Fourier Transforms in Computer S

ien e


Daniel Stefankovi

Submitted to the Department of Computer S ien e

in partial fulllment of the requirements for the

Masters Degree

at the

University of Chi ago

O tober 2000
 Abstra t

We survey proofs of ve Theorems whi h have appli ations in the Theory of Computing.
The ommon theme of the proofs is the use of various variants of harmoni analysis. The
proofs of following theorems are in luded:
 Theorem of Linial, Mansour and Nisan on the on entration of the Fourier oeÆ-
ients of AC fun tions. [LMN93℄ (harmoni analysis over the nite group Zn)
0
2

 Theorem of Kahn, Kalai and Linial on the in uen e of variables on Boolean fun tions
[KKL88℄ (harmoni analysis over the nite group Zn).
2

 The analysis of Margulis' expander graph by Gabber and Galil [GG79℄ (harmoni
analysis over the ompa t group T ).
2

 Transferen e Theorem of Banasz zyk [Ban93℄ (harmoni analysis over the lo ally
ompa t group R n ).
 Theorem of Therien on the olumn sums in matri es (mod m) [The94℄ (generalized
harmoni analysis over the nite group Znp with respe t to the nite eld F p ).
1

A knowledgement: I would like to thank my advisor Laszlo Babai for his support and suggestions
and Divakar Viswanath for helpful dis ussions.
Contents

1 Harmoni Analysis over Finite Abelian Groups 5

1.1 Introdu tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Representations of Boolean Fun tions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Random Restri tions and the Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 AC Cir uits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 The In uen e of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.6 Be kner's Lemmas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 Harmoni Analysis over Lo ally Compa t Abelian Groups 23
2.1 Introdu tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Fourier transform over Tn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Expander Graphs Constru tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 The Rayleigh quotient of Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Latti e Duality: Banasz zyk's Transferen e Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Gaussian-like Measures on Latti es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3 Generalizations of Harmoni Analysis 37
3.1 Introdu tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Sums of matrix olumns (mod m) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

1
Introdu tion

Fourier analysis originated in the works of Euler and Fourier, who were working on problems
in mathemati al physi s. The subje t had a large impa t on the development of mathemati s.
Diri hlet, in his work dealing with the onvergen e of Fourier series, dened the notion of fun tion
as we know it today. Riemann introdu ed his notion of integral in his work on trigonometri series.
Cantor's study of the so- alled sets of uniqueness led him to the development of the theory of sets.
Today harmoni analysis is used in every bran h of mathemati s in luding group theory (where
it was started by Frobenius), probability theory, ombinatori s, dierential equations, and number
theory.
Methods of harmoni analysis also found their way to Computer S ien e. One of the most impor-
tant appli ations in Computer S ien e is the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm of Cooley and
Tukey [CT65℄ and its appli ation to the fast multipli ation of numbers by S honhage and Strassen
[SS71℄. Chung, Dia onis and Graham used the onvolution $ multipli ation property of the Fourier
transform to analyze random walks on graphs [CDG87℄. Linial, Mansour and Nisan [LMN93℄ in-
vestigated the properties of the Fourier oeÆ ients of fun tions omputed by the AC ir uits and
0

obtained result about the learnability of AC fun tions. The KM learning algorithm of Kushile-
0

vitz and Mansour [KM93℄ is based on estimating the Fourier oeÆ ients of the fun tion learned.
For more appli ations of harmoni analysis in learning theory see [Ja 95, BFJ 94℄. Kahn, Kalai
+

and Linial [KKL88℄ used the Fourier transform and Be kner's Lemmas [Be 75℄ to show that every
balan ed Boolean fun tion has a variable with large in uen e. Therien [The94℄ applied generalized
harmoni analysis to study of ir uits with MODm gates. Gabber and Galil su essfully analyzed
a modied onstru tion of Margulis [Mar73℄ using harmoni analysis on the two dimensional torus
T . Banasz zyk showed a transferen e theorem in latti es using Fourier transforms of Gaussian-like
2

measures in R n . J. Naor and M. Naor [NN93℄ used the Fourier transform to design polynomial size
sample spa es of "-biased (log n)-wise independent random variables.

3
Chapter 1
Harmoni Analysis over Finite Abelian
Groups

1.1 Introdu tion

Let A be a measure spa e with a non-negative measure  and the orresponding Lebesgue integral.
For omplex valued fun tions f; g 2 C A we dene
 pointwise multipli ation (fg )(x) = f (x)g (x); x 2 A,
R
 inner produ t hf; g i = f (y )g (y ) d(y ), where x is the omplex onjugate of x 2 C ,
R 1=p
 p-norm jjf jjp = jf (y)jp d(y) ,
R
 onvolution (f  g )(x) = f (y )g (x y ) d(y ).
Let G be a nite abelian group written additively. Let n = jGj. Measure on G: We endow G
with the measure (g) = 1=n; g 2 G. We dene the inner produ t, the p-norm and the onvolution
on the spa e C G as above.
By S we denote the multipli ative group of omplex numbers of modulus 1.
1

Denition 1.1.1 A hara ter  of G is a homomorphism G ! S1. The unit hara ter 1 is the
hara ter whi h assigns 1 to every a 2 G.
Sin e G is nite a fun tion  : G ! C is a hara ter i it satises
(a + b) = (a)(b); a; b 2 G:
Note that
 (a)n = (n
a) = (0) = 1.
 ( a) = (a).
5
6 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

 If  and are hara ters then  and  are hara ters.

Lemma 1.1.2 Chara ters are an orthonormal set of fun tions.
Proof :
Note that for any hara ter  and any a 2 G
X X X
(a) (b) = (a + b) = (b):
b2G b2G b2G
P
If  6= 1 then there is an a su h that (a) 6= 1 and hen e b2G (b) = 0. If hara ters ;  are
dierent then  6= 1 and hen e
h ; i = 1 ( )(b) = 0:
X
n b2G
Clearly h ; i = 1. 
Chara ters with the pointwise multipli ation form a group Gb, alled the dual group of G. The
unit hara ter is the unit of Gb. Every nite abelian group is a dire t sum of y li groups. Fix
G = Zn 1



 Zn : k

Let !i = exp(2i=ni), a primitive ni -th root of unity. For b = (b ; : : : ; bk ) 2 G let

1

k
Y
b (x) = !ib x :
i i

i=1

Note that b is a hara ter for any b 2 G. The b are all distin t. They are all hara ters be ause
the dimension of C G is n and the hara ters are orthonormal. Thus the dual group of G is
n o
Gb = b j b = (b1 ; : : : ; bk ) 2 G; : (1.1)
Theorem 1.1.3 Chara ters form an orthonormal basis of C G .
From Theorem 1.1.3 it follows that every fun tion f in C G an be expressed as a linear ombination
of hara ters. The oeÆ ient of b is denoted by fb(b) and alled the Fourier oeÆ ient. We
have
X
f= fb(b )b : (1.2)
b2G

The fun tion fb : Gb ! C is alled the Fourier transform of f . Measure on Gb : We endow bthe
group Gb with the measure  (g) = 1; g 2 Gb. The orresponding inner produ t of f; g 2 C G is
denoted h^f; g^i, the p-norm is denoted jj^f jj^p and the onvolution of f; g 2 C Gb is denoted f ^ g.
1.1. INTRODUCTION 7

Note that ab = a b and hen e

+

b ! b (1.3)
is an isomorphism between G and Gb. Hen e we an view fb as a fun tion in C G and write fb(b)
instead of fb(b ).
From the orthogonality of hara ters it follows that
fb(b) = hf; b i: (1.4)
Expanding (1.4) and using a (b) = b(a) we obtain
fb =
1 X f (a) : (1.5)
a
n a2G
Theorem 1.1.4 The Fourier transform satises
 linearity f[ + g = fb + bg; af
= af; b f; g 2 C G ; a 2 C ,

 fg
= fb ^ bg; f[ g = fbbg, f; g 2 C G .
Proof :
 bg note that
= fb ^
The linearity follows from the linearity of inner produ t. To prove fg
X  X  X X X X
fg = fb(a)a g(b)b
b = a+b fb(a)bg (b) =  fb(a)bg ( a) = (fb^ gb)( )
a2G b2G a;b2G 2G a2G 2G

= fb
and hen e fg  g = fbbg uses (1.5) instead of (1.2).
^ bg. The proof of f[ 
An important property of the Fourier transform is the following formula.
Theorem 1.1.5 (Plan herel formula) For any f; g 2 C G
hf; gi = h^f;b bg^i
Proof :
Using the orthogonality of hara ters
X X X X
hf; gi = h fb(a)a ; g (b)b
b i= fb(a)bg(b)ha ; b i = fb(a)bg (a) = h^f;
bb g^i:
a2G b2G a;b2G a2G


Taking f = g in the Plan herel formula we obtain
Theorem 1.1.6 (Parseval's equality) For any f 2 C G
jjf jj = jj^fbjj^ :
2 2
8 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

To obtain inequalities for other p-norms we will need the Riesz-Thorin interpolation theorem,
Minkowski's and Holder's inequality (see [Zyg59℄, vol 2, p.95, p.94, vol 1, p.19)
Theorem 1.1.7 (The Riesz-Thorin interpolation theorem) If T is a linear operator from a
measure spa e A to a measure spa e B su h that
jjT f jj =q  jjf jj =p
1 1 1 1 1

jjT f jj =q  jjf jj =p
1 2 2 1 2

where 0  p ; p ; q ; q  1, then for any t 2 [0; 1℄

1 2 1 2

jjT f jj =q  jjf jj =p
1 1

where p = tp1 + (1 t)p2 , q = tq1 + (1 t)q2 and = t1 12 t .

Theorem 1.1.8 (Holder's inequality) Let A be a measure spa e. Let 1=p + 1=q = 1; p; q  1.
For any f; g 2 C A
jjfgjj  jjf jjpjjgjjq:
1

Theorem 1.1.9 (Minkowski's inequality) Let A be a measure spa e. Let p  1. For any
f; g 2 C A
jjf + gjjp  jjf jjp + jjgjjp:
An important generalization of Parseval's equality is the
Theorem 1.1.10 (Hausdor-Young inequality) Let 1=p + 1=q = 1; p; q  1 and f 2 C G.
Then
jjf jjp  jj^fbjj^q for 2  p  1
jjf jjp  jj^fbjj^q for 1  p  2
Proof :
Note that 
 X


1
 n1
X
jfb(x)j = 
n
f (a)x (a)

jf (a)j = jjf jj
1
a2G a2G
and hen e jj^fbjj^1  jjf jj . From Parseval's equality we know jj^fbjj^ = jjf jj . An appli ation of the
1 2 2
Riesz-Thorin interpolation Theorem yields the Lemma for 2  p  1. For 1  p  2 note that for
1=p + 1=q = 1
jjf jj = jjf jjpjjf jjq :
2
2


The following inequalities for norms in C G and C Gb will be useful
1.1. INTRODUCTION 9

Lemma 1.1.11 Let p  r. For any f 2 C G and g 2 C Gb

jjf jjp  jjf jjr;
jj^g jj^p  jj^g jj^r:
Proof :
Note that jjf jjp = jj jf jp jj =p and jjf jjr = jj jf jp jjr=p
1
1
=p1
. Hen e we an w.l.o.g. assume p = 1 and r > 1.
Let q be the onjugate exponent to r i.e. 1=r + 1=q = 1. By Holder's inequality
jjf jjp  jjf jjrjj1jjq = jjf jjr :
For the se ond inequality using the same argument we an assume p = 1 and r > 1. Also w.l.o.g.
jjgjj = 1. Hen e jg(x)j  1 for all x 2 Gb. Therefore jg(x)jr  jg(x)j and jj^g jj^r  1.
1 
Theorem 1.1.12 (Young's onvolution inequality) Let 1  p; q; r  1, 1=r = 1=p + 1=q 1.
For any f; g 2 C G
jjf  gjjr  jjf jjp jjgjjq:
Proof :
We have jjf  gjj1  jjf jj1jjgjj1 and from Holder inequality jjf  gjj1  jjf jj1jjgjj1. Hen e using
Riesz-Thorin interpolation Theorem
jjf  gjjp  jjf jjpjjgjj : 1 (1.6)
From Holder inequality
jjf  gjj1  jjf jjpjjgjjq; for 1=p + 1=q = 1: (1.7)
Now using Riesz-Thorin interpolation Theorem on (1.6) and (1.7) we obtain the Lemma. 
Given a subgroup H  G, the hara ters for whi h j  1H form a subgroup of Gb. Its
orresponding (via (1.3)) subgroup in G is denoted H ?. Note that the hara ters whi h are 1 on
H

H are in one-to-one orresponden e with the hara ters of G=H (let (aH ) = (a)). Thus we have
H?  [.
= G=H
Theorem 1.1.13 (Poisson Summation Formula) For a subgroup H  G
1 X
f (x + a) =
X
fb(y )y (a):
jH j x2H y2H ?

Proof :
1 X 1 XX X 1 X
jH j x2H f (x + a) =
jH j x2H y2G fb(y )y (x + a) =
y2G
fb(y )y (a)
jH j x2H y (x) = ():
10 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

The restri tion y j is a hara ter of H and hen e by the orthogonality

H

X
() = fb(y )y (a)(y j H
 1):
y2G


Finally we ompute the Fourier oeÆ ients of the fun tion whi h has value 1 at 0 and value 0
elsewhere. For a set A  G the hara teristi fun tion of A is denoted by 1A,

1A (x) =
n
1 if x 2 A
0 otherwise
For a one element set fag we write 1a instead of 1fag .
Example 1.1.14 For 10 we have
1
1b0 = x (0) =
1
n n
and hen e
10 =
1 X :
a
na2G

1.2 Representations of Boolean Fun tions

Let B = f0; 1g where 0 represents false and 1 represents true. Given a Boolean fun tion f : B n ! B ,
we an view it as a fun tion f : Zn ! fT; F g  C . Usually we hoose
2

 F = 0; T = 1; or
 F = 1; T = 1.
Let fa be the f0; 1g-representation of f and fb be the 1 representation of f . We have fb = 1 2fa
and hen e 
fbb (x) = 2fba (x) for x 6= 0 :
1 2fba(x) for x = 0
Thus the hoi e of representation does not have a big in uen e on the Fourier transform. To simplify
notation we will use the orresponden e between Zn and the subsets of [n℄, (a ; : : : ; an) $ fi; ai = 1g.
2 1
We dene the degree of f as
deg f = minfjxj; fb(x) 6= 0g:
If all fb(x) = 0 we let deg f = 0. Note that the degree is independent of the hoi e of the represen-
tation.
1.3. RANDOM RESTRICTIONS AND THE FOURIER TRANSFORM 11

1.3 Random Restri tions and the Fourier Transform

Random restri tions have proven to be useful in the analysis of Boolean fun tions [FSS81, Has86,
LMN93℄. In this se tion we will prove a relationship between the Fourier oeÆ ients of a fun tion
and its random restri tion. Lemma 1.3.6 will be used in se tion 1.4 to analyze the Fourier oeÆ ients
of the AC fun tions.
0

Denition 1.3.1 Let f : Zn ! C be a fun tion. Let A  [n℄ be a subset of variables of f . Let 
2
be an assignment of values to the variables in A. The restri tion fA  is the fun tion obtained
from f by assigning the values  to the variables in A.
Denition 1.3.2 Let 0  p  1. A p-random restri tion of f : Zn ! C is fA  where 2

 A is random subset of [n℄, ea h element is in luded in A independently with probability 1 p,

  is a random f0; 1g-assignment to variables in A.
First we will look at the relation between the Fourier oeÆ ients of a restri tion of f and the Fourier
oeÆ ients of f .
Lemma 1.3.3 Let f : Zn ! C , A  [n℄ and x  A. Then
2
X
A  (x) =
f[ fb(x + y )(y ):
yA

Lemma 1.3.4 ([LMN93℄) Let f : Zn2 ! C , A  [n℄ and x  A. Then we an al ulate the
following expe ted value and the se ond moment of f[
A  where  is a random f0; 1g-assignment to
variables in A.
E [f[
A  (x)℄ = fb(x);
X
E [f[
A  (x) ℄ =
2
fb(x + y )2:
yA
Proof of Lemma 1.3.3:
X
fb(x + y ) (y ) =
X 1 X f (z ) (x + y ) (y ) =
z 
y A yA
2n z n [ ℄

1 X f (z) (x) 1 X  (z + ) = 1 X
2n jAj z n z\A  f (z)z (x) = fA (x)
z y [
2n jAj z2 n [ ℄
2jAj yA [ ℄; =


Proof of Lemma 1.3.4:
Using Lemma 1.3.3
1 X f[ (x) = 1 X X fb(x + y) (y) = X fb(x + y) 1 X  (y) = fb(x):
2jAj A A  2jAj A yA 
yA
2jAj A 
12 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

Again using Lemma 1.3.3

1 X f[ (x) = 1 X X fb(x + y )fb(x + y ) (y + y ) =
2

2jAj A a  2jAj A y ;y A 1 2
 1 2 1 2

X 1 X  (y + y ) = X fb(x + y) :
fb(x + y )fb(x + y ) jAj 2

y ;y A 1 2
2 A  1
yA
2 1 2


Using the Lemma 1.3.4 we will obtain a relationship between the Fourier oeÆ ients of a random
restri tion of f and the Fourier oeÆ ients of f . For xi 2 A the fun tion fA  is not a fun tion
of xi . However we an view it as a fun tion of xi whi h does not depend on xi. Then we have
A  (y ) = 0 if y ontains x.
f[
Lemma 1.3.5 Let f : Zn ! C . We an ompute the expe ted value and the se ond moment of
2
fA  where A  is a p-random restri tion.
EA; [f[ jxj
A  (x)℄ = p fb(x);
X
EA; [f[ jxj fb(x + y )2(1 p)jyj:
A  (x) ℄ = p
2

yx
Proof :
If the set of set variables A interse ts x then f[
A  (x) = 0, otherwise by Lemma 1.3.4, f[ A  (x) =
f (x). The probability that no element of x is hosen to A is p and hen e EA; [fA  (x)℄ = pjxjfb(x).
b j x j [

Let p(A) denote the probability that the set A is hosen in the random restri tion A . Then
X X
EA; [f[
A  (x) ℄ =
2
p(A)(x \ A = 0) fb(x [ y )2 =
A[n℄ yA
X X X
fb(x [ y )2 p(A)(x \ A = 0)(y  A) = fb(x [ y )2 pjxj(1 p)jyj :
y[n℄ A[n℄ y x


Finally we express the sum of high Fourier oeÆ ients of a random restri tion of f using the
Fourier oeÆ ients of f . Let B (n; p) denote a random variable with the binomial probability
distribution with parameters n (the number of oin tosses) and p (the probability of heads).
Lemma 1.3.6 Let f : Zn ! C . Then
2
2 3
X X

EA; 4 A  (x) 5 =
f[ 2
fb(x)2 P B (jxj; p) > k
jxj>k x[n℄

where A  is a p-random restri tion.

1.4. AC 0 CIRCUITS 13

Proof :
For xed A and a random assignment  using Lemma 1.3.4
2 3
X X X X
E 4 A  (x) 5 =
f[ fb(x + y )2 = fb(x)2 :
2

jxj>k jxj>k;xA yA jx\Aj>k

If we let A be random where ea h element is hosen independently with probability p then
2 3
X X X

EA; 4 A  (x) 5 =
f[ 2
fb(x)2 P (x \ A > k) = fb(x)2 P B (jxj; p) > k :
jxj>k x[n℄ x[n℄

1.4 AC 0 Cir uits

Let
be a set of Boolean fun tions. An
-Boolean ir uit with n inputs is a dire ted a y li graph.
It has verti es of two types: input nodes x ; : : : ; xn and gates. One of the gates is the output gate.
1
Ea h gate g is labeled by a fun tion fg from
. We dene the fun tion B n ! B omputed by a
gate g of the ir uit indu tively as fg (a ; : : : ; ak ) where a ; : : : ; ak are the fun tions omputed by
1 1
the prede essors of g. The fun tion omputed by the ir uit is the fun tion omputed by the output
gate. The size M of the ir uit is the number of gates, not ounting the input nodes. The depth d
of the ir uit is the length of longest path from an input node to the output gate.
Let fCng be a sequen e of ir uits where Cn has n inputs. Let ffng be the orresponding sequen e
of Boolean fun tions (fn is the fun tion omputed by Cn). With the usual abuse of language we
say that the ir uit C omputes the fun tion f .
An AC ir uit onsist of AND and OR gates of unbounded fan-in and NOT gates. It has
0

polynomial size and onstant depth. Using deMorgan's laws we an normalize the ir uit so that
it ontains only n NOT gates onne ted dire tly to the inputs. The normalization at most doubles
the size of the ir uit.
It is well known that the AC ir uits annot ompute parity [Ajt83, FSS81, FSS84, Yao85℄. They
0

even annot approximate parity [Ajt83℄. Stronger results were shown by Hastad and Boppana (see
[Has86℄, p. 63).
A Fourier oeÆ ient of a Boolean fun tion f : Zn ! f0; 1g an be expressed as
2

fb(y ) = P (f (x) = i2y xi ) P (f (x) 6= i2y xi ):

Thus fb(y) measures the orrelation between f and the parity of variables xi; i 2 y. Sin e the
fun tions omputed by AC ir uits annot approximate the parity it follows that ea h high Fourier
0

oeÆ ients of f 2 AC must be small.

0

Theorem of Linial, Mansour and Nisan [LMN93℄ shows that even the sum of squares of high
Fourier oeÆ ients must be small. The rest of this se tion is devoted to a proof of their result. The
proof is a slightly modied version of the proof in [LMN93℄.
14 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

Theorem 1.4.1 Let Boolean f : Zn2 ! f 1; 1g be omputed by AC 0 ir uit of depth d

and size M . Then  
X
fb(x)  2M
exp
2 1 (t=2) :
1 =d
jxj>t 5 e

Remark 1 The result proved in [LMN93℄ has slightly dierent bound than Theorem 1.4.1
X
fb(x)2  2M
2 = t :
1=d
(1 20)

jxj>t

Theorem 1.4.1 has interesting appli ations [LMN93℄, for example fun tions omputed by AC ir- 0

uits an be learned approximately by sampling their value at quasipolynomial (2 n ) randomly

polylog

hosen inputs ( hosen under the uniform distribution). Another orollary [LMN93℄ of Theorem 1.4.1
is that the average sensitivity of a fun tion omputed by an AC ir uit of depth d is O((log n)d).
0

Let f be a Boolean fun tion on n variables, let x be an assignment and let f (x) = i. There exists
smallest A  [n℄ su h that fA   i where  = (x \ A). You an view A  as a proof that
f (x) = i. It an happen that for every x there is small su h proof.
Denition 1.4.2 Dene the non-deterministi de ision tree omplexity of f
Di (f ) = max minfjAj; A ; fA   i; x \ A = g:
x;f (x)=i

Let D(f ) = maxfD (f ); D (f )g.

0 1

In [Nis91℄ D (f ) is alled the erti ate omplexity. We say that f is omputed by a t-CNF (resp.
t-DNF) formula if f is omputed by a CNF (resp. DNF) formula with lauses of size at most t. Let
s (resp. sd ) be the smallest number su h that f an be expressed as an s CNF (resp. sd -DNF).
Then D = s and D = sd.
0 1
We say that in a DNF formula lauses a ept disjoint inputs if for ea h input either 0 or exa tly
1 lause is satised. We will use the following stronger version of Hastad's Swit hing Lemma (see
[Has86℄, p.65).
Theorem 1.4.3 (H astad's Swit hing Lemma [H as86℄) Let f be omputed by a t-CNF formula
and A  be a p-random restri tion. With probability at least 1 (5pt)s , fA  is omputed by an
s-DNF formula in whi h lauses a ept disjoint inputs.
If a fun tion g is just a disjun tion of s atoms, then bg(x) = 0 for jxj > s be ause g does not
depend on at least one of the variables in x. A fun tion f whi h is omputed by an s-DNF formula
in whi h lauses a ept disjoint inputs an be viewed as a sum of fun tions whi h are disjun tions
of s atoms and hen e fb(x) = 0 for jxj > s. Hen e we have
Corollary 1.4.4 Let
1.4. AC 0 CIRCUITS 15

 Di(f )  t, and
 A  be a p-random restri tion.
Then D i (fA  )  s and deg f  s with probability at least 1 (5pt)s .
1

Using Corollary 1.4.4 we will obtain the following Lemma.

Lemma 1.4.5 Let
 f be omputed by AC ir uit of depth d and size M , and
0

 A  be a p-random restri tion.

Then for any s  1 with probability at least 1 M (5p =d s =d )s 1 1 1

deg(fA )  s:
Proof :
Let f1; : : : ; fk be fun tions su h that D(fi)  t  s; i 2 [k℄. Observe that
^  _ 
D0 fi t D1 fi t
i2[k℄ i2[k℄

be ause to prove that ^fi is zero (or that _fi is one) it is enough to prove that any of the fi is zero
(or that any of the fi is one). If A  is a q-random restri tion then by Hastad's Lemma
 ^    _  
D fi
A 
s D fi
A 
s (1.8)
i2[k℄ i2[k℄

where ea h of the two events happens with probability at least 1 (5qt)s.

Let Vi denote the set of nodes of height i in the ir uit. The fun tions omputed by the leaves of
the ir uit have D = 1. By (1.8) after applying qs-random restri tion, all fun tions omputed by
the nodes of height 1 will have D  s with probability at least 1 jV j(5qs)s. 1
Now indu tively, if the fun tions omputed by the nodes of height i have D  s then after
applying a q-random restri tion, the fun tions omputed by the nodes of height i + 1 have D  s
with probability at least 1 jVi j(5qs)s.
+1
After applying a q-random restri tion d 2 times we obtain that with probability at least 1
(M 1)(5qs)s the fun tions omputed by the nodes of height d 1 have D  s. After applying
one more q-random restri tion we obtain that the fun tion omputed by the ir uit has deg  s
with probability at least 1 M (5qs)s. Hen e we obtained that for a fun tion f omputed by an
AC [d℄ ir uit of size M and sq d -random restri tion A , deg fA   s with probability at least
0

1 M (5qs)s. 
We will use Cherno's bound to estimate B (n; p) (see [MR95℄, p. 235):
16 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

Theorem 1.4.6 (Cherno's Bound) Let X1 ; : : : ; Xn be independent random variables. Let X =
X1 +


+ Xn and  = E [X ℄. For 0  Æ  1


P X  (1 Æ ) e Æ =2 :
2

Proof of Theorem 1.4.1

Let p 2 [0; 1℄ and s  1. By Lemma 1.3.6
2 3
X
X
fb(x)2 P B (jxj; p) > s = EA; 4 fbA  (x)2 5 :
x2[n℄ jxj>s 2

For a Boolean f , jjf jj = 1 and hen e by the Plan herel formula the random variable in the paren-
2
thesis has value at most 1. Moreover by Lemma 1.4.5 with probability at least 1 M (5p =d s =d )s 1 1 1

it has value 0. Thus X

fb(x) P B (jxj; p) > s  M (5p =d s =d )s :
2 1 1 1

x2[n℄
Sin e P (B (t; p) > s) is an in reasing fun tion of t we obtain
X M (5p1=d s1 1=d )
s
fb(x)2  :
jxj>t P B (t; p) > s

Let p = 2s=t and s  3. By Cherno's Bound

 tp 
P B (t; p) >
2 1 e  1=2:
tp=8

For s = e (t=2) =d we obtain

1
5
1

 
X
fb(x)2  2M
exp 1 (t=2) =d : 1

jxj>t 5e


1.5 The In uen e of Variables

The in uen e of a variable xi on a Boolean fun tion f is the probability that for a random
assignment A ; A = [n℄ n fig of values to the other variables the fun tion fA  is not onstant.
For the AND fun tion every variable has a tiny in uen e 2 n. However if the fun tion is more
1

balan ed e.g. if f is zero on a half of the inputs then there is a variable with a large in uen e

(log n=n). This result is due to Kahn, Kalai and Linial [KKL88℄.
1.5. THE INFLUENCE OF VARIABLES 17

Theorem 1.5.1 For a fun tion f : Zn2 ! f0; 1g su h that P (f = 1) = p  1=2

X
Ii (f )2  1 p2
(log n) 2

i2[n℄
n

in parti ular there is i 2 [n℄ su h that

Ii (f )  2 p
log n
n
where 1 ; 2 are onstants.
The theorem is tight up to the multipli ative onstant, see [BL90℄. It has been extended to
fun tions [0; 1℄ ! C in [BKK 92℄. The rest of the se tion ontains the proof of Theorem 1.5.1.
+

For any 1  " > 0 dene the linear operator T" : C Z ! C Z n

2
n
2

X
T" (f ) = fb(x)"jxjx : (1.9)
x[n℄

In [Be 75℄ it was shown that T" is a norm 1 operator from L 1+ " ( Zn )
2

2 to L (Zn).2
2

Lemma 1.5.2 For any f : Zn2 ! C

jjT"f jj  jjf jj
2 1+ " 2 :
We will prove Lemma 1.5.2 using Be kner's Lemmas in se tion 1.6.
Proof of Theorem 1.5.1
Let fi(x) = f (x) f (x + i). Clearly for any p, Ii(f ) = jjfijjpp. We have

1 X f (y) f (y + i)
( 1)jx\yj = fb(x) 1 ( 1)i2x
=
fbi (x) = n 2fb(x) if i 2 x
2 y n
[ ℄
0 otherwise
Hen e X
T" fi = 2fb(x)"jxjx:
x3i
By Plan herel's equality and Lemma 1.5.2
X
4fb(x) " jxj = jjT"fijj  jjfijj
2 2 2
2
2
1+ " 2 = Ii (f ) = "
2 (1+ 2
)
: (1.10)
x3i

Summing (1.10) over i 2 [n℄ we obtain

X X
4 jxjfb(x) " jxj 
2 2
Ii (f )2=(1+" ) :
2
(1.11)
x[n℄ i2[n℄
18 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

The following equation is a linear ombination of (1.11) with " = 1 and " = 1=2. For any a  0 2 2

we have
 
1 X I (f ) + X I (f ) =  4 X 1 + 2 jxj jxjfb(x) :
4 3 2
i i
a i2[n℄ i2[n℄
a x[n℄

We have  
min 1 +2 x x
log a
x a 1 a
and hen e
X 1 
jxjfb(x)  4 loga a
X
4 +2 jxj 2
fb(x)2 :
x[n℄
a x[n℄;x=
6 ;
P
We have fb(x)2 = p fb(0)2 = p p2  p=2 and hen e
x[n℄;x6=;

1 X I (f ) + X I (f ) =  2p log a : 4 3
i i
ai2[n℄ i2[n℄
a
P
Let w = Ii (f )2 . From Lemma 1.6 we have
i2[n℄
X X
Ii (f )  (wn)1=2 and Ii (f )4=3  w2=3 n1=3 :
i2[n℄ i2[n℄

Hen e
1 (wn) = + w = n =  2 log a p:
1 2 2 3 1 3

a a
For a = n = we obtain
1 6

w1=2 + w2=3 
1 log n p:
3n= 1 2

Sin e for w  1, w =  w = we have

1 2 2 3

w
1 log n p : 2
2

36 n


1.6 Be kner's Lemmas

This se tion ontains the proof of Lemma 1.5.2. The following Lemmas 1.6.2 and 1.6.4 needed in
the proof of Lemma 1.5.2 were proven by Be kner [Be 75℄. The proofs given here are simplied
versions of Be kner proofs.
1.6. BECKNER'S LEMMAS 19

Lemma 1.6.1 For 1  p  2 and  2 R

(1 + sin 2)p= + (1 sin 2)p=  1 + (sin ) (p 2)
p= :
2 2
2 2

2
Proof :
Note that for 1  p  2 and 1  z  1
1  
(1 + z)p + (1 z)p = X p k
z 1+
p(p 1)
z  (1 + z (p 1))p= :
2 2 2 2
(1.12)
2 k
2 k =0
2
The rst inequality in (1.12) follows from the fa t that the p
are positive. The se ond one follows
2k
from 1 + xt  (1 + x)t ; 0  x; t  1. Hen e
(1 + z + 2z)p= + (1 + z 2z)p=  1 + z (p 1)
p= :
2 2 2 2
2 2

2
Divide both sides by (1 + z )p= and let z z = (sin ) .
2 2 2

1+ 2
2

Lemma 1.6.2 For any x; y 2 C and any 1  p  2 we have

jx + ypp 1j + jx ypp 1j
2 2
1=2
 j 
x + y jp + jx y jp =p
:
1

(1.13)
2 2
Proof :
We an s ale inequality (1.13) so that xx + yy = 1. Let a = xy + xy and (sin ) = yy. Note that 2

a  (sin 2) . The inequality be omes

2 2

 
 (1 + a) +2 (1 a) :

p=2 p= p= 2 2
1 + (sin ) (p 2)
2
(1.14)

The right hand side of (1.14) is a de reasing fun tion of jaj and hen e it is enough to prove (1.14)
for jaj = sin 2. Now use Lemma 1.6.1. 
For simpli ity we will onsider nite dimensional fun tion spa es. Given a linear operator T : C A !
C C , let KT (x; ) = (T 1x )( ), KT : A  C ! C is alled the kernel of T . From the linearity of T
X
(T f )( ) = KT (x; )f (x):
x2A

For any B and f 2 C AB we let T f : C AB ! C C B where we apply T to a ! f (a; b) for ea h b
separately X
(T f )( ; b) = KT (x; )f (x; b)
x2A
20 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS

Given two operators Ti : C A ! C C ; i = 1; 2, their produ t is the operator T : C A A ! C C C ,

i i 1 2 1 2

T = T T where we apply T for ea h a 2 A separately and then T for ea h d 2 C separately.

1 2 2 1 1 2
Note that the kernel of T is


KT (a; b); (x; y ) = KT (a; x)KT (b; y ): 1 2

The denition of the produ t of operators an be easily generalized for the produ t of more than two
operators. Note the following relationship between the produ t and the omposition of operators
(T Æ S )(T Æ S ) = (T T ) Æ (S S ):
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 (1.15)
Given C A with a p-norm and C B with a q-norm and f 2 C AB let
jjf (x; y)jjx p = y 7! jjf (x; y)jjp
:

We dene a p-norm on C AB
jjf (x; y)jjp = jj jjf (x; y)jjx p jjy p = jj jjf (x; y)jjy p jjx p:
: : : :

We will need generalized Minkowski's inequality, see [HLP34℄ p. 148.

Lemma 1.6.3 For 1  p  q and any f : C AB ! C
jj jjf (x; y)jjx p jjy q  jj jjf (x; y)jjy q jjx p:
: : : :

Lemma 1.6.4 Let 1  p  q . Let Ti : C A ! C C ; i = 1; 2 be linear operators. If for any fi 2 C A

i i i

jjTifijjq  jjfijjp
then for T = T T and any f 2 C A A
1 2
1 2

jjT f jjq  jjf jjp:

Proof :
Sin e 1  p  q, we an use Lemma 1.6.3
jj(T f )( ; d)jjq = jj jjT (T f )( ; d)jj q jjd q  jj jj(T f )(a; d)jja p jjd q 
1 2 : : 2 : :

jj jj(T f )(a; d)jjd q jja p  jj jjf (a; b)jjb p jja p = jjf jjp:
2 : : : :


Lemma 1.6.4 an be easily extended for the produ t of more than 2 operators. Now we an nally
prove Lemma 1.5.2.
Proof of Lemma 1.5.2
Take the operator Tn;" : (Zn2 ! C ) ! (Zn2 ! C ) dened by (1.9). Take any fun tion f : Z2 ! C and
1.6. BECKNER'S LEMMAS 21

let x = fb(0), y = fb(1). Then f (0) = x + y, f (1) = x y and (T ;"f )(0) = x + "y, (T ;"f )(1) = x "y.
1 1
Taking p = 1 + " in Lemma 1.6.2 we obtain that T ;" : L " (Z ) ! L (Z ) is a norm 1 operator.
2
1
1+ 2

2
2
2

Now we will show that Tn;" is produ t of n opies of T ;" and hen e by Lemma 1.6.4 has norm 1
1
as an operator from L " (Zn) to L (Zn).
1+ 2

2
2
2

Let Fn : C Z ! C Zb be the Fourier transform operator. Let Un : C Zb ! C Zb have kernel

n
2
n
2
n
2
n
2

KU (x; ) = (x = )"jxj. Clearly Fn is the produ t of n opies of F and Un is the produ t of n opies
1
of U . Now sin e Tn = Fn Æ Un Æ Fn we have using (1.15) that Tn is the produ t of n opies of T .
1
1
1

22 CHAPTER 1. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER FINITE ABELIAN GROUPS
Chapter 2
Harmoni Analysis over Lo ally
Compa t Abelian Groups

2.1 Introdu tion

We will only use harmoni analysis on R n , Zn and Tn = R n =Zn. It might be useful to mention a
more general setting. A lo ally ompa t abelian (LCA) group is a lo ally ompa t Hausdor
topologi al spa e with group operations whi h are ontinuous i.e. the mappings + : G  G ! G
(where G  G has Cartesian produ t topology) and : G ! G are ontinuous.
On su h a group there always exists unique (up to multipli ative fa tor) Borel measure  invariant
under the group operations i.e. for every measurable set E and x 2 G, (E ) = (E + x). The
measure is alled the Haar measure. The measure of a ompa t set is nite and the measure of
an open set is positive. The integral orresponding to the Haar measure is alled the Haar integral.
A hara ter of G is a ontinuous homomorphisms from G to the multipli ative group of omplex
numbers of modulus 1. The group Gb of all hara ters of G with topology generated by
UC;" = f 2 Gb; 8x 2 C : j(x) 1j < "; g; C ompa t; " > 0
(and their translates) is a lo ally ompa t abelian group alled the dual group of G. Pontryagin's
duality theorem says that the dual of Gb is isomorphi (as a topologi al group) to G. Moreover if
G is dis rete then Gb is ompa t and vi e versa.
The Fourier Transform of f 2 L (G) is dened as
1

Z
fb() = f (g )(g ) dg:
G

If f is ontinuous and fb 2 L (Gb) then we have the inversion formula

1

Z
f (x) = fb(x)(x) d; for all x 2 G
Gb

where d is an appropriate normalization of the Haar measure on Gb.

23
24 CHAPTER 2. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER LOCALLY COMPACT ABELIAN GROUPS

If f 2 L (G) \ L (G) then fb 2 L (Gb) and we have the Plan herel formula
1 2 2

jjf jj = jjfbjj
2 2

Remark 2 If G is ompa t we usually normalize the Haar measure on G so that (G) = 1. This
normalization makes the hara ters orthonormal. The normalization of the Haar measure on Gb
(whi h is dis rete) for whi h the inversion formula holds is (x) = 1; x 2 G.
Note that the Haar measures dened for a nite group G in se tion 1 orrespond to viewing G
as a ompa t group and Gb as a dis rete group.

2.2 Fourier transform over T n

Let Tn = R n =Zn with the standard Lebesgue measure and integral. Two fun tions f; g : Tn ! C
are equivalent f  g if they dier in a set of points of measure 0. R
Let L (Tn ) be the spa e of measurable fun tions Tn ! C su h that T jf (x)j d < 1 fa tored
2 2

by the equivalen e relation . The spa e L (Tn ) with inner produ t

n
2

Z
hf; gi = f (t)g (t) d
T
is a Hilbert spa e. P
Let L (Zn) be the spa e of fun tions f : Zn ! C su h that z2Z jf (z)j < 1: The spa e L (Zn)
2
n
2 2

with inner produ t X

hf; gi = f (z)g(z)
z 2Zn
is a Hilbert spa e.
Theorem 2.2.1 Inner produ t and metri satisfy
 j(f; g)j  jjf jj
jjgjj (the Cau hy-S hwarz inequality)
2 2

 jjf + gjj  jjf jj + jjgjj (triangle inequality)

2 2 2

Theorem 2.2.2 The hara ters of Tn are

fz (x) = exp(2izT x); z 2 Zng:
They form an orthonormal basis of L (Tn ) i.e. any fun tion f 2 L (Tn ) an be written as
2 2

X
f= fb(z )z :
z 2Zn

The fb(z) 2 C are alled the Fourier oeÆ ients, fb(z) = hf; z i:
2.3. EXPANDER GRAPHS CONSTRUCTION 25

Theorem 2.2.3 (Riesz-Fis her) The map L2 (Tn ) !

^ L2 (Zn) is linear, bije tive map.

Moreover we have
 hf; gi = hf;b bgi (Parseval's identity)
 jjf jj = jjfbjj (the Plan herel formula)
2 2

 jjfbjj1  jjf jj 1

and hen e the Fourier transform is an isometry of L (Tn ) and L (Zn).

2 2

A ni e appli ation of the Plan herel formula is omputing the sum

1
X 1 = : 2

n=1
n2
6
Consider f (x) = x on T . Then jjf jj = 1=3, fb(0) = 1=2 and fb(n) = i=(2n) for n 6= 0. Now use
1 2
2
the Plan herel formula.

2.3 Expander Graphs Constru tion

The rst expander graph onstru tion is due to Margulis [Mar73℄. We are going to show an expander
graph onstru tion due to Gabber and Galil [GG79℄. The onstru tion an be analyzed without
harmoni analysis, using linear algebra (eigenvalues) [JM87℄. Expanders with mu h better expansion
have been onstru ted in [LPS88, Mar88℄.
Denition 2.3.1 A bipartite graph G = (A [ B; E ) is (n; d; ) expander if jAj = jB j = n,
jE j  nd and for every X  A  
N (X )  1 + 
jXj
jX j:
n
Expli it expanders of bounded degree have a great number of appli ations in the Theory of Com-
puting. They are used in the log n-depth sorting network of Ajtai, Komlos and Szemeredi [AKS83℄,
in extra tion of random bits from weak random sour es [AKS87, CW89, IZ89℄, or in expli it on-
stru tion of fault tolerant networks [AC88℄.
Denition 2.3.2 Let Gm be graph with A; B = Z2m and (x; y) 2 A onne ted to fi (x; y); i 2
f0; :::; 4gg where
0 (x; y ) = (x; y )
1 (x; y ) = (x + y; y ); 2 (x; y ) = (x + y + 1; y )
3 (x; y ) = (x; x + y ); 4 (x; y ) = (x; x + y + 1)
p
Theorem 2.3.3 Gm is an (m2 ; 5; (2 3)=4) expander.
26 CHAPTER 2. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER LOCALLY COMPACT ABELIAN GROUPS

Proof :
We need to show for any X  Zm 2

j (X ) [


[  (X ) X j   jX m
1
j
jX j :
4 2

There is a natural mapping between the subsets of Zm and the subsets of the 2-dimensional torus 2

with sides of length m (i.e. R =mZ ), where (i; j ) orresponds to (i; j ) = hi; i + 1)  hj; j + 1).
2 2

Let  be a linear transformation on R =mZ ,  (x; y) = (x + y; y). Under  the (i; j ) is

1
2 2
1 1
transformed to a parallelogram one half of whi h lies in (i + j; j ) and the other in (i + j + 1; j ).
Hen e the nonempty squares in  (X 0) X 0 orrespond to the elements in ( (X ) [  (X )) X
1 1 2
where X 0  R =Zm orresponds to X  Zm. Thus
2 2 2

j  ( X ) [  ( X ) X j  (  ( X 0 ) X 0 ) :
1 2 1

Similarly for  (x; y) = (x; x + y), j (X ) [  (X ) X j  ( (X 0) X 0). Hen e

2 3 4 2

j (X ) [


[  (X ) X j  maxfj (X ) [  (X ) X j; j (X ) [  (X ) X jg 
1 4 1 2 3 4

1 ( (X 0) X 0) + ( (X 0) X 0)

2 1 2

and to show the expansion property of Gm it is enough to show

(1 (X 0 ) X 0 ) + (2 (X 0 ) X 0 )  2(X 0)(X 0 )=m2 : (2.1)
We will show that (2.1) is true not only for X 0 arising from the mapping between Zm and R =mZ 2 2 2

but for all measurable X 0. S aling down to standard torus S = R =Z inequality (2.1) be omes 2 2 2

(1 (X ) X ) + (2 (X ) X ))  2(X )(1 (X )): (2.2)

From now on we are working on the standard torus S = R =Z . Note that the i are measure 2 2 2

preserving and hen e (i(X ) X ) = (X ) (i(X ) \ X ). Now (2.2) be omes

(1 (X ) \ X ) + (2 (X ) \ X )  2(X )(1 (X )): (2.3)
Now we rephrase (2.3) in terms of fun tions
h1X ; (T + T )1X i = h1X ; T 1X i + h1X ; T 1X i  2h1X ; 1X i(1  + h1X ; 1X i) (2.4)
1 2 1 2

where Ti f = f Æ i is a linear operator. Now it looks that we need to estimate the Rayleigh
1

quotient of the operator T R+ T on some lass of fun tions. Theorem 2.4.4 shows that onpthe spa e
1 2
of L fun tions for whi h f d x = 0 the operator T + T has Rayleigh quotient  = 2 + 1=2.
2 2
1 2
Let us subtra t a onstant fun tion from 1X so that we an apply Lemma 2.4.4
h1X (X ); (T + T )(1X (X ))i   h1X (X ); 1X (X )i:
1 2 (2.5)
2.4. THE RAYLEIGH QUOTIENT OF OPERATORS 27

Using h(X ); (X )i = (X ) , h(X ); 1X i = (X ) and h1X ; 1X i = (X ) on (2.5) we obtain
2 2

h1X ; (T + T )1X i  2(X )(=2 + (1 =2)(X ))

1 2

p p
whi h proves (2.4) for  = 1 =2 = (3 2)=4 < (4 2 3)=4.
To x the proof note that if for every measurable X ,
(12 (X ) X ) + (22 (X ) X ))  4(X )(X ) (2.6)
then also (2.2). The proof of (2.6) follows exa tly the same steps as the proof of (2.2), using an
estimate on the Rayleigh quotient of T 0 = T Æ T + T Æ T .
1 1 2 2 

2.4 The Rayleigh quotient of Operators

In this se tion we ompute the Rayleigh quotient of the operator T + T and T Æ T + T Æ T from
1 2 1 1 2 2
the se tion 2.3 following the proof of Gabber and Galil [GG79℄.
Given a bounded linear operator T its spe tral norm is
n o
jjT jj = sup jjT xjj ; jjxjj = 1 ;
2 2 2

its spe tral radius is

(T ) = nlim
!1
jjT njj12=n;
and its Rayleigh quotient is
n o
r(T ) = sup jhT x; xij ; jjxjj = 1 :2

The Cau hy-S hwarz inequality yields

(T )  r(T )  jjT jj2:
If T is self-adjoint then (T ) = r(T ) = jjT jj .2

The linear operator T on L (Tn ) gives us a linear operator Tb = F Æ T Æ F on L (Zn) where

2 1 2

F is the Fourier transform operator. By Parseval's identity the operators Tb and T have the same
spe tral norm, radius and Rayleigh quotient. In our appli ation it will turn out to be easier to
analyze the operator Tb.
Lemma 2.4.1 Let A be an integral n  n matrix with determinant 1 and (T f )(x) = f (Ax) a linear
operator on L2 (Tn ). Then

(Tbfb)(x) = fb(A T x): (2.7)

28 CHAPTER 2. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER LOCALLY COMPACT ABELIAN GROUPS

Proof :
Sin e Tb is linear, it is enough to see (2.7) for fb = 1a
Z Z
(Tb1a)(x) = e 2ixT z T (e2iaT z ) dn z = e2i(a
T
A xT )z dn z = (x = AT a) = 1a (A T x):
T n
T n


R
Let X be the subspa e of L (T ) ontaining the fun tions satisfying fb(0) = f d x = 0. Our
2 2 2

goal now is to ompute the Rayleigh quotient of the operator T = T + T (dened in (2.4)) on the 1 2
spa e X . Re all that
(T f )(x; y) = f (x y; y) + f (x; y x):
Hen e by Lemma 2.4.1
(Tbfb)(x; y) = fb(x; x + y) + fb(x + y; y)
where Tb is operator on the spa e Y whi h is a subspa e of L (Z ) onsisting of fun tions with 2 2

f (0) = 0.
Consider an undire ted graph H with verti es Z f0g and (a; b) being onne ted to (a + b; b)
1
2

and (a; a + b). We dene a fun tion r on undire ted lo ally nite graphs so that r(H ) = r(Tb). 1

ju u
u u
1,0 1,1

u u uj 2,1

u
1,-1
2,-1 1,2

u 0,1

ju u u
1,-2
-1,2

u
0,-1

u
-1,-2 -2,1 -1,1

u uj
-2,-1

-1,-1 -1,0

A onne ted omponent of H . 1

Denition 2.4.2 Let G = (V; E ) be a lo ally nite undire ted graph. Let
X X
r(G) = sup f (u)f (v ); f (v )2 = 1; f : V !R :
fu;vg2E v2V

The following Theorem gives us an upper bound for r(G) of a graph G.

Theorem 2.4.3 Let  be a labeling of ar s of G with positive real numbers su h that (u; v ) =
1=(v; u). Then
1
r(G)  sup
X
(u; v ):
2 u2V v2N u ( )
2.4. THE RAYLEIGH QUOTIENT OF OPERATORS 29

Proof :
Using the inequality between arithmeti and geometri mean and the property of  we obtain
X X 1

f (u)f (v )  f (u) (u; v ) + f (v ) (v; u) = ():
2 2

fu;vg2E fu;vg2E 2
Now 0 1
1X
() = 2 f (u)2
X
(u; v ) 
1 sup X X
(u; v )A f (u) :
2

u2V v2N (u)

2 u2V v2N u ( ) u2V

Now we use Theorem 2.4.3 to ompute r(H ) 1

Theorem 2.4.4 p
r(H1 )  1=2 + 2:
Proof :
From Eu lid's algorithm it follows that for any d 2 N the verti es (a; b) su h that g d(a; b) = d
form a onne ted omponent of H . These onne ted omponents are isomorphi and hen e it is
1
enough to onsider only one of them, e.g. the one with d = 1. The mappings (x; y) ! ( y; x) and
(x; y) ! (y; x) are automorphisms of H . Consider the following labeling  of ar s (the ar s in the
1
same orbits have the same labels)
 for the self loop e at (0; 1) let (e) = 1
 for the ar e from (0; 1) to (1; 1) let (e) = a (the opposite ar s have label 1=a)
 for an ar e from u to v whi h was not labeled yet let
(
1 if jjujj1 = jjvjj1
(e) = b if jjujj1 < jjv jj1
1=b otherwise
P
The labeling satises the onditions
P
of Theorem 2.4.3. For v = (0; 1) we have u2N v (v; u) = ( )
2a + 2, for v = (1; 1) we have u2N v (v; u) = 2=a + 2b. For the other verti es two neighbors
( )
have larger, one has smaller and one has equal innity norm (for vertex (x; y), w.l.o.g. x > y > 0,
then (xP+ y; y); (x; x + y) have larger, (x; y x) has
p equal and p(x y; y) has smaller innity norm).
Hen e u2N v (v; u) =p1 + 2b + 1=b. For b = 1= 2 and
( )
p a = 2 1=2 we have max(2a + 2; 2=a +
2b; 1 + 2b + 1=b) = 1 + 2 2 and hen e r(H )  1=2 + 2. 1 
The operator T 0 mentioned at the end of the proof of Theorem 2.3.3 was dened as
(T 0f )(x; y) = f (x 2y; y) + f (x; y 2x):
30 CHAPTER 2. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER LOCALLY COMPACT ABELIAN GROUPS

Hen e by Lemma 2.4.1

(Tb0fb)(x; y) = fb(x; x + 2y) + fb(x + 2y; y):
Again we an show an upper bound on the Rayleigh quotient of T 0 in the spa e X by onsidering
graph H for whi h r(H ) = r(Tb0) = r(T 0). Let H be the undire ted graph with verti es Z f0g
2 2 2
2

and (a; b) onne ted with (a + 2b; b) and (a; b + 2a).

u u
uj
3,-1

uu 3,1
1,-1
uu 1,0

3,1 1,1 1,-3

1,-2
u 1,2
u
-3,1
uu -1,-1
uu -1,-3

u -1,1
-3,-1
-1,3
u
A part of graph H . 2

Theorem 2.4.5 p
r(H2 )  3:
Proof :
The mappings (x; y) ! ( y; x) and (x; y) ! (y; x) are automorphisms of H . Every vertex u = 1
(x; y) where both x; y are non-zero, jxj 6= jyj is onne ted to three verti es with larger and one with
smaller 1 norm. If one of the x; y is zero or jxj = jyj then u is onne ted to two verti es with larger
and two verti es with equal 1 norm (possibly via a self-loop). Label the ar e between the verti es
u; v
(
if jjujj1 = jjvjj1
1
(e) = a if jjujj1 < jjv jj1
1=a otherwise
P P p
For any u we have
p either v2N u (
( )
u; v ) = 3 a + 1 =a or v2N u ( u; v ) = 2 + 2 a. For a =
( )
3 we
obtain r(H )  3. 2 
It is not hard to nd labelings of the verti es of H and H whi h show that the onstants in
1 2
Theorems 2.4.4 and 2.4.5 are optimal.

2.5 Latti e Duality: Banasz zyk's Transferen e Theorem

Given an an n  n regular matrix B a latti e L is
L = fBx ; x 2 Zng:
Alternatively a latti e an be viewed as a dis rete additive subgroup of R n . Dene the su essive
minima  ; : : : ; n of the latti e L
1

i = minfr > 0; dim span(L \ rBn )  ig;

2.5. LATTICE DUALITY: BANASZCZYK'S TRANSFERENCE THEOREM 31

where Bn is the unit ball in R n . The dual latti e L of the latti e L is the latti e with matrix B T .
Our goal is to prove the Transferen e Theorem of Banasz zyk [Ban93℄
Theorem 2.5.1 For any latti e L in R n
i (L)n+1 i (L )  n:
The Theorem is tight up to a multipli ative onstant as there exist a self dual latti e L su h
that  (L)  ne (1 + o(1)) as n ! 1, a result of Conway and Thompson (see [Mil73℄, p. 42).
1
2
2
A transferen e theorem was used in [LLS90℄ to show that O(n)-approximation of shortest latti e
ve tor in L norm annot be NP-hard unless NP= o-NP.
2

In addition to the material overed in se tion 2.1 we will only need that hara ters of R n are
fbjb 2 R n g
where b(x) = exp(bT x)g. The Fourier transform of a nite measure  is dened as
Z
b(x) = x (y ) d(y ):
y2Rn

For A  R n let
X
(A) = e jjxjj : (2.8)
2

x2A
Later in se tion 2.6 we will prove the following Lemma.
p
Lemma 2.5.2 Let n  2. Let A be a ball of diameter 34 n entered around the origin and let
u 2 R n . Then


 (L + u) n A
(L)
 0:285
Given a latti e L we dene a dis rete measure on R n by
(A \ L)
L (A) = :
(L)
Let
(L + u)
L (u) = :
(L)
Later in se tion 2.6 we will prove
Lemma 2.5.3 For a latti e L and its dual latti e L
 L = L :
32 CHAPTER 2. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER LOCALLY COMPACT ABELIAN GROUPS

Proof of Theorem 2.5.1

For n = 1, 1(L)1 (L ) = 1. Assume that n  2. Suppose thatp there is a latti e L su h pn +that4 .
i (L)n+1 i (L ) > n. We an s ale the latti e
p so that
p i ( L) > 3
n and n+1 i ( L ) > 3

Let A and A be the balls of diameters 34 n and 34 n + 45 entered around the origin. We have
4 4 5

dim span(L \ A) < i and dim span(L \ A ) < n + 1 i. Hen e there is a ve tor u whi h is
perpendi ular to all ve tors in L \ A and all ve tors in L \ A . We an hose u su h that jjujj = 54 .
 Sin e u is perpendi ular to all ve tors in L \ A,
X X X
L (u) = bL (u) = L ( x) e 2iuT x = L (x) + L (x)e 2iuT x 
x2L x2L\A x2LnA
X X X
L (x) L (x) = 1 2 L (x)  0:43: (2.9)
x2L\A x2LnA x2LnA

 We have


 (L \ A ) + u  (L n A ) + u
L (u) = + :
(L ) (L )
Sin e u is perpendi ular to ve tors in L \ A


 (L \ A ) + u jjujj (L \ A)

(L )
= e
(L )
2
 0:135: (2.10)
The length of ve tors in (L n A ) + u is at least n and hen e 3
p
4

 (L =A ) + u


 (L + u) n nB
p
3

(L )
 (L )
 0:285: 4
(2.11)

From (2.9),(2.10),(2.11) we obtain 0:43  L (u)  0:42, a ontradi tion. 

2.6 Gaussian-like Measures on Latti es

In this se tion we will prove Lemmas 2.5.3 and 2.5.2. Our only tool from harmoni analysis on R n
will be the Poisson Summation Formula.
Theorem 2.6.1 (Poisson Summation Formula) Let f : R n ! R n be a ontinuous fun tion,
su h that for some " > 0 and 2 R
f (x)  (1 + jxj) n " (2.12)
fb(x)  (1 + jxj) n " (2.13)
where fb is the Fourier transform of f over R n . Then
X X
f (a) = fb(a):
a2Zn a2Zn
2.6. GAUSSIAN-LIKE MEASURES ON LATTICES 33

Proof :
Dene a fun tion F : Tn ! R
X
F (x) = f (x + a): (2.14)
a2Zn

The right-hand side of (2.14) onverges uniformly be ause of (2.12). Clearly F is ontinuous and
integrable. We have
Z Z X Z
Fb(y ) = F (x)e iyT x dn x = f (x + a)e iyT (x+a) dn x = f (x)e2iy x dn x = fb(y ):
T
2 2

T n
T a2Z
n
n R n

Condition (2.13) gives us Fb 2 L (Zn). Hen e for any x 2 Tn the inversion formula holds
1

X
F (x) = fb(a)e 2 iaT x
a2Zn

and for x = 0 we obtain the result. 

Lemma 2.6.2 Let B be an n  n matrix and u 2 R n . For f (x) = exp (Bx + u)T (Bx + u)
 n=2

exp fb(y ) =
 2 (B T y )T (B T y ) + 2iuT (B T y ) :
det B


Remark 3 For f (x) = exp  (Bx + u)T (Bx + u) we obtain

fb(y ) =
1 exp  (B T y )T (B T y ) + 2iuT (B T y ) :


det B
Proof of Lemma 2.6.2
Z


fb(y ) = exp (Bx + u)T (Bx + u) 2iyT x dnx =
Z R n

exp (Bx + u + iB T y)T (Bx + u + iB T y) + 2iyT B u  (B T y)T (B T y) dnx = 1 2

R n

 n=2

det B exp  2 (B T y )T (B T y ) + 2iuT (B T y ) :

For notational onvenien e we dene for A  R n
X
0 (A) = e jjxjj :
2

x2A

Note that 0 (A) = ( =

1 2
A) where  is dened by (2.8).
34 CHAPTER 2. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER LOCALLY COMPACT ABELIAN GROUPS

Lemma 2.6.3 For a latti e L  R n , any 0 < t  1 and any u 2 R n

0 (tL + u) 
1 0 (L):
tn
Proof :
Let B be the matrix of the latti e L. Using the Poisson summation formula
exp t2 (B T y)T (B T y)+ 2i
n=2 X  
exp (tBx+u)T (tBx+u) = tndet B
X
2
0 (tL+u) = ytB 1u :
x2Z n
y2Z n
t
Again by the Poisson summation formula
1 0(L) = 1 X exp( (Bx)T (Bx)) = n= X exp   (B T y)T (B T y): 2
2

tn tn x2Z n
tn det B y2Z n

Now it is enough to noti e that for any y 2 Zn

 

exp
 
( B
2
T y ) T ( B T y ) + 2 i
y t B u   exp

1
 ( B

T y )T (B T y ) : 2
 t 2
t 


p
Lemma 2.6.4 For any latti e L any u 2 R n and  n=2

 n=2
0 (L + u) n B
 2n
 
exp n2 :
2
2

0 (L)
Proof :
Let x 2 (L
+ u) n B and let 0 < t  1. The orresponding element tx 2 t(L + u) ontributes to
0 t(L + u) by exp( t2 jjxjj2 ). We have
exp( t jjxjj ) = exp (1 t )jjxjj
 exp (1 t )
:
2 2
2 2 2 2

exp( jjxjj )2

Hen e



0 (L + u) n B  0 t(L + u) exp (t2 1) : 2

By Lemma 2.6.3, 0 t(L + u)  (1=t)n0 (L) and hen e we have



0 (L + u) n B  (1=t)n exp (t 2
1) 0(L):
2

For t =
2 n

2 2 (optimal value) we obtain the result. 
p
Corollary 2.6.5 (of Lemma 2.6.4) For  n=(2 )

 n=2
 (L + u) n B
 2
 
exp n2  :
2
2

(L) n
2.6. GAUSSIAN-LIKE MEASURES ON LATTICES 35

Proof of Lemmap2.5.2
Plugging in = 43 n into Corollary 2.6.5 we obtain
p
 (L + u) n 34 nB

 n=2

(L)
 23 e1
9
8
  (0:285)n= :2

whi h for n  2 proves 2.5.2. 

Proof of Lemma 2.5.3
Let B be the matrix of the latti e L. We have
(L + u) 1 X exp

L (u) = =  (Bx + u)T (Bx + u) : (2.15)
(L) (L) x2Z n

By Lemma 2.6.2 and the Poisson summation formula

(2:15) = (L)1det B
X


exp  (B T y )T (B T y ) exp 2iuT (B T y ) =
y2Zn
1 X

(L )
exp  jjy jj exp 2
2iuT y =   (u):
(L) det B y2L (L) det B L

To nish the proof note

X
1 X exp
(L )
(L) = exp  (Bx)T (Bx) =  (B T y )T (B T y ) =
x2Zn
det(B ) y2Z n
det(B ) :

p
Maximum of xne x2
is attained for x = n=2.
36 CHAPTER 2. HARMONIC ANALYSIS OVER LOCALLY COMPACT ABELIAN GROUPS
Chapter 3
Generalizations of Harmoni Analysis

3.1 Introdu tion

In this se tion we will onsider the theory from se tion 1 with the eld of omplex numbers repla ed
by a nite eld. Most of the theorems from 1 remain valid even in this setting. We omit the proofs
be ause they are identi al with those in se tion 1.
Let G be a nite abelian group, let n = jGj. Let t be the exponent of G i.e. the smallest positive
number su h that t
g = 0 for every g 2 G. Let F be the nite eld with q elements where tjq 1.
Note that we have primitive t-th roots of unity and 1=n in F . (To see that (n; q) = 1 note that any
prime p that divides n divides t and hen e does not divide q.)
We onsider the spa e F G of fun tions with
 pointwise multipli ation (fg)(a) = f (a)g(a); a 2 G,
 onvolution (f  g)(x) = n P f (a)g(x a); x 2 G, and
1

a2G
 inner produ t hf; gi = n f (a)g(a). where x = xx for
1
P n
x 6= 0 :
1

a2G for x = 0
Chara ters are homomorphisms from G to the multipli ative group of F . The set of all hara ters
is an orthonormal basis of F G . They also form a group ( alled the dual group of G over F ). Fix
G = Zn 


 Zn and !i be a primitive ni -th root of unity in F (sin e ni jt we have !i 2 F ). For
b = (b ; : : : ; bk ) 2 G let
1 k

1
k
Y
b (x) = !ib x :
i i

i=1
The fun tions b are hara ters, they are distin t and by a dimension argument they are all har-
a ters of G. Hen e
n o
Gb = b j b 2 G; : (3.1)
Any fun tion f 2 F G an be expressed as a linear ombination of hara ters. The oeÆ ient of b
is denoted by fb(b). The fun tion fb : Gb ! F is alled the Fourier transform of f .
37
38 CHAPTER 3. GENERALIZATIONS OF HARMONIC ANALYSIS

Mapping b ! b is an isomorphism of G and Gb and hen e we view fb as a fun tion in F G and

write fb(b) instead of fb(b ).
The spa e F Gb is endowed with
 inner produ t h^f; g^i = P f (a)g(a), and
a2G
P
 onvolution (f ^ g)(x) = f (a)g (x a).
a2G

By the orthogonality of hara ters

fb(b) = hf; b i =
1 X f (a) (b): (3.2)
a
n a2G

Theorem 3.1.1 The Fourier transform satises

 linearity f[ + g = fb + bg; af
= af; b f; g 2 F G ; a 2 C

 fg
= fb ^ bg; f[  g = fbbg
 hf; gi = h^f;b bg^i: (the Plan herel formula)

3.2 Sums of matrix olumns (mod m)

We are going to prove a Theorem of Therien [The94℄. It was used to show that a ir uit with
MODm gates where m is omposite needs at least
(n) gates to ompute the AND of n inputs. A
MODm gate is a gate whi h outputs 0 i the sum of its inputs is divisible by m.
Theorem 3.2.1 Let m; s; t be positive integers. If t >
s
m11=2 ln m where is an
absolute onstant, then for any s  t integer matrix there exists a set of olumns whi h
sum to the zero olumn modulo m.
We shall use the following expli it version of Diri hlet's Theorem about primes in arithmeti
progressions.
Theorem 3.2.2 ([Hea90℄) For any a oprime to m there is a prime p  a (mod m) su h that
p  m11=2 where is an absolute onstant.
The estimate in Theorem 3.2.2 an be improved to 2(m ln m) under the assumption of the Extended
2

Riemann Hypothesis [BS94℄. Theorem 3.2.1 follows from Theorem 3.2.2 and the following Lemma
Lemma 3.2.3 Let p be a prime and A be an s  t integer matrix. If t > s(p 1) ln(p 1) then
there exists a set of olumns whi h sum to the zero olumn modulo p 1.
3.2. SUMS OF MATRIX COLUMNS (MOD M) 39

We use harmoni analysis on the spa e of fun tions G ! F p where G = Ztp . Dene the weight 1
wt(f ) of f as the number of non-zero Fourier oeÆ ients of f . When we write f and g as linear
ombination of hara ters we see
 wt(f
g)  wt(f )
wt(g)
 wt(f + g)  wt(f ) + wt(g)
For example 1b (x) = n for any x and hen e
0
1

wt(10 ) = (p 1)t : (3.3)

Let B = f0; 1gt  Ztp . We have
1

1 B (x) =
1 X !x y = 1 (1 + !x ) : : : (1 + !x )
T
1 t
(3.4)
n y2B n

Sin e (3.4) is non-zero for (p 2)t hoi es of x we obtain

wt(1B ) = (p 2)t : (3.5)
Proof of Lemma 3.2.3
Let A be an s  t integer matrix su h that no set of olumns sums to the zero olumn modulo p 1.
For ea h row of the matrix dene a fun tion
fi (x) = ! x a +


+x a ; i 2 [s℄:
1 i;i t i;t

Consider the fun tion s

Y

f= 1 (1 fi)p 1
:
i=1
If x = 0 then ea h fi(x) = 1 and hen e f (x) = 1. Sin e no set of olumns sums to the zero olumn
modulo p 1, for any x 2 B n f0g there is i su h that fi(x) 6= 1 and hen e f (x) = 0. Thus
f jB  1 jB .
0
Ea h fi is a hara ter. The fun tion 1 (1 fi)p is a linear ombination of powers of the
1

hara ter fi and hen e has weight at most p 1. Hen e by the submultipli ativity of weight
wt(f )  (p 1)t .
Sin e f
1B = 1
0
(p 1)t = wt(1 ) = wt(f
1B )  (p 1)s(p 2)t
0

and hen e  t
e t=(p 1) 1
 1 + p 2  (p 1)s
whi h yields t  s(p 1) ln(p 1). 
40 CHAPTER 3. GENERALIZATIONS OF HARMONIC ANALYSIS
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