in large
computer systems. Products like “Microsoft NetMeeting’ supports such two way
interaction
• Both stations transmit and receive simultaneously. Link capacity is shared between
the two devices either by 2 separate transmission path.
 • Channel capacity is divided for transmitting and receiving. This is the mode used in
modern telephone/ cellular transmission.

Transmitter (Tx) Receiver (Rx)

Receiver (Rx) Transmitter (Tx)

Multi-point
This links three or more devices together through a single communication medium.
For sharing a common channel, each device needs a way to identify itself and the device to
which it wants to send information. The method used to identify senders and receivers is
called addressing. Three common types of multi-point topology are star, ring and bus.

Topology
Refers to the arrangement of the nodes in the network. Topology is the geometrical
representation of linking devices (nodes/terminals/workstation) to each other in LAN which
can be star, ring, bus, mesh topology.
Star Topology
All computers are connected to the hub or central computer. The hub uses a method called
polling when computers are communicating. Polling is whereby the central computer asks
each network computer if it has a message to send. Communication is in both directions but
passes through the hub.

Advantages
a. It is easy to trouble shoot, easy to install and make configurations.
b. It is economic and offers intensive use of the terminals
c. Requires a single intelligent computer, terminals could be dump there by saving on
the cost of the network.
d. Each terminal has direct and quicker access to the host
e. If one cable fails, this doesn’t disrupt the whole network
f. There is network security and control is easy to implement through the central
computer.
Disadvantages
a. It is prone to failure - failure of the node mean loss and breakdown to the whole system.
b. The cabling may be costly i.e. it uses too many cables so it’s expensive to set up.
c. Viruses can be transmitted easily within the network.

Bus topology
All the computers are connected to a linear transmission medium called a bus and there are
terminators at each end of the bus. The terminators absorb signals so that they do not get
reflected back into the network and cause data corruption.When a computer wants to send a
message, it first checks to see if the bus is not busy then sends. If the bus is busy, it waits
for a random time and then rechecks. This method is called Carrier Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). Signal bounce is eliminated by a terminator at
each end of the bus. Barrel connectors can be used to lengthen cable and repeaters can be
used to regenerate signals.

Advantages
a. Costs of setting up and maintaining the network are low.
b. Each terminal can communicate directly with any other on the network.
Disadvantages
a. Risk of network malfunction i.e. it can be slow if there is a large number of users
b. Trouble shooting is more difficult.
c. There is the risk of data collision.

Ring Topology
It is made up of a series of nodes connected to each other to form a closed loop. Each loop
can accept data transmitted to it from an immediate neighbour and forward data not
addressed to it to the next neighbour. Messages are transmitted in packets or frames. Each
node has an address and packet is delivered to the node bearing the address required.
Communication in a ring occurs by a method called token passing. A ring network would
have one token which has the ability to transmit data. Each computer is given the chance to
grab the token and receive or send a message. When a token has a message, each computer
checks to see if the token is addressed to it so that it can grab it, otherwise it passes it on
along the ring.
Advantages
a. It is easy to install and reconfigure.
b. There is less risk of packet collision.
c. More accurate and reliable.
d. easy to add new node as only two connections need changes.
Disadvantages
a. There is poor response time
b. There is risk of data interception so there should be data encryption.
c. Unwanted data may continue to circulate the network, thus reducing traffic carrying
capacity of the network.
d. It is difficult to implement central network security since there is no controlling
computer
e. If the cable develops a problem, the whole network is disrupted and is difficult to
troubleshoot

Mesh Topology
In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and other devices, are
interconnected with one another. Every node not only sends its own signals but also relays
data from other nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where every node is
connected to every other node in the network. This type of topology is very expensive as
there are many redundant connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It is
commonly used in wireless networks. Flooding or routing technique is used in mesh
topology.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
• Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data
transfer doesn’t get affected.
• Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.
• Security as data travels along a dedicated line.
• Points to point links make fault identification easy.
Disadvantages of a Mesh Topology
• There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
• Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network
topologies.
• Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.
• Bulk wiring is required therefore high cabling costs.

Intranet, Extranet

Understand what an intranet is and understand the distinction between the

Internet and an intranet.

Internet

The internet is the collection of all computers across the world which can access
each other in some way. The links between computers might include telephone,
fibre optic cable, radio, microwave or satellite. Today tens of millions of
computers are able to access each other. The Internet has no central organisation
which controls its use. Because the Internet knows no borders, many
governments have tried to control the flow of information across the Internet.
However, communications technology is so varied and so widespread that this
is a near impossible task.
Intranet

An intranet is similar to the Internet in operation. However, it is limited to an organisation.

Users may browse computers within an intranet using a browser but will usually not be able
to access the wider Internet. In the same way, outsiders will not be able to
access the intranet of an organisation. An intranet can be thought of as a private
Internet.

Extranets

An extranet is an extension of an organisation's intranet to include outside users. In an

extranet, outside organisations or individuals are allowed access to certain parts
of the intranet. This access is usually controlled by means of passwords and access rights.
These restrict which users can access the extranet and what they can do once they
have access. The purpose of the extranet is to facilitate business transactions with other
organisations.

Understand what the Internet is and know some of its main uses.

• Integrate the operations of multinational corporations.

• Provide access to and share information and databases.

• Transfer and share files between computers.

• Facilitate business transactions.

• Share resources.

• Promote scientific co-operation between research institutions.

• Provide a communications channel for the military.

Internet
• The Internet is the network of networks being a worldwide collection of computers
that communicate with one another over cables, satellites and optical fibre.
• It is literally the whole hardware mass. The Internet is the network used to transport
information.
• Internet, by definition is a network of networks that interact with each other through
exchange of data packets. The Internet hosts an enormous information base and
carries numerous information resources and services.
• When we refer to the Internet we are usually talking about the World Wide Web
(WWW) which is the most used feature of the Internet.
• The internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide.
• The WWW stores millions of web pages on web servers. These pages can contain
text, pictures, movies, animation and sound. Web pages are written in a language or
code called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).
• A set of web pages is called a website.
 • Each web page has its own unique address or URL. The URL will have the format
"http" and a domain (such as "co.zw"). What goes in between is arbitrary, but often
has the term "www "such as in "http://www.name.co.zw", but it doesn’t have to (e.g.
http://news.nrz.co.zw).
• Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This is
called the homepage.
• Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be taken
to another page which could be on another server in any part of the world. When you
move around web pages you are said to be surfing the net. For this you need a
Program to read the pages (called a browser), such as Firefox or Internet Explorer.
• To search for a particular item or topic on the net you use a search engine. There are
many different kinds of search engine, each using slightly different ways of searching
and indexing web content. Google, MSN and Alta Vista are all examples of search
engines, while Yahoo and Excite are web directories (a bit like the Yellow Pages
phone book) which have a search function built in.
• The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
• A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It must
have an address in a recognized format.
Definition of Terms

World Wide Web

The World Wide Web or WWW is a part of the Internet. The WWW consists of all the sites
that can be accessed using a web browser such as Mozilla, Netscape, Internet Explorer or
Opera. In order for a browser to access a web site, the web site must contain files
that have a particular format constructed using Hyper Text Mark-up Language or
HTML. These sites are developed using special web development applications. It is
possible to create simple web sites using a word processor by saving the document in
HTML format.

ISPs internet Service Provider

• An ISP is a company that provides access to the Internet to individuals or companies.
ISPs provide local dial-up access from your personal computer to their computer
network and their network connects you to the Internet.
• An institution (usually a private company) that provides access to the Internet in some
form, usually for money.
A business that delivers access to the Internet e.g.
Econet Telecel NetOne
Powertel Africom Broadacom
ComOne ZOL Ecoweb
Browser
A web browser is a software application that enables a user to display and interact with
HTML documents hosted by web servers or held in a file system. Popular browsers
available for personal computers include Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
Opera, and Safari. A browser is the most commonly used kind of user agent. The largest
networked collection of linked documents is known as the World Wide Web.
Search engines
 • Internet search engines help users find web pages on a given subject. The search engines
maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as "spiders" or
"robots") to collect information, which is then indexed by the search engine. Similar
services are provided by "directories," which maintain ordered lists of websites, e.g. Yahoo!
• Examples of search engines are: Google, MSN, Bing, Yahoo and AltaVista.
Internet address
• The numbering system used in TCP/IP internetwork communications to specify a
particular network or a particular host on that network with which to communicate. Internet
addresses are commonly denoted in dotted decimal form.
Examples of internet addresses
1. www.facebook.com
2. www.nrz.co.zw
3. www.nust.ac.zw
4. www.gmail.com
5. www.redcross.org.uk

ADVANTAGES OF USING THE INTERNET

1. Global Audience
2. Operates 24 hours, 7 days a week.
3. Relatively Inexpensive
4. Online Surveys.
5. Obtain Customer Feedback
6. Multimedia

Disadvantages of the internet

1. Theft of Personal Information

If you use the Internet for online banking, social networking or other services, you may risk a
theft to your personal information such as name, address, credit card number etc.
Unscrupulous people can access this information through unsecured connections or by
planting software and then use your personal details for their benefit. Needless to say, this
may land you in serious trouble.

2. Spamming
Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and
needlessly obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very frustrating for you as
it makes your Internet slower and less reliable.

3. Virus Threat
Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are
inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers
connected to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up crashing.
 4. Pornography
Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. Internet allows you to access
and download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff. Such
unrestricted access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It can even play
havoc in marital and social lives of adults.

5. Social Disconnect
Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people are
getting engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends and family. Even
children prefer to play online games rather than going out and mingling with other kids. This
may hamper a healthy social development in children.

Components required Accessing the Internet

• A computer, smart phone, tablet, laptop
• Internet service provider
• Browser
• A modem
• Telephone line

Services offered on the internet

• E-mail
• E-commerce
• E-learning
• File transfer
• Bulletin boards

• Discussion Groups
• Podcast
• Research
• Entertainment

The Telephone Networking Computing

• Understand the use of the telephone network in computing.

• Understand the terms Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN),
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line (ADSL).

Communications between computers rely heavily on the public telephone

system. Recent telephone line technologies have improved the standard of
communications between networks considerably. The following is a brief description
of some of the technologies that are available.

PSTN
The PSTN or Public Switched Telephone Network refers to the originally telephone
network. From a communications perspective it was slow and unreliable. Some
of the exchanges on a PSTN may still make use of mechanical switches to route
telephone calls. These add additional noise to the line. When lines are noisy, signals
have to be resent repeatedly between the source and the destination. The PSTN
makes use of analogue technology. Analogue technology uses continuously
variable signals. An example of an analogue signal is ordinary speech. Newer digital
technologies make use of pulses of fixed magnitude and duration. In order to improve
connections, it is possible to have an analogue leased line. This is a
dedicated permanent telephone connection between two computers using the PSTN.
In order to connect a computer to a telephone network, you need a
modem. This is an abbreviation for modulator-demodulator. The function of the
modem is to convert the digital signals from the computer into an analogue form suitable
for transmission on the PSTN.

ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network

Is a technological development that is able to make use of the existing PSTN cabling
to transmit digital signals? Technically ISDN is an international standard for the
transmission of data, voice and video or normal voice or digital telephone lines.
ISDN supports rates of up to 64Kbps. An ISDN connection consists of two lines
which can be used independently or together to give a combined rate of
128Kbps. If you wish to connect a computer to an ISDN line you need a special
ISDN modem. This is a different type of modem to the one used with an
analogue line. Its purpose, however, is the
same, to convert the digital signals of the computer into a form suitable for
transmission on an ISDN line.
It is possible to get a dedicated connection between two computers using ISDN. This is
called a diginet connection.
The older telephone systems make use of electrical currents transmitted through copper
cabling. As electric signals are subject to interference, they are not the ideal method of
transmitting data. Newer telephone systems make use of fibre optic cable. In
fibre optic technology, light is transmitted along the cable. As light signals are not
subject to the same interference problems as electrical signals, fibre optic is a far more
efficient and reliable system.

ADSL
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Lines allow the transmission of high speed digital data
over ordinary telephone lines using a modulation technology called DMT or
Discrete Multi-Tone. Ideally, fibre-optic is the ideal medium for high speed
digital transmission. As the installation of fibre-optic is expensive, ADSL
provides solution until copper cable is replaced by fibre-optic.

Analogue signals
Analog signals are denoted by sine wave. They use continuous range of values to
represent information. Example: Human voice in air. Data transmission is subjected to
deterioration by noise during transmission. Analogue signals are used on the PSTN as
well as for normal AM and FM radio transmissions. An analogue signal is one which
varies continuously as, for example, in ordinary speech. An analogue signal has
a graphical form as shown in the following diagram.
Digital signals

Digital signals are denoted by square wave. They use discrete or discontinuous values to
represent information. Example: Computers, Cell phones. Digital signals are used in ISDN
and ADSL connections. Newer television and radio transmission techniques are also
making using of digital technology. Digital signals are two state signals corresponding to a
switch which is On or Off. The same two state signal can also represent TRUE and FALSE
or 1 and 0.
Modems

A modem or modulator-demodulator is a device connected between a computer and a

telephone line. Its function is to convert the digital signals of the computer into a form
suitable for transmission over a telephone line. It must also do the reverse
and convert the telephone line signals into a form suitable for the computer. Note that the
modem used to connect to an ISDN line is different to that used to connect to an analogue
line.

Data transfer rates

Each 1 or 0 that is transferred is referred to as a bit. The speed of a data transfer is measured
by the number of bits that can be transferred each second or bps (bits per
second). This is also sometimes called the baud rate or bandwidth. High speed lines
have their speed measured in kbps or Mbps.

1 kbps = 1 024 bps (roughly 1 000 bps)

1 Mbps = 1 024 kbps = 1 048 576 bps (roughly 1 000 000 bps)

To put these figures in perspective, the maximum theoretically attainable speed with an
analogue line is 56kbps. This figure is very seldom attained and the reality is usually
substantially lower.

ISDN lines operate at 64 kbps.

HEALTH AND SAFETY
Eyestrain
• The human eye structurally prefers to look at objects further than six meters
away, so any work performed close-up puts extra demands on the eye muscles.
While there is no evidence that eye fatigue is associated with damage to the eye
sight, computer users may experience symptoms such as blurred vision,
temporary inability to focus on faraway objects and headaches.
The following changes can be helpful:
• Computer screen - Adjust the height of your screen so you're not tilting your head
down and tensing your neck , screen should be at eye level
• Lighting - Try adjusting the screen and brightness and contrast
• Rest breaks - Taking periodic breaks, during which you relax and gently stretch your
neck muscles, can ease muscle strain. In addition, avoid any tendency to stare at the
screen without blinking, since this can lead to dryness in the eyes.
• Frequently look away from the screen and focus on faraway objects
• Screen filters may be applied to the terminal screens to control glare
Muscles problems
• Chair should be comfortable and should sit up straight in the char with feet firmly on
the floor.
• Get good mouse pad and the keyboard must be approximately placed at elbow height.
Headache
A computer screen is much like a television but you sit much closer to it. The light coming
from the monitor can cause eyestrain if you stare at it for too long. This and also other
reasons when working at a computer, including stress and poor posture can lead to a
headache. Regular breaks can help reduce muscle strain and alleviate these problems.
Back pain
While working at the computer, back pain is one of the most common workplace problems.
To increase comfort while working at the computer you should:
• Practice 'dynamic sitting;' be flexible and move while sit, don’t just stay in one static
posture
• Adjust the backrest so you are sitting at a 90 degree angle. That means your legs and
your body form an 'L' and your feet should be flat on the floor or on a footstool.
• Adjust the height of the backrest to support the natural inward curvature of the lower
back.
• Use your armrests. They support the weight of your arms and allow your neck and
shoulder muscles to relax.
• Do not lean across your desk to use the mouse as this will strain your back and
shoulders.

RSI

Repetitive Strain Injury is a condition caused by repetitive motion. In most cases, RSI
affects the neck, knees, wrists, back, and fingers. By sitting in one position and
performing repetitive motions such as typing and looking at a computer screen, the body
can experience strain and muscle fatigue. Over time, RSI can cause permanent nerve
injury and become a debilitating condition. It is vital that workers and those who sit or
 stand in a job where repetitive motion is required be educated about how to prevent
injury.

• Rest breaks - Taking periodic breaks, during which you relax and gently stretch your
neck muscles, can ease muscle strain. In addition, avoid any tendency to stare at the
screen without blinking, since this can lead to dryness in the eyes.

• Frequently look away from the screen and focus on faraway objects.

Carpal tunnel syndrome

• Carpal tunnel syndrome is an injury caused by a pinched nerve in the wrist. The injury
causes pain and numbness in the index and middle fingers and weakness of the
thumb. To avoid that adjust the height of your chair so that your forearms are level
with your keyboard and you don't have to flex your wrists to type. It's also important
to take breaks and rest your hands and wrists.

ERGONOMICS

• Ergonomics is the science of designing the job to fit the worker, instead of forcing the
worker to fit the job. Ergonomics looks at the industrial design of equipment with
human beings in mind. It also looks at the environment, how it affects the welfare of
the user. Ideally, ergonomics:

• Makes the job safer by preventing injury and illness.

• Makes the job easier by adjusting the job to the worker.

• Makes the job more pleasant by reducing physical and mental stress

• Improves worker management relationships

Increases productivity
There are a variety of ergonomic products available on the market, including:
• Ergonomic keyboards
• Wrist rests
• Mouse pads
• Foot rests
• Swivel and adjustable chairs
• Adjustable desks
• Glare screens
Some examples of ergonomic environmental problems are:
• Excessive noise
• Improper lighting
• Temperature extremes
• Static electricity
• Glare on screens
 Chairs and Desks

Should be carefully designed ensuring the feet can touch the ground and hands can
comfortably reach equipment desk. A poorly designed chair can give the user back ache,
thus leads to absence from work. Modern well designed chairs can swivel, have
adjustable height mechanisms, are padded, and have feet in star pattern for stability.

Lighting System

Fluorescent lightning needs to be diffused to reduce glare. The environment must be well
lit to avoid user straining eyes.

Static electricity

Is a problem in a modern air conditioned offices which have wall to wall carpeting made
from artificial fibres it causes people to be uncomfortable. Anti-static carpets are
recommended.

V.D.U

Anti- glare screen coatings are recommended. Tilting/ adjustable screens which may be
positioned at most suitable comfortable position. VDU terminals should not be used for
longer time, users should take frequent breaks.

DATA SECURITY

• Assets to be safeguarded

• -data

• -software

• -hardware

• -network facilities

Security of Data

Threats to data:

- document is accidentally deleted or overwriting

- data can be corrupt as a result of faulty disks or disk drives

- computer breaks down or power fails

- file or disk becomes corrupted

 - File is destroyed by fire or flood.

- Hacked into by unauthorised users

- Altered by unpleasant employees

- Viruses

Measures to ensure data security

1. Data Encryption/Decryption- Data is put in a form that is unintelligible before

transmission over a WAN & decrypted only if you have the key & code to decrypt the data
on the receiving end.
2. Firewall- a firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a
PC or network through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to
and from the PC and comparing the data with a set of user-defined security criteria. Any
data that does not meet those criteria is blocked. Latest firewalls also have the ability to
detect virus software in packets of data that is sent through the network. Firewalls disallow
data transmission if it detects strains of virus on the data being transmitted.
3. Usernames & Passwords-
Passwords restrict only authorized personnel/users to have access to the data or computer
rooms [cards]. Passwords bring in an aspect of accountability, if a file is deleted, the person
with the password will be reported as the culprit through logging.
4. Authorized entry to computer installations-Most installations have card readers, voice
recognition systems or keypads on the doors that prohibit entry to unauthorized personnel.
5. Backing-up files on external disks periodically.
6. Saving work frequently
7. Use of anti-viruses.
8. Anti-viruses
9. Placing the computer room in upper floors of a building to avoid burglaries.

MALWARE
short for malicious software-this term used by computer professionals to mean a variety of
forms of hostile, intrusive or annoying behaviour which an attacker inserts into the system
to do harm or disturb normal operations of the system. Malware includes-(computer
viruses, spyware, worms etc.)
Computer virus
An executable program written intentionally to do harm to the computer system
without user’s knowledge. Virus is transmitted from computer to computer by attaching
itself to other files. Computer virus is an executable program written intentionally to do
harm to the computer system without user knowledge. Virus is transmitted from
computer to computer by attaching itself to other files.
-They copy themselves quickly.
-Effects of viruses may be mild to severe
-They copy themselves quickly.
-Effects of viruses may be mild to severe.
Computer worm
Is a self-replicating malware computer program which uses a computer network to send
copies of itself to other computers (not by attaching itself to another file like a virus) and it
may do so without any user intervention.
Trojan horse-is software that appears to perform a desirable function prior to run or install,
but with malicious intentions.
Hoaxes
A hoax is used to trick users into believing there is malicious code threat to their systems.
Hoaxes typically contain warnings, the purpose of which is to frighten or mislead users and
to entice them to spread hoax further (spread the word on). Hoaxes typically arrive in the
form of email
Spyware
Is malware that can be installed in the computer and which collects small pieces of
information about users without their knowledge.
Types of computer viruses
Boot sector
-is the virus that attaches itself to the first part of the hard disk that is read by the computer
upon boot up. The computer will fail to start.
Browser Hijacker
This type of virus, which can spread itself in numerous ways including voluntary
download, effectively hijacks certain browser functions, usually in the form of redirecting
the user automatically to particular sites. It’s usually assumed that this tactic is designed to
increase revenue from web advertisements.
Direct Action Virus
This type of virus, unlike most, only comes into action when the file containing the virus is
executed. The payload is delivered and then the virus essentially becomes dormant – it
takes no other action unless an infected file is executed again. Most viruses do not use the
direct action method of reproduction simply because it is not prolific, but viruses of this
type have done damage in the past.
File Infector Virus
Perhaps the most common type of virus, the file infector takes root in a host file and then
begins its operation when the file is executed. The virus may completely overwrite the file
that it infects, or may only replace parts of the file, or may not replace anything but instead
re-write the file so that the virus is executed rather than the program the user intended.
Although called a “file virus” the definition doesn’t apply to all viruses in all files generally
– for example, the macro virus below is not referred to by the file virus. Instead, the
definition is usually meant to refer only to viruses which use an executable file format, such
as .exe, as their host.
Multipartite Virus
While some viruses are happy to spread via one method or deliver a single payload,
Multipartite viruses want it all. A virus of this type may spread in multiple ways, and it may
take different actions on an infected computer depending on variables, such as the operating
system installed or the existence of certain files.
Polymorphic Virus
Another jack-of-all-trades, the Polymorphic virus actually mutates over time or after every
execution, changing the code used to deliver its payload. Alternatively, or in addition, a
Polymorphic virus may guard itself with an encryption algorithm that automatically alters
itself when certain conditions are met.
The goal of this trickery is evasion. Antivirus programs often find viruses by the specific
code used. Obscuring or changing the code of a virus can help it avoid detection.
Resident Virus
This broad virus definition applies to any virus that inserts itself into a system’s memory. It
then may take any number of actions and run independently of the file that was originally
infected. A resident virus can be compared to a direct payload virus, which does not insert
itself into the system’s memory and therefore only takes action when an infected file is
executed.
Symptoms of an infected computer.
• Reduced memory or disk space
• Files are overwritten or damaged
• Hard drive may be erased
• Data is modified /corrupted.
• Change files & date stamp
• Drive lights blink without reason
• Longer times are experienced when loading programs
• Slower system operation.
• Deletion of data files
• The computer completely fails to work
• Erasure or deletion of executable files
• Formatting of the hard disks
• Filling up of disk space
• Unrecognized files appear.
• File names change.
• The screen becomes distorted.
• computer ‘freezes’ frequently, or programs start running slowly.

Sources of computer viruses

• Use of infected floppy diskettes on uninfected computers. Floppy disks or other
• Media that user can exchange.
• Downloading unknown files, when your computer is connected to the Internet.
• Opening an E-mail attachment before scanning.
• Accepting unknown program installations from the internet
• Software piracy [buying software from unauthorized agents]. Pirated software.
• Booting a PC from an infected medium.
• Opening an infected file.
• visiting corrupt websites and links online,
• Networks – if your computer is connected to a home network or if your work
computer is part of network, you may find yourself with an infection through no fault
of your own.
Characteristics and attributes of computer viruses
The demonstrated characteristics of computer viruses include several remarkable items,
including:
-Copies itself
-Hides
-Size. The sizes of the program code required for computer viruses has been
demonstrated to be surprisingly small. This has facilitated the ability of these programs
to attach themselves to other applications and escape notice for long periods of time.
- Versatility.- viruses have appeared with the ability to generically attack a wide
variety of applications. Many do not even require information about the program they are
infecting.
- Propagation/spread-Once a computer virus has infected a program, while this
program is running, the virus is able to spread to other programs and files
accessible to the computer system.
-Effectiveness- Many of the computer viruses that have received widespread publicity have
had far-reaching and catastrophic effects on their victims. These have included total loss of
data, programs, and even the operating systems.
Functionality- A wide variety of functions has been demonstrated in virus programs.
Some virus programs merely spread themselves to applications without otherwise attacking
data files, program functions, or operating systems activities. Other virus programs are
programmed to damage or delete files and systems etc.
- Persistence. Even after the virus program has been detected, recovery of data,
programs, and even system operation has been difficult and time consuming. In
many cases, especially in networked operations, eradication of viruses has been
complicated by the ability of the virus program to repeatedly spread and reoccur
through the networked system from a single infected copy.
Antivirus software
-Norton Antivirus Package
-AVG Antivirus
- Microsoft Antiviral Package
- McAfee
- Panda Antivirus
- Avast
- Dr.Web Anti-Virus
-BitDefender
- Kaspersky
- ESET Nod32 etc.

Facilities provided by an antivirus package.

1. Scanning – searching for viruses
2. Cleaning of the system (removal of viruses)
3. Rearrangement of corrupted data.
4. Repairing of corrupted data files.
 5. Quarantine – separation of infected files from uninfected files.
6. Detection involves the use of anti-virus software to detect, report and (sometimes)
disinfect viruses.
7. Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or replacing
corrupted data.

To prevent spread of viruses

• Install a reliable antiviral package
• Avoid Software piracy thus buy software from authorized dealers.
• Never download unknown files from the internet
• Boot the system from virus free disks
• Avoid using foreign storage media
• Use genuine software
• Avoid opening e-mails from suspicious or unknown sources
• Write protect disks
• Install antivirus software

DATA PROCESSING
Data processing may refer to a discrete step by step in the information processing cycle in
which data is acquired, entered, validated, processed, stored, and output, either in response
to queries or in the form of routine reports; the processing is the step that organizes the
information in order to form the desired output.
"A sequence of operations on data to convert it into useful information is called data
processing".
• The important operations that can be performed on data are: Arithmetic and logical
operations on data to get required results.
• Classification of data.
• -Arranging data into a specific order etc.
• summarizing
THE DATA PROCESSING CYCLE
The data processing cycle:

1. Data origination
• Data originates in the form of events or transactions and is recorded in some usable
form. It may be initially recorded on paper source documents such as cash receipts,
customer invoices, time cards etc. OR may be recorded by a direct input device in a
paperless machine readable form.
2. Data preparation
• Once data is collected, it is converted from its source documents in a form more
suitable for input and subsequent processing. Data may be codified (given
identification codes) or classified.
• Data may be transcribed that is copied into some media or form suitable for input e.g.
barcoding for faster data entry
3. Data verification
• Done to prevent errors occurring in data before it is processed.
• This can be done by visual checks-checking for errors by looking through the data OR
Double keying (using computer to verify). The data is entered twice (by two different
 people). The computer will only accept the data for processing if two versions are
identical. Transcription errors can be checked at this stage
4. Data validation
• Is done upon entry in the computer before taken in as proper input. Is a process of
ensuring that a program operates on clean, correct and useful data. It uses sub
programs called “validation rules” or “check routines” that check for correctness,
meaningfulness and security of data. Computer won’t accept or input it if it fails the
validation checks.
5. Data input
• If data passes validation check, it is taken or accepted as correct data for processing
by the computer.
6. Data processing or manipulation
• It consists of the following activities
• Calculating -arithmetic manipulation like addition, subtraction, multiplication etc. for
example in calculating employee’s pay, the hours worked multiplied by hourly rate
gives the gross pay. Based on total earning, income tax deductions are computed and
subtracted from gross pay to get net pay.
• Summarizing- to condense or reduce masses of data to more usable and concise
form.eg summarizing activity may provide a general manager with sales totals by a
major product or per given period etc.
• Sorting- arranging data items in desired sequence. Sometimes sorting data itself will
transform data to information. For example a simple act of sorting the names in
alphabetical order gives meaning to a telephone directory. The directory will be
practically worthless without sorting.
• Comparing- to perform an evaluation in relation to some known measure. Example
managers compare data to discover how their companies are doing. The computer
may compare current sales figures with those for past years to analyze the
performance of the company in the current month.
7. Output
• Output of information like reports, analyses, payrolls, graphical representations of
information can be achieved

Qualities/characteristics of good information.

• Accuracy –free from errors
• Reliable -Information users must be able to trust that information received from a
system is trustworthy.
• Concise-Our brains process information selectively. Information that is brief and
succinct is better processed and remembered than meandering information. Outputs
should therefore be summarized according to the needs of the users. For example, it is
very common practice to summarize financial data and present this information, both
in the form of figures and by using a chart or graph. We would say that the graph is
more concise than the tables of figures as there is little or no extraneous information
in the graph or chart.
• Understandable-Information is only such if it can be properly understood by users.
Understandable information is properly formatted, meaningful to an array of users,
and unambiguous.
Relevance/appropriateness
 • Information should be relevant to the purpose for which it is required. It must be
suitable. What is relevant for one manager may not be relevant for another. The user
will become frustrated if information contains data irrelevant to the task in hand.
Completeness
• Information should contain all the details required by the user. Otherwise, it may not
be useful as the basis for making a decision. For example, if an organization is
supplied with information regarding the costs of supplying a fleet of cars for the sales
force, and servicing and maintenance costs are not included, then a costing based on
the information supplied will be considerably underestimated.
• Ideally all the information needed for a particular decision should be available
Conciseness
• Information should be in a form that is short enough to allow for its examination and
use. There should be no extraneous information. For example, it is very common
practice to summarize financial data and present this information, both in the form of
figures and by using a chart or graph. We would say that the graph is more concise
than the tables of figures as there is little or no extraneous information in the graph or
chart. Clearly there is a trade-off between level of detail and conciseness.
Presentation
• The presentation of information is important to the user. Information can be more
easily assimilated if it is aesthetically pleasing. For example, a marketing report that
includes graphs of statistics will be more concise as well as more aesthetically
pleasing to the users within the organization. Many organizations use presentation
software and show summary information via a data projector. These presentations
have usually been well thought out to be visually attractive and to convey the correct
amount of detail.
Timely
• Information must be on time for the purpose for which it is required. Information
received too late will be irrelevant. For example, if you receive a brochure from a
theatre and notice there was a concert by your favorite band yesterday, then the
information is too late to be of use.
Value of information
The relative importance of information for decision-making can increase or decrease
its value to an organization. For example, an organization requires information on a
competitor’s performance that is critical to their own decision on whether to invest in
new machinery for their factory. The value of this information would be high. Always
keep in mind that information should be available on time, within cost constraints and
be legally obtained.
Cost of information
Information should be available within set cost levels that may vary dependent on
situation. If costs are too high to obtain information an organization may decide to
seek slightly less comprehensive information elsewhere. For example, an organization
wants to commission a market survey on a new product. The survey could cost more
than the forecast initial profit from the product. In that situation, the organization
would probably decide that a less costly source of information should be used, even if
it may give inferior information

The data processing is divided into three categories or levels.

1. Manual Data Processing
• In manual data processing, data is processed manually without using any machine or
tool to get required result. In manual data processing, all the calculations and logical
operations are manually performed on the data. Similarly, data is manually transferred
from one place to another. This method of data processing is very slow and errors may
occur in the output.

• In Zimbabwe, data is still processed manually in many small business firms as well as
government offices & institutions. In manual data processing data is processed
manually. No machine or tool is used.

• All the calculations on data are performed manually. This is a slow method and errors
may occur. This is an old method. It was used before the invention of calculators. But
data is still processed manually in many small shops.

Mechanical Data Processing

In mechanical data processing, data is processed by using different tools like
calculators or other mechanical devices. This method of data processing is faster and
more accurate than manual data processing.
Mechanical data processing is more accurate than manual. Calculators, computer
programs and other devices are used on the data however someone still has to step in
between operations.in mechanical data processing data is processed with the help of
devices or machines. These machines that help the people in data processing may be
calculators and type writers etc. Obviously, this method is faster easier and more
accurate than manual data processing.
Example: Book seller can use a calculator to speed up his data processing system.
There will be a less chance of errors in calculations. Bill calculations will be much
faster with a calculator and easier too.

3. Electronic Data Processing

It is the modern technique to process data. The data is processed through computer.
Data and set of instructions are given to the computer as input and the computer
automatically processes the data according to the given set of instructions.
The computer is also known as electronic data processing machine. This method of
processing data is very fast and accurate. Now-a-days, the data is processed and
analysed through computers. For example, the results of students are prepared through
computer; in banks accounts of customers are processed through computers etc.

Data Processing Methods

• Batch Processing
• Online Processing
• Real Time Processing
• Distributed Processing

Batch Processing
This is a method where the information to be organised is sorted into groups to allow
for efficient and sequential processing.

Online Processing
 This is a method that utilises internet connections and equipment directly attached to a
computer. It is used mainly for information recording and research.

Real Time Processing

This technique has the ability to respond almost immediately to various signals in
order to acquire and process information.

Distributed Processing
This method is commonly utilised by remote workstations connected to one big
central workstation or server, e.g. ATMs

What is computer security?

-Also called IT or cyber security. It refers to the protection of computers systems and the
data they access.
Why study security
• Deter – To educate people and discourage them from breaking into systems for illegal
and malicious reasons
• Prevent – To put in place measures to prevent unauthorized access.
• Detect – To know whether someone tried to gain access and what they did.
Effects of security breaches
• Loss or damage to information
• Unnecessary downtime and loss of revenues
• Theft of customer personal details which may lead to negative reputation
• Financial Loss

Phishing
• Typically, the attacker sends an e-mail that appears to come from a legitimate
business—a bank, or credit card company—requesting "verification" of information
and warning of some dire consequence if it is not provided.
• The e-mail directs the user to visit a bogus website set up only to steal the user
information.

Identity Theft
• Identity theft occurs when a thief assumes someone else's identity to commit fraud in
that person's name without their knowledge.
• By the time the victim catches on, the thief is usually long gone, leaving behind a trail
of ruined credit, debts and collectors.

Shoulder Surfing
 • Shoulder surfing is using direct observation techniques, such as looking over
someone's shoulder, to get information.
• Shoulder surfing is an effective way to get information in crowded places because it's
relatively easy to stand next to someone and watch as they fill out a form, enter a PIN
number at an ATM machine, or use a calling card at a public pay phone.

Natural Disasters
• Hardware malfunction
• Software Failure
• Power Surges
• Power blackouts

Access Control
Password
Is a secret word or string of characters that is used for authentication, to prove identity or
gain access to a resource e.g. an access code is a type of password.
Password Protection
Password protection can prevent unauthorized access to content.
• Two levels of password protection are recommended:
• BIOS – Prevents BIOS settings from being changed without the appropriate password
• Login – Prevents unauthorized access to the network
Password Policies
Many policies require
• A minimum password length, typically 8 characters.
• the use of both upper- and lower-case letters (case sensitivity)
• inclusion of one or more numerical digits
• Inclusion of special characters, e.g. @, #, $ etc.
• prohibition of words found in a dictionary or the user's personal information
Biometric Login
• If you want to say bye-bye to the old traditional way to log into your computer via
password, then you might want to try Biometrics!
• All you need for this is a webcam or a fingerprint reader to implement face
recognition or fingerprint login.
• If your workers can’t remember their passwords, then this is definitely a great
alternative to passwords.
• Lock computer
• More people access information on computers through unattended workstations than
by hacking into the systems
• Disable remote login: This will prevent intruders from logging to your computer
through the network.
• Turn off your computer or disconnect it from the network when you are not using it.
• An intruder cannot attack your computer if it is powered off or otherwise completely
disconnected from the network.
• You can disable remote login so that intruders cannot log on to your computer from
network computers.
Data Backup
 • A data backup is the copy of the original data that can be used in the case of data loss.
• Data can be backed up on DVDs, CDs, external hard drives, magnetic tapes and other
network computers.
Encryption
• Hard drives and USB flash drives are treasure troves of personal data.
• They're also among the most common sources of data leaks.
• If you lose a flash drive, external hard drive, or laptop containing sensitive personal
information, you will be at risk.
• Fortunately, encrypting your hard drive can give your data an extra layer of protection
beyond setting up a system password.
Data Wiping
• When you delete a file or folder, it goes in the trash or recycle bin.
• Emptying recycle bin to get rid of a file or deleting from DOS in fact does not delete
them at all.
• Usually, all that happens is that the file's name is removed from the disk's index, but
the data still remains on the disk itself.
• There are some undelete programs around which can easily recover this data.
Install and update an Antivirus
• Anti-virus programs work much the same way. These programs look at the contents of
each file, searching for specific patterns that match a profile – called a virus signature
– of something known to be harmful.
• For each file that matches a signature, the anti-virus program typically provides
several options on how to respond, such as removing the offending patterns or
destroying the file.
Use a Firewall

INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE SYSTEMS

• A database is a shared and integrated collection of logically related records or files

consolidated into a common pool that provides data for one or more uses.
• Is a collection of files?
• An organized collection of interrelated files.
• Is a collection of related files that provides a way of finding information quickly and
easily from a chosen reference point?
• Is an integrated collection of logically related records or files?
• A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common
pool of data records that provides data for many applications.
Examples of databases are:
• MS Access,
• MS Works Database,
• DBaseIV,
• Oracle,
• SQL

Building Blocks of a Database System

BIT BYTE FIELD RECORD FILE DATABASE

• A byte is also known as a character

• A field is also known as a word

• A file is also called a table or relation

File-Is a collection of related records.

Record-Is a collection of fields. It is a collection of fields arranged in a predefined order.

Field-Is a collection of single items. It is an implementation of the data attribute. It is the

smallest unit of data to be stored in a database.

Primary key-Is a field whose value identifies one & only one record in a file.

Secondary key- An alternative index for identifying an entity. Its value can identify single
entity occurrences of all entity occurrences. A subset of all entity occurrences.

Foreign key-Are pointers or links to occurrences of a different file. A foreign key in one file
must be a primary key in another file.

Descriptors-Are any other fields that describe business entities.

Traditional/Conventional/Flat Filing Systems

• This is programming with files. Each user defines and implements the files needed for a
specific application so that each application has its own separate data files and software
programs.

• Although both users will be interested in the same data, each maintains separate files and
programs to manipulate these files and this results in data redundancy and a lot other
problems associated with it.

Advantages of the Database Approach

• Control over data redundancy

• Increased data consistency/Reduced data confusion

• Increased data integrity – concerned with validity and accuracy of data

• Reduction in wastage of storage space

• Program/Data independence

• Increased productivity of application development

• Improved data security

• Data sharing

Disadvantages of the Database Approach

• Database systems are complex, difficult and time consuming to design

• There is greater impact of failure

• Extensive conversion costs involved

• Initial training is required for all users

• Concurrence problems - where more than one user access and attempt to update the same
record at the same time - there is file edit locking to prevent this.

• Ownership problems - sometimes some individuals tend to own the data and thus refuse
access by other individuals or departments in the organization.

• Resources problem - with database extra resources are needed e.g. more workstations and
other devices. Substantial hardware and software startup costs are involved.

• Security problems - there is increased exposure to unauthorized entry into the data.
However, this could be reduced by the use of regularly changed passwords and by
physically denying access to unauthorized users.

Data Processing: Word

Objectives;
Word Processing
1. Open, close a word processing application.
2. Create a new document. Enter text into a document
3. Save a document to a location (hard drive, flash, desktop.
4. Save a document as another file type like text file, rich text format, pdf.
5. Switch between open documents.
6. Use magnification tools/zoom tools.
7. Insert symbols, special characters ©, ™, ½, , .
8. Select character, word line, sentence, paragraph, entire body
9. Copy + paste and copy + cut.
10. Use undo, redo command
11. Change text formatting, font sizes, font types, subscript, superscript.
12. Apply case changes to text
13. Align text, indent, tab tool
14. Apply spacing 1.5, double spacing.
15. Add, remove bullets, numbers styles.
16. Create a table, insert, edit data in a table.

17. Select rows, columns, cells, entire table.

 18. Insert, delete, rows and columns.

19. Modify column width, row height.

20. Insert an object within a document.

21. Change document orientation i.e. portrait and landscape.

22. Mail Merge.

23. Change Margins of entire document.

24. Add; edit text in headers, footers.

25. Apply automatic page numbering to a document.

26. Spell checks a document and make changes. (Correcting spellings, repeat

27. Print a document from an installed printer, entire document, specific pages and number
of copies.

Formatting text

1. Change the font name, colour, size

2. Change the case

• Sentence case
• Lowercase
• Uppercase
• Toggle case

3. Using cut, copy and paste

4. Bullets and Numbered Lists.

5. Line Spacing

6. Paragraph formatting

- Text is usually aligned with the left hand margin.

Justify- align to the centre i.e. aligned to both the left and right margins.

7. Margins

Margins determine the amount of white space around the edge of the paper. No text is typed
into the margins. Margin measurements apply to the top and bottom of the page, and the left
and right sides.

8. Shading
9. Proofing/ Spell Check

10. Change Paper orientation

11. Thesaurus

Thesaurus is used to find alternative word to replace a word used, e.g.

Utterance - sound
statement
expression
remark
declaration
speech

12. Page Break (Ctrl + Enter)

Class Exercises

Word Processing

Exercise 1

a. Type the text shown below.

NRZ Holiday Combo TRAVEL

NRZ Holiday Combo Travel is pleased to announce a number of new vacation destinations
for the forthcoming season. Bargains are available for early travelers, or for groups of six or
more travelling together.

This year, in addition to our popular resorts in Hwange and Victoria Falls, we have opened a
number of new resort centres in Bulawayo. Our catalogue is bigger now than ever before.

b. Save the file on desktop as holidays.

c. Look back over your typing and correct any spelling mistakes. Save the file again using the
same name.
Exercise 2

a. Create the following letter on a new document.

Mrs P Smith
44 Vale Terrace
Highlands
Harare

25 January 2017

Dear Mrs Smith

Thank you for your letter dated 22nd January, enclosing the deposit of $4000 for the
SunBreak which you recently booked. The balance of the amount will be due not less than
three weeks before departure (i.e. before 12 March).

If you need any further assistance in this matter, please do not hesitate to contact me.

Yours Sincerely

Senior Travel Clerk

Jabulani Mpofu

b. Save the document as Smith on desktop.

Exercise 3

Summer is coming! (Comic Sans Ms, size 20, bold)

With summer just around the corner, couldn’t you use a break right now, and a few days or
even a few weeks relaxing on the beach? Or perhaps you’d rather spend a long weekend in
one of our great cities! Maybe you’d like a family getaway in Europe, or a safari tour in
Africa?

Contact us at Sunshine Travel today. One of our friendly staff will be pleased to discuss
your refreshments with you, to see if we can organise you with the getaway break of your
dreams.

Sunshine Travel has offices in

London
Germany
Australia
South Africa

Required:
 I. Indent the title ‘summer is coming!’ to be indented 3cm from the left margin and 2cm
from the right margin.
II. Make the first paragraph italics and font Times New Roman, point size 14.
III. Change the last paragraph to show bullets as shown below:

London
Germany
Australia
South Africa
iv. Justify the paragraph ‘Contact us at Sunshine….’
v. Change the line spacing of the entire document to 1.5.
vi. Select the title and put any solid border around it.
vii. Save the document as Sunshine Travel on documents.

Exercise 1: Word Processing

I. Type the following passage as it is, using font size 12 and font type Times New
Roman. 8 marks
II. Centre the heading change its font to Arial, font size 16. 2marks
III. Insert a water mark with the text PRIVACY, slanting across the page. 2marks
IV. Indent the second paragraph by 1inch left. 2marks
V. Replace the word governments with governments.
2marks
VI. Insert your name as footer. 2marks
VII. Save on desktop as Security and print 2 copies. 2marks

Privacy

There is no question that information technology poses risks to our cultural beliefs
about privacy. Usually the information is collected and used for appropriate purposes,
but the existence of the information does pose risks.

When you enter a tool road using an electronic tag to pay the toll, your travel
will be tracked from the on-ramp to your exit. When you a grocery store card
to get a discount on your shopping, the store will be collecting your personal
history. When you complete your taxes, your personal financial details get
stored in a vast database of the tax paying citizenry. When you use a charge
card, your purchases and payment history are recorded for the purposes of
rating you credit.

There have been occasions when such databases have been used in ways that some
would say infringed on rights of privacy. For instance, governments have listened in to
telephone conversations, both by wiretapping and by monitoring the radio
transmissions of cell phones, for example, and also intercepted e-mail messages. These
actions have usually been justified as necessary for national security, or required as
part of an ongoing investigation. In Zimbabwe, a citizen’s right to privacy is inferred
from the Fourth Amendment which insures,” the right of the people to be secure in
their persons, hoses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and
seizures…”that’s all there is. Privacy is not a right on the same plane as the rights to
life, liberty, and property. In fact, there is a tension between the individual’s right to
privacy and the needs of others to know about the individual. After all, a person needs
to know certain things about another before deciding whether or not to trust the other
in a business or personal relationship.

35 minutes

Word processing: Exercise 2

i) Type the following passage in single line spacing, font size 12point save it as
Exercise 2 and print.
10 marks

In the previous tutorial we saw that an Asynchronous counter can have 2n-1 possible
counting states e.g. MOD-16 for a 4-bit counter, (0-15) making it ideal for use in
Frequency Division. But it is possible to use the basic asynchronous counter to
construct special counters with counting states less than their maximum output number
by forcing the counter to reset itself to zero at a predetermined value producing a type
of asynchronous counts up to its maximum modulus (2n) is called a full sequence
counter and a n-bit counter whose modulus is less than the maximum possible is called
a truncated counter.

But why would we want to create any asynchronous truncated counter that is not a
MOD-4, MOD-8, or some modulus that is equal to the power of two. The answer is
that we can by using combinational logic to take advantage of the asynchronous inputs
on the flip – flop. If we take the modulo- 16 asynchronous counter and modified it
with additional logic gates it can be made to give a decade (divide-by 10) counter
output for use in a standard decimal counting and arithmetic circuits.
 Such counters are generally referred to as Decade Counters. A decade counter requires
resetting to zero when these output count reaches the decimal value of 10, i.e. when
DCBA=1010 and to do this we need to feed this condition back to the reset input. A
counter with a count sequence from binary “0000).

(BCD=”0”) through to “0000”(BCD=”9”) is generally referred to as a BCD binary –

coded decimal counter because its ten state sequence is that of a BCD code but binary
decade counters are more common.

ii) Insert the title Asynchronous Counter at the top of the passage. 3 marks

Iii) Embolden, double underline and make title font size 16. 3 marks

iv) Perform drop caps on the first letter of every paragraph by three lines. 3 marks

v) Insert header as LOGIC CIRCUITS and footer COUNTERS. 3

marks

vi) Make second paragraph italic. 1 mark

35 minutes

Exercise 3 Word Processing

I. Type the following passage as it, using font type Candara, font size 12. 6marks
II. Apply drop case on the first letter of each paragraph. 2marks
III. Insert header as Rail Logistics Freight. 2marks
IV. Save as Quotation and print. 2marks
Quotation Rail Logistics Freight
131 J.Silundika Ave
Quote Reference: 009483 Bulawayo
Date: 23 February 2015
sales@Raillog.co.zw
0772 909 760/ 0712 364 764

Dear Sir,

We have the pleasure of offering you the following quote as per contractual agreement
A4B27 dated 19/02/2015. Our standard terms and conditions apply as per this agreement.

Item Code Description Quantity Cost

B7723 Widget 10000

£0.25
B7772 Concrete Sleepers 5675 £19.25
B1341 Block joints 125 £256
B6721 Points M5 980 £1150

Total £1270743.75

Quotation validity: 30 days

Taxation of 15% is not included.

If you have any questions at all please do not hesitate to contact us.

Best Regards,

Farai Mlambo

Farai Mlambo (Area Sales Manager)

CONFIDENTIALITY NOTICE
The information contained in this transmission is confidential. It may also be legally
privileged. It is intended only for the addressee(s) stated above. If you are not an addressee
you should not disclose, copy, circulate or in any other way use the information contained in
this transmission. Such unauthorised use may be unlawful. If you have received this
transmission in error, please contact us immediately so that we can arrange for its return.

The 2014
Service awards
Finalist in group 1
Data Processing: Spreadsheet
-refers to an application software that simulates an accounting worksheet paper. It is used to
perform various calculations and is especially popular for financial applications. Ms Excel
is a type of spreadsheet programme that is used to perform all mathematical calculations on
numbers, create graphs etc.
- Useful in recording, calculating and analysing data trends.
- A spreadsheet is made up of numbered rows and lettered columns.
- Originally a spreadsheet was simply a piece of paper on which people added up columns
and rows of numbers to help them plan budgets.
- The name spreadsheet derives from the fact that in the old days the figures were “spread”
out on a “sheet” of paper.

Uses of spreadsheets
• Budgeting
• Summarize accounts
• Stock Level Analysis

Advantages of using Electronic Spreadsheets

• Automatic updating of formula

• Editing functions
• Allows creation of custom made functions
• Viewing of figures in charts and graphs.

Examples of spreadsheets are

• Excel,
• Lotus 1-2-3,
• Open Office Calc,
• AppleWorks Spreadsheets,
• Oleo,
• GeoCalc.
Workbook
• Refers to the file created in Ms Excel which consists of different worksheets.
Worksheet
• Is the primary document used to store and work with data. Consists of different cells.
Cell
• Refers to the grid position given by column letter followed by row number.
Ms Excel
• Opening Excel
• Click start
• Click all programs
• Select Ms Office
• Click Ms Excel
Basic arithmetic operators:

• Addition = A1 + A2
• Multiplication = A3 * C5
• Division = C5/C3
• Product =C5*B4

Exercise 1

National Railways Training Centre

Apprentice Training Statistics
1998 1999 2000 2001 Total
Auto Electrician 56 12 3 5 xxxx
Blacksmith 80 65 15 5 xxxx
Boiler Making 35 14 5 5 xxxx
Carpenter 75 43 5 5 xxxx
Copper Smith 90 85 10 5 xxxx
Diesel Plant Fitter 45 25 12 5 xxxx
Electrical 50 41 10 5 xxxx
Fitter Machinist 95 90 12 5 xxxx
Instrument Mechanic 10 3 1 0 xxxx
Masonry 35 14 3 0 xxxx
Millwright 14 7 2 2 xxxx
Motor Mechanics 18 25 5 2 xxxx
Pattern Making 5 2 2 2 xxxx
Plater Welder 19 8 5 2 xxxx
Plumbing 10 8 5 2 xxxx
Refrigeration Fitter 8 8 3 2 xxxx
Signals 12 8 5 5 xxxx
Tool Making 3 2 1 2 xxxx
Turner Machinist 4 2 1 2 xxxx
Total
Average
Minimum

Required;

1. Find the total number of apprentices trained in a particular trade e.g. electrical and year.

2. Find the average number of apprentice trained in a year.

3. Find the minimum (least) number of apprentice trained

Exercise 2

A furniture shop sells furniture to customers on credit. The credit terms request the customer to
make a deposit of 25%. The balance after the total deposit is paid in monthly instalments over a 24
months period without interest. The shop customers and furniture credit values are:

Name Furniture Value Deposit Balance Monthly

Instalments
Blessing Chair 120
Nokuthula Table 300
George Table 300
Doreen Chair 120
Talent Sofa 2200
Gerald Chair 120
Nyasha Fan 45

a. Design a spreadsheet of the above data and save it as furniture.

b. Make all titles bold.
c. Sort the sheet in alphabetical order of names
d. Insert borders on all entries
e. Use formulae to calculate values for deposit, balance and monthly instalments
f. Create a fully labelled bar chart using the name and furniture value columns.
g. Save the spread sheet
Exercise 3

Answer all Questions

a. Create a spreadsheet with the following entries. Make sure the Fixed charge, Rate per
litre and Total columns are formatted to hold Currency data. (12 marks)

Water Consumption Bill

Meter reading 2015 in litres

Account Town Fixed October November Rate per Water Bill

Holder Charge litre
George Harare $10 11500 11611 $0.15
Njanji
Pamela Bulawayo $9 11449 11569 $0.21
Tshuma
Trevor Mutare $9.50 11399 11456 $0.17
Daniels
Collin Kwekwe $11 11499 11671 $0.19
Mbaita
Amon Chinhoyi $10 11511 11619 $0.18
Gutu
Peter Kadoma $8.50 11388 11459 $0.17
Ndovi

Perform the following

I. Bold and underline the title. (2 marks)

II. Save the worksheet as Water Bill and print. (2 marks)

b. Given the following that the water bill = fixed charge added to the product of monthly
consumption and rate per litre, calculate the November water bill, for each of the account
holder, save it on desktop as Water Bill Nov and print.

c. Add the following account details between Collin Mbaita and Amon Gutu:

Gibson Ndlovu Kwekwe $8 11513 11612 $0.14 (2 marks)

Stella Zhou Bindura $9 11555 11811 $0.16 (2 marks)

d. Calculate the total water consumption and total water bill for all account holders and
print. (5 marks)

Exercise 4
 Hide Out Lunch Bar

Unit Units Total After

Price Sold Sales 5% tax tax

Sandwiches $1.50 256 xxx

Meat Pies $1.25 325 xxx

Macaroni $2.30 98 xxx

Salads $0.85 120 xxx

Filled Rolls $2.50 102 xxx

Soup $0.75 358 xxx

Desserts $1.05 110 xxx

Tea $0.60 450 xxx

Coffee $0.60 375 xxx

Cold drinks $0.50 575 xxx

Required:
a) Type in all text and numbers shown in the spreadsheet above.
b) Format unit price, sales and total after tax to English $ (US).
c) Create formula to find sales, tax and total after tax.
d) Present the information above as a pie chart 3-D (Explode).
e) Save the spreadsheet as Hide Out.

Relative cell referencing

• -when the formula is copied with AutoFill and it has relative cell references, cell
references are going to adapt, for example:
• If we use Auto fill to copy the following formula: =C5+B5, it will change to:
=C6+B6, =C7+B7 etc.
• Nb: Excel automatically increments or decrements the row or column number

it is essentially important for the student to be able to edit a table through inserting rows
and columns to a ready-made table

1. Deleting a Row and Column

2. Editing text in a Row
3. Inserting a row and a column
 4. Inserting symbols i.e. [pound, US$, copyright, percentage%]
5. Modifying column width, height, scale
6. Changing Margins
7. Changing Orientation
8. Paper size
9. Print Titles
10. Inserting page breaks
11. Printing Gridlines and Headings
12. Auto Sum concept
13. Filter Effect
14. Magnification

Relative cell reference

• Used to indicate a relative position in a worksheet. This allows you to copy and move
formulas from one area to another of the same dimensions. Excel, for example,

Automatically changes the column and row numbers to reflect the new position. (In
spreadsheet applications)

• Cell references in formulas that change when Excel copies them to another location.

Absolute cell reference

• A cell reference in which a dollar sign ($) precedes both the column and row portions of the
cell reference.

Mixed cell reference

• Cell reference in which either the column or the row is never adjusted if the formula
containing it is copied to another location.

Cell address

• Usually the intersection of a cell's row and column.

• Unique location identified by intersecting column and row coordinates.

INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE SYSTEMS

•A DATABASE is a shared and integrated collection of logically related records or

files consolidated into a common pool that provides data for one or more uses.
• Is a collection of files?
• An organized collection of interrelated files.
• Is a collection of related files that provides a way of finding information quickly and
easily from a chosen reference point?
• Is an integrated collection of logically related records or files?
• A database consolidates records previously stored in separate files into a common
pool of data records that provides data for many applications.
Examples of databases are MS Access, MS Works Database, and DBaseIV, Oracle, SQL

Building Blocks of a Database System

BIT BYTE FIELD RECORD FILE DATABASE

• A byte is also known as a character

• A field is also known as a word

• A file is also called a table or relation

File-Is a collection of related records.

Record-Is a collection of fields. It is a collection of fields arranged in a predefined order.

Field-Is a collection of single items. It is an implementation of the data attribute. It is the

smallest unit of data to be stored in a database.

Primary key-Is a field whose value identifies one & only one record in a file.

Secondary key-An alternative index for identifying an entity. Its value can identify single
entity occurrences of all entity occurrences. A subset of all entity occurrences.

Foreign key-Are pointers or links to occurrences of a different file. A foreign key in one file
must be a primary key in another file.

Descriptors-Are any other fields that describe business entities.

Traditional/Conventional/Flat Filing Systems

• This is programming with files. Each user defines and implements the files needed for a
specific application so that each application has its own separate data files and software
programs

• Although both users will be interested in the same data, each maintains separate files and
programs to manipulate these files and this results in data redundancy and a lot other
problems associated with it.
Advantages of the Database Approach

• Control over data redundancy

• Increased data consistency/Reduced data confusion

• Increased data integrity – concerned with validity and accuracy of data

• Reduction in wastage of storage space

• Program/Data independence

• Increased productivity of application development

• Improved data security

• Data sharing

Disadvantages

• Database systems are complex, difficult and time consuming to design

• There is greater impact of failure

• Extensive conversion costs involved

• Initial training is required for all users

• Concurrence problems - where more than one user access and attempt to update the same
record at the same time - there is file edit locking to prevent this.

• Ownership problems - sometimes some individuals tend to own the data and thus refuse
access by other individuals or departments in the organisation.

• Resources problem - with database extra resources are needed e.g. more workstations and
other devices. Substantial hardware and software start-up costs are involved

• Security problems - there is increased exposure to unauthorised entry into the data.
However, this could be reduced by the use of regularly changed passwords and by
physically denying access to unauthorised users.

Terms in Databases

Entity- a real world object or event or anything that is capable of independence existence and
about which we can collect information e.g. person, building, transaction, election

• Attribute – a characteristic or property of an entity e.g. name

• Primary key – an attribute that uniquely identifies an entity or record. A field that uniquely
identifies a record in a table. In a student’s table, for instance, a key built from last name +
first name might not give you a unique identifier (two or more Jane Does in the school, for
example). To uniquely identify each student, you might add a special Student ID field to be
used as the primary key.

• Foreign key- A key used in one table to represent the value of a primary key in a related
table. While primary keys must contain unique values, foreign keys may have duplicates. For
instance, if we use student ID as the primary key in a Students table (each student has a
unique ID), we could use student ID as a foreign key in a Courses table: as each student may
do more than one course, the student ID field in the Courses table (often shortened to
Courses, student ID) will hold duplicate values.

• Normalization - The process of structuring data to minimise duplication and inconsistencies.

The process usually involves breaking down a single table into two or more tables and
defining relationships between those tables. The process of breaking up a table into multiple
tables, each of which has a single theme, thereby reducing data redundancy; 2)

The technique that reduces or eliminates the possibility that a database is subject to
modification anomalies

• Query - A view of your data showing information from one or more tables. For example,
you could query a Students database asking "Show me the first and last names of the students
who take both history and geography and have Alice Hernandez as their advisor". Such a
query displays information from the Students table (first name, last name), Courses table
(course description) and Advisor table (advisor name), using the keys (student ID, course ID,
advisor ID) to find matching information. Literally, a question you ask about data in the
database in the form of a command, written in a query language, defining sort order and
selection, that is used to generate an ad hoc list of records; 2) .The output subset of data
produced in response to a query.

• SQL - Structured Query Language (pronounced sequel or ess-queue-ell). A computer

language designed to organize and simplify the process of getting information out of a
database in a usable form, and also used to reorganize data within databases.

• Relation- A single store of related information. A table consists of records, and each record
is made up of a number of fields. You can think of the phone book as a table: It contains a
record for each telephone subscriber, and each subscriber’s details are contained in three
fields – name, address and telephone.

•DBMS- Database management system. A program which lets you manage information in
databases. Microsoft Access is a DBMS, although the term is often shortened to ‘database’.
So, the same term is used to apply to the program you use to organize your data and the
actual data structure you create with that program.

TYPES OF DATABASE RELATIONSHIPS

One-to-One
Exactly one record in one table is related by a common linking field to exactly one record in
another table, implying that each value of the linking field appears no more than once in each
of the tables. Both tables can have only one record on either side of the relationship.
Each primary key value relates to only one (or no) record in the related table. They're like
spouses—you may or may not be married, but if you are, both you and your spouse have only
one spouse. Most one-to-one relationships are forced by business rules and don’t flow
naturally from the data. In the absence of such a rule, you can usually combine both tables
into one table without breaking any normalization rules.

One-to-Many

Exactly one record in one table is related by a common linking field to one or more
records in another table, implying that each value of the linking field is unique in the first
table, but not necessarily so in the second. The primary key table contains only one record
that relates to none, one, or many records in the related table. This relationship is similar to
the one between you and a parent. You have only one mother, but your mother may have
several children.

Many-to-Many

One or more records in one table may be related to one or more records in a second table by a
common value or linking (join) field. This implies that each value of the linking field may
appear any number of times in either or both tables. Each record in both tables can relate to
any number of records (or no records) in the other table. For instance, if you have several
siblings, so do your siblings (have many siblings). Many-to-many relationships require a third
table, known as an associate or linking table, because relational systems can't directly
accommodate the relationship.

The Database Administrator

This is a person responsible for planning, designing and maintaining the organisation's
database. This person relates to the management, system analysts, programmers and other
stakeholders in the organisation. He needs to have adequate managerial and technical abilities
to suit the job. He therefore must have a sound knowledge of the structure of the database and
the DBMS.

Responsibilities of the Database Administrator (DBA)

• Ensures that the database meets the needs of the organisation.

• Ensures facilities for the recovery of data

• Ensures the functioning of report generation systems form the DBMS

• The DBA is also responsible for the documentation of the DBMS through the designing and
availing of the data dictionary and manuals for the users giving such direction as the general
use of the database, access to information, deletion of records from the system and the
general validation and verification of data.
• The design of the database

• After the initial design, the DBA must monitor the performance of the database, and if
problems surface (such as a particular report taking an unacceptably long time to produce),
appropriate changes must be made to the database structure.

• Keeping users informed of changes in the database structure that will affect them; for
example, if the size or format of a particular field is altered or additional fields added

• Maintenance of the data dictionary for the database, and responsibility for establishing
conventions for naming tables, columns, indexes & so on.

• Implementing access privileges for all users of the database; that is, specifying which items
can be accessed and / or changed by each user.

• Allocating passwords to each user.

• Providing training to users in how to access and use the database.

• Manage the organizations

• Data resources

• Database plans

• Design

• Operations

• Training

• User support

• Security & Maintenance

• Maintain data consistency and security

• Approve access to data stored

• Approve access procedures

• ABILITY to delete, add, modify –existing data must be tightly controlled.

Database Management System (DBMS)

The DBMS is an application program that provides an interface between the operating system
and the user in order to make access to the data as simple as possible. It has several other
functions as well, and these are described below.
1. Data storage, retrieval and update. The DBMS must allow users to store retrieve and
update information as easily as possible, without having to be aware of the internal structure
of the database.

2. Creation and maintenance of the data dictionary

3. Managing the facilities for sharing the database. The DBMS has to ensure that problems
do not arise when two people simultaneously access a record and try to update it

4. Back-up and recovery. The DBMS must provide the ability to recover the database in the
event of system failure.

5. Security. The DBMS must handle password allocation and checking, and the ‘view’ of the
database that a given user is allowed.

FILE ORGANIZATION METHODS & ACCESS

File Organization-Is the arrangement of data records on storage media. It determines the
manner in which individual records can be accessed or retrieved

Definitions

Cycle time - the time usually expressed in seconds for a controller to complete one on/off
cycle.

Access time - the average time interval between a storage peripheral (usually a disk drive or
semiconductor memory) receiving a request to read or write a certain location and returning
the value read or completing the write.

The amount of time it takes a computer to locate an area of memory for data storage or
retrieval.

The time required to retrieve data from a storage device and transmit it to a specified
location.

Random access

Storage systems where data may be stored and accessed in any order, independent of the
ordinal position of the data when it was originally recorded. This is the opposite of linear
access, or linear recording media such as magnetic tape, which necessarily preserves the
sequential relation of the data as it is recorded, and depends on this sequential relation for
accurate playback. Able to read any location directly; without having to read sequentially to
the location.

Sequential access

Data must be read in the order it appears. This method applies to tape, and to a lesser degree
to disks. Reading data from a file whose records are organized on the basis of their successive
physical positions. To reach a specific record, all records previous to that record must be
read, in order. Magnetic computer tapes are sequential access storage device. Refers to
reading or writing data records in sequential order, that is, one record after the other. To read
record 10, for example, you would first need to read records 1 through 9. This differs from
random access, in which you can read and write records in any order.

TYPES OF QUERIES

a. DIRECT QUERY
b. INVERTED QUERY

DIRECT QUERY

Is one where the user can identify the entity in which he is interested?

He may want to know some of the particular of attributes of that entity.

E.g. where a sales man wants to know the amount and location of a particular product in the
organization.

He is able to identify the product by name or product number and this identification is used
as the key for making the query which is also the primary record key.

• The basic purpose of the direct query is to know the attribute values of already identified
entities

Define the following terms:

Computer

Hardware

Software

Network

Network topology

Virus

CPU

Computer System

Multi-tasking

Information Technology
Abbreviations

WIMP- Windows Icons Menus Pointers

GUI- Graphical User Interface

EEPROM- Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

OCR- Optical Character Reader

GIGO- Garbage In Garbage Out

Gb- Gigabytes

DVD- Digital Versatile Disc

VLSI- Very Large Scale Integration

WWW- World Wide Web

LCD- Liquid Crystal Display

WAN- Wide Area Network

LAN- Local Area Network

MODEM- Modulator/Demodulator

4GL- fourth-generation programming language

MS DOS- Microsoft Disk Operating System

MICR- Magnetic Ink Character Reader

USB- Universal Serial Bus

TCP/IP- Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

SRAM – Static Random Access Memory

FTP – File Transfer Protocol

RSI – Repetitive Strain Injury

Tb – Terabyte

HDD – Hard Disk Drive

DVD-R -