Oumh1103 e Module

OUMH1103
LEARNING SKILLS
FOR OPEN DISTANCE
LEARNERS
Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman
Dr Thirumeni Subramaniam
Oo Cheng Kiat
Assoc Prof Dr Nantha Kumar Subramaniam
Dr Harvinder Kaur Dharam Singh
Dr Gurcharan Singh Bishen Singh
Dr Raziana Che Aziz
Majumin Hanum Abdul Samad
Noor Zuleika Zulkipli
Project Directors: Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman

Dr Thirumeni T Subramaniam
Oo Cheng Kiat
Dr Harvinder Kaur Dharam Singh
Dr Raziana Che Aziz
Noor Zuleika Zulkipli
Moderators: Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman

Dr Thirumeni T Subramaniam
Oo Cheng Kiat
Nor Aslina Abd Jalil
Sarah Waheeda Muhammad Hafidz
Developed by: Open University Malaysia
First Edition, April 2019
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2019, OUMH1103

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without
the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Table of Contents
Course Guide xi–xv
Topic 1 Being 21st Century Learner 1

1.1 Skills for The 21st Century 2
1.2 Roles of The 21st Century Learner 6
1.3 21st Century Learning Environment 8
1.4 Characteristics of 21st Century Learner 10
Summary 12
Key Terms 13
References 13
Topic 2 Study Skills: Essay and Exams 14

2.1 Essay Writing Skills 15
2.1.1 Steps for Writing Essay 23
2.1.2 Structure of an Essay 17
2.1.3 Avoid Plagiarism 24
2.1.4 APA Referencing Style 25
2.1.5 Common Faults in Essay 28
2.2 Strategies for Exams 41
2.2.1 Preparing for Exams 30
2.2.2 Memorising for Exams 30
2.2.3 Types of Exam Questions 31
Summary 34
Key Terms 35
References 35
Topic 3 Numeracy Skills 36

3.1 Numeracy 37
3.1.1 The Importance of Numeracy in TodayÊs World 38
3.1.2 Innumeracy 39
3.2 Fundamental Skills in Numeracy 39
3.2.1 Mathematical Reasoning 40
3.2.2 Problem Solving 42
3.2.2.1 Word Problems 43
3.2.3 Decision Making 45
3.3 Numeracy Continuum and Everyday Life Practices 46
3.3.1 Numbers and Operations 46
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.3.2 Patterns 48
3.3.3 Fractions, Decimal Numbers and Percentages 49
3.3.4 Interpreting Statistical Information 50
3.3.5 Measurement 51
3.3.6 Multiples, Factors and Primes 52
Summary 55
Key Terms 55
References 56
Topic 4 Digital Literacy 57

4.1 ICT Literacy 60
4.2 Information Literacy 65
4.2.1 Information Literacy Framework 67
4.3 Technology-Enhanced Learning 70
4.3.1 Tools Used in TEL Environment in the
Context of OUM 73
4.3.2 Mobile Learning 77
4.4 Media Literacy 80
Summary 83
Key Terms 84
References 84
Topic 5 Creativity and Innovation 86

5.1 The Concept of Creativity and Innovation 90
5.2 Characteristics of Creative People 103
5.3 Creativity, Innovation and Learning 106
5.4 Design Thinking as a Strategy for Innovation 108
5.5 Tools for Creativity and Innovation 111
Summary 113
Key Terms 113
References 113
Topic 6 Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills 115

6.1 The Need for Critical Thinking 116
6.1.1 The Twin Pillars of Knowing and Thinking 116
6.1.2 A Working Definition of Critical Thinking 117
6.1.3 Changing How People Think: Should It Be Done? 118
6.2 Empirical Evidence That Critical Thinking
Can Be Improved 119
6.2.1 Becoming a Better Thinker: The Quick
and Easy Way 120
6.2.2 Two Types of Thinking – Fast and Slow 121
TABLE OF CONTENTS ⊳ v
6.3 Skills of Critical Thinking and Reasoning 123

6.3.1 CAF: Consider All Factors 123
6.3.2 APC: Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices 124
6.3.3 Focus and Purpose 125
6.3.4 AGO: Aims, Goals and Objectives 126
6.3.5 Deductive reasoning 126
6.3.6 Inductive Reasoning 127
6.4 Assessment of Critical Thinking 128
Summary 130
Key Terms 130
References 131
Topic 7 Communication Skills 132

7.1 Communication in Our Daily Lives 133
7.2 Functions of Communication 137
7.2.1 Functions of Verbal Communication 137
7.2.2 Functions of Nonverbal Communication 139
7.2.3 The Importance of Listening 142
7.3 How to be an Effective Communicator? 145
7.4 Barriers to Effective Communication 147
Summary 148
Key Terms 149
References 149
Topic 8 Collaborative Skills 150

8.1 Definition of Collaboration and Collaborative Learning 151
8.2 Benefit of Collaboration Skills 152
8.3 Similarities and Differences Between Collaborative
Learning and Cooperative Learning 154
8.4 Emprical Studies on Collaboration 156
8.5 Assessment of Collaborative Skills 157
8.6 Enhancing The Collaborative Learning 159
Summary 161
Key Terms 162
References 162
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 9 Global Citizenship Education 165

9.1 Global Citizenship Education and its Importance in
The 21st Century 166
9.2 Is The State 'Powerless' In Globalisation? 172
9.3 International Conflicts: The Post-Cold War 176
9.4 Gender Equality In The 21st Century 178
Summary 181
Key Terms 181
References 182
Topic 10 The Environment and Us 185

185
10.1 Why Should We Care About the Environment? 186
10.2 Global Environmental Issues 189
10.2.1 Changing Land Cover and Water Surfaces 190
10.2.2 Climate Change 190
10.2.3 Loss of Biodiversity 191
10.2.4 Population and Development 192
10.2.5 Pollution 192
10.2.6 Urbanisation 193
10.3 Green Technology and Environment 194
10.4 Sustainable Development Goals 195
10.5 Ecological Footprint and You 198
Summary 198
Key Terms 199
References 199
COURSE GUIDE ⊳ ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
OUMH1103
OUMH1103 Learning Skills for Open Distance Learners is one of the courses
offered by the Cluster of Education and Social Sciences at Open University
Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over
8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students undertaking any programme with OUM
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
x COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial 5
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 tutorial sessions 6
Online participation 14
Revision 15
Assignment(s) and Examination(s) 20
Total Study Hours 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe using examples the expected characteristics and literacy levels of a

21st century learner;
2. Demonstrate Creative Thinking and Critical Thinking Skills;
3. Demonstrate Communication Skills and Collaborative Skills; and
4. Display characteristics of a global citizen capable of creating a greener and
sustainable environment.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into nine topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 discusses the skills expected for 21st century, roles of 21st century
learner, their learning environment and characteristics that make learners a 21st
century learner.
Topic 2 provides tips and strategies that will help learners write better essay in
assignments and exams. In this topic also learners will be guided on how they
can apply their critical thinking, creative, communication and collaborative skills
in completing the assignment and preparing for the exams.
COURSE GUIDE ⊳ xi
Topic 3 introduces the definition of numeracy skills and discuss the importance
of numeracy in todayÊs world. Besides, the relation between numeracy and
mathematics will also be discussed in this topic. Nevertheless, learners will be
introduced to the term innumeracy and exposed to the three fundamental aspects
of numeracy; mathematical reasoning, problem solving and decision making.
Learners will learn to discover the numeracy continuum and discuss some ideas
on everyday life practices on numeracy. Finally, the word problems in
mathematics everyday life and ways to solve it will also be covered at the end of
this topic.
Topic
Topic 4.begins
4 with the description of the meaning of digital literacy and how
learners may develop their digital proficiency. In addition, the topic provides
better proficiencies in digital literacy. Furthermore, learners are expected to
adopt and apply all the best practices and expectations highlighted in each of the
proficiencies.
Topic 5 introduces the meaning of creativity, innovation and design thinking.

Next, learners are expected to describe the relationship between creativity and
innovation with learning. In fact, in this topic, learners will learn to design
thinking as a strategy for innovation. Final subtopic of this topic will be related to
how to adopt and apply tools for creativity and innovation.
Topic 6 starts with the definition of critical thinking and followed by explaining
on how critical thinking skills can be improved. Besides, in this topic, learners
will also be exposed to the skills of critical thinking as well as the knowledge to
distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning. Through this topic also,
learners will be able to classify the ways to assess critical thinking skills.
Topic 7 assists learners to gain communication skills and also how to become an
effective communicator. Learners will learn the essence and barriers of effective
communication.
Topic 8 looks at collaborative skills through the discussion on collaboration and

collaborative learning. There will also be discussions on the similarities and
differences between collaborative learning and cooperative learning. Empirical
studies on collaborative learning will also be presented in the ensuing part of this
topic followed by discussion on the assessment of collaborative skills.
Topic 9 discusses on Global Citizenship Education and its importance in the 21st
century. Next, this topic will focus on the roles of the state in globalisation.
Nonetheless, international conflicts in the post-Cold War era will also be
explained in this topic. Gender equality in the 21st century from the political and
economic aspects will mark the end of this topic that relating to themes of the
Global Citizenship Education.
xii COURSE GUIDE
Topic 10 begins by discovering the environment, its benefits and the importance
of conserving it. Moreover, in this topic, learners will learn about the concepts of
„green‰ and „green technology‰ which are needed in order to make informed
decisions. In addition, learners will have the opportunity to explore the concept
of sustainability and the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs).
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations
throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
COURSE GUIDE ⊳ xiii
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
This is an introductory course. There is no prior knowledge needed.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Cabral, L. (2006). Twenty‐first century skills for students: Hands‐on learning after
school builds school and life success. New Directions for Youth
Development, 2006(110), 155-161
Dietrich, A. (2015) How Creativity Happens in the Brain. (1st ed) Palgrave
Macmillan UK.
de Bono, E. (1994). Teach your child how to think: Help them survive and thrive.
London: Penguin Book.
Eunson, Baden. (2016). Communicating in the 21st Century. Qld, Australian:
John Wiley & Sons.
Moore, S. (2010). The Ultimate Study Skills Handbook. England : McGraw-Hill
Education. (Available in EBSCOhost Database, OUM Digital Library)
Rachel, S & Graham, G. (2013). Teaching Adult Numeracy: Principles and
Practice. Maidenhead, Berkshire : McGraw-Hill Education
xiv COURSE GUIDE
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books247, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.
Topic 1 Being 21st
Century
Learner
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. explain the skills required by 21st century learner;
2. list down the roles of 21st century learners;
3. describe 21st century learning environment; and
4. identify your characteristics as a 21st Century Learner.
INTRODUCTION
Do you know that you are living in the 21st century in accordance to Gregorian
calendar? It started on January 1, 2001 and will end on December 31, 2100. So what
is the big deal about this century? It is in this era that digital revolution is
continuously taking place with instantaneous and infinite ways of using Internet.
The Internet access is expanding widely. Majority of people in the developed
world are having access to the Internet. A large number of world’s population
owns mobile phones. With the surge of smart phones getting more affordable,
there are emerging trends of social media networking. I am sure you had at least
used WhatsApp, Twitter, Facebook, SnapChat, Instagram, Pinterest and/or
YouTube, which are among the popular social media apps for modern form of
digital communication.
2 TOPIC 1 BEING 21ST CENTURY LEARNER
The advancement of technology has impacted our lives. The world is increasingly
living in a globalised society through the digital social networking. There is an
accelerating change in economy and technology in the society we live in.
Technology has penetrated at our work place, learning institutions, social circles,
and many varied ways. As such, government, educators and major employers
realised this and identified key skills that are needed by learners for meeting the
demands of the changing workplace and society.
It is necessary that we equip ourselves with the right skills that will eventually help
us in meeting the demands of the 21st century. In the following sections of this
chapter we will discuss the skills expected for 21st century, roles of 21st century
learner, their learning environment and characteristics that make you a 21st century
learner.
1.1 SKILLS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
In the previous section we have discussed briefly the way technology influenced
our lives. With the changes taking place in the employment market, it necessitates
us to be flexible and adaptable to fit in the different roles of career fields. In view of
that, education institutions are rapidly innovating and designing their learning
spaces and content in the digital era. Instructors have also changed their
instructional deliveries with the support of the educational technologies.
In the past, teachers presented information and learners absorbed the information
as part of their knowledge. Today, these assumptions are wrong as learners will
not be viable employees in the digital era. So, what should todayÊs learners do?
Learners must take active role in creating their knowledge and learning
experiences. Technology has influenced the way we learn, acquire information,
think and interconnect. As a learner, you are expected to have competencies of
how to acquire, integrate and use the new knowledge for solving problems and
able to apply the new knowledge in different context. In a nutshell, you must have
21st century learning skills.
What are the 21st century learning skills? 21st century skills comprise skills, abilities
and qualities to be successful in 21st century society and workplaces. Many of these
skills are also associated with higher order thinking skills, which is based on
analytic reasoning, complex problem solving and teamwork. These skills are useful
in mastering knowledge in your academic content.
TOPIC 1 BEING 21ST CENTURY LEARNER ⊳ 3
There are several frameworks discussing 21st century skills, but for the purpose of
this chapter, we will focus on four dominant categories of 21st century skills
which is partially adapted from “Framework for 21st Century Learning”
(http://www.p21.org/our-work/p21-framework). These categories are Learning
and Innovation
Innovation,
nnovation Digital Literacy
Literacy,
iteracy Career and Life Skills
Skills and Metacognitive
etacognitive Skills as
shown in Figure 1.1. Metacognitive skills were not present in the said framework
but it is included in our discussion because it is important for the learners to be
mindfully thinking of their own thinking process. And, this skill can be acquired
through reflective thinking exercises and practicing self-directed learning
strategies. Each of these caegories has various types of skills as listed in Table 1.1.
Learning & Digital

Innovation Literacy
21st
Century
Skills
Metacognitive Career & Life
Skills Skills
1.1 Dominant Categories of 21st Century Learning Skills

Figure 1.1:
1.1 21st Century Skills

Table 1.1:
Category of Skills Type of Skills
 Critical thinking skills – ability to analyse and

Learning and Innovation solve problems.
 Creative skills ability to innovate solutions.
Skills  Collaborative skills - ability to work as a team for
achieving a common goal.
 Communication skills – ability to comprehend
through reading and express ideas logically
through writing and verbally.
 Technology literacy
Digital literacy  Information literacy
 Media literacy
 Numeracy skills - able to reason with numbers and

Career and Life Skills comprehend fundamental arithmetic or other
mathematical concepts and to apply these concepts
in a range of contexts to solve problems.
 Global awareness - a conceptual understanding
based upon an applicable knowledge of global and
cultural perspectives such as but is not limited to,
environmental, social, cultural, political, and
economic relations.
 Financial literacy - possession of the set of skills
and knowledge that allows an individual to make
informed and effective decisions with all of their
financial resources.
 Health literacy - the ability to obtain, understand,
and use healthcare information in order to make
appropriate health decisions and follow
instructions for treatment.
 Environmental literacy – understanding of
the environment and the conditions affecting it to
make responsible decisions that consider one’s
relationships to natural systems, particularly as
relates to air, climate, land, food, energy, water
and ecosystems.
 Social skills – ability to interact and communicate
message both verbally and non-verbally, through
gestures, body language and our personal

appearance.
 Visual literacy - ability to interpret, negotiate, and
make meaning from information presented in the
form of an image, and interpretation of a written
text.
 Reflective thinking skills - ability to know what
Metacognitive Skills has been learned and know what needs to be
learned.
 Self-directed learning skills - ability to know which
strategy to be used to acquire knowledge.
A quick search on the Internet on 21st century skills often shows greater
importance given on the four core competencies, popularly known as 4Cs of 21st
century skills which include, critical thinking, creativity, collaboration and
communication. A simple understanding of these skills are:
(a) Critical thinking: you are able to solve problems.
(b) Creativity: you are able to innovate ingeniously or think outside the box.
(c) Collaboration: you are able to work together and interact to achieve a
common goal.
(d) Communication: you are able to convey ideas in the best manner.
Basically, these skills are intended to help you keep up with the 21st century pace.
Each skill is unique in how it helps you, but they all are essential in the age of the
Internet. You will be using most of these skills while doing the learning activities of
your academic courses. However in reality, there is no one skill that could be
applied in solo. You will soon notice that in order to solve a particular problem,
you will be applying a conglomeration of multiple sets of skills. In addition, certain
sets of skills will help you develop other skills as well. We will discuss more on
how you can develop and apply some of these skills in the coming chapters of this
course. It will be meaningless to be informed about the skills and not applying it in
your learning.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Explain how each of the 21st century skills will benefit you in today’s
calssroom.
1.2 ROLES OF THE 21ST CENTURY LEARNER
It is clear that due to the demands of technology and societal changes, 21st
century classroom has to be different than in 20th century. Your instructors or
teachers are facilitators of your learning and will not be the sole knowledge
source. This means that your role as learner will be different in this century. You
are required to develop skills that you may need at present or in future. In
addition, the right skills will help you to carry out your roles effectively as a 21st
century learner. LetÊs find out how many of the following roles do you fit in:
(a) Curius to Find Out

Do you have the curious attitude? Sometimes you need to discover about
things beyond your areas of expertise. With a vast amount of information
available in the Internet, there is no excuse for not quenching your thirst for
knowledge.
(b) Pursue Learning

Do you pursue understanding diligently? A few things can be easily
understood but often you will need to make effort and willing to put in
time to search for information, read, analyse and evaluate information that
you have found. In the process, you will discuss with others and think
about the matter. You will need to be persistent and do not give up easily.
(c) Create Knowledge

Do you make your own knowledge? You will use your knowledge to
construct and build to create new additions. In the process you will build a
better knowledge structure to connect in meaningful ways with what you
already know.
(d) Ask Question

Do always ask questions? You should never be satisfied with how much
you know about anything. You are expected to seek for answers for
questions with no answers, without good answers or with partial answers.
This also helps to monitor your understanding.
(e) Share Information

Do you share what you have learned? You should be willing to share
knowledge with others through writing or talking about it. Knowledge that
is not passed on will be lost. You are expected to explain, translate,
paraphrase and give examples of what you know in ways that makes sense
to other learners.
(f) Be Independent
Do you learn autonomously? You are totally responsible for your decisions
concerned on your learning process. As an independent learner, you should
be aware of what strategies work, how to get resources and assistance in
your learning.
(g) Get Ahead in Self-

Self-Management
Do you feel stressful in completing your task? There are times you will feel
down, stress and overwhelmed with work. It is vital to be able to make
decisions on how to manage your activities and yourself. You need to set
goals, creating a plan in achieving the goals, manage your time smartly,
effectively manage your stress, motivate yourself and develop learning
strategies that will be useful.
(h) Passionate to Learn

Are you afraid of failing? Nobody wants to fail in exams but learning is not
all about scoring marks. The learning process can sometimes be boring and
is not fun especially when repeating learning tasks. However, the love for
learning will push you to continue seeking for information and putting the
pieces together. When you finally understand the content, it is one special
thrill. No doubt there will be failures in the process but ultimately it will be
beneficial.
(i) Concern to Humankind

Are you aware of the political, economical and global environmental
issues? While knowledge in your courses are important but it is even more
important to be concern about your surrounding and your way of living in
the environment. We should be sensitive towards human induced climate
change and itÊs effect on air, water, soil, plants and animals, etc. Our
lifestyle should attempt to reduce our use of earthÊs natural resources. This
can be achieve by altering our way of transportation, enery consumption
and diet. And, while our earth environment is mutually cared for , we
should also have awareness of political and economical globalisation
through creating shared future that appreciates common values for
humankind.
These roles but defintely not limited will equip you to obtain educational benefits
in the 21st century.You are most likely to be involved with more than one of these
roles at any point of time during your learning. LetÊs reflect on the possible roles
you have taken while reading this chapter. Can you identify it?
ACTIVITY 1.2
What are the roles a 21st century learner should be practicing? Can you
think of other roles other than that is listed above?
Take a little break
1.3 21ST CENTURY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
Past teaching environments such as lecture are not effective anymore in meeting
the above roles. We need 21st century learning environment that will help todayÊs
learners to learn and improve themselves. What is a 21st century learning
environment? The term learning environment suggests place and space such as a
school, a classroom, virtual, online learning management system, etc. Learning
environments will inspire us to attain the knowledge and skills that are
demanded by the 21st century.
Traditionally, we were expected to memorise our subjects to score well in exams.

But, studies have shown that these methods are ineffective for mining learnersÊ
creativity, indulging into critical thinking or engaging interactions. It will not be
useful in the world we live today. What we need is, learners experiencing the
environment in which they will enter as modern day workers. They need to
develop their problem solving, thinking skills, creativity and innovation skills,
effective communication skills and collaborative skills, while being proficient in
digital literacy and other skills that they will need in the 21st century workforce.
Our society is a mixture of many different beliefs and cultures. Globalisation has
opened up the world and allowed us to connect in new ways. We view the world
and create our beliefs through our life experiences. Learning is about discovery,
not memorising facts.
For these reasons, our learning environment should provide the platform that is
more centred on learners. An environment that excites learners to explore,
understand, experiment, develop and express their knowledge and beliefs.
As such, your instructor will be facilitating your learning by creating effective
learning environment. Often, Internet and educational technological tools will be
used in the teaching and learning. The 21st century learning environment will:
(a) Help to create learning practices in achieving learning outcomes through 21st
century skills.
(b) Facilitate application of 21st century skills into classroom or online learning.
(c) Integrate technology tools and media rich resources for teaching
instructions, learning activities and assessment.
(d) Support learning communities that enable you to collaborate with your
peers and teacher.
(e) Enable you to learn in a real world context through projects or case studies.
(f) Measure accomplishment and not time spent on the topic.
(g) Provide flexibility on how we acquire knowledge.
Essentially, the facilities and infrastructures and other resources and

technological tools should also be in place for supporting the desired learning
environment. For instance, the classroom has to have good Internet connectivity
and both teachers and learners need to have the software and hardware as well
as the resources that are required for the learning activities.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Have you experienced 21st century learning environment? Discuss how it

has benefitted you.
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF 21ST CENTURY

LEARNER
How do you learn? How do you think deeply about your learning? Is your
learning enduring and continuous? These are some questions that will make you
think of the qualities or characteristics that you need to own and carry out to be
an effective learner.
You may wonder why it is important to know about the kind of actions that you
will be taking for learning. Well, as briefly introduced to you earlier in this topic,
this course will create awareness of the kind of skills that are essential for your
academic and lifelong success in the 21st century. Table 1.2 lists some of the key
characteristics of 21st century learner. To make learning happen, you will take
responsibility and ownership of your learning while harnessing your capabilities
academicaly, socially and emotionally.
Do you consider yourself as the 21st century learner? Let’s find out by ticking on
some of the key characteristics of 21st century learner in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: 21 Characteristics of 21st Century Learner
My actions for learning ⁄ Tick if itÊs true
1 I analyse facts to make decision.

2. I am imaginative while seeking for answers.
3. I can convey information clearly from one person to another.
4. I work together in team projects.

5. I am savvy with technology.
6. I know where to find the information.
7. I can easily use social media apps.
8. I have respect for otherÊs culture.
9. I see value in protecting environment.
10. I ensure my well-being is taken care.

11. I keep track of my financial expense.
12. I am not afraid of completing difficult task.
13. I see challenges as way of keeping my interest.
14. I make sure the task is completed successfully despite of

difficulties.
15. I create my own ideas based on the new ideas from other
sources.
16. I create and share information digitally.
17. I like to check my understanding by asking questions.
18. I will use the available resources to accomplish my learning

on my own.
19. I can cope with stress using effective strategies.
20. I think about what I really need to learn before I begin a task.
21. I am aware of what strategies I use when I study.

These 21 characteristics of 21st century learner, certainly not limited to, will
somewhat make you be aware of your attitude towards learning. Be mindful of
your strengths and weaknesses and take appropriate actions to maximise your
learning. In addition, distance learners are encouraged to carry out these
characteristics, as it will definitely be vital for their success.
SELF CHECK 1.1
(a) Explain the various types of skills a 21st century learner is expected
to have.
(b) What are the roles of 21st century learners?
(c) Describe the 21st century learning environment by relating it to
your learning activities.
(d) What characterisitics should you have to be considered as 21st
century learner?
• There are four dominant categories of 21st century skills, which include (i)
Learning Skills and Innovation Skills, (ii) Digital Literacy, (iii) Career and
Life Skills, and (iv) Metacognitive Skills.
• As the 21st century learner you need to understand and fulfill your roles in
order to obtain educational benefits. However, you can only effectively play
your roles by applying the unique 21st century learning skills.
• 21st century learning environment are essential to prepare learners in

developing their 21st century learning skills. Hence, preparing them for the
21st century workforce.
• In order to be an effective 21st century learner, you need to be able to

identify and relate the characteristics of 21st century learner to yourself.
21st century learning

Critical Thinking
Creativity
Collaboration
Communication
Cabral, L. (2006). Twenty-first century skills for students: Hands-on learning after
school builds school and life success. New Directions for Youth Development,
2006(110), 155-161.
Framework for 21st Century (n.d). Retrieved from http://www.p21.org/our-

work/p21-framework
Topic Study Skills:
Essay and
2 Exams
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. apply essay writing skills; and
2. apply the tips and strategies of studying for examinations.
INTRODUCTION
As a 21st century learner, you are bound to get coursework, assignments, and
exams. Do you know why they are given to you? Well, because it will allow your
instructors know whether you have mastered or not the intended learning
outcomes of the course. Usually, your assignments and exams are marked and
graded.
There are many forms of assessments besides assignments and exams. Most
courses will require you to write an essay for assignment. Writing essays and
sitting for exams can be challenging for many learners. Some learners have
difficulties in completing a good essay. They are not sure what is to be written in
the essay and they are not aware of the importance of including references in the
essay. Besides that, there are times, when some learners think that they have
studied well but still perform poorly in exams. Despite of doing the assessments
every semester, learners still do feel the anxiety in facing it.
In view of that, this chapter aims to provide tips and strategies that will help you
do better in essay writing and exams. You will be guided on how you can apply
your critical thinking, creative, communication and collaborative skills in
TOPIC 2 STUDY SKILLS: ESSAY AND EXAMS ⊳ 15
completing the assignment and preparing for the exams. In the following sections
of this chapter, we will discuss the strategies of writing essay and preparing for
exams.
2.1 ESSAY WRITING SKILLS
Majority of your courses may require you to write essays for assignment. Writing
the essays can be dreaded by many learners. Do you feel the same? LetÊs change
this mind set through these tips and skills.
2.1.1 Steps for Writing Essay

Learning to write an essay is a skill that will definitely be useful in 21st century.
You will use the skill throughout your life in one way or another. These simple
steps will systematically guide you to write an essay in an organised manner:
Step 1: Select the topic

Choose the topic that you are comfortable with, one that you know
something about. Sometimes this step is not relevant when the instructor
assigns the topic to you.
Step 2: Analyse the topic

Ask yourself what are the main issues and supporting issues. Understand
what each terms means by referring to the dictionary or the Internet. Find
out what the topic requires you to do. Does it ask you to explain, elaborate,
discuss, analyse, etc.?
Step 3: Prepare an outline

The basic outline of your essay should consist of Introduction, Main
Content, Conclusion and References. Briefly write the key points under each
of these headings in the outline. This will give you a guide of what should
be written under each of this section.. This outline contains all the
information you need to write your essay.
16 TOPIC 2 STUDY SKILLS: ESSAY AND EXAMS
Step 4: Search for Information

Use the digital library or the Internet to search for information related to your
essay topic. Evaluate and select information that is relevant to the main
issues and supporting issues. Make sure you have enough information that
covers the topic well.
Step 5: Read and make notes from the information

Read and make notes of the information. Make sure the notes cover all
aspects of main issues and supporting issues.
Step 6: Write the essay

Use simple and clear language. A good essay should have a stand on the
issues related to the topic, argue out the reasons and provide reliable
evidence to support your arguments. The arguments must be logically
explained. Essay structure or format should have headings and sub-
headings to show relationship and connectivity of issues. The ideas and
arguments should flow smoothly from one paragraph to another. Provide
in-text citations whenever you include another author’s idea.
Step 7: Review and edit

After writing the essay, you need to review and improvise it accordingly.
You may want to check on these questions: Are all the main issue and
supporting issues dealt? Is the content relevant and sufficient? Is there
adequate supporting evidence to uphold your views and ideas? Do the
paragraphs connect well? Are the quotations and paraphrasing
appropriately conveying the ideas? Are the in-text citation properly cited?
Are all the references cited in the essay properly recorded in the reference
list? Are the illustrations properly labeled? Is the language clear? Is the
paper free of spelling and grammar errors? Does the essay make sense?
How to plan the essay writing?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
FgsHJdFoXvY&feature=youtu.be
ACTIVITY 2.1
What are the steps involved in writing an essay?
2.1.2 Structure of an Essay

An essay should have these four sections: (i) Introduction,
Introduction (ii) Main Content,
Content (iii)
Conclusion and (iv) References.
References Every section is important and all sections
should be written in an essay. We will now look into what should be written
under each section.
(a) Introduction
Your essay should start with an Introduction. Under Introduction paragraph,
you should provide an overview or a brief background on the topic of the
essay. Then, state the purpose of the essay and also the scope. The purpose
will provide the reader the objective of your essay. And, the scope will briefly
tell the reader what you have written in the Main Content. An example of an
Introduction is shown in Figure 2.1.
High Cost of Living

Heading for
introduction
Introduction
Today, rising cost of living has become a great challenge in

peoples’ everyday life. The high cost living is creating several
Overview /
social and economic problems lowering the people's standard
brief
of living. When the value of money buys lesser goods than background
before and there is increase of prices at all levels it is known as
‘inflation’. Many people will feel the rising cost of living with
increase of transportation fare, food prices and utility bill
prices. This can causes a lot of social problems. Purpose of
the essay
As such, this papers aims to discuss the possible social issues
that can emerged due to high cost of living. In the following Scope of
section, we discuss three major issues and ways to reduce the essay
these issues.
Figure 2.1:
2.1 Sample for Introduction
How to write an "Introduction" for

the essay?
kgV_zjnWpBU&feature=youtu.be
(b) Main Content

The Main Content or the Body Paragraph of the essay should contain your
ideas, opinions, arguments and facts, explained systematically and logically.
Each idea, point, issue or argument should flow smoothly from one to
another. Each paragraph should contain only one main point or main idea,
with supporting details or information and given a sub-title.
The paragraphs should be interconnected throughout the Main Content.

Make sure that when the issue is raised in one paragraph, it is carefully and
systematically followed through in the following paragraphs before raising
another issue. Use numbering system for each issue. This will show
relationship or interconnectivity between issues in more organised manner.
An example of Main Content is shown in Figure 2.2.
The writing process of the essay will involve many of the 21st century skills
that you will learn in the coming chapters. You will be required to think
critically on issues that you would like to address in the essay. Most likely,
you will need to search for information and review the content critically. You
will also need creative elements in the presentation, perhaps, through writing
style and graphics. The way the message is conveyed will involve
communication skills.
Social and Economical Issues Heading for

main content
Studies have shown that there will be several social and
economical issues that can emerge due to disproportional between
household income and expenses. Sub-heading
for key points
(a) Reduced Competitiveness

Discussion
Excessive inflation can reduce competitiveness because it will lead on issue 1.
employees requesting higher wages. It will also compel civil
servants requesting increases in their salaries and hence,
In-text
proliferating government’s recurrent expenditure without
citation
increasing production (Mangion, 2017).
According to Jack (2016), productivity can be increased by …
Solution
(b) High Utility for issue 1.
Higher inflation is also due to increase water and electricity tariffs
to rates ….
Discussion
on issue 2.
Figure 2.2: Sample for Main Content
How to write a “Body Paragraph” of

the essay?
YzhGYHxmsa0&feature=youtu.be
(c) Conclusion
The Conclusion should be the summary of your essay. Do not write new
ideas under Conclusion. A good conclusion should provide the reader with a
sense of completion or closure of the essay topic. The conclusion must show
progress in the development of the topic from the introduction and through
the main content. An example of a Conclusion is shown in Figure 2.3.
Heading for
conclusion
Conclusion
Summary on all
High cost of living can result numerous social issues and key points
economical issues such as low competitiveness in producing (issues &
goods and services, high ….. However, there are some possible solutions)
ways or measures can be taken to cope with the ever changing discussed in the
increase of living cost. Some of the suggested solutions were essay
….
In short, spending wisely and responsibly of one’s income can Concluding
help in financial stability and somewhat face the challenges of remarks or
the rising cost of living. your stand on
the issue
Figure 2.3: Sample for Conclusion
How to write a “Conclusion” of the

essay?
rgyeAeE3DGI&feature=youtu.be
(d) References
(i) The main reasons for referencing are:

i. To enable your essay reader to follow up the References and find
the sources.
ii. To demonstrate to your essay reader that you have read widely a
range of opinions by other authors.
iii. To enable your essay reader to check the accuracy of the
information you have given.
iv. To avoid accusations of plagiarism.
iv. To avoid losing marks. You will lose marks if you do not
acknowledge sources.
(ii) There are two components of Referencing:

i. In-text citation (Figure 2.4) – You need to include in-text citation
to acknowledge the parts that you cite from other sources
(information taken from other authors) in your essay.
ii. Reference list (Figure 2.5) – You need to write the list of all
sources cited in the text in your essay. The Reference list is written
at the end of your essay.
References that are cited in the text should also be written in the Reference list and
vice-versa. Both in-text citation and reference list should be written according to
APA (American Psychological Association) citation style. Besides APA citation
style, the other referencing styles are: MLA (Modern Language Association),
Oxford, Harvard and Chicago.
In-text
citation
Figure 2.4: Sample for APA In-text Citation Style

How to do In-Text Citation in APA

format?
qzKlb7E7ERc&feature=youtu.be
Figure 2.5:
2.5 Sample for Reference list in APA Style
SELF CHECK 2.1
(a) What information should be included under introduction of an

essay?
(b) Write an introduction for an essay with a topic of your choice.
2.1.3 Avoid Plagiarism

Do you know that if the idea in your essay comes from another author and you
did not cite it in the reference, it will mean you are plagiarsing the authorÊs idea?
Plagiarism means to represent the words, thoughts, ideas, arguments or facts of
another person as oneÊs own. In a lay man term, plagiarising is considered as
stealing another personÊs ideas. It is considered a serious offence and can be
heavily penalised and marks can be deducted.
In the Internet age, there are lots of information available in the Internet which
can be accessed easily and freely. Unfortunately, some learners misuse it and
copy other authorÊs writing in their essay. Copying another studentÊs essay is
also called plagiarism. Now that you know what plagiarism is, how can you
avoid it? Plagiarism can be avoided by:
(a) Paraphrasing
Re-writing the ideas using your own words and acknowledge the author
for the ideas.
(b) Using quotation

Copying the exact words but within quotations marks („⁄‰) and
acknowledge the author for the ideas. However, quotations should only be
used when you need to discuss the exact words in detail or it has been
phrased most effectively. Too much of quotations can be distracting and
you will not have your own voice in the essay.
(c) Acknowledging the author

Acknowledge the author whose ideas or work is cited in your essay by
writing both in-text reference and reference list according to APA Citation
Style.
Referencing - APA Method
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2.1.4 APA Referencing Style

You will probably be citing information from many different types of resources
such as books, e-books, journal articles, articles in the websites, newspaper
articles, etc. for your essay writing. Do you know how to cite these resources?
The referencing style for each of these resources is different. The references are
also written differently between one author and more than one; differently
between print and digital material. Figure 2.6 shows APA citation styles for
various resources. Do watch the videos on APA Referencing and In-text citation
styles.
You may use systems that automatically generate APA citation for your
references, such as:
 Citation Machine;
 bibMe; and
 Microsoft Word > References > Insert Citation> Bibliography.
Figure 2.6: Referencing and Citation Style: APA 6th

[Source: https://libguides.library.usyd.edu.au/c.php?g=508212&p=3476096]
APA Referencing Style Guide
https://aut.ac.nz.libguides.com/APA
6th/referencelist
ACTIVITY 2.2
Cite the APA referencing style for the following book.
Book Title : The 21st century learner
Book Author : Beverly Sheppard
Book Publisher : Institute of Museum and Library Services
Publication Year : 2001
2.1.5 Common Faults in Essay

It is not an easy task to write a proper essay. If learners think that they do not
need to put much thought and effort in writing their essays; well, that can
potentially lead them making numerous terrible mistakes. However, learners can
write good quality essays if they avoid the following mistakes:
(a) The essay is out of topic

Do not include things that are not relevant. Be focus on the topic.
(b) The essay content is too shallow

Write sufficient content that fully addressed the issue in the topic. Provide
examples, support your arguments with evidence. You will definitely
search and read more information to be able to write more
comprehensively.
(c) The Badly organised and lacked flow

The essay should have introduction, main content, conclusion and
references in the correct order. Under the main content, each point should
be written in a paragraph. Link your points from one paragraph to another.
All sections and sub sections should be given headings and sub-headings
accordingly.
(d) Poor fluency of language

Check spelling, punctuation and grammar, avoid these errors. The
sentences should use simple language and keep to the point.
(e) Poorly written Introduction

Make sure you provide overview of the topic and explain how you are
approaching the topic. Introduce the topic and put it in perspective.
(f) Poorly written Main Content

The main content should have all the issues/points written clearly with
examples and supporting evidence/information. Organise the points in
paragraphs so that it makes sense to the reader and there is flow of
thoughts. Include in-text citation to acknowledge another authorÊs ideas.
(g) Poorly written Conclusion

Make sure you conclude by summarising and providing the answers or
solutions to the issues in the essay.
(h) Lack of in-

in-text citations and references
references
Essay should include in-text citation and followed by citing it in references.
Not having citations in an essay constitutes plagiarism.
(i) Boring and Dull Essay

A good essay should be interesting. It should generate the curiosity of the
reader, keep the reader engrossed and make them want to keep reading the
essay.
SELF CHECK 2.2

(a) How to avoid plagiarism?
(b) Which of the following is a fault in an essay?
A. Too many in text citations in the essay.
B. Provide a new point in the conclusion.
C. Use quotations sparingly in the essay.
Take a little break
2.2 STRATEGIES FOR EXAMS

So now that you have completed your assignment, it is time to get ready for
exams. Definitely, it is not going to be any easier than doing assignments, but
some good strategies will help you to excel in exams.
2.2.1 Preparing for Exams

In preparing yourself for examinations, you should have good set of notes, know
how to memorise the facts, and have a good study plan. Do not do last minute
revision. Always have a good rest before sitting for exams, your well-being is
important. Do remember to bring enough stationary and your ID or other
necessary documents that are needed into the examination hall.
2.2.2 Memorising for Exams

To do well in exams, you must be able to understand and remembering facts.
There are several strategies for improving your memory. Here are some of the
useful methods:
(a) SQ3R Reading Technique

SQ3R reading method is an active and systematic way to read academic
material analytically and critically.
In SQ3R, you will do the following:

S = Survey – You need to get an overview of the chapter by surveying the
content
Q = Question – Ask yourself questions on what you want to know from the
text
R = Read – You read the text analytically and critically to look for the
answers to your questions that you have asked.
R = Recite – You recall your understanding by reciting (aloud) of what you
have read. This is done for every sub-section of the main chapter.
R = Review – You review or check your own understanding of the whole
chapter by consolidating and integrating information of all parts of the sub-
sections.
(b) Mnemonics
A mnemonics is a device such as formula, rhyme or acronym to help you
remember facts or ideas. For example, the mnemonic of the rainbowÊs seven
colours (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet) could be written
as: Read Out Your Good Book In Verse.
(c) Vivid association

It is interesting how our mind relates things with our past events, like life
experiences, stories or images. Try to pair up the course facts or ideas with
story, music, images or anything you like.
(d) Visual Memory

We will remember better if the information is shown in mind map,
diagramme, tables, pictures, cartoons, graphs, drawings, etc.
(e) Say it loud

The act of reading text aloud is more effective way to remember facts than
reading it silently or just hearing it loud. Besides that, you can have group
discussion with your peers. Another good way to improve your memory is
to teach another person.
(f) Practice answering questions

Your revision process is not complete without applying and using the
knowledge that you have learnt. One of the best ways is by practicing
questions.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Explains five ways of memorising facts that are effective for you.
2.2.3 Types of Exam Questions

Examination papers contain different formats and types of questions. Before you
start studying for exams you must be familiar with the exam paper format and
what type of questions you will be answering.
The exam paper format includes parts in the paper and number of questions to
be answered under each part. For example, a particular courseÊs exam paper may
contain 3 parts: Part A (Answer all questions), Part B (There are 5 questions,
answer only 3 questions) and Part C (There are 2 questions, answer only 1
question). Each part will have its own instructions.
There are several types of questions which can be categorised into (a) Objective
Questions and (b) Subjective Questions as shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1:
2.1 Objective and Subjective Questions
Objective Questions Subjective Questions
True-False questions Short Answer Questions
Multiple Choice Questions Essay Type of Questions
Fill in the Blanks
Some exam papers may have a combination of different types of questions. For
example, Part A contains short answer questions and Part B contains essay type
questions.
How will you know what is your course format and what type of questions will
be asked? Check the course information on assessment available in myInspire or
ask your tutor.
The common types of questions are Short Answer Question, Essay Type
Question and Multiple-Choice Question. Both short answer and essay question
are referred as subjective questions and multiple-choice question is classified as
objective question.
(a) Short Answer

Answer Questions
Short answer question requires a short answer. It can be between a few
words and a paragraph. The amount of marks allocated gives an indication
of how much you should write.
How to study for short answer question?

 You should concentrate on what types of questions could be asked.
Usually, the questions will focus on names, facts, terminologies,
concepts and theories, similarities and differences, and examples for
all these information.
When answering short questions:

 Plan your answers by making notes of what will be written.
 Keep the answer short and specific.
 Mark the question that you are not sure and re-visit the question later.
 Answer all questions.
(b) Essay Type Questions

Essay type questions require an answer that is structured in the same way
as an essay. Your answer can be anything from a few paragraphs to a few
pages depending on the requirement of the question and marks allocated
for it.
How to study for short answer question?
 You should look for possible questions that could be asked for each
chapter. It will be related to the learning outcomes of the chapter.
 Identify the important concepts in every chapter.
 Make notes of these important concepts that will answer any of these
question instructions: explain, describe, discuss, compare, analyse, etc.
Basically, it will help you plan an answer for a possible question in the
exams.
When answering essay type question:

 Read and analyse the question carefully. Make sure you understand
the requirement of the question.
 Plan your answer by jotting down key points, perhaps by using mind
map. Write a few key words under each point.
 Write out the answer in the exam answer sheet. Use a new paragraph
for each main point.
 Use numbering system for sub-points for better organised answer.
 For each point include examples to provide clarity on your
explanation.
 It is a good practice to leave a few lines in between each paragraph, as
you may want to add more information later.
 If you run out of time, at least write down your key points so that you
may get a few marks rather than leaving it blank.
 Do not write in the margins of the exam answer sheets.
 Write neatly and proof read as you write. Examiner will not be able to
give marks if he/she cannot read your handwriting.
(c) Multiple-
Multiple-Choice Question
Question
Multiple-choice question consists of a question (stem), and a number of
possible answers (options). Usually, each question will have 3 or 4 options.
You have to choose one correct answer from these options.
How to study for multiple-choice question?

 You should focus on: names, facts, terminologies, concepts and
theories, similarities and differences.
When answering Multiple-Choice Question,
 Select the best answer. Read the question and all the options. All the
answers might be right, but there is only one best answer.
 Eliminate the wrong answer. Start by identifying the wrong answer
rather than looking for the right one.
 Look out for negatives. For example, „Which of these ⁄. is NOT ⁄.?‰
 Be caution of „All the Above‰ and „None of the Above‰. If you can
find one wrong answer, you can immediately eliminate the „All the
Above‰. If you think at least one of the answers is correct, then you
can eliminate „None of the Above‰.
 Mark the question that you are not sure and re-visit the question later.
 Answer all questions. Do not leave any question unanswered.
SELF CHECK 2.3
(a) What are the mistakes you should avoid in your essay writing?
(b) How will you prepare for the various types of examination
questions?
• It is important for 21st century learners master essay writing skills and
prepare well for exams.
• An essay includes Introduction, Main Content, Conclusion and References,

and there are 7 steps involved in writing an essay effectively.
• Plagiarism can be avoided through paraphrasing and quotation and

acknowledging the authors’ by citing them in references. Your essay should
cite references according to APA citation style.
• There are several strategies that can help you do well for examinations,
such as know how to prepare yourself, apply effective memorising methods
and be familiar with the exam formats and type of questions.
• As a learner you need to know how to study for and answer the 3 common
exam types of questions namely, short answer question, essay type
question and multiple-choice question.
American Psychological Association Parapharasing

(APA) Citation Style Plagiarism
Essay Type Quetion Quotation
Mutiple-Choice Question (MCQ) Short Answer Question
Objective Questions Subjective Questions
Exam Questions: Types, Characteristics, and Suggestions (n.d). Centre for Teaching
Excellence, University of Waterloo. Retrieved from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-
for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/developing-
assignments/exams/questions-types-characteristics-suggestions
Manoukian, J. & Chubb, J. (2013, November 20). Study Tips: Top 5 Memeorisation
Techniques. Retrieved from https://www.dal.ca/news/2013/11/20/study-tips--
top-5-memorization-techniques.html
Moore, S. (2010).The Ultimate Study Skills Handbook. England : McGraw-Hill

Education. (Available in EBSCOhost Database, OUM Digital Library)
Trinity College Dublin (n.d.). Essay Writing Strategies. Retrieved from

https://www.tcd.ie/Student_Counselling/student-
learning/assets/docs/old/Essay_Writing_Strategies.pdf
Topic Numeracy
Skills
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the term numeracy and innumeracy;
2. Discuss the importance of numeracy in todayÊs world;
3. Describe the fundamental aspects of numeracy;
4. Solve word problem using appropriate method in mathematics; and
5. Apply numeracy in everyday life.
INTRODUCTION
The topic on numeracy skills is introduced to adult learners with the aim to
provide quality numeracy instruction and help them achieve the mathematical
knowledge and skills that will enable them to adjust to this growing societal
demand. All facets of adult life including family, education, employment and
community has made numeracy as an essential skill for 21st century success.
Adults with good numeracy skills are able to function responsibly in everyday
life and contribute effectively to the society. The current high level of interest in
promoting STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) has also
raised awareness of the importance of developing numeracy skills in the
population. We begin this topic by introducing the definition of numeracy and
discuss the importance of numeracy in todayÊs world. Later, we will discuss the
relation between numeracy and mathematics. Learners will be introduced to the
term innumeracy and exposed to the fundamental aspects of numeracy;
mathematical reasoning, problem solving and decision making. Learners will be
TOPIC 3 NUMERACY SKILLS ⊳ 37
introduced to the two types of mathematical reasoning; deductive and inductive

reasoning, the PólyaÊs four stages of problem solving and the seven processes
involves in decision making. At the end of this topic, learners will be introduced
to numeracy continuum and everyday life practices. We will discuss some
examples of real life problems and learners should get some ideas and good
understanding on the numeracy in their daily life activities and hence able to
solve them using appropriate techniques or methods using numeracy skills.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
How numeracy complements literacy ?

Why literacy and numeracy matters in the 21st century learning?
3.1 NUMERACY
Numeracy is a way of connecting literary and scientific principles. It is also
known as „the mirror image of literacy‰. Numeracy is defined as the ability to
understand and work with numbers ("Numeracy | Definition of numeracy in
English by Oxford Dictionaries"). Numeracy is considered as fundamental
mathematical skills which include the ability to understand and analyse
numerical information, express ideas based on numerical information and to
make the right conclusions and decisions. Fundamental arithmetics including
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are considered as the basic
skills in numeracy. The important aspects numeracy also include numbers and
operations, computation, measurement, geometry, statistics and probability.
The concept of numeracy and its relation with mathematics is depicted in Figure
3.1. Numeracy does overlap significantly with a subsection of what is taught in
school, but it also includes the ability to use numbers in real life.
38 TOPIC 3 NUMERACY SKILLS
ACTIVITY 3.1
Figure 3.1:
3.1 Numeracy and Mathematics
[Source
Source:
Source https://www.thinknpc.org]
ACTIVITY 3.1
Do you know that numeracy skills are useful not only for children in the
school but also for your job application? Discuss with your friends the
importance of numeracy skills and list 5 occupations (excluding
mathematics teachers) that definitely need at least some basic numeracy
skills.
3.1.1 The Importance of Numeracy in Today’s World

Numeracy skills are essential in every aspect of our lives. We use these skills in
everyday activities at home, workplace, shopping mall, hospitals and many
more. When we go shopping or planning a holiday, we use numeracy. When we
are deciding on taking a bank loan or mortgage, we use numeracy. Many
decisions made in our life are habitually based on numerical information.
With good numeracy skills, it helps us to function responsibly in everyday life

and contribute effectively to the society. Numeracy skills increases our
opportunities within the domain of work and creates foundations which can be
built upon through lifelong learning. Numeracy is not only a subset of

mathematics; it is also a life skill which permeates and supports all areas of
learning.
Working with numbers trains our mind to think logically and critically. Basic
numeracy by fact, is a logically derived system. When you are learning to
manipulate basic numbers, it will give you an entry into the thought processes
that critical thinking are built upon. Numeracy allows people to make
comparisons in their everyday life. "Did unplugging appliances when you are
not using them can reduce your utility bill?
Numeracy helps you in understanding statistics such as data, charts,

infographics and risks. It is also help you in making decision in your life like
when to buy your first car, when to buy your first house, and how to buy them?
If more adults had better numeracy skills, they might not have been as willing to
buy something they could not afford.
3.1.2 Innumeracy
Innumeracy is defined as a lack of ability to understand and use numbers in
calculations ("INNUMERACY|meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary").
The effect of innumeracy has on peopleÊs lives is much less self evident than not
being able to illiteracy. Poor numeracy has a negative impact on many people
and their families. It affects peopleÊs confidence and self-esteem. Innumeracy has
been seen in those suffering from poverty, poor education experience and
childhood deprivation of numeracy. Patterns of innumeracy have been perceived
depending on age, gender and race. Older adults have been associated with
lower numeracy skills than younger adults. Improving the numeracy skills
among adults will directly contributes to growth in personal and social
confidence.
3.2 FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS IN NUMERACY
There are various aspects of numeracy such as numbers, handling

information, shape, space, measures, operations and calculations as shown
in Figure 3.2. A numerate people should be able to apply mathematical
reasoning, problem solving and decision making in the those aspects of
numeracy.
Figure 3.2:
3.2 Fundamental skills in numeracy
[Source
Source:
Source https://www.nationalnumeracy.org.uk/essentials-numeracy]
3.2.1 Mathematical Reasoning

Mathematical reasoning is a process of thinking numerical information in a
logical way in order to form solution or conclusion. It is required to help us to
develop mathematically and allow us to think critically. There are two types of
reasoning in numeracy; that is deductive and inductive reasoning. The process
involves in deductive and inductive reasoning is depicted in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3:
3.3 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Deductive
Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning and involves making a
logical argument, drawing conclusions, and applying generalizations to specific
situations. For example, „All OUMH1103 students pass the exam. Amy is
OUMH1103 students. Therefore, Amy pass the exam.‰ In deductive reasoning, if
something is true of a class of things in general, it is also true for all members of
that class.
Inductive reasoning is the opposite of the deductive reasoning. It involves

looking for patterns and making generalizations. For example, „Ten can be
divided by two. Ten is an even number. Therefore, all even numbers can be
divided by two.‰ Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate hypotheses and
theories whereby the deductive reasoning allows them to apply the theories to
specific situations.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. Alice enjoys ice skating, skiing and snowshoeing. Make a

conclusion by using inductive reasoning.
2. All first semester students in OUM must take Learning Skills
course and Zain is in the first semester. What can you deduce?
3.2.2 Problem Solving

Problem solving is a mathematical process in numeracy skills. It permit us to use
the skills in a wide variety of situations. According to George Polya (1945), there
are four stages of problem solving, the details of every stage are shown in Figure
3.4.
Understanding the problem

 State the problem using your own word
 Identify the objective of the problem
 Find the information from the problem
Devise a plan
 Identify the pattern
 Study the related problem to apply the same technique
 Create table/diagram/ equation
Carrying out the plan

 Apply strategies as defined in step 2
 Check each step of the plan as you proceed
 Record of your work
Looking back
 Check the results of the original problem
 Interpret the solution in terms if the original problem
 Determine whether there is another method of finding the solution
Figure 3.4:
3.4 PólyaÊs four stages of problem solving
3.2.2.1 Word Problems

Word problems often confuse learners since the background information on the
problem is presented as text rather than in a ready-to-solve mathematical
equation. It requires practice in translating verbal language into algebraic
language. If we are able to comprehend the mathematical concepts addressed,
then we can solve the problem. The two important steps in solving word
problems are as follow:
Step 1 : Translate the wording into a numeric equation
Step 2 : Solve the equation using appropriate
mathematical methods
Let us look at the following example of word problem.
Example 3.1
Afiq, Zila and Maria were picking strawberries. Afiq picked twice as much
strawberries than Zila and Maria picked 2 kg more than Zila. Together the three
of them picked 30 kg of strawberries. How many kilograms did each of them
pick?
Solution:
Step 1 : Translate the wording into a numeric equation
From the question, we extract the following information in words:
(i) Afiq picked twice as much strawberries than Zila
(ii) Maria picked 2 kg more than Zila
(iii) Three of them picked 30 kg of strawberries
We assume that x = number of strawberries (in kg) picked by Zila
We can translate the wording into numeric notation like the following table
Information In word Mathematical

expression
Afiq Afiq picked twice as much strawberries than Zila 2x
Zila x
Maria Maria picked 2 kg more than Zila x+2
Total Three of them picked 30 kg of strawberries 30
Step 2: Solve the equation using appropriate mathematical methods
To know how many strawberries picked by each of them, we need to find the
value of x first,
2x + x + (x+2) = 30
4x+2 = 30
4x = 28
x=7
Substitute x = 7 into the mathematical expression column.
Therefore, Afiq, Zila and Maria picked 14, 7, 9 kg of strawberries, respectively.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. Pak Karim discovers some old tiles in his kitchen. He starts to

make different rectangles with them. He wonders what are the
biggest and the smallest perimeters that he can find for rectangles
with areas equals to 100 cm2.
2. Emilia and Alicia are comparing their heights. Emilia is 1.5 metres
tall and Alicia is 15 centimetres taller than Emilia. What is Alicia’s
height in centimetre (cm)?
3.2.3 Decision Making

Decision making is the process of making choice by identifying problem, collect
information, identify and evaluate the alternative resolutions and select the best
solution. Applied mathematics fields like statistics, optimization, probability,
game theory, modeling and operations research applies decision making
technique entirely in their fields. Those fields are essential in strategic
management, health, economy, public policy and law.
There are seven steps involved in the decision making process, shown in Figure
3.5. Using a step-by-step decision making process can help you make more
deliberative, thoughful decisions by organising relevant information and
defining alternatives.
Figure 3.5:
3.5 Decision Making Process
ACTIVITY 3.2
You want to buy some cereals in the supermarket. A small box of cereals
has 500g and costs RM8.50. Whole larger box has 1,000g cereals and
costs RM15. Which box should you buy?
3.3 NUMERACY CONTINUUM AND EVERYDAY

LIFE PRACTICES
A numerate people should be able to apply numeracy skills across a variety of
real life aspects and able to function responsibly in everyday life and their career.
Recognising the place of mathematics in your environment is important as it
delivers the fundamental in exploring mathematics applications in real life.
3.3.1 Numbers and Operations

It is essential you can work adaptably with numbers and its operation in your
everyday life practices. Real numbers, natural numbers, integers, rational and
irrational numbers are the most basic types of numbers taught in our classroom
mathematics. The four basic operations which can be performed on all real
numbers are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Now let us consider this situation. You are organising a birthday party for your
son and ten people are invited to attend the party. All of your guests must get
enough of each food item. You need to calculate number of people and serve
equally by slicing a cake into the same portions. In this case, you are using
natural numbers and division to ensure all people get enough food. As an
another example, when you do budgeting for your household, numbers and
operations are very essential in adding and subtracting income and expenses.
Example 3.2
Encik Zamri is a beekeeper. Last year, he harvested 1,452 kilograms of raw

honey. This year, he bought some new hives and increased his honey harvest by
2,385 kilograms. How many kg of honey did Encik Zamri harvest this year?
Solution:
From the information, En Zamri increased his honey harvest by 2,385 kilograms
this year.
Thus, we use addition to find the answer.

Total kilograms of honey harvested this year = 1452 kg+ 2385 kg = 3837 kg.
Thus, En Zamri harvested 3837 kilograms of honey this year.
Example 3.3
Consider that there are 1500 participants in total attended an entrepreneur

workshop in OUM Kuala Lumpur and 875 of them are female participants. How
many of the participants are male?
Solution:
Use subtraction to find the answer.

Number of male participants = Total number of participants – number of female
participants
= 1500 – 875
= 625
Thus, there are 625 male participants attended the workshop.
Example 3.4
Zainal filled 50 plates with cookies. He put 5 cookies on each plate. How many
cookies did Zainal use?
Solution:
Use multiplication to find the answer.

Total number of cookies used = Number of plates x Number of cookies of each
plate
= 50 x 5
= 250
Thus, Zainal use 250 pieces of cookies.
Example 3.5
Pak Ali picked 350 guavas from his farm. He needs to divide the guavas into
bags to sell at the market. Pak Ali wants to put the same number of guava in 70
bags. How many guavas could Pak Ali put in each bag?
Solution:
Use division to solve the problem.

Total number of guavas = 350
Total number of bags = 70
Number of guavas in each bag = Total number of guavas = 350 = 5
Total number of bags 70
There are 5 guavas in each bag.

3.3.2 Patterns
Patterns and number patterns are the foundation in mathematics because it is
considered as the building block in understanding numbers. Recognising and
understanding number sequences helps us to generate algebraic formulae. With
patterns, you can learn to predict the future and discover new things and hence
better understand the world around us.
Consider the following sequence of numbers:

1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, . . .
It is recognised that each number has a difference of 3 in the sequence.

The pattern is continued by adding 3 to the last number each time.
Example 3.6
Consider that you are going to play paintball with your friends. It costs RM15 for
admission and an additional RM5 for every round of balls. This relationship can
be represented by the expression 5b + 20. Use this pattern rule to complete the
table of values below.
Number of Rounds Total Cost (in RM)

1 25
2
3
4
5
Solution:
Since the relationship can be represented by the expression 5b + 20, we verify
first the total cost for round 1 as follow:
Round 1 : 5 (1) + 20 = 25
Now using expression 5b + 20, we calculate the total cost for each round as
presented in the following table:
Number of Rounds Calculations Total Cost (in RM)

1 5(1) + 20 25
2 5(2) + 20 30
3 5(3) + 20 35
4 5(4) + 20 40
5 5(5) + 20 45
3.3.3 Fractions, Decimal Numbers and Percentages

A fraction is a pair of numbers that one on top of the other. The top number of a
fraction is numerator while the bottom number of a fraction is denominator.
Fractions are regularly used in our everyday life situations. Consider this
situation, you went to a supermarket to buy new shirt, you can see some deals
giving half price offers. In mathematical notation, the half can be written as 1/2; a
fraction. Another situation such as you are following recipes with fractional
amounts for example 3/4 cup of sugar.
Decimal numbers are important in money and measurement conversion. It is also

essential in understanding what proportion of a whole is represented. Decimals
are used when we required more precision values than the whole numbers can
provide. We use decimal numbers in our everyday life when we are dealing
with money, area, weight, length and many more.
What doest percent mean? The word percent comes from the phrase “per cent”.
Cent is a root that means one hundred, so “per cent” literally means per one
hundred. It is used in a various contexts in everyday ife. You can see special
deals in supermarket such as 50% discount or 25% mark down. The capability of
interchanging between a fraction, decimal number and percentage is a skill that
allows different ways in problem solving.
Example 3.7
Alif works as a salesman in a property firm. He is on a commission rate of 4%.

How much commission does he make on property sales worth RM300,000.00?
Solution:
Commision = 4% of RM 300,000.00
= _4 x RM 300,000.00
100
= RM12, 000.00
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. Imagine you bought four items costing RM36.99, RM22.99,
RM16.85 and RM 8.25 from an online shop and the postage is
RM10.90. Start rounding these prices to the nearest RM and
estimate for the total cost.
2. A group of 480 adults were asked to provide reasons why they

decided to enrol as OUM learners. Of the 480 learners, 240 learners
justified they want to enhance their career, 160 signed up with
OUM due to its flexibility and 80 enrolled because of the affordable
fees offered. Write a fraction of each group and find its percentage.
3.3.4 Interpreting Statistical Information

In everyday life, understanding data and statistics which presented in the news
and media on several topics, e.g: health, education, economics, politics,
environmental issues and many more. Interpreting the statistical information
including statistical graphs and infographics allows conclusion and decisions to
be made. Consider this situation, you bought a can of drink. Look at the food
labels that provide data informing consumers the content of the drink. You can
see the amount of calories, fats, sugar and protein. This information allows you
make informed choices about drink.
Example 3.8
The following infographic shows the population of Malaysia citizens by ethnic

group for the year 2017 and 2018.
Source:
Source https://www.dosm.gov.my
Calculate the population of Malaysia citizens in the year 2017 and 2018?
Comments on the difference.
Solution:
Based on the infographic,

The population of citizens for 2017 = Bumiputera + Chinese + Indian + Others
= 20.07 million + 6.67 million + 2.00 million
+ 0.29 million
= 28.74 million
The population of citizens for 2018 = Bumiputera + Chinese + Indian + Others

= 19.78 million + 6.69 million + 2.01 million
+ 0.29 million
= 28.77 million
The difference between 2018 and 2017 = 28.77 million – 28.74 million
= 0.03 million
= 30000
Thus, the population increased by 0.03 million in 2018 as compared to 2017.
3.3.5 Measurement
Measurement provides a standard for things and processes in everyday life. It is
essential in science and technical fields and to almost all everyday activities.
Calculations involving weight, height, area, volume, time are required in real life
contexts and enable us to work out accurate amounts. If you want to bake a cake,
you need to know how many grams of butter required in the recipe and
definitely you will use kitchen scale to measure it accurately. When you are
monitoring your body mass index (BMI), you need to measure your own body
weight and height using measurement tools accurately.
Example 3.9
Mary buys a reel of thread for sewing. There are 10 metres of thread on the reel.
She uses 210 centimetres. How much is left on the reel in centimetres?
Solution:
Use metric conversion 1metre =100 centimetres

Thus Total thread on the reel = 10 x 100 = 1000 centimetres.
Mary used 210 centimetres means we need to subtract 210 centimetres from 1000
centimetres.
Thus the thread left on the reel = 1000 – 210

= 790 centimetres
ACTIVITY 3.3
Waist circumference is an indicator of health risk associated with excess
body fat around the waist. LetÊs measure our waist circumference using
this simple steps:
1. Find the top of your hip bone and the bottom of your ribs
2. Place the tape measure midway between these points and wrap
it around your waist
3. Check your measurement
Your health is at risk if your waist size is
Men Over 94 cm (about 37 inches)
Women Over 80 cm (about 31.5 inches)
[Source
Source:
Source https://www.heartfoundation.org]
3.3.6 Multiples, Factors and Primes

Understanding multiples and factors help you to easily navigate number
relationships in the real world without relying on your calculator or phone to do
the work for you. You may apply multiples of 10, 20 and 50 when counting coins,
calculating area of a space and compute the compound interest on the principal
amount of a loan. You also can use factors in travelling by calculating how many
hours it would take to the destination.
A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 whose only factors are 1 and
itself. It is considered as the building blocks of the number system. In real life
application, it often used to encrypt information via communication networks by
mobile, to encode information that is sent wirelessly when making transactions
on our credit cards, debit cards, computers and many more.
Example 3.10
Florence the florist has 24 white, 42 red and 36 yellow roses. What is the greatest
number of identical bunches she can make that uses all of the flowers?
Solution:
We use greatest common factor to find the identical bunches.

The greatest common factor (GCF) is the greatest factor that divides two
numbers. To find the GCF of three numbers:
1. List the prime factors of each number

2. Multiply those factors that all numbers have in common. If there are no
common prime
factors, the GCF is 1.
Prime factorisation of 24: 2 x 2 x 2 x 3
Prime factorisation of 36: 2 x 2 x 3 x 3
Prime factorisation of 42: 2 x 3 x 7
The prime factors common to 24, 36 and 42 are 2 and 3.
We multiply the numbers: 2 x 3 = 6
The greatest number = 6
Thus, Florence can make 6 identical bunches by using all the flowers.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
1. Assume that the full marks of a mathematics test is 80 marks, and

learners need to achieve at least 45 per cent to pass. How many
marks guarantee a passing grade?
2. Alina’s weight is 65kg and her height is 146cm. Calculate her body
mass index (BMI) and state whether Alina’s BMI is in healthy
range or not? Given that the healthy range is in between
18.5kg/m2 - 24.9kg/m2.
3. If you travel 720km on vacation, you need to know how many

hours you must drive to plan your trip. At an average speed of
120km/h, how many hours would it take to arrive at your
destination?
4. The following figure shows the nutrition label of a packed food.

How would you help your friend with high blood pressure problem
based on this? How can your friend use this information to make
healthy and appropriate food choices?
5. Given the following simple substitution cipher of 26 letters:
plain alphabet : abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

cipher alphabet: phqgiumeaylnofdxjkrcvstzwb
Find the encryption of cipher text: epxxw nipkfafm

 Numeracy is defined as the ability to understand and work with numbers

 Innumeracy is defined as a lack of ability to understand and use numbers
in calculations.
 Being numerate allows us to function responsibly in everyday life and
contribute effectively to society.
 The fundamental aspects of numeracy are mathematical reasoning,
problem solving and decision making.
 Inductive reasoning involves looking for patterns and making
generalizations.
 Deductive reasoning involves making a logical argument, drawing
conclusions, and applying generalizations to specific situations.
 The four stages in PolyaÊs problem solving: understanding problem,
devise a plan, execute plan and look back
 There are seven main processes involves in decision making.
 Several daily life practices involves numbers and operations, patterns,
fraction and decimal numbers, measurement and multiple factors and
primes.
Data and statistics Multiples, factors and primes

Decision making Numbers and operation
Deductive reasoning Numeracy
Inductive reasoning Numerate
Innumeracy Patterns and relationship
Mathematical reasoning Problem solving
Measurement
Brooks, M; Pui (2010). Are individual differences in numeracy unique from

general mental ability? A closer look at a common measure of
numeracy. Individual Differences Research. 4. 8: 257–265.
Current Population Estimates, Malaysia, 2017-2018 (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.dosm.gov.my
INNUMERACY | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. (n.d.).

Retrieved from
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/innumeracy
National Numeracy. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.nationalnumeracy.org.uk/
Numeracy | definition of numeracy in Engish by Oxford Dictionaries. (n.d.).
Paulos, John Allen. Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences.

Hill and Wang. p. 4. ISBN 0-8090-7447-8.
Rachel, S & Graham, G. (2013). Teaching Adult Numeracy: Principles and

Practice. Maidenhead, Berkshire : McGraw-Hill Education
Retrieved from https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/numeracy
Statistics Canada. Building on our Competencies: Canadian Results of the

International Adult Literacy and Skills Survey. Statistics Canada. p. 209.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-27.
Succeed with maths – Part 1. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/succeed-
maths-part-1/content-section-overview
The Importance of Literacy and Numeracy Skills. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.kangan.edu.au/students/blog/importance-literacy-and-
numeracy-skills
The importance of numeracy and mathematics. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://education.gov.scot/parentzone/Documents/ImportanceNumMat
hs.pdf
Topic 4 Digital
Literacy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the meaning of digital literacy and how you may develop
your digital proficiency;
2. Explain the proficiencies that form the digital literacy; and
3. Adopt and apply all the best practices and expectations highlighted in
each of the proficiencies.
INTRODUCTION
Computing and communication technologies are now
b becoming an increasingly important part of our daily life.
This has created a digital world where all are available at
the touch of a screen. As a student, are you confident enough to deal
with digital technologies in your learning? As a student, how would
you enhance your proficiency to use the digital technologies in an
effective manner?
With the advancement of computing and communication technologies, things

around us continue to get faster, smarter, more connected, and increasingly
digital regardless of the functional fields (i.e. business, education, entertainment,
etc). The following video demonstrates on how technology has impacted our life
(scan the QR code below through your phone OR just click the hyperlink).
58 TOPIC 4 DIGITAL LITERACY
https://youtu.be/E_2pVrl87Nc
You need to have a good digital literacy or proficiency level in order to survive in
this digital world as depicted in the following video.
https://youtu.be/p2k3C-iB88w
 The term Âdigital literacyÊ was first introduced by Paul Gilster, way back
in 1997. Gilster has defined digital literary as „ability to understand and
use information in multiple formats from a wide range of sources when it
is presented via computers‰ (Gilster 1997).
 Recent definitions on „digital literacy‰ may have some variations as
compared to the above definition. For example, Cornell University
defines digital literacy as „the ability to find, evaluate, utilize, share, and
create content using information technologies and the Internet.‰
(https://digitalliteracy.cornell.edu/).
There are various definitions on digital literacy. Interestingly, all these

definitions put emphasis on computing and ICT (including Internet) components
which are the backbones of digital literacy. Digital literacy, by these definitions,
encompasses a wide range of skills. All these skills are important and necessary
to succeed in this digital world. Learners who lack the skills of digital literacy are
at a disadvantage as those who cannot write or read. You, as a student, have
already use digital technologies such as computers, tablets and smartphones. In
fact, many of you already know how to navigate and search information on the
web and share images on Facebook (which is a social media platform).
Remember that true digital literacy goes beyond these fundamental skills. It is
interesting to note that the term „literacy‰ is about development. Thus,
TOPIC 4 DIGITAL LITERACY ⊳ 59
understanding digital literacy from this perspective is important as proposed by

Beetham and SharpeÊs (2010) in their digital literacy development framework.
This framework describes digital literacy as a „development process from access
and functional skills to higher level capabilities and identity‰.
Figure 4.1: Digital Literacy Development Framework by Beetham and Sharpe (2010)
This framework has four levels in which the lower portion of the hierarchy must
be satisfied before individuals can attend to the higher up needs. Thus, as a
student, you must develop from the base of the pyramid to its peak. In fact, you
may treat this development model as Maslow's „Hierarchy of Needs‰.
Digital literacy are the capabilities required in order to be a responsible and an

effective participant in a digital society. However, digital literacy is not stand-
alone proficiency, but in fact it consists of multiple set of proficiencies as listed
below (Llida review, 2009).
 ICT Literacy (which include Computer Literacy)

 Information Literacy
 Technology-enhanced Learning (i.e. Digital Learning/E-Learning)
 Media Literacy
All of the above proficiencies will help you to reach the upper portion of the
digital literacy development framework (refer to Fig. 4.1).
SELF CHECK 4.1
1. State the meaning of Digital Literacy.
2. What are the components that form Digital Literacy?
3. Explain all the levels indicated in the digital literacy development

framework by Beetham and Sharpe (2010).
Now let us go through each of these proficiencies in more detail.
4.1 ICT LITERACY
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a familiar term to you. ICT

represents the collection of activities and technologies that fall into the IT and
communication technologies combined (ets.org). Hardware, software, data and
the people who use them collectively lead to ICTÊs system set-up. It typically
includes communications technology such as the Internet. But you must
remember that computers and ICT are not the same thing. Computers are the
hardware that is often part of an ICT system.
Many people have misconception that computer literacy and ICT

literacy are the same. Actually, computer literacy refers to a person's
ability to use information technology devices and software. On the other hand,
information literacy refers to a person's ability to find and critically evaluate
resources to find quality information. Thus, computer literacy is a subset of
ICT proficiency (Bruce, 1998).
Figure 4.2: The components of a computer. You may refer to

https://view.genial.ly/5c19d9c407be570d177a727e for the explanation on these components.
By the way, do you think that your knowledge on how a computer works is enough for
your ICT Literacy?
Now, let us focus on the definition of ICT Literacy.
 ICT literacy is using digital technology, communications tools, and/or

networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information in
order to function in a knowledge society (International ICT Literacy
Panel, 2007)
The need to acquire information through the application of technology and

advantageous use of information through the use of technology have given birth
to the concept of ICT literacy. The use of Internet and its applications such as e-
mail and the World Wide Web (WWW) especially for information retrieval and
dissemination is now considered to be components of ICT literacy (Oliver &
Towers, 2000). Accessing, managing, integrating, evaluating and creating
information in the context of technology are the FIVE main components that can
be seen in the ICT literacy definition above. These components are essential for
us to function effectively in a knowledge society (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: The FIVE components of ICT literacy in a knowledge society

Source:
Source Digital Transformation A Framework for ICT Literacy,
A Report of the International ICT Literacy Panel
These FIVE components represent a range of skills and knowledge. These

components are presented in a sequence with increasing cognitive complexity.
These FIVE components are explained below.
 Access - knowing about and knowing how to retrieve and/or collect

information.
 Manage - applying an existing organizational or classification scheme.
 Integrate - interpreting and representing information. This may involve
comparing, summarizing and contrasting.
 Evaluate - making judgments about the quality, usefulness, relevance, or
efficiency of information.
 Create - generating information by adapting, designing, applying,
inventing, or even authoring information.
The components shown in Figure 4.3 are the foundational tasks that will lead to
ICT literacy. The International ICT Literacy Panel has further expanded this
model to more fully represent the complexity of ICT literacy as shown in Figure
4.4. Figure 4.4 depicts the basic set of skills and knowledge that form the basis of
ICT literacy: ICT,
ICT cognitive and technical proficiencies.
proficiencies
Figure 4.4: The basic set of skills and knowledge that form the basis of ICT literacy
Source:
Source Digital Transformation A Framework for ICT Literacy,
A Report of the International ICT Literacy Panel
These THREE proficiencies are explained below.
 Cognitive Proficiency · the foundational skills required at school, at home,

and at work. Problem solving and numeracy are examples of cognitive
proficiency. As a student enrolled in higher education, you need to have a
good grasp of knowledge in your field of study which is also considered as
cognitive proficiency.
 Technical Proficiency · the foundational element of digital literacy. It

encompasses basic knowledge of hardware, networks, applications
software, and other components of computing. As a student, you need to
have at least the following computer proficiencies.
 Basic skills to operate a computer. You may refer to the link below for
more information on computer:
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Computers_for_Beginners/The_Basics
 Good proficiency on the following application software:
*Software Purpose Resource

Type
This a word processing https://en.wikibooks.org/
wiki/Computers_for_Begin
Microsoft program that users can type
ners/The_Basics
Word with. It allows users to type,
edit and save documents.
Microsoft This software is used to https://www.tutorialspoint
.com/powerpoint
PowerPoint create presentation files.
It allows users to organize, https://www.tutorialspoint
.com/excel/
Microsoft format and calculate data
Excel with formulas using a
spreadsheet system.
*You may use any other suitable applications besides the above. There are many
open source applications that can perform the above tasks. The choice is yours!
 ICT Proficiency · the application and integration of technical and

cognitive skills will lead to ICT proficiencies. ICT proficiencies can be
considered as enablers that allow individuals to maximize the capabilities
of technology.
ICT proficiencies will result in individual transformation and innovation. This

approach to ICT literacy includes both cognitive and technical proficiencies. For
example, in order to successfully perform an ICT task such as searching the
Internet to find and compare best management practices, an individual must
apply reading and critical skills (cognitive) and be able to access information on
the Internet using a search engine such as Google which include knowing on
how to operate the computer (technical). Cognitive and technical proficiencies
are considered as distinct domains although both are important components of
ICT literacy. Both proficiencies are independent domains in which the associated
knowledge and skills act together to influence ICT literacy.
We may expect that individuals with low cognitive proficiency but with high
technical proficiency would be able to perform particular technical tasks in which
they had been trained. However, they would probably not possess the kind of
generalizable skills or knowledge that could help them work with new
applications or perform novel tasks and they would most likely not be able to
acquire such skills independently.
On the other hand, people with high cognitive proficiency but low technical
proficiency would require technical training in order to develop ICT proficiency
but would be expected to do so and once engaged with ICT would be able to
acquire new skills and knowledge in a rather short time and independently.
Are you confused? DonÊt worry. Information about ICT literacy and the five
components of ICT literacy described earlier is given in the following video with
examples.
https://youtu.be/Io2A6dVsHVQ
SELF CHECK 4.2

1. State the definition of ICT Literacy.
2. What are the FIVE components of the ICT Literacy?
3. Differentiate the following: cognitive, technical and ICT
proficiencies. How these proficiencies are related to the ICT
literacy?
ACTIVITY 4.1
Some of the figures in this chapter have QR codes that enable you to
watch the videos or to view the external resources directly from your
phone. If you are yet to experience this, then please explore on how
you can use it through your phone. Remember that this will contribute
to your technical proficiency of the ICT Literacy.
4.2 INFORMATION LITERACY
„Information‰ is the result of data that has been given a meaning. New Oxford
American Dictionary defines information as "facts provided or learned about
something or someone". According to Li (2014):
 Information has a broad domain: the scope of information is very broad.

Information can have different meanings in different scopes; and
 Information exists in many different forms: information can be
represented as codes, colours, events, facts, graphs, images, letters, lights,
numbers, pictures, signs, signals, sounds, statistics, tables, texts, waves,
and so on.
Information is essential to our experience of the world. It also shapes our

personal beliefs and opinions. Information can be seen from different
perspectives, such as:
 Information as useful data;

 Information as subjective knowledge;
 Information as a resource; and
 Information as a commodity.
Why information literacy is important for you as a learner?

learner?
Consider this scenario: Doing research and additional reading are fundamental
in a universityÊs learning environment. One of the first challenges facing students
at the university is where to find the articles or books they need. The ability to do
an article or book search is an information literacy skill essential to surviving in
the academic activities. Of course, you already know the answer: make use of the
university library! But wait, there are a number of other questions that need
addressing here:
 Which tools should you use to discover whether the library has the
articles or books that you need?
 Do you know the methods that you can use to search for the articles?
 What would be your options if the library does not have the articles or
books that you are looking for?
If you have no clue or answers for the above questions, then you really have to
improve your information literacy level. Information Literacy is a type of fluency
that you need to master – not only by the student but everyone. The Presidential
Committee of the American Library Association (ALA; http://www.ala.org/)
pointed out that "Information Literacy is a survival skill in the Information Age"
(ALA, 1989). This shows the importance of information literacy in this 21st
century. Now let us see the definition of information literacy.
 ALA defines information literacy as "a set of abilities requiring

individuals to recognize when information is needed and have the ability
to locate,
locate evaluate,
evaluate and use effectively the needed information" (ALA,
1989).
Information literacy relates to information not just print, but also spoken word,
digital content, images and data. Information Literacy may be deployed in
everyday life without you knowing that you are making use of it – for instance,
by checking hotel reviews or travel review websites.
FIVE main action components of information literacy are identify,

identify find,
find evaluate,
evaluate
apply,
pply and acknowledge.
acknowledge The following video elaborates more on these
components with examples.
https://youtu.be/1ronp6Iue9w
Information literacy is much more than discovering, accessing, interpreting,

analysing, managing, creating, communicating, storing and sharing information.
In fact, it concerns the application of the competencies, attributes and confidence
that are needed to make the best use of information and to interpret it
thoughtfully. It has critical thinking and awareness, as well as an understanding
of both the ethical and political issues associated with using information.
Information literacy forms the basis for lifelong learning. It enables learners to
master content, become more self-directed, and takes greater control over their
own learning. Information literacy is also related to information technology
skills. Information technology skills enable an individual to use computers,
applications software, databases, and other technologies to achieve a wide
variety of academic, work-related, and personal goals. It is interesting to note
that information literate individuals tend to develop some technological skills.
This is because information literacy activities such as understanding, finding,
evaluating, and using information may be accomplished effectively through
information technology tools or applications. Information literacy initiates,
sustains, and extends lifelong learning through abilities which may use
technologies but are ultimately independent of them.
4.2.1 Information Literacy Framework

In this 21st century, your level of information literacy will need to increase.
Whether at work, in university, or at home, there is an ever growing demand for
you to do the following:
 Determine the extent of information needed;

 Evaluate critically the information and its sources;
 Access the needed information efficiently and effectively;
 Incorporate the selected type of information in your knowledge base;
 Use the information effectively in order to accomplish a specific task or
purpose; and
 Use information ethically and legally; and at the same time understand
the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use and access of
information.
Figure 4.5: The Internet through web is full of information. However, merely using the
Internet to access information does not make you an information literate.
In higher education, information literacy is not just about learning how to search
for an information using search engine or search information in a library
database. In fact, the Framework for Information Literacy for Higher
Education, created by the Association of College and Research Libraries in 2015,
listed SIX frames that act as gateway to understanding, thinking about and
practicing information literacy by students like you. These frames are the critical
gateway through which students like you must use to develop genuine expertise
within a knowledge domain or discipline. The SIX frames are listed below in
alphabetical order:
 Authority is constructed and contextual;

 Information creation as a process;
 Information has value;
 Research as inquiry;
 Scholarship as conversation; and
 Searching as strategic exploration.
Each of these concepts is explained clearly in the following video.

https://youtu.be/hbe6xBibOL4
Each frame has TWO sections, namely knowledge practices and dispositions.
Knowledge practices demonstrates on how learners can increase their
understanding of these information literacy concepts. On the other hand,
dispositions address the affective or valuing dimension of learning. The
following web resource highlights the knowledge practices and dispositions for
each of the frames.
https://view.genial.ly/5bd9148f621f1111d30d1c06
SELF CHECK 4.3

1. State the definition of Information Literacy.
2. Explain all the FIVE components of the Information Literacy.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Identify all the SIX frames of the Information Literacy Framework.

As a student, explain how would you implement all these frames
effectively in your studies by considering the knowledge practices and
dispositions of the frames.
We have covered the substantial concepts on

digital literacy, ICT literacy and information
literacy thus far. You deserve a break now
before proceeding to the next sections!!
4.3 TECHNOLOGY-ENHANCED LEARNING
Figure 4.6: Modern verses older classrooms. Observe the differences.
The 21st century education is all about application of technology in teaching and
learning. The influence of technology on teaching and learning is remarkable
(just observe around you!). The video below highlights how technology has
shaped teaching and learning.
https://youtu.be/nA1Aqp0sPQo
Nowadays, many lessons are delivered in digital format including the online
learning via Web/Internet. You, as a learner at Open University Malaysia that
uses technology heavily in teaching and learning, need to have confidence and
motivation in order to engage in online learning or online classroom.
 The term Technology-enhanced Learning (TEL) or also known as digital

learning is used to describe the application of information and
communication technologies in teaching and learning environments.
TEL is often used as a synonym for e-learning or digital learning. When TEL is
applied in web environment, then it becomes online learning. Technology
enhanced learning can provide learning opportunities that are unconstrained by
time or location, support wider and more relevant learning experiences and
provide opportunities for students to take greater control of their own learning.
Nowadays, TEL is delivered primarily as online learning. The use of technology
can add value to your learning by enabling:
 Connectivity to information and to others;

 Access to learning resources anytime, anywhere and anyhow;
 Greater choice over the time, place and pace of study;
 Alternative modes of study: distance, blended work-based, partially or
wholly campus-based;
 Knowledge-sharing and co-authoring across multiple locations;
 Opportunities for reflection and planning in personal learning spaces;
 More active learning by means of interactive technologies and
multimedia resources;
 Participation in communities of knowledge, inquiry and learning; and
 Development of skills for living and working in a digital age.
Figure 4.7 shows how some of the ever growing learning technologies that
can support the various aspects of learning, teaching and assessment via TEL.
As a student at Open University Malaysia (OUM), you will soon start using
or applying some of these tools.
Figure 4.7
4.7: Ever growing learning technologies that support the various aspects of
learning
Source:
ource https://tel4dt.wordpress.com/2011/11/02/what-is-tel
You must strive to become an effective digitally capable learner or e-learner at

OUM. This capability will enable you to the do the following at ease:
 Participate in digital learning such as weekly e-lessons;

 Use digital learning resources, such as video lectures and online quiz;
 Use digital media to take part in learning conversations with tutors
and your coursemates;
 Use digital tools to organise, plan and reflect on learning;
 Record learning events/outcomes and use them for self-analysis,
reflection and showcasing of achievement through e-portfolio or
learning blog;
 Use digital tools to take notes, review and revise learning;
 Undertake self-assessment;
 Submit your assignment though electronic submission via
myINSPIRE LMS;
 Participate in other forms of digital assessment; receive and respond
to such as live forum;
 Manage learning time and tasks; manage attention, engagement and
motivation to learn in digital settings;
 Work collaboratively with other learners by using digital technologies
where appropriate; and
 Share digital know-how and expertise with others.
Technology-
Technology-enhanced Learning is very much related to
ICT literacy.
literacy Do you know why? Refer to Figure 4.4 for the clue. You have
learnt that ICT literacy is influenced by cognitive, technical and ICT
proficiencies. You need to have a good technical proficiency such as using the
computer and the learning applications. You may use this technical
proficiency to enhance your cognitive proficiency. For example, you may use
the forum system to ask questions in order to clear your doubts or to gain
understanding on the subject matter. If you already have a good cognitive
proficiency on certain concepts of the subject matter, then you may help your
coursemates by engaging in the discussion. You may create „community of
inquiry‰ or „community of practice‰ in order to raise cognitive proficiency of
yours or your coursemates.
4.3.1 Tools Used in TEL Environment in the Context of

OUM
The following are the main tools used at OUM to support the online learning
component.
Learning Management System (LMS

(LMS)
MS)
A learning management system (LMS) is an application software for the
administration, documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of educational
courses. LMS can be considered as a container that holds all teaching and
learning tools together. At OUM, myINSPIRE LMS (Figure 4.8) which is an
enhanced version of the open source Moodle LMS is used to support your digital
learning experience. The general structure of myINSPIRE Âs course page is shown
in Figure 4.9.
Figure 4.8
4.8: Homepage of OUMÊs myINSPIRE LMS (inspire.oum.edu.my)
Figure 4.9: The structure of myINSPIRE Âs course page
The benefits provided by myINSPIRE LMS are highlighted in Figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10:
10: Benefits of using myINSPIRE
Detail manual on myINSPIRE is available on myINSPIREÊs main page (i.e.

dashboard)
Forum
Forum is an online discussion board where people can hold conversations in the
form of posted messages. A discussion forum is hierarchical or tree-like in
structure: a forum can contain a number of subforums, each of which may have
several topics. Within a forum's topic, each new discussion created or started is
called a thread, and can be replied to by many people. Forum is in the
asynchronous format (not real time), meaning it enables users to review and
participate in discussions with others at times convenient to them. OUMÊs
myINSPIRE has its own forum system that you can use to interact with your
coursemates and online tutor.
Figure 4.1
4.11: Forum system in OUMÊs myINSPIRE LMS
e-book
An electronic book (or e-book or eBook) is a book publication made available in
digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display
of computers or other electronic devices such as iPad or tablets. At OUM, e-book
is provided in the form of e-module through portable document format (pdf)
format and accessible from various devices. The e-module can be viewed online
or downloaded into your device for offline viewing and printing.
Figure 4.12:
4.12: e-module is accessible and downloadable from myINSPIRE LMS
Video Lectures
A video lecture is a recorded educational lecture posted in the course page of
myINSPIRE. Students may view the lecture online at a time which is convenient
for them.
Figure 4.13:
4.13: Video lecture delivered via OUMÊs myINSPIRE LMS
4.3.2 Mobile Learning
Figure 4.14
4.14: Mobile learning has now become an important element in higher education
The terms "M-Learning" and "Mobile Learning" are usually used to refer to
teaching and learning with mobile technologies. Lately it has gained prominence
in the teaching and learning at the higher education.
 O'Malley et al. (2003) have defined mobile learning as learning that take
place when the learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location, or when
the learner takes advantage of the learning opportunities offered by
mobile technologies.
The "mobile" in "mobile learning" has two meanings:
 Learner mobility:
mobility learners are able to engage in educational activities
without the constraints of having to do so in a tightly delimited physical
location. It requires nothing more than the motivation to do so wherever
the opportunity arises – from books, electronic resources, places and
people; and
 Mobile devices:
devices portable, lightweight devices that are sometimes small
enough to fit in a pocket or in the palm of one's hand. Typical examples
are mobile phones, smartphones (like the iPhone), palmtops, and
handheld computers like the iPad or PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants).
The following factors have contributed to the effectiveness of mobile learning:
 Convenience –all the required learning is at your fingertips;

 Duration
Duration – short and concise courses that allows for broader
participation;
 Focus – courses are designed based on learning outcomes or course
objectives;
 Microlearning – brief focused learning can be created easily; and
 Contents
Contents – contents are engaging and interactive.
Mobile Learning via myINSPIRE

Mobile learning via myINSPIRE is supported through mobile website using the
Internet browser in your mobile phone (such as Chrome, Mozilla) as shown in
figure below.
Figure 4.15
4.15: myINSPIRE viewed from the phoneÊs mobile browser
Alternatively, you may download myINSPIREÊs mobile app (powered by

Moodle) from Play Store (Android phones) or App Store (iPhones) and install it
in your phone. The link to install this app is provided in the myINSPIRE main
page.
Figure
Figure 4.16
4.16: myINSPIRE mobile app that supports both iOS and Android platforms
Mobile learning via myINSPIRE supports the „learner mobility‰ through the
learnersÊ mobile devices.
SELF CHECK 4.4
1. Explain the meaning of Technology-enhanced Learning (TEL).

2. Explain how TEL would enhance your learning.
3. What would be the effect on digital learning experience if a
learner has:
(i) Low level of technical and cognitive proficiencies
(ii) Low level of technical proficiency but high level of cognitive
proficiency
What initiatives can be taken by the learner to overcome the

problems/issues identified in the above scenarios.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Visit myINSPIRE LMS (inspire.oum.edu.my). Access one of the course

pages of your registered subject. Discuss how you would utilise
myINSPIRE to maximise your online learning.
4.4 MEDIA LITERACY
Figure 4.17
4.17: Media comes in various formats
Media Literacy is a 21st century approach to education. It provides a framework

to access, analyze, evaluate, create and participate with messages in a variety of
forms · from print to video to the Internet. The influence of media should not be
underestimated. We spend hours surfing the Internet, watching videos, listening
to the radio, and attending movies, and the mediaÊs effect becomes clear.
 Media Literacy is defined as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and

create media in a variety of forms (https://www.medialit.org/media-
literacy-definition-and-more);
 European Commission (2007) defined media literacy as the ability to

access the media, to understand and to critically evaluate different aspects
of the media and media contents and to create communications in a
variety of contexts (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0833&from=EN).
Regardless of the various definitions above, the goal of media literacy is to

increase awareness of many forms of media messages that we encounter in life.
It should help us recognize how the media filter our perceptions and beliefs,
shape the popular culture and influence personal choices. We need to provide
critical thinking skills and creative problem solving to become reasonable users
and information producers. Media literacy helps in:
 Promoting critical thinking;

 Understanding how media content affects culture and society;
 Identifying communication strategies;
 Recognition of the purpose of the creator of the media content;
 Recognition of misinformation and manipulation; and
 Creating and sharing your own media content.
There are FOUR important skills that help the viewer or reader to understand the
meaning of media literacy:
 Accessing media;
 Analyzing content;
 Being able to evaluate messages; and
 Being able to create media for self-expression and communication.
Media literacy typically lends itself to a deeper meaning and analysis of the
work, not necessarily just a direct understanding of fact represented in the work.
Media Literacy is the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and create media in a
variety of forms. Why media literacy is important? Watch the following video for
the answer.
https://youtu.be/ZaMzYDe0taY
Media for learning and in classroom

We learn by doing. There are rich variety of media that allows you to understand
and express ideas regardless of the field of your study. Movies, radio, Internet,
photography, print, and all the other communication forms are available to us
not only as sources of information and pleasure, but as tools that can be used to
produce creative and innovative educational solutions. For example, you may
use your handphone to record your own presentation and upload it into
myINSPIRE LMS for the online tutor to view and eventually for grading.
The classroom (be it physical or online) is a place where active production in all
media is a natural way to learn. It is a place where learners solve problems, not
only through reading and writing, but also through producing media contents
through digital means. The world that we live in requires new competence in old
communication skills, as well as in merging various media.
SELF CHECK 4.5
1. Explain the meaning of media literacy.
2. Discuss the importance of media literacy.
3. Nowadays, social media are flooded with “fake news”. What are the
reasons for this and how could we minimise this phenomena?
ACTIVITY 4.4
Record yourself giving talk of no more than 3 minutes in length about the
importance of “media literacy”. You may use any devices to record your
talk, namely phone, desktop or laptop. Share your video with your
coursemates in myINSPIRE.
ACTIVITY 4.5
You have learned all the proficiencies of digital literacy, namely ICT,
information, digital learning and media proficiencies. With all these
knowledge that you have gained, explain how you would achieve the
higher levels of digital literacy development framework (refer to Figure
4.1)?
• Computing and communication technologies are now becoming an

increasingly important part of our daily life.
• This has created a digital world where all are available at the touch of a
screen.
• The digital world has created the necessity for digital literacy.
• Digital literacy encompasses ICT literacy, information literacy, media
literacy and digital learning or technology-enhanced learning.
• Each of these proficiencies has its own requirements and expectations and
you as a learner must understand and adopt its best practices.
Digital Literacy Media Literacy

Digital Literacy Development Framework Mobile Learning
ICT Literacy Technology-enhanced
Information Literacy Learning
American Library Association. Presidential Committee on Information Literacy.

Final Report. (Chicago: American Library Association, 1989.)
Association of College and Research Libraries http://www.ala.org/acrl/
Beetham, H. & Sharpe, R. 2010. Digital literacy framework. JISC - The Design
Studio. Retrieved from
http://jiscdesignstudio.pbworks.com/w/page/46740204/Digital%20literacy%
20framework
Bruce, C. (1998). The phenomenon of information literacy. Higher Education and

Development, 17, 25 - 43.
Gilster, P. (1997), Digital literacy. New York: Wiley Computer Publications.

Jenkins, H. (1992), Textual poachers: Television fans and participatory
culture. New York: Routledge
Information Literacy is a survival skill in the Information Age" (ALA, 1989:

http://www.ala.org/acrl/publications/whitepapers/presidential
International ICT Literacy Panel (2007),

https://www.ets.org/Media/Tests/Information_and_Communication_Techn
ology_Literacy/ictreport.pdf)
Li, LiLi. (2014). Scholarly Information Discovery in the Networked Academic

Learning Environment. Chandos Publishing.
Llida Review (2009): Thriving in the 21st century: Learning Literacies for the
Digital Age. The Caledonian Academy, Glasgow Caledonian University for
JISC.
http://www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/projects/llidaexecsumjune2009.pdf
Oliver, R. & Towers, S. (2000). Benchmarking ICT literacy in tertiary learning

settings. In R. Sims, M. O’Reilly & S. Sawkins (Eds). Learning to choose:
Choosing to learn. Proceedings of the 17th Annual ASCILITE Conference
(pp 381-390). Lismore, NSW: Southern Cross University Press.
O'Malley, C., Vavoula, G., Glew, J. P., Taylor, J., & Sharples, M. (2005). Guidelines
for Learning/Teaching/Tutoring in a Mobile Environment.
`
Topic 5 Creativity and

Innovation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the meaning of creativity, innovation and design thinking;
2. Describe the relationship between creativity and innovation with
learning;
3. Explain design thinking as a strategy for innovation; and
4. Adopt and apply tools for creativity and innovation.
INTRODUCTION
This topic provides an introduction to creativity, innovation and design thinking.
We will learn the meaning of these words in the context of this module, how they
fit together, and introduce some useful approaches and tools relevant for the
subjects.
Do you know that educators today consider creativity as among the highest form
of learning? Creativity has moved up in the world. Psychologists consider it
among the highest forms of self actualization. Business executives consider it
among the most critical characteristics of modern leaderships. And most
importantly, creativity is one of the 4 CÊs (collaboration, communication,
creativity and critical thinking) of the 21st century survival skills. It is now more
important than ever that we start cultivating creative thinking among our
learners, our employees, our families, our societies and of course ourselves.
TOPIC 5 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION ⊳ 87
5.1 21st Century Worker: Everyday Innovators Everywhere

Figure 5.1:
Source:
Source https://www.inovis.cc/innovation/68-creativity-design-and-design-thinking.
Today creative thinking is becoming a necessity in every job. A recent study from
Oxford university economists Dr Carl Frey and Dr Michael Osborne (2015),
predicted the future impact of technology on nearly seven hundred jobs. The
analysis showed that computers will be taking over any job that does not require
a personal touch. This means just to hold a job, everyone will rely on their
creative intelligence – their ability to think flexibly and deliver solutions outside
of standard operating procedures.
A new study from Adobe (2018) also showed that, compared to other job skills,
problem solving and creativity have gained the most value in driving salary
increases in the last five years.
Why do we as OUM learners need to be aware of all this information? This is

because we want to ensure that all our learners are prepared to thrive and
succeed in competitive world – a world where boundless opportunities await the
highly skilled individuals. ThatÊs YOU, OUM graduates of the future!
The good news for us is that since its inception as an instructional paradigm,
distance learning institutions like OUM has been characterized by creativity on
the part of the educators and administrators who strive to provide creative and
innovative learning experiences for their learners. At OUM, myINSPIRE LMS is
an example that technology can be influential in developing creativity amongst
learners and educators.
88 TOPIC 5 CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION
Before we proceed any further, letÊs just take a brief look at what creativity,
innovation and design thinking are all about. In a nutshell, creativity is related to
ÂimaginationÊ and innovation is related to ÂimplementationÊ.. You can also say that
creativity is the ability to produce and innovation is the introduction of new
things.
How about Design Thinking? Have you heard about this term before? Chances
are most of you have not heard about it. If you have, kudos to you, meaning
youÊve been keeping abreast with the latest technology and thinking skills. In
short,, Design Thinking is a solutions-based process that uses creativity to solve
complex or poorly-defined problems, validated by real-world learning.
Still confused? Need more clarity? Another take of these concepts as shown in
the box below.
Creativity, Innovation and Design Thinking⁄ at a GLANCE.

 Creativity is the spirit, the attitude and bravery to try something new, to
be open to the unexpected.
 Innovation is the implementation of something new.
 Design thinking is the Âhow toÊ, the approach, the mindset and behaviours
on the way.
We will delve deeper into each of these fascinating concepts in the subsequent
sub topics. But before that, let me entice you with a few quotes about the
importance of creativity as a 21st century skill. A lot of inspiring quotes, short
stories from artists, philopsophers, scholars etc are shared throughout this topic
to promote new ways of thinking about creativity and innovation among us the
learners of OUM.
„President Obama has also recognized the critical need to measure twenty-first
century skills, calling on the nationÊs governors to: . . . develop standards and
assessments that donÊt simply measure whether students can fill in a bubble on
a test, but whether they possess 21st century skills like problem-solving and
critical thinking and entrepreneurship and creativity
creativity.‰
Obama 2009
(Source:
Source: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/obamas-remarks-on-education/)
„Ensuring that all people have a solid foundation of knowledge and skills must
therefore be the central aim of the post 2015 education agenda. This is not
primarily about providing more people with more years of schooling; in fact,
thatÊs only the first step. It is most critically about making sure that individuals
acquire a solid foundation of knowledge in key disciplines, that they develop
creative,
creative critical thinking and collaborative skills, and that they build character
attributes, such as mindfulness, curiosity, courage and resilience.‰
Andreas Schleicher and Qian Tang
Universal Basic Skills: What Countries Stand to Gain (2015, p.9)
(Source:
Source: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/universal-basic-
skills_5js32nmfrb8q.pdf)
You may also visit the link below to view a short video on Creativity in
Education (21st Century Education). You may scan the QR code below with your
mobile device OR just click at the hyperlink.
Creativity in Education (21st Century Education)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JJkOZ1mdx2A
SELF CHECK 5.1
1. What do you understand by the statement „Creativity has moved up

in the world‰?
2. Explain briefly the difference between Creativity and Innovation.
3. What is Design Thinking?

5.1 THE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY AND

INNOVATION
Figure 5.2:
5.2: Concept of Creativity, Innovation, Vision, Creative Process.
Source: https://stock.adobe.com/images/concept-of-creativity-innovation-vision-
creative-process/120500947
The concept of creativity has always formed an important part of various

disciplines, with a strong root in the arts and psychology. In the early 20th
century, creativity was considered to be an inborn talent or an exclusive quality
that only certain people is lucky enough to possess it. Back then, creativity is
generally assumed to be associated with the arts. Today, creativity is no longer
confined to the world of arts and has since expanded to include science,
technology and other disciplines.
„Innovation is everywhere‰ – is a modern day mantra! Indeed, innovation is

happening everywhere. It plays a significant role in many areas especially in the
economic growth of the global economy today. Innovation is not a modern
concept though, as the first recorded used of the word innovation was
discovered in the 1590s. Do you know that you could be in jail for being an
innovator in those days? The term Innovator was once considered as an insult!
Thankfully, things changed in the 19th Century with the industrial revolution
and today, innovation is often associated with enthusiasm and all things positive.
In the 21st century, both creativity and innovation are given prominence as a
must have skills of the future and fundamental to all academic disciplines and
educational activities.
„The uncreative mind can spot wrong answers, but it takes a very creative
mind to spot wrong questions‰.
Anthony Jay
(Source:
Source: http://creatingminds.org/quotes/being_uncreative.htm)
If youÊre curious to know why the word Innovator was once considered as an
insult in the early days, check out the link below:
Meaning of Innovation – A Timeline

https://www.wazoku.com/meaning-of-innovation-a-
timeline/
Source: http://www.quotemaster.org/Creativity
Creative Differences
Ludwig van Beethoven is certainly one of the most creative composers who ever
lived with his most well-known creation, the Ninth Symphony. Another example
of creativity in action in recent years is Steve Jobs. Before his untimely demise in
2011, his passion for computers and connectivity led to the creation of Mac
computers and the iPhone. What about Marie Kondo? Have you heard about
her? She is the world-renowned tidying expert and famous for her KonMari
Method and ÂSpark JoyÊ catchphrase. She was selected as one of the Most
Creative People in Business for 2015!
These are three different individuals with three different types of creativity. You
might think before this, if you're creative in one area, youÊll be creative in all
areas too. However, thatÊs not how it works. According to Arne Dietrich, a
professor of cognitive neuroscience, in his research published in 2004 in
the Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, he described four different types of
creativity with corresponding different brain activities. Think of it like a matrix
(Figure 5.4)
Once you know about the Âcreativity matrixÊ as explained in details in the
following Table 5.1, it will bring your understanding of the concept of creativity
to a whole new level. As such, please take your time to read and understand the
the Creativity Matrix provided.
Figure 5.3:
5.3: Three different individuals with three different types of creativity.
Source:
https://media.wnyc.org/i/800/0/c/85/1/Ludwig_van_Beethoven-square.jpg
https://fineartamerica.com/art/drawings/steve+jobs
https://www.pinterest.co.uk/pin/422142165051113335
Types of Creativity
Why do you think is important for us to know the different types of creativity as
identified by Dietrich? In order to foster creativity in all aspects of our daily life,
it is important for us to understand the different types of creativity.
According to Dietrich, creativity can be either emotionally, cognitively,
spontaneous or deliberate. Hence, he created 4 quadrants or matrix of creativity
to discuss the four types of creativity based on which part of the brains it comes
from. The visual representation of the matrix is shown in Figure 5.4 with
corresponding description for your easier understanding in Table 5.1
Figure 5.4: The Creativity Matrix

Source: https://www.robertplank.com/072-creativity/
Table 5.1: Description of Corresponding Creativity Matrix
Therapeutic Type of Creativity:

A-HA
Moments Deliberate and emotional creativity. Deliberate and emotional creativity
requires quiet time.
This kind of creativity is related to taking control of your emotions – even in
stressful situations.
Example:
Personal breakthrough/crisis (Eg: you had a relationship break-up) and then
had a flash of insight about yourself via A-HA moment, having to do with
feelings and emotions.
Brain Works:
Works The cingulate cortex is the part of the brain that processes
complex feelings that are related to how you interact with others, and your
place in the word. And the cingulated cortex is connected to the pre-frontal
cortex (PFC). These two brain areas are active with this type of creativity.
In a nutshell: Set those things aside and allow yourself a block of time to focus
on the challenge.
Thomas Type of Creativity:

Edison and
Deliberate and cognitive creativity. Deliberate and cognitive creativity requires
the Light
a high degree of knowledge and lots of time.
Bulb
The kind of creativity is related with working over a long period of time in a
specific discipline/task.
Example:
Thomas Edison is the first light bulb inventor in 1878. A feat he achieved after
numerous failures.
Brain Works:
Works Creativity comes from the PFC in your brain. The PFC allows you
to do two things: pay focused attention and make connections among
information that you have stored in other parts of our brains.
nutshell Spend focused time every day testing your knowledge by running
In a nutshell:
micro-tests to develop new solutions.
Artists and Type of Creativity:

Musicians
Spontaneous and emotional creativity. Spontaneous and cognitive creativity
probably canÊt be designed for.
This is the kind of creativity that you think of when you think about great
artists and musicians.
Example:
A creative and quite powerful moment such as an epiphany, religious
experience, great artist and musicians moment.
Brain Works:
Works Spontaneous and emotional creativity come from the amygdala in
your brain. The amygdala is where emotions are processed. When the
conscious brain and the PFC are resting, then it is possible for spontaneous
ideas and creations to emerge.

nutshell: DonÊt be afraid to tap into your emotions and use passion when
In a nutshell:
working through a big challenge.
Issac Newton Type of Creativity:

& Gravity
Spontaneous and cognitive creativity. Spontaneous and cognitive creativity
requires stopping work on the problem and getting away.
This kind of creativity does need an existing body of knowledge.
Example:
(1) The story about Issac Newton thinking of gravity while watching a falling
apple.
(2) Imagine youÊre working on a problem or idea that you canÊt seem to solve.
Then you go to lunch and on the way back from lunch you get a flash of
insight about how to solve your problem.
Brain Works:
Works Spontaneous and cognitive creativity involves the basal ganglia of
the brain. During this kind of creativity, the conscious brain has stopped
working on the problem, so the unconscious brain has had a chance to work on
it instead. By doing a different, unrelated activity, the PFC is able to connect
information in new ways via your unconscious mental processing.
In a nutshell: Stuck on a problem? Opt for a short break or work on something
else.
Adapted from: https://www.mezmolife.com/2016/01/whats-your-creativity-type.html
Innovation
Innovation is everywhere and everyone can innovate. There are many

innovations in recent decades and in various areas (Eg. technology, education
business etc) that have brought significant changes to the modern world and
make our lives so much easier.
What is innovation then? Webster’s dictionary defines innovation as “the

introduction of something new” whereas Scott Berkun’s says “innovation is
significant positive change”. Another definition of innovation worth sharing is
from Tim Kastelle. According to him, innovation is “not just having an idea – but
executing it so that it creates value”.
Whichever definitions you like best, it is important to remember that innovation

always require a lot of hard work and dedication. Persistence, perseverance and
tenacity are among the skills sets you should have when you are ‘innovating’.
Without it, many good ideas will remain a good idea, never follow through and
never developed into something substantial.
Source:
https://www.pioneermilitaryloans.com/blog
https://www.diygenius.com/innovation-is-doing-new-things-theodore-levitt/
Creativity vs Innovation
Do you agree with me that Creativity and Innovation are two words that we get
easily confused? We have a tendency to use both words interchangeably.
Despite relying on each other, there are fundamental differences between
creativity and innovation. They are similar but not the same thing.
Shawn Hunter, author of "Out Think: How Innovative Leaders Drive Exceptional
Outcomes," (Wiley, 2013) defines creativity as the capability or act of conceiving
something original or unusual, while innovation is the implementation or
creation of something new that has realized the value to others.
Creativity is an active process and an important block for innovation. Creativity

is at the heart of innovation. But creativity alone, is not enough to come out with
new ideas. In a nutshell, creativity is thinking and innovation is doing! If you are
still confused about the creativity and innovation, donÊt fret yourselves. For a
better understanding of both concepts, do check out Figure 5.5 and Table 5.2
respectively.
Creativity vs Innovation
 Creativity is the bravery to try something new. Innovation is the
implementation of something new.
 Creativity is related to imagination and innovation is related to
implementation..
 Creativity is the ability to produce and innovation is the introduction of new
things.
 Creativity is bringing into existence an idea that is new to you. Innovation is
the practical application of creative ideas.
Figure 5.5:
5.5: Creativity vs Innovation
Source: https://www.azquotes.com/quote/1388687
Table 5.2: Comparison Chart: Creativity vs Innovation

Basis for
Creativity Innovation
Comparison
Meaning Creativity is the bravery or the Innovation is the implemetation of
capability to try something new something new or original.
or original.
Creativity is thinking - it Creativity is doing - it happens in
happens in your mind! the world!
Process Imaginative Productive

Quantifiable No Yes
Related to Thinking something new Introducing something new
Monetary
No Yes
Requirement
Risk No Yes
Adapted from:
from: https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-creativity-and-
innovation.html
If you feel the Comparison Chart in Table 5.2 is incomplete, still missing a few
salient points, you can add for yourself more basis for comparison. You may
discuss with your course mates and expand the table above to include your own
findings.
Let us move on to the benefits of creativity. Sylvia Duckworth created the

following sketch note stating 12 benefits of creativity.
Figure 5.6:
5.6: Innovation and Imagination: 12 Benefits of Creativity
Source:
Source: https://www.teachthought.com/learning/innovation-imagination-12-benefits-
creativity
Creativity Secrets: Connect the Dots
Creativity is about seeing the world in new ways, finding hidden patterns,
making connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and generating
solutions. It is the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality.
People who are good at having creative ideas are good at seeing connections.
By practicing yourselves to see connections, you enhance your ability to think
creatively. In short, creativity is about connecting the dots. Creative people
collect more dots, so they can connect them later.
What are dots?
Dots are new experiences, ideas, information, people, environments and ways of
thinking. You can collect dots by reading, enrol in a course, going to musuems,
traveling, experimenting, meeting new people, watching movies, listening to
music, or taking up a new skill. In short, dots are brain food. You want to feed
your brain with as much information and inputs as possible. The best part of
creativity is that no experience, learning, insight is ever wasted. Even watching
movies at home or meeting up old friends during weekend might be the very link
you need to inspire a new idea.
Be a Dot Collector
Think of yourself as a dot collector. Be open. Be a risk taker. Be bold. Collect as
many dots as possible, then push you outside your comfort zone and collect even
more. As ODL Learner you should never ever stop growing your collection of
dots. You never know the magical ways youÊll connect them later.
„You canÊt connect the dots looking forward; you can only connect them
looking backwards. So you have to trust that the dots will somehow connect
in your future. You have to trust in something–your gut, destiny, life, karma,
whatever. This approach has never let me down, and it has made all the
difference in my life.‰
Excerpt from the Commencement Address delivered by Steve Jobs, CEO of

Apple Computer and of Pixar Animation Studios, on June 12, 2005.
(Source:
Source: https://news.stanford.edu/2005/06/14/jobs-061505/)
“Highly creative people are good at seeing connections. By enhancing your

ability to see connections, you can enhance your creativity”
Dorte Nielsen
(Source: Nielsen, D. & Thurber, S. (2016). The Secret of the Highly Creative Thinker)
Amsterdam: BIS Publishers

Figure 5.7:
5.7: Information Versus Knowledge remix by Ron Letkeman
Source: https://blog.elearnerengaged.com/dots/
If youÊre interested to know more about what Steve Jobs thinks about creativity,
do check out the video below.
Steve Jobs and Creativity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AlgZiAl-6fY
Edward de Bono on Creative Thinking

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UjSjZOjNIJg
The core of creative thinking
One summer morning in the early 1970s, Bill and Barbara Bowerman were fixing
waffles for breakfast. Bill, the head running coach at the University of Oregon, was
bemoaning
bemoaning the fact that his runners didnÊt have track shoes that could grip the new
artificial turf.
Having coached thirty-

thirty-three Olympians, he was always on the lookout for better
athletic gear. In the 1960s, he had co-
co-launched a company to import light-
light-weight
running shoes from Japan. He even had a lab in his house where he could
experiment. Now, he was looking for a lighter, faster shoe, one without spikes, that
could still grip the new running track.
At that moment, Barbara pulled a waffle off the hot waffle iron. Staring at the waffle.
Bill suddenly made a connection. The grid pattern on the waffle might just create the
perfect grip for the sole of a running shoe. He grabbed the waffle iron and ran to his
lab. By the end of the day, he had prototyped the shoe
shoe that would earn him his first
patent and launch his company to international fame: The Nike Waffle Trainer.
The story is a perfect example of what happens at the moment a creative idea is
conceived. Coach Bowerman has been puzzling over his challenge fo forr weeks when
an unexpected connection at the breakfast table unlocked it. In an instant, the DNA
of the waffle and the DNA of the running shoe combined in his mind to bring
something entirely new into being.
Creativity is just that: ability to bring new and

and valuable things into being. You can
cultivate that ability.
Source: Nielsen, D. & Thurber, S. (2016). The Secret of the Highly Creative Thinker.
Amsterdam: BIS Publishers.
SELF CHECK 5.2

1. State ONE definition of Creativity that you like best?
2. Identify THREE key differences between Creativity and

Innovations.
3. Provide ONE example of Creation/Creativity with

Invention/Innovation.
4. What would you improve when you train your ability to see
connections?
ACTIVITY 5.1
Do you agree or disagree with the following statement – and why?

„You canÊt teach creativity. Then again, creativity is all about
reversing assumptions.‰
ACTIVITY 5.2
One of the benefits of Creativity as shown in Figure 5.6 above is No.12 -
Creativity encourages us to be lifelong learners. As an adult learner, it
would be if good if you could share your experience with your course
mates the role creativity plays in encouraging you to be a lifelong
learner.
5.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE
Have you ever looked at a friendÊs drawing in art classes during school days and
said, „Oh, my - youÊre so creative! Knowing fully well that your own talent were
rather limited to drawing stick figures! Or have you ever been to a concert and
marveled at the melodious voice of the singer. Silently you wish you can sing
just as good in front of a large audience and not just confined to singing in a
shower!
The two scenarios above, like the ability to sing or draw makes it sound as if
creativity is a natural skill or talent.
Other times, you heard some of your friends are attending local art classes or
going for singing lessons over the weekend. That makes it sound as if creativity
is a skill that anyone can learn.
Confused? What do you think, learners? Do you think creativity can be learned,
practiced and developed or creativity is a natural gift, an innate talent? You can
have a healthy debate with your course mates to argue both sides. But, even
when accepting that creativity can be learned, there are some people who are just
more creative than others, and much research has been undertaken to identify
what their characteristics are.
Among the most extensive list of characteristics of creative people was developed
by Robert Alan Black (1990/2008). Take a look at the list by him in Table 5.3,
wouldnÊt you say that these characteristics are also applicable for innovative
people. The fact that it might be quite difficult to find all these characteristics in
one person makes teamwork such an important aspect of creativity and
innovation.
Do you have all the characteristics or traits of creativity listed in the Table 5.3? If
you do, wow, you are highly creative person and deserved an award! IÊm joking
of course. Sense of Humor (No. 19) is also one of the characteristics or traits of
Creativity!
Table 5.3: Characteristics of creative people (1990/2008 Robert Alan Black, Ph.D)
1. Sensitive 17. Ingenious

2. Not motivated by money 18. Energetic
3. Sense of destiny (believe that you 19. Sense of humour
have a special mission or purpose 20. Self-actualizing (focus on
in life you plan developing yourself to the best
or hope to fulfil) you can be and to discover your
4. Adaptable specific unique talents)
5. Tolerant of ambiguity (accept 21. Self-disciplined
multiple answers or causes to a 22. Self-knowledgeable
single problem or challenge)
23. Specific interests
6. Observant
24. Divergent thinker (looks at things
7. Perceive world differently in many different ways at the
8. See possibilities same time)
9. Question asker 25. Curious
10. Can synthesize (see the big 26. Open-ended (donÊt fix on a single
picture) correctly, often intuitively idea, keep looking for many
11. Able to fantasize different ideas or ways to do
things)
12. Flexible (willing to try things in
many different ways) 27. Independent
13. Fluent (produce lots of ideas or 28. Severely critical
possibilities when working on a 29. Non-conforming
challenge or simply choosing a 30. Confident
restaurant to go to)
31. Risk taker
14. Imaginative
32. Persistent
15. Intuitive
16. Original
Source: https://numerons.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/01-32-traits-of-highly-creative-
people.pdf
If you are not too pleased with yourself that you only have a handful of creativity
traits above, dontÊt feel bad, the truth is all of us have a tremendous creative
capacities! Do check out Table 5.4, for tips to be highly creative individuals.
Table 5.4: If You Want to be Highly Creative, Do These 8 Things

If You Want to be Highly Creative, Do These 8 Things.
 Doodle Something
 Sign Up for a Class in Something You’ve Never Done Before
 Create the Right Environment
 Pause the Brainstoming and Move Your Body
 Start a Sketchbook
 Keep Toys on Your Desk
 Engage in Flash Fiction
 Try the 30 Circles Test
The information shared here is rather limited, to read in details about the 8 things
mentioned above, please visit this link at https://medium.com/the-mission/if-you-want-
to-be-highly-creative-do-these-8-things-390b81845b0a
Source: https://medium.com/the-mission/if-you-want-to-be-highly-creative-do-these-8-
things-390b81845b0a
Before we move on to the following topic, do take some time to view the
following videos as well as clicking the link provided below to read a good topic
on creativity as appeared on our local newspaper, not too long ago.
A Japanese Method to Develop Creativity in Kids

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXnugJEcVE8
Can One Learn to be Creative

https://www.nst.com.my/opinion/columnists/201
8/01/330504/can-one-learn-be-creative
Want to be More Creative? Go for a Walk.

https://www.ted.com/talks/marily_oppezzo_want_to_
be_more_creative_go_for_a_walk?language=en
SELF CHECK 5.3

List five important traits of creative individuals and explain each one of
them in your own words.
ACTIVITY 5.3
„As with all the learner attributes, cultural perspectives are also very
important when considering creativity. Confucian heritage cultures, for
example, tend to see creativity more as a collective exercise.‰ Do you
agree with this statement? Explain.
5.3 CREATIVITY, INNOVATION AND LEARNING
OUM learners today are the OUM graduates of the future. As a graduate of the
future, you shouldnÊt be pigeonholed by your degree subject. You should be
adaptable, flexible and confident with your directions and career choices. For
these to happen, studentÊs learning must go beyond mastery of core subjects and
include 21st century knowledge skills like creativity.
Innovation and creativity are fundamental to all academic disciplines and

educational activities; not just belong exclusively to the arts. The creative process
is a significant part of our learning experiences. In short, we need to nurture
creativity and innovation in our teaching and learning.
The Foundation for Young Australians (2016) reported that based on their study
of analysing job advertisements for three years, the demand for creativity has
increased by 65% (among the key skills with the biggest increase in demand!)
Innovative companies and organizations of the 21st century seek
graduates/potential employees that can think creatively and are able to solve
problem confidently.
Therefore, we need to develop learners who can generate ideas and think
critically and equipped them with the essential skills for their future
employment. We need to develop creative and innovative thinkers in schools and
higher institutions today. For this to happen, we need creativity to be embedded
in our education curriculum. Being able to think creatively opens the door to
opportunity.
In OUM, we need to incorporate creative thinking into our teaching and learning
environment (refer to Activity 5.4) and develop creative and innovative ODL
learners who not only can generate ideas and think critically but who persevere
in the face of difficulty. We need to develop curious learners who have a zest for
learning and relish real-world challenges.
ÂOne cannot think creatively unless one has the knowledge with which to think
creatively. Creativity represents a balance between knowledge and freeing
oneself of that knowledgeÊ
Robert J. Sternberg
(Source:
Source:
https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2006/02/22/24sternberg.h25.html)
30 Ideas to Promote Creativity in Learning

https://www.teachthought.com/learning/30-ideas-to-
promote-creativity-in-learning/
Creative Thinking: The Innovative and the Adaptive Type

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cYhgIlTy4yY
ACTIVITY 5.4
Potential Areas of Innovation in the ODL System are given below:
 Innovative Programme
 Innovative application of ICT in delivery mechanism
 Innovations in admission procedures and learner support
 Innovations in evaluation methodologies and practices
 Innovations supporting convergence of systems
 Quality management and benchmarking
Discuss in a group the above potential areas of innovation with regard

to OUM Teaching and Learning System.
5.4 DESIGN THINKING AS A STRATEGY FOR

INNOVATION
Figure 5.8: Design Thinking and Doing Design

Source: https://medium.theuxblog.com/design-thinking-and-doing-design-part-1-
90e4dc0da8e3
Now, let us move on to Design Thinking. What is Design Thinking? As

mentioned earlier, chances are most of us are not that familiar with Design
Thinking. This does not mean that it is a new concept though. In fact, the
concept of Design Thinking was first introduced in the late 1960s. In the last
decade or so, there has been a surge of interest in Design Thinking and how it
has influenced business, the sciences and technology. And now Design Thinking
has made its way into education. Many educators are becoming more aware of
the capabilities of Design Thinking and finding ways to incorporate Design
Thinking into their Teaching and Learning. What is Design Thinking then? To
put it simply, Design Thinking is a methodology for tackling complex problems
using a solution-based approach.
What is Design Thinking?

Design Thinking is an approach used for practical and creative problem-solving. It is
based heavily on the methods and processes that designers use (hence the name), but
it has actually evolved from a range of different fields · including architecture,
engineering and business. Design Thinking can also be applied to any field; it doesnÊt
necessarily have to be design-specific. Design Thinking is extremely user-centric.
It focuses on humans first and foremost, seeking to understand peopleÊs needs and
come up with effective solutions to meet those needs. It is what we call a solution-
based approach to problem-solving.
(Source: https://careerfoundry.com/en/blog/ux-design/what-is-design-thinking-
everything-you-need-to-know-to-get-started/)
Design Thinking as a Strategy for Innovation
Many world renowned companies, such as Apple, Samsung, Airbnb, Toshiba,

Google are using Design Thinking approach to create and improve their
innovative products. Do you know that Design Thinking is also being taught at
Stanford, Harvard and other leading higher education instutions? Maybe one
day in a near future, OUM will also offer a Design Thinking course!
Design Thinking gives you confidence in your creative abilities and a process for
transforming difficult challenges into opportunities for design. Design Thinking
is a powerful and reliable tool for innovation as shown in Figure 5.9. The basic
process of design thinking as a Strategy for Innovation is explained in Table 5.5.
Figure 5.9: Design Thinking: A Framework for Innovation

Source: https://medium.theuxblog.com/design-thinking-and-doing-design-part-1-
90e4dc0da8e3
Table 5.5: The basic process of design thinking as a Strategy for Innovation
Stages
Stages Process Description
Stage 1 Empathise Understand by empathizing to help define the problem
Stage 2 Define Re-framing and defining the problem in human-centric
ways.
Stage 3 Ideate Employ various idea-generating methods in ideation
sessions
Stage 4 Prototype Adopt a hands-on approach in prototyping by
producing simple and inexpensive versions of multiple
possible solutions.
Stage 5 Test Test the various prototypes thoroughly to determine
which is best
Adapted from: https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/article/5-stages-in-the-

design-thinking-process
In conclusion, Design Thinking is a mindset. ItÊs Human-Centered and

Collaborative. Design Thinking is good for learners as learners need to
experiment and Design Thinking is all about learning by doing. It gives you
permission to fail, learn from your mistakes and come up with new ideas, ask for
feedback and then iterate. ItÊs an iterative and non-linear process. ItÊs Emphatic
and Its Experimental. Design Thinking gives creative confidence to learners that
new, better things are achievable and that you as a learner can make them
happen. And that kind of optimism is a must-have in our education today.
The Design Thnking Process

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_r0VX-aU_T8
5.5 TOOLS FOR CREATIVITY AND

INNOVATION
Figure 5.1
5.10
.10: Tools for Creativity and Innovation
Source: https://www.edx.org/course/creative-thinking-techniques-0
We are coming to the end of this topic. I hope this topic has shed some lights to
the concepts of creativity, innovation and design thinking. Fortunately for us,
there are various creativity, innovation and even design thinking tools and
techniques out there that can be used to generate new ideas and strengthen your
creativity.
Table 5.6: Tools & Techniques for Creativity and Innovation
Tools/Techniques
Tools/Techniques Description
I-CREATE A full set of creativity tools and techniques from I-CREATE library.
Check out their creativity technique search engine!
Read more at: http://icreate-project.eu/
Creative A lot of exercises about creative thinking can be found at
Thinking.net Creativethinking.net.
Read more at: http://creativethinking.net/exercises/
Human Centered Design-thinking based toolkits for creative problem solving.
Design by Ideo Read more at: http://www.designkit.org/
Koozai.com 8 creative thinking techniques and the tools to use.
Read more at:
https://www.koozai.com/blog/content-marketing-seo/eight-
awesome-creative-thinking-techniques-plus-tools/
Creative Tools Used Every Day By Google, IDEO, and Other Top Innovation Firms.
Here's 5 creativity tools from some of the top firms in the world, to stay above the fray
and keep those creative juices flowing.
1. Collective Action Toolkit

2. The 7 Rules for Brainstorming
There are lot Flowchart
3. Innovation of reading materials in Design Thinking out there and it can be
rather confusing
4. Design Sprint and you might feel overwhelmed. In this topic, No worries, as
we
5. are
Get here to simplified
Out and Walk things for you and introduce you to the basic concept of
Design Thinking. By grasping the basic knowledge you can study on your own.
Read more at: https://www.inc.com/dan-maycock/5-creative-tools-used-every-day-by-
Being resourceful is also⁄..Happiness is
google-ideo-and-other-top-innovation-firms.html
By now you should have a considerable knowledge of the concept of creativity,

innovation and Design Thinking. At the very least you should be able to know
the differences and similarities between creativity and innovation and the role
both concepts played in todayÊs education. You are an informed learner now
and on the right path to acquiring and equipping yourselves with the 21st
century skills. Before you move on to the next topic, I leave you with one last
quote about creativity from the renowned writer and poet, the late Dr Maya
Angelo.
“You canÊt use up creativity. The more you use, the more you have‰
Maya Angelou
(Source: https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Maya_Angelou)
SELF CHECK 5.4
1. Name TWO tools for creativity and innovation.
2. Which creative tools you like the most? Explain

• Creativity is one of the 4 CÊs (collaboration, communication, creativity and

critical thinking) of the 21st century survival skills.
• Creative thinking is becoming a necessity in every job
 Creativity is related to ÂimaginationÊ and innovation is related to

ÂimplementationÊ..
 People who are good at having creative ideas are good at seeing connections.
By training your ability to see connections, you improve your capacity to
think creatively.
 Creative thinking can be defined as „being in an optimal state of mind

where new ideas can be generated‰.
 Design Thinking is a solutions-based process that uses creativity to solve

complex or poorly-defined problems, validated by real-world learning.
Bloom Taxonomy Creativity Tools

Creative People Design Thinking
Creative Thinking Innovations
Creativity
Adobe & Econsultancy (2018). Digital Intelligence Briefing: 2018 Digital Trends.
(2018). [pdf]
https://wwwimages2.adobe.com/content/dam/acom/au/landing
/DT18/Econsultancy-2018-Digital-Trends.pdf
Berkun, S. (2013). The best definition of Innovation.

https://scottberkun.com/2013/the-best-definition-of-innovation/
Black, Robert Alan. (1998). Broken Crayons: Break Your Crayons and Draw
Outside the Lines. Cre8ng Places Press.
Dietrich, A. (2015) How Creativity Happens in the Brain.(1st ed) Palgrave

Macmillan UK.
Foundation for Young Australians (2016). The New Work Mindset. [pdf].
https://www.fya.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/The-New-Work-
Mindset.pdf
Frey, C. and Osborne, M. (2016). Technology at Work v2.0: The Future Is Not What It
Used to Be. [pdf]. Oxford Martin School and Citi.
https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/downloads/reports/Citi_GPS_Technolo
gy_Work_2.pdf
Hunter, S. (2013). Out Think: How Innovative Leaders Drive Exceptional Outcomes.
Mississauga, ON: John Wiley & Sons Canada.
Innovation [Def.1]. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster Online. In Merriam-Webster.

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/innovation
Kastelle,T. (2012). What is Innovation?

https://timkastelle.org/blog/2012/09/what-is-innovation/
Lambropoulos, N. & Romero, M. (2015). 21st Century Lifelong Creative Learning: A

Matrix of Innovative Methods & New Technologies for Individual, Team &
Community Skills & Competencies. Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science
Publisher's, Inc.
Mesquita, A. (2011). Technology for Creativity and Innovation: Tools,

Techniques and Applications. (1st ed) Portugal:IGI Global.
Nielsen, D. & Thurber, S. (2016). The Secret of The Highly Creative

Thinker.Amsterdam: BIS Publishers.
Raines, S. (2012). Creativity and the Arts with Young Children. Cengage Learning.
Topic Critical
Thinking and
6 Reasoning Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define critical thinking;
2. Explain how critical thinking skills can be improved;
3. Elaborate the skills of critical thinking;
4. Distinguish between deductive and inductive reasoning; and
5. Classify the ways to assess critical thinking skills.
INTRODUCTION
Many people would sooner die than think. in fact, they do.
-Bertrand Russel (1989)
What do you think the above quote means? Is it that difficult to think?
We always think, but the level of thinking is different, depending on the

situation. Certain situations do not need us to think deeply while others involve
deep and critical thinking. Thus, in this chapter, we will learn specifically on
critical thinking skills and the ways to assess them.
116 TOPIC 6 CRITICAL THINKING AND REASONING SKILLS
6.1 THE NEED FOR CRITICAL THINKING
We are living in the information age where the Internet has become a crucial and
integral part in many peopleÊs lives. The quest for information has become so all-
consuming that many people find that they are continuously multitasking – on
Facebook while in class or checking emails while eating lunch, etc. With so much
multitasking, we are on system overload that we tend to do worse on each task
when we do them concurrently compared to doing one task at a time.
Furthermore, with a lot of information available on the Internet, how can we

differentiate which one to believe in and which one is fraudulent?
ACTIVITY 6.1
Think of situations when you are awake and you do not have to
think at all, list them out. Discuss in your forum.
6.1.1 The Twin Pillars of Knowing and Thinking

We must consider ourselves in danger when we cannot think intelligently about
the numerous issues that we face, and not knowing the meaning of information
that we have. The abilities of knowing how to learn and knowing how to think
clearly about various, dynamic information that we must select from are the most
important intellectual skills for the 21st century.
There are a few differences between knowing and thinking
(a) Thinking is a mental activity, or mind in motion, which usually includes

event, or situations in the past or the future.
(b) Thoughts do not have anything to do with the truth of the present moment; it
is just what a person is thinking and not necessarily related to facts and truth.
(c) Knowing, on the other hand, does not actually entail thought. For instance,
when someone asks your name, you instantly know your name and you do
not require thinking for that.
(d) Thoughts are the origin of doubts while knowledge can only be either true or
false.
TOPIC 6 CRITICAL THINKING AND REASONING SKILLS ⊳ 117
Both are needed in critical thinking. With knowing, it will invite thinking. For
some of us, it may initiate critical thinking. Previously, proficiency in reading,
writing and arithmetic were essential for entry-level to the job market. However, in
todayÊs world, employers require more from employees, they require those who
can solve problems, innovate, collaborate, and communicate more effectively.
6.1.2 A Working Definition of Critical Thinking
ACTIVITY 6.2
Take a few minutes and think about your own definition of critical
thinking. Discuss with your classmates.
We can find many definitions on critical thinking and they tend to be similar with
considerable overlap. Fisher and Spiker (2000, as cited in Halpern, 2014) found that
the terms, which are mostly used to define critical thinking, include judgement,
reasoning/logic, reflection, questioning, metacognition and mental process. Here is
a list of some generic skills of a critical thinker (Halpern, 2014):
a) Seek out contradictory evidence;
b) Make risk: benefit assessment;
c) Recall relevant information when needed;
d) Give reasons for choices as well as varying the style and amount of detail in
explanations depending on who is receiving the information;
e) Understand basic research principles;
f) Present a coherent and persuasive argument on a controversial,

contemporary topic;
g) Determine credibility and use this information in formulating and

communicating decisions
The critical part about critical thinking denotes the component of evaluation, and it
is sometimes conveyed as something negative, for example, when we say, „Karim
is a critical person‰. However, the evaluation should and can be a constructive
reflection of positive and negative attributes.
6.1.3 Changing How People Think: Should It Be

Done?
It is scary to have the idea of influencing the way people think since it advocates
terms like „mind control‰ and „propaganda‰. However, it is crucial to note that
critical thinking is an antidote of mind control and it helps everyone to recognise
propaganda so that we will not fall prey to it, analyse underlying assumptions in
arguments, consider the credibility of an information source, and think of the best
possible way to solve problems.
There are countless examples of the need for critical thinking; some are as follows:
a) Bullying cases among teenagers;
Figure 6.1 Bullying case in a school

Source: http://ohmychannel.com/article/
Source
b) Citizens who believes in political campaigns;
c) Employees who are being exploited by employers;
d) People who are being rude.

We have to be mindful of the need to educate people to think critically since their
early age. Being critical thinkers will enable us to be more evaluative and make
better decisions.
ACTIVITY 6.3
Are you a critical thinker? Why do you say so? How to become a better
thinker? Discuss with your course mates.
6.2 EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE THAT CRITICAL

THINKING CAN BE IMPROVED
If you have been thinking critically about the idea of improving how you think,
then you have probably begun to wonder if there is any evidence that thinking can
be improved. Numerous research has found that various forms of thinking courses
and curriculum provide substantial evidence that it is possible to use education to
improve the ability to think critically.
In Malaysia, the government has imposed several ideas in developing and

enhancing critical thinking ability among students in various forms such as
a) The Malaysia Education Blueprint

The development of Malaysia Education Blueprint (MEB) 2013-2025 adds
reasoning skill in the curriculum besides the traditional reading, writing and
arithmetic skills.
b) Malaysia Smart School

The concept that was introduced in 1997 is set to bring a completely new
paradigm into the national education system. Two of its five strategies are
focused on thinking. The first is the, „emphasis on intellectual, emotional,
spiritual, and physical growth, concentrating on thinking, developing and
applying values, and using correct language across the curriculum‰ and the
second is to „produce a technologically literate work force that can think
critically, encouraging thought and creativity across the curriculum and
applying technology effectively in teaching and learning‰ (Nooraini &
Khairul Azmi, 2014).
c) Innovative Human Capital Development (IHCD) Plan

The plan was introduced by the Ministry of Higher Education in 2010, which
aims at fostering Malaysia towards an innovative society with the
recommendation to review, revamp and restructure the curriculum of

tertiary institutions (Nooraini & Khairul Azmi, 2014).
d) School Based Assessment (SBA) System

It is a system of assessment, which was introduced in 2012, that combines
centralised examination and school assessment. However, in SBA, the
centralised examination may take a different form of examination than it was
before. In SBA, teachers are given more freedom and opportunities to
empower their students.
A number of research has also been done to measure change in thinking among
students in Malaysia. You can find those articles from the links below:
1) The Effects of Integrating Creative and Critical Thinking on Schools

Students' Thinking
http://www.ijssh.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=50
&id=722
2) A TeacherÊs Experience of Using Critical Thinking in Classroom Teaching

http://www.ipedr.com/vol53/016-BCPS2012-C10005.pdf
3) Developing Thinking Skills in Malaysian Science Students Via An

Analogical Task
http://www.recsam.edu.my/R&D_Journals/YEAR2010/june2010vol1/ma
riah(110-128).pdf
SELF CHECK 6.1

1. What is the definition of critical thinking?
2. Can it be improved? Explain with evidence.
6.2.1 Becoming a Better Thinker: The Quick and Easy

Way
We can find various products that claim to improve thinking. In the US, there was
a candy bar called „Think!‰ which was assumed by many Americans as a food for
thought. Apparently, the Center for Science in the Public Interest contacted the
company and found that there was no ingredient for the mind but only a placebo
effect of it (Halpern, 2014).
In Malaysia, there are also various products that claims to have significant impact
on peopleÊs mind. These products are increasingly bought by the masses since they
believe that it can improve their mind or their childrenÊs mind when consumed.
Some parents even claim that these pills can make their children to be well
behaved. These are some perceptions people have indicating we can become better
thinkers in a quick and easy way.
6.2.2 Two Types of Thinking – Fast and Slow

A cognitive psychologist Daniel Kahneman (as cited in Halpern, 2014) found two
broad types of thinking; System 1 and System 2. System 1 is commonly thought
of as intuition, which is automatic, effortless, and usually associated with
expertise when someone is good at it. On the other hand, System 2 is thinking
that is slow, effortful and deliberate, which is closely related to critical thinking.
System 1 Thinking
Let us try a simple exercise to have a better understanding of this system.
Try to answer the following question (Helmig, 2013):
If it takes 5 machines 5 minutes to make 5 widgets, how long would it take

100 machines to make 100 widgets? _______________minutes.
How did you do? Did you answer 100 minutes? An intuitive response would be
that „5=5=5 so 100=100=100„. However, if it takes a single machine 5 minutes to
make a single widget, even a million machines can make a million widgets in 5
minutes. The correct answer is therefore 5 minutes.
A study found that respondents who gave intuitive, fast and in this case, wrong
responses were less likely to delay rewards; for instance, that person will agree to
receive RM200 today than RM300 next week, hence proposing that people who
rely more on intuitive and quick thinking are different from people of slow
thinking in other important ways.
Intuitions are like visual illusions in some ways. They can sometimes assist us to
understand the world, however they are often misleading and it is a challenge
not to pay attention to intuitions. Look at the picture in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3
6.3 Illusions of two table
Source:
Source Shepard (1990).
The two table tops appear to be very different in their size and shape, however, if
you take a piece of paper and cut it to fit one of the table tops, you will find that
the same piece fits well on the other table as well. This is a common visual
illusion, which is similar to thinking illusion. We must be aware that our
intuition is sometimes wrong and we can learn to correct it through repeated
experience.
System 2 Thinking
Critical thinking is System 2 thinking; which is deliberate, slow and effortful. It is
also seen as the engine that drives System 1 thinking since the originality of that
fast recognition processes in System 1 started in a deliberate and effortful way.
System 2 involves considering evidence, evaluating risks, calculating
probabilities, and judging credibility. People can learn to think rationally as
thinking can be rational. We can learn from our mistakes, and by keeping track of
them, we can control and make them less likely to reoccur in the future.
ACTIVITY 6.4
Think of situations when you use System 1 and System 2 way of

thinking. Discuss with your course mates.
6.3 SKILLS OF CRITICAL THINKING AND

REASONING
Thinking is a skill that can be improved by training, practice and through

learning how to do better. Thinking is just like any other skills and we can
enhance and get better at that skill. It is unlike intelligence that is determined by
genes and cannot be changed. Even highly intelligence people need to improve
their thinking in order to make full use of that high intelligence.
Learning to think allows us to take control of our lives since we can think how to
reason, solve problems, make decisions, and not let ourselves to be pushed
around by circumstances, emotions and other people.
In the next sections, we will be exploring some skills of critical thinking and
reasoning.
6.3.1 CAF: Consider All Factors

It is pronounced „caff‰. CAF is an attention-directing tool that is designed to
increase the breadth of perception since we need to be looking at and consider all
factors before making a decision.
Let us look at the example below (de Bono, 1994):
Jennifer is looking around a used-car lot and suddenly she spots her
favourite make of sports car. She asks the salesperson about the condition
of the car, and she finds that the condition is good, mileage is just right, the
colour is her favourite shining red and the price is affordable. She drives
with delight. However, when she reaches home, the car does not fit her
garage. She has forgotten to do a CAF.
Teaching CAF is a matter of adding more and more factors to be considered in

the list. Ask ourselves these questions:
1) What has been left out?

2) Can we add another factor to the list?
3) What else must be considered?
Although there is a difference between important and less important factors, the
focus should be on finding out the factors to consider before a decision is made.
Most of the time we go ahead with our thinking without doing a proper CAF.
ACTIVITY 6.5
a) You are going for a job interview. What things do you have to keep
in mind? Do a CAF.
6.3.2 APC: Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices

According to de Bono (1994), this is another attention-directing tool, which
moves our thinking to look at parallel possibilities. There are many sorts of
alternatives:
 Perception: The same thing can be looked at in many different ways.

 Action: Alternative courses of action that can be taken in a situation.
 Solution: Alternative solutions to a problem.
 Approaches: Different ways of tackling the problem in order to find a
solution.
 Explanation: Alternative explanations of how something happened.
Alternative hypotheses in science.
 Design: Alternative designs, each of which fulfils the purpose of the
design (machines, buildings, posters, etc.).
At times, the traditional way does not work and we are forced to look for
alternatives. Sometimes we want to look for better ways in doing our work or
solving a problem, thus, we will look for alternatives. If we are told that there are
only two possible solutions for a problem, we might take a few moments to think
of other alternatives and we might find the alternatives. On the other hand, we
might not. However, it is always worth taking time to look for them.
ACTIVITY 6.6
a) In a TV quiz show, an object is described as being round, flat and

good to eat. It could be a hamburger, or what else? Do an APC,
listing as many possibilities you can think of.
6.3.3 Focus and Purpose

We need to create a thinking habit to have focus and purpose in our thinking.
The major causes of inefficiency and ineffectiveness in thinking is when we let
our thinking just wander along point to point, where each point suggest the next
point. For example, in a conversation with a friend, we usually say things that are
triggered from what has been said by our friend.
There are three main characteristics in this skill of thinking (de Bono, 1994):
a) Key questions:
questions thinking habits should be started with a key question. For
focus and purpose thinking skill, we have to ask ourselves
i. What am I looking at (thinking about) right now?
ii. What am I trying to do?
b) Setting the focus:

focus we should set our focus and purpose and not only be
aware of them. Ask ourselves „what do we want to focus on?‰. We should
be able to pick up and define different focus areas, and what do we want to
do with each focus area.
c) Types of thinking:
thinking There are five broad types of thinking that we should be
aware of and the focus of each will lead us to be purposive in our thinking.
i) Exploring
Expl oring: looking around, increasing our knowledge and being
aware of our surroundings or objects.
ii) Seeking: it is when we want something or have a definite need. It is
when we want to end up with something specific.
iii) Choosing: there are a number of alternatives that we wish to choose
from. To some extent, choosing comes into most thinking.
iv) Organising: we are putting pieces of information or things together
in the most effective way.
v) Checking: Is it correct? Is that right? Is it safe? Is it acceptable? These
are the questions we ask when we need to judge whether what we
have decided or done is correct.
ACTIVITY 6.7
You are going to prepare a meal for three of your friends. List five
things that you might focus on.
6.3.4 AGO: Aims, Goals and Objectives
We have been talking for an hour but I still do not know what we are trying
to achieve. Can we, please, do an AGO?
de Bono (1994)
The above is scenario when we might need to use AGO.
AGO is related to the thinking habit of wanting to know the focus and purpose of
thinking at every moment, but the focus is more of the overall purpose or
objective and not moment-to-moment focus.
We do not have to make a distinction between aims, goals and objectives since
such distinction is not helpful and confusing in this sense. But as soon as we are
clear with the ideal outcome of our thinking effort, then we are clear of our AGO.
We can ask ourselves „what is the objective of our thinking?‰ or „what do we
want to end up with?‰.
There are two aspects that we can consider when we acquire this skill:
a) Alternative definitions of the objective

When we have a discussion in meetings or other events, we may not be
happy with the definition of the AGO suggested by someone. Thus, it is
always worth to try having alternative definitions of the AGO in order to be
clearer to someone else.
b) Sub-
Sub-objectives
We may also need to set sub-objectives in the pursuit of solving the overall
problem. This is related to breaking down the problem into smaller ones
and picking out focus areas.
6.3.5 Deductive Reasoning
Figure 6.3:
6.3 Deductive reasoning
Source:
Source http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/
Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning where it moves from

general to specific. In deductive reasoning, or deduction, we start out with a
general statement, or hypothesis, and then we examine the possibilities to reach a
specific, logical conclusion. Sometimes deductive reasoning is informally called a
"top-down" approach. Deductive logic is concerned with the validity of
arguments: an argument is deductively valid if and only if its conclusion follows
a logically necessary consequence of its premises.
A common form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, in which two

statements · a major premise and a minor premise · reach a logical conclusion.
Syllogisms are reflected to be a good way to test deductive reasoning to ensure
the validity of the argument.
To do deductive reasoning, we may begin with thinking up a theory about our

topic of interest. Then we narrow it down into more specific hypotheses that we
can test. For example, we may say that „all fish fly; all guppies are fish; therefore,
all guppies fly‰. This is perfectly valid although the conclusion is empirically
false.
From the theory that „all fish fly‰, we narrow it down to collect observations to
address the hypotheses of Âall guppies are fish‰ This ultimately leads us to be
able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) that is „all
guppies fly‰ which is our original theory.
In deductive reasoning, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true.
However, we must take note that for deductive reasoning to be correct, the
hypotheses or premises must be correct.
6.3.6 Inductive Reasoning
Figure 6.4:
6.4 Inductive reasoning
Source: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/
Inductive reasoning works the other way around, moving from some specific
observations about the world to broader generalisations and theories. Informally,
we sometimes call this a "bottom-up" approach. In inductive reasoning, we begin
with specific observations and measures, we start to distinguish patterns and

regularities, articulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally
end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
There are several key types of inductive reasoning (Parrish, 2018):
1) Generalis
Generalised · Draws a conclusion from a generalization. For example, „All
the swans I have seen are white; therefore, all swans are probably white.‰
2) Statistical · Draws a conclusion based on statistics. For example, „95
percent of swans are white‰ (an arbitrary figure, of course); „therefore, a
randomly selected swan will probably be white.‰
3) Sample · Draws a conclusion about one group based on a different sample
group. For example, „There are ten swans in this pond and all are white;
therefore, the swans in my neighbourÊs pond are probably also white.‰
4) Analogous · Draws a conclusion based on shared properties of two
groups. For example, „All Aylesbury ducks are white. Swans are similar to
Aylesbury ducks. Therefore, all swans are probably white.‰
5) Predictive · Draws a conclusion based on a prediction made using a past
sample. For example, „I visited this pond last year and all the swans were
white. Therefore, when I visit again, all the swans will probably be white.‰
6) Causal inference · Draws a conclusion based on a causal connection. For
example, „All the swans in this pond are white. I just saw a white bird in
the pond. The bird was probably a swan.‰
In inductive reasoning, if the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true.
SELF CHECK 6.2
a) What is the difference between deductive and inductive

reasoning?
b) What are the key types of inductive reasoning?
6.4 ASSESSMENT OF CRITICAL THINKING
How do we know if we can think critically? There are several ways to assess our
critical thinking skills. If you are a teacher or a manager, you could also use the
same method to assess your students or subordinates’ critical thinking abilities.
Among some of the methods of assessing critical thinking are:
1) Through inquiry - Asking questions and using the answers to understand

the world around us is a way that lead to critical thinking. Some of the
questions we can ask ourselves are (Gocsik, 2002)
a) What are the strengths and weaknesses of …?
b) What is the difference between … and …?
c) Explain why/how …?
d) What would happen if …?
e) What is the nature of …?
f) Why is … happening?
g) What is a new example of …?
2) Through writing - Writing can transform us from passive to active persons

since it requires us to identify issues and formulate hypotheses and
arguments. We need to focus and clarify our thoughts before putting them
down on paper, thus taking them through the critical thinking process.
Some of the questions that we might be asking ourselves before we start
writing are (Gocsik, 2002)
a) What information is most important?
b) What might be left out?
c) What is it that I think about this subject?
d) How did I arrive at what I think?
e) What are my assumptions? Are they valid?
f) How can I work with facts, observations, and so on, in order to
convince others of what I think?
g) What do I not yet understand?
3) Group collaboration –group collaboration includes discussions, case

studies, task-related group work, peer review, or debates are all relevant in
assessing critical thinking. There are several reasons for collaboration to be
an effective way to enhance critical thinking:
a) A collaborative team has the likelihood to generate better results
than any individual;
b) Individuals are exposed to different perspectives while explaining
their own ideas; and
c) Collaborating on a project is usually motivating, creates interest,

and increases the understanding and knowledge of the topic.
SELF CHECK 6.3

(a) What are the ways to assess critical thinking?
(b) How can group collaboration help individuals to think critically?
 People need to have critical thinking skills to be better at multitasking and

to be more efficient in decision-making and problem solving.
 Critical thinking involves judgment, reasoning, reflection, questioning,
metacognition and mental process.
 The government has introduced various programs and school syllabus to
improve critical thinking skills among students.
 A number of skills can be learned to improve critical thinking skills such as
CAF, APC, Logic and Perception, Focus and Purpose, AGO, deductive and
inductive reasoning.
 Through inquiry, writing and group collaborations, we can assess critical
thinking skills.
Alternatives, Possibilities, Choices Critical thinking skills

(APC) Deductive reasoning
Aims, Goals, Objectives (AGO) Inductive reasoning
Consider All Factors (CAF)
Bradford, B. (2017), Deductive Reasoning vs. Inductive Reasoning

https://www.livescience.com/21569-deduction-vs-induction.html
de Bono, E. (1994). Teach your child how to think: Help them survive and thrive.
London: Penguin Book.
Halpern, D. (2014). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking.

(5th ed.) New York: Psychology Press.
Gocsik, K. (2002). Teaching Critical Thinking Skills. UTS Newsletter, 11(2):1-4
Nooraini, O., & Khairul Azmi, M. (2014). Thinking skill education and
transformational progress in Malaysia. International Education Studies,
7(4). https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n4p27
Parrish, S. (2018). Deductive vs Inductive Reasoning: Make Smarter Arguments, Better

Decisions, and Stronger Conclusions. Retrieve at
https://fs.blog/2018/05/deductive-inductive-reasoning/ Farnam Street Media
Inc.
Topic Communication
Skills
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the essence of communication in our daily lives;
2. Discuss the functions of verbal and nonverbal communication;
3. Demonstrate on how to be an effective communicator; and
4. Identify the barriers of effective communication.
INTRODUCTION
Most people mistook speaking fluently as an effective communication. Many
people did not realise that to be an effective communicator, one must not just
know how to speak, but also to listen. Also, communication has become one of
the key component to acquire in 21st century learning. According to P21
(www.p21.org/index.php), communication involves mediated and digital
communication, interpersonal, written and oral communication. This topic will
assist you to gain communication skills and also how to become an effective
communicator.
TOPIC 7 COMMUNICATION SKILLS ⊳ 133
ACTIVITY 1.1
Have you ever played a game called „The Telephone Game‰? This is
how it goes; as many people as possible will stand in a straight line. All
the players must be close enough as the player in front has to whisper a
„message‰ to next person behind him/her, but no too close that players
can hear each other whisper. The whispering will continue until the last
player in line, and the last player will say the message out loud so
everyone can hear how much it has changed from the first message
uttered at the beginning.
Although this game is so fun, it also brings a lot of hidden objectives

from communication perspective. Discuss with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE, what are the communications benefits/challenges/barriers
that you can achieve with this game?
7.1 COMMUNICATION IN OUR DAILY LIVES
Imagine you are alone in your room. You are not sleeping, but yet you are still
thinking about what you are going to do next. You are still recalling about the last
conversation last night, and also news that you have read from The Star
newspaper in the afternoon. You are not going to stop there, it will continue and
keep continuing the moment you are out of the bed. Without even noticing, we are
always involved in a communication process.
The situation above is best to describe „One cannot not communicate‰. This axiom
was coined by Paul Watzlawick in his theory of interpersonal communication,
called Interactional View. This axiom basically says that even if you are not
actually talking, or perhaps not doing anything, you are still communicating.
Communicating, including non-verbal communication plays a huge part and even
when you are not speaking, you are still expressing non-verbal ques, such as facial
expressions, the way you are standing and also your silence.
Maybe we are aware that we are communicating, but do your realise that you are
actually going through a process? One of the best ways to understand
communication process is through its model. Figure 7.1 shows the process of
communication.
134 TOPIC 7 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Figure 7.1:
7.1 A Communication Process (Eunson, 2016)
From this model, there are several elements that need to be introduced to you as
follows:
a. Senders and receivers: whoever; an individual or an organisation that has the

intention to send or disseminate messages to the receivers. However, as
communication involves two ways, the senders are also the receivers.
According to Eunson (2016), the receivers are also known by different names,
depending on the type of communication (Table 7.1).
Table 7.1:
7.1 Receivers of Different Communication Field
Communication field Receivers known as

Interpersonal Communication Listeners
Public Relations Public
Mass Media Audiences, demographics, viewers,
listeners, targets
Organisational Communication Customers, clients, stakeholders
Presentations, Public Speaking Audiences, auditors
Online Communication Users, participants
b. Messages: what are the information that the senders want to deliver to . the
receivers. Messages could be written, spoken, non-verbal, graphics or visual.
c. Encoding: a process of transforming a series of words and symbols, also non-

verbal signals into a message or content.
d. Decoding: a process of interpreting and understanding the message given by

the senders in the intended way.
e. Channels: the means by which messages are conveyed.
f. Noise: anything that distorts the message or creates barriers to commication

e.g. sounds or noise, hearing impairment, mispronunciation etc.
g. Feedback: response from message recipient, turning one-way into two-way

communication.
h. Context: is the situation or which event that communication took place.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Pair with a coursemate. Ask your partner to identify TWO

communication situation (at home or workplace) and give examples of
each of the following elements in that communication process:
(a) Sender/Receiver
(b) Encoding/Decoding
(c) Noise
(d) Context
As mentioned above, we have been involved in various types of communication be

it at home, at the workplace, through social media and any different contexts.
Before going in-depth, let us first go through the five types of communication
(Hybels & Weaver II, 2015), most often used by us.
Table 7. 1:
1 Types of Communication
Types of Communication Descriptions

Intrapersonal Communication a language use and/or thought that
occurs within you, the communicator.
E.g self-talk, monologue
Interpersonal
Interpersonal Communication occurs when you communicate on a
one-to-one basis – usually in an
informal, unstructured setting. E.g.
talking to your spouse, having a heart-
to-heart with your bestfriend.
Small Group Communication occurs when a small number of people
meet to solve a problem. The group
must be small enough so that each
member has a chance to interact with all
other members.
Public Communication the sender-receiver (speaker, e.g. Prime
Minister) sends a message (the speech,
e.g Prime MinisterÊs Office monthly
assembly speech) to an audience (the
staffs).
Intercultural
Intercultural Communication occurs whenever two or more people
from different cultures interact. The
field studies how differences between
people affect their perceptions of the
world, thus, their communication.
Source:
Source Hybels and Weaver II, 2015
Once you understood the process of communication, and also which types of
communication, you can begin to understand why communication does or does
not work. Now, we must also discuss the functions of communication in our daily
life.
7.2 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Verbal and nonverbal are the two common types of communication. Both types
have various functions which will be discussed further in the following sub-
topics.
7.2.1 Functions of Verbal Communication

According to DeFleur et. al. (2014), human being communicate with patterns of
symbols whose meaning are understood by both the individual initiating a
message and the person or persons who perceive, decode and construct its
meanings. Most of the symbols we use in communication everyday are ordinary
words that are formally defined in standard dictionaries in terms of their
denotative meaning
Symbols or „language‰, are socially agreed-upon labels that we use to identify

and arouse conventionalised meanings stored in schemata within our memory
systems. For example, when we put food in our mouths, chew and swallow the
food, it called „eat‰. „Eat, sleep, walk‰ are examples of symbols that can be
defined in meanings that are denotative. So, verbal communication, which
involves spoken and written language, has various significant functions in our
lives, particularly in our communication activities.
Paynton & Hahn (2018), have outlined several functions of verbal

communication as follows:
a. Verbal communication helps us to define reality

We use verbal communication to define ideas, feelings, emotions, situations
and people. Think about how you define yourself. You may define yourself
as a student, employee, son/daughter, parent, advocate, etc. You might also
define yourself as moral, ethical, a night-owl, or a procrastinator. Verbal
communication is how we label and define what we experience in our lives.
These definitions are not only descriptive, but evaluative. Imagine you are
at the beach with a few of your friends. The day starts out sunny and
beautiful, but the tides quickly turn when rain clouds appeared overhead.
Because of the unexpected rain, you define the day as disappointing and
ugly. Suddenly, your friend comments, „What are you talking about, man?
Today is beautiful!‰ Instead of focusing on the weather, he might be
referring to the fact that he was having a good day by spending quality
time with his buddies on the beach, rain or shine. This statement reflects
that we have choices for how we use verbal communication to define our
realities. We make choices about what to focus on and how to define what
we experience and its impact on how we understand and live in our world.
b. Verbal communication helps us organise complex ideas and experiences

into meaningful categories
Consider the number of things you experience with your five primary
senses every day. It is impossible to comprehend everything we
encounter. We use verbal communication to organise seemingly random
events into understandable categories to make sense of our experiences.
For example, we all organise the people in our lives into categories. We
label these people with terms like, friends, acquaintances, romantic
partners, family, peers, colleagues, and strangers. We highlight certain
qualities, traits, or scripts to organise outwardly haphazard events into
meaningful categories to establish meaning for our world.
c. Verbal communication helps us think

With language, we are able to reflect on the past, consider the present,
and ponder the future. We develop our memories using language.
Without verbal communication, we cannot think and also functions as
human being that need reasoning and communicating. In the
2011 Scientific American article, „How Language Shapes Thought,‰ the
author, Lera Boroditsky, claims that people „rely on language even when
doing simple things like distinguishing patches of color, counting dots on
a screen or orienting in a small room: my colleagues and I have found that
limiting peopleÊs ability to access their language faculties fluently–by
giving them a competing demanding verbal task such as repeating a news
report, for instance–impairs their ability to perform these tasks.‰ This may
be why it is difficult for some people to multitask – especially when one
task involves speaking and the other involves thinking.
d. Verbal communication helps us shape our attitudes about our worlds

The way you use language shapes your attitude about the world around
you. When you label, describe, or evaluate events in your life, you use the
symbols of the language you speak. Your use of these symbols to
represent your reality influences your perspective and attitude about the
world. So, it makes sense then that the more sophisticated your repertoire
of symbols is, the more sophisticated your world view can be for you.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Do an observation for three days on your friend or your colleague’s

verbal messages and nonverbal cues. Your observations must include
all the nonverbal cues as mentioned in this module. Then, write a
report and suggest ways to improve the communication behaviours of
your friend / colleague.
7.2.2 Functions of Nonverbal Communication

According to Hybels & Weaver II (2015), nonverbal communication is
information communicated without using words. When we communicate
everyday, 93 percent of communication is nonverbal, with 55 percent sent
through facial expressions, posture and gestures, and 38 percent through tone of
voice.
Figure 7.2:
7.2 Elements of Communication in Our Daily Lives
There are a few types of nonverbal communication but we are not going to
discuss it with details here, as you will learn in other modules throughout your
study, such as ABCC1103 Introduction to Communication and OUMH1303
English for Oral Communication.
Paynton & Hahn (2018) has listed seven types of nonverbal communication such
as follows;
a. Kinesics
The study of how we use body movement, facial expressions and eye
contact. Facial expressions are a primary method of sharing emotions and
feelings, and in some countries, eye contacts shows respect and honesty
while interacting or delivering messages.
Figure 7.4:
7.4 Kinesics
Source https://com322kinesics.wordpress.com/
Source:
b. Haptics
Touch is the first type of nonverbal communication we experience as
humans and is vital to our development and health. We use touch to share
feelings and relational meanings such as hugs, handshakes or while
kidding or playful.
c. Personal Appearance, Objects and Artifacts

The types of nonverbal communication we use on our bodies and
surroundings communicate meaning to others. It is shown through your
hair styles, clothing, jewelry, body size and also fitness style. Objects used
related to our professions, for examples, doctors who wear their lab coats
and stethoscope or uniforms, while artifacts are objects that portrays
achievements or milestone in onesÊ career such as certificates, degrees or
awards.
d. Proxemics
The study of how our use of space influences the ways we relate with
others. Have you realised in some workplace, they provide big rooms for
top management positions while, middle and low positions workers are
placed in cubicles or compartments? It shows power and hierarchial
structure within the companies. On the other hand, there are also spaces we
use to form and maintain relationships. We use intimate space with those
whom we are close (family members, close friends and intimate partners)
which consists of spaces that ranges from touch to eighteen inches. Other
than intimate space is personal space, social space and public space.
Figure 7.5:
7.5 The use of Space
Source:
Source https://blogonlinguistics.wordpress.com/2013/10/25/proxemics-personal-
space/
e. Chronemics
The study of how people use time. Are you a type of person that give high
value to time or not? Are you always punctual or really cherished someone
who are punctual to deal with? The way you use time actually depicted the
person you really are.
f. Paralanguage
Involves vocal qualities such as pitch, volume, inflection, rate of speech and
rhythm. How we say words often expresses greater meaning than the
actual words themselves.
g. Silence
When we do not use words or utterances to convey meanings. Silence is
powerful because the person using silence may be refusing to engage in
communication with you.
Hybels & Weaver II (2015) has outlined four functions of nonverbal

communication, as follows:
a. We use nonverbal cues to complement verbal messages

Nonverbal cues are often use to complement verbal messages by adding to
its meaning. When you are talking to a person who just lost his/her loved
ones to cancer, you might complement by saying „I am truly sorry for your
lost‰ with a hug or a pat touch on the shoulder and a handshake.
b. We use nonverbal cues to regulate verbal communication

It is easier to enter, exit or maintain our interactions with others using
nonverbal message compare to verbal communication. If we want to end a
conversation, for example, we might use gestures like getting out of the
chair, or going back to your computer and typing something, to
communicate that the talk is over.
c. We use nonverbal cues as

as subtitutes for verbal messages
We often substitutes a „yes‰, „no‰ or „good‰ with a head-nod, a head-
shake or even a thumbs up, that are also universally known as nonverbal
cues to all the words.
d. We use nonverbal communication to accent our verbal communication

Lastly, we often use nonverbal communication to emphasise on our verbal
messages. For example, you might get upset with your sisters or brothers
and accent the statement nonverbally as „I am VERY angry with you!‰.
Your emphasis on the word „very‰ shows how you use paralanguage or
tone of voice for your condition.
7.2.3 The Importance of Listening
Listening, is one of the important skills that a person must have. Listening and
hearing are not necessarily the same thing. According to Eunson (2016), a person
with impaired hearing but excellent concentration, high motivation and good
interpersonal skills could well be a better listener that someone with perfect
hearing but wandering concentration, poor motivation and weak interpersonal
skills.
The pie chart of time spent on different communication processes by Rosenblatt,

Cheatham & Watt (1982) (in Eunson, 2016), estimated how most people spent
time in their daily lives communicating.
30%
45% Listening
Reading
Writing
Talking
9%
16%
Figure 7.6: Time spent on different communication process

Source: Eunson (2016)
However, these skills of listening is becoming more important every day because
nowadays, we rarely listen and talk anymore, since the advancement of social
media and most of the communication processes focused around it (refer to
Figure 7.7 for Global Time Spent on Media, reported by World Economic Forum).
Figure 7.7:
7.7 Global Time Spent on Media Per Day, 2014
Source GlobalWebIndex, 2014;Global Social Media Trends 2015, European Publishers
Source:
Council
Referring to the chart above, a total of 61% of social media usage recorded
involving 15% of it through social networking. Social media also included talking
and listening online. Various quality of verbal, nonverbal and listening skills are
not there when experiencing through online.
Why having skills in listening is important for an individual in both professional

and personal situations? Eunson (2016) has justify some of the reasons as the
following:
a. Listening allows us to get the full picture

Reading and listening are sometimes seen as equally important but
listening allows us not only to hear the views of others but to observe the
full range of non-verbal behaviours that accompanies those views – the
ÂmusicÊ to the words. We can also observe the reactions of, and we can
interact with, the speaker, opening up two-way communication to clarify
the message.
b. Listening lets us learn and survive

By restraining our desire to talk, we sometimes learn from talk of others.
We do not need always to reinvent the wheel, because we can learn from
the experiences of others. Instead of making fools of ourselves by jumping
in prematurely before we have heard all the relevant information, the
patient strategy of listening often pays off, and sometimes allows us to look
a lot smarter that we really are.
Source:
Source thequotes.com
c. Listening to others will allow them to solve their

their own problems
Management by listening: a term coined by Iuppa (1986) in Eunson (2016)
defined as allowing others to reach their own solutions by talking through
their problems. Most of us thought that listening to others is a waste of our
time, because the solution to their problems is pretty clear to us, but this is
may be a serious misconception that need to be changed.
d. Listening allows us to cope with distractions and to de-

de-stress
According to Eunson (2016), we all sometimes suffer from information
overload and feel pressured to do more to keep up with the frantic pace of
life. We are surrounded by distractions, and it is very tempting to surrender
to them, thereby shortening our concentration span. Conscious listening
permits us to slow down and process reality in a more meaningful way.
e. Listening to others will probably mean they will listen to us

If only we realised that we are not the only one who have problems, there
are others who need our attentive listening attention. By demonstrating
politeness and empathy is not only worthwhile in itself, but also high
payoff values, setting up a reciprocal relationships.
f. Listening
istening can give us an unfair advantages over others
Just as listening compels us to keep quiet and sometimes saves us from
embarassing ourselves, patient listening can encourage speakers to insert
both feet in their mouth.
SELF CHECK 7.1
(a) What is the difference between listening and hearing?
(b) Why do you think listening is an important skills in today’s

organisation?
7.3 HOW TO BE AN EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATOR?
As we have gone through the process of communication and its functions, we are
now in a condition of becoming more understanding about what effective
communication is all about. According to Eunson (2016), effective
communication depends on being able to match strategies, messages, channels
and audiences and for different channels of communication. The same message
may need to be repackaged for different audiences and for different channels of
communication.
The more communication skills and knowledge you master, the more versatile
you will become as a communicator, and the greater will be the likelihood that
you will be able to communicate effectively in a range of situations.
Communicating differently not only gives you the opportunity to reinforce you
message, but also demonstrates your versatility and competence (Eunson, 2016).
To be an effective communicator, Hybels & Weaver II (2015) suggested five

questions to begin with. What are the five questions?
1. Which Communication Skills Am I Most Likely to Need?

To be an effective communicator, you must first find out about the
communication skills that you really need in your life. For example, you are
a frequent traveller, that travel a lot. You need interpersonal skills with
mastery of English language or any other foreign language. Also
intercultural communication skills is important because it is what you need
when meeting people in other countries.
2. Which Communication Skills Am I Most Lacking?

Which kinds of communication are most difficult for you? Intrapersonal?
Interpersonal? Small Group? Public Speaking? Intercultural? For example,
if you lack skills in public speaking or presentation skills, you must not
avoid it but always familiarise yourself with giving speech in front of
people, be it in a wedding, or in a meeting etc.
3. How Can I Get Communication Practice?

Other than this module or your courses in OUM related to communication,
where is the place that you think might help you to enhance you
communication skills? The best practice for you is to apply what you have
learn in this course in your daily life.
4. Where Can I Get

Get Help?
Who are the people you know that will help you develop communication
skills and give you feedback on how you are doing? Are there people you
can ask who will give you support when you are trying something new and
threatening? Are you willing to ask them to support you?
5. What Timetable Should I Set?

Have you set realistic timetable for improvement? Knowing that it is
difficult to learn new skills or break bad habits, are you willing to sacrifice
time and energy to become an effective communicator?
ACTIVITY 7.4
Do you know that you are free to access Open Educational Resources
(OER) in Communication? You can search in www.google.com and it
will show you thousands of such access provided by various
universities around the globe.
7.4 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
According to Kapur (2018), there are several kinds of barriers to effective

communication, and most barriers occuring within the communication systems
are very unfortunate and unwanted. Most of us find the barriers rather
displeasing and in some cases may have affected the relationships, or
productivity in the workplaces.
1. Environmental and Physical Barriers:

a. Time – to develop quicker and speedy channels of communication.
Some information need to be delivered quickly, especially in todayÊs
modern and fast-pacing world we are living in. For example, mail by
post vs. e-mail.
b. Geographical factors – The biggest barriers in a relationship between
two individuals is often location and distance. To make it worth, an
effective communicator must utilise technology that brings them
closer, and also make the communication going smoothly without
distractions.
2. Semantic Barriers:
Language and vocabulary that is used in communication should be
understandable to the persons involved. Two or more persons when they
are communicating with each other should use common language, so that
everyone can understand it well.
3. Cultural Barriers:
Communication also takes place between people belonging to different
nationalities, religions, castes, creeds, races, ethnicities etc. It is crucial to
make people aware of ones own culture with whom they are
communicating.
4. Psychological Barriers:
In the process of communication, it is important to understand each otherÊs
mindsets and mental capacities. Among the barriers are attitudes towards
speakers or topic of speech, also the audiencesÊ own attitude that are not
interested or unwilling to be in the communication.
5. Perception of Reality:
It is important for a communicator to understand various perceptions of a
situation or an issue. There are different level of perceptions that are
involved when communicating about a particular topic, condition,
problem, issue, situation,, dilemma, stress or a concept. In order to
implement effective communication, it is crucial to obtain „perception
reality‰ which means information about facts, knowledge, figures, actuality
and what is true.
SELF CHECK 7.2
Discuss the barriers to effective communication. Provide relevant

examples.
• Effective communication is important in our daily lives because most of our

time in a day depends on the communication process that happened.
 To be an effective communicator, you must also know about the functions

of verbal communication, nonverbal communication and the importance of
listening.
• There are five questions that you must asked yourself in order to be an
effective communicator. It is also important to identify the barriers that
affect effective communication.
 Environmental and physical, semantic, cultural, psychological as well as

perception of reality are the five barriers to effective communication.
Cultural Barriers Perception of Reality

Effective Communication Psychological Barriers
Environmental and Physical Barriers Semantics Barriers
Listening skills Verbal Communication
Nonverbal Communication
Eunson, Baden. (2016). Communicating in the 21st Century. Qld, Australian:

John Wiley & Sons.
Fluer, M. H., DeFluer, M. L., Kearney, P. & Plax, Timothy, G. (2014). Fundamentals
of Human Communication: Social Sciences in Everyday Life. 4th eds. NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Hybels, S. & Weaver II, R. L. (2015). Communicating Effectively. 11th eds. NY:
McGraw-Hill Education.
The P21 websites, www.p21.org/index.php
Kapur, Radhika (2018). Barriers to Effective Communication.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323794732_Barriers_to_Effecti
ve_Communication
Paynton, Scott. T. & Hahn, Laura, K. (2018). Survey of Communication Study.

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Survey_of_Communication_Study
Topic 8 Collaborative
Skills
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define collaboration and collaborative learning;
2. Elaborate on the benefits of collaborative learning;
3. Compare collaborative learning and cooperative learning; and
4. Discuss about the assessment of collaborative skills.
INTRODUCTION
Let us start this topic with a question. How do you accomplish any task given to you?
You might be doing it alone and you might also sometimes do it with other people.
You might need some skills in order to work effectively with others. Collaborative
skill is one such skill.
Collaborative skill is an important learning skill for the 21st century learning. Today
there is more emphasis on working collaboratively as compared to working alone, in
order to achieve more. Working with others in collaboration creates synergy which
means that we could potentially achieve more when working collaboratively. This
synergistic work through collaboration not only helps us in completing the work but
also enhance our productivity.
Collaboration is also an important educational outcome and it is included in most of

the 21st century education models. The ability to work with others does not only
enhance our learning but also plays a part as a critical skill for life and career success.
TOPIC 8 COLLABORATIVE SKILLS ⊳ 151
Dede (2010) observed that:

„The nature of collaboration is shifting to a more sophisticated skill set. In
addition to collaborating face-to-face with colleagues across a conference
table, 21st century workers increasingly accomplish tasks through mediated
interactions with peers halfway across the world whom they may have never
meet face-to-face. Collaboration is worthy of inclusion as a 21st century skill
because the importance of cooperative interpersonal capabilities is higher and
the skills involved are more sophisticated than in the prior industrial era.‰
(p.2)
Dede in his observation states that we do not only work with others through face-to-
face interaction but we can also work with others who are not physically near us. The
collaborative skill is therefore important as a 21st century skill.
In this topic, we will look at collaborative skills through the discussion on

collaboration and collaborative learning. Collaborative skills are needed and also
attained through collaborative learning. Definition of collaboration and collaborative
skills will be followed by the benefits derived from collaborative learning. There will
also be discussion on the similarities and differences between collaborative learning
and cooperative learning as both of these are the dynamics of team work. We will
also look at some empirical studies on collaborative learning followed by discussion
on the assessment of collaborative skills.
8.1 DEFINITION OF COLLABORATION AND

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
Hesse, Care, Buder, Sassenberg & Griffin (2015) gave a simple definition of
collaboration as „the activity of working together towards a common goal‰ (p. 38).
Collaborative learning is an educational approach to teaching and learning that
involves groups of students working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or
create a product (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 2008). Gerlach (1994) explains that
„collaborative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in
which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that learning
occurs.‰ To sum up the definitions given above, we can say that collaborative
learning is the activity we do by interacting with others to achieve a certain goal or
objective.
Discussion on collaborative learning is underlined by a set of assumptions on the

learning process as put forth by Smith and MacGregor (1992). They are of the opinion
that learning is an active process where we accumulate what we learn and relate it
with what we already know. What we already know is obtained through our prior
learning and kept in our repertoire or collection. So learners will not simply
memorise information and regurgitate or pour it back out but rather go through the
process and synthesize the information they received while engaging actively with
their peers. It is also assumed that learners benefit from the exposure to diverse
viewpoints from other people from various backgrounds. It is also suggested that
152 TOPIC 8 COLLABORATION SKILLS
learning flourishes in a social environment which allows the learners to engage with
each other. This helps the learner create his or her own framework from the learning.
In order to work with others in a collaborative setting, we must be able to
demonstrate the ability to work effectively with various groups which are diverse. To
be able to achieve this, there must be willingness to make necessary compromises so
as to fit in the group and accomplish a common goal. A team member who is
working collaboratively with other members should contribute as much as possible in
assuming shared responsibility and should value the contributions by other team
members. In other words, we will only be able to get the best out of working with
others when we contribute to the group and respect othersÊ contributions.
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. Try to recall your own involvement with tasks done with others,
whether in school, work place or other context.
2. How did you find working with others?
3. Was it easier to work yourself rather than with others?
4. What were your challenges in working with others?
8.2 BENEFIT OF COLLABORATION SKILLS

Collaborative work does not merely help us achieve the target we set. Collaboration
could also potentially lead to other desirable outcomes within an individual or group
setting. This entails skills like problem solving, decision making and helps to enhance
intellectual development. Theories and research tend to investigate how working
within groups of various sizes helps in the attainment of certain cognitive outcomes.
We are now going to discuss some of the benefits of collaborative learning.
Dillenbourg, Baker, Blaye & OÊMalley (1995) describe three conceptual approaches
which benefits the individuals – social constructivist, socio-cultural and shared
cognition.
The first approach is the social constructivist approach which stems from PiagetÊs
work. In this approach, collaboration is viewed as a catalyst for individual studentÊs
cognitive development (Chi & Wylie, 2014; Ernest, 1998; Handal, 2003). The second
approach is the socio-cultural approach which is inspired by Vygotsky that sees social
interactions become internalized as the individual learns (Rogoff, 1991; Wertsch, del
Rio & Alvarez, 1995; Wegerif, Mercer & Daweset, 1999). An instance of this concept is
the Zone of Proximal Development whereby there is a gap between what an
individual can learn by himself or herself versus what he or she could learn under the
guidance of an adult or group of peers. The third approach is the shared cognition (or
Interactionist) approach. This approach emphasises that social interactions are

inseparable from individualÊs thoughts and actions (Plucker and Barab, 2005; Van
den Bossche, Gijselaers, Segers, Wottjer & Kirschner, 2011). The benefit discussed
here covers the thinking or cognitive aspect, the social interaction with others which
leads to learning and the shared thinking through the interaction.
In collaborative learning, we are expected to cooperate with group members and not
compete with them (Laal & Ghodsi, 2012). This is an underlying principle which the
collaborative learning practitioners apply at various settings, including classroom, in
community groups, in committees, in families and generally as a way of living with
and dealing with other people.
According to Johnson and Johnson (2009), there are three ways when individuals take
action in relation to the actions of others. An individual may be:
i. Working together to accomplish shared goals;
ii. Working against each other in a competitive setting to achieve goal that is
scarce and only attainable by one or a few;
iii. Working individualistically by oneself to achieve goals set by self and
unrelated to goals of others.
If we reflect on our own actions, we could be doing either one of these in our
interactions with others. We could be working with others, working in competition
with them or just working on our own.
These researchers (Johnson & Johnson, 2009) found through a survey they conducted
that collaborative learning results in;
 Higher achievement and greater productivity;
 Better relationships through a more caring and supportive behaviour;
 Improved psychological health, social competence and self esteem.
Johnson and Johnson (1989) and Panitz (1999) list over 50 benefits for collaborative
learning. Laal and Ghodsi (2012) summarizes these benefits into four major
categories, as follows:
 Social benefits;
o Collaborative learning helps to develop a social support system for
learners;
o Collaborative learning leads to build diversity understanding among
students and staff;
o Collaborative learning establishes a positive atmosphere for modelling
and practicing cooperation;
o Collaborative learning develops learning communities.
 Psychological benefits:
o Student-centred instruction increases studentsÊ self esteem;
o Cooperation reduces anxiety;
o Collaborative learning develops positive attitudes towards teachers.
 Academic benefits:
o Collaborative learning promotes critical thinking skills;
o Involves students actively in the learning process;
o Classroom results are improved
o Models appropriate student problem solving techniques
o Large lectures can be personalised
o Collaborative learning is especially helpful in motivating students in
specific curriculum
 Alternate student and teacher assessment techniques;
o Collaborative teaching techniques utilize a variety of assessments.
The benefits of collaborative learning as discussed above point towards the

importance of having collaboration learning skill as it brings about good effects not
only to the group we are working with but also to ourselves as individuals.
8.3 SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

COLLABORATIVE LEARNING AND
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
When we work together with others in a team, we could be either collaborating or
cooperating. This is also true for students who are brought together to work with
each other. Working together is regarded as an important element in producing
quality work as well as creating goodwill amongst the people involved. Even though
collaborative learning and cooperative learning involves students or learners in
teams, these two approaches have some similarities and some differences.
In both the collaborative learning and cooperative learning approaches, the

teacher plays the part of a facilitator. Both of these approaches encompass active
learning and the experiences of learning are shared by the student and teacher alike.
Students also take more charge of their learning in both these approaches and their
cognitive skills are enhanced. Students articulate ideas in both these learning and
develop teambuilding skills through their social interactions.
The simplest way to see the difference in both these learning is that
cooperative learning involves each member using their skills and knowledge to help
each other and work together whilst in collaborative learning each member work
separately and come together for a common goal for the team as a whole. In
collaborative learning, the students organise and divide work among them. Each
member will then perform the task given and the sum of all the work will be brought
together as the team effort. In cooperative learning, each member is assigned a
specific role in the activities. Work is done together and that entails the overall team
effort.
In collaborative learning, team members search for their own materials while
in cooperative learning, the facilitator supplies the information or help to direct the
members to where the sources can be acquired. The team as well as the members of
collaborative learning approach are more independent as compared to team members
of cooperative learning approach. The teacher is involved as the facilitator in both
these learning modes. However there is a difference on how actively involved the
facilitator is. The facilitator is generally more actively involved in cooperative
learning compared to collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, the facilitator is
heavily involved in listening and observing the discussion and work being carried
out. In fact, the facilitator also intervenes as and when the need arises. In
collaborative learning, the activities are generally not monitored by the teacher. The
students are left to make their own decisions but they could get assistance if they
request from the facilitator.
In cooperative learning, the work done by the group is submitted for the
teacher or facilitator to review and assess. The facilitator reviews and awards marks
to each member according to their efforts but generally the whole team will enjoy the
same marks. In collaborative learning, the members are involved in the assessment.
They do their own assessment as well as the assessment of their team members. The
facilitator plays a part in awarding the marks to the individual member and also the
team, taking into account the assessments done within the team amongst its
members. In short, the fundamental approach in cooperative learning is teacher-
centredness whereas collaborative learning is more student-centred.
In collaborative learning, the success of the team performance depends on all

the accumulated success of all the team members. Every individual counts and the
contribution of each individual is both important for the individual as well as the
team. A member cannot strive just being excellent individually while not looking at
the performance of the team members. The good members must help develop the
weaker ones so that every member contributes to the highest possible. In cooperative
learning, some members could be good while others might be weak and the good
ones would be able to cover the weakness of the other members. This is a good team
work but those who do not want to develop can just play their minimal role and sail
along the wave created by the more hardworking members. This could lead to an
unbalanced level of performance amongst the members while the team still looks
good overall.
ACTIVITY 8.2
In a group, discuss what kind of learning takes place when

individuals work together in an orchestra performance. Is it
cooperative learning or collaborative learning?
8.4 EMPRICAL STUDIES ON COLLABORATION
There have been numerous studies on the effects of collaborative learning on learners.
However, Kuhn (2015) through his review of research on collaboration found that not
many experimental studies have been conducted. He also found that collaboration
does not appear to benefit every student in every learning situation. Some students
seem to benefit more when they are working individually rather than working in a
group. Another problem is that the collective performance of the team is hard to
determine because some highly competent members might dominate the group
activities. Furthermore, most of the research focused on individual learning in the
group and not on the accomplishments of the groups.
The research on collaborative learning however shows a desirable effect on groups

when investigating the cognitive outcomes of students or learners. It was found that
groups appear less effective when rote-learning which is memorising and pouring it
out is involved in the desired outcomes. On the other hand, the benefit of
collaboration is derived through the feedback and comments by team members on
the individualÊs thinking; collaboration is found to be less effective on adolescents
compared to younger and older learners; more effective collaboration happens in
Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) content compared to
non-STEM content; and when team members need to rely on each other or are
interdependence while carrying out task then student outcomes might be better
(Kuhn, 2015; Kyndt, Raes, Lismont, Timmers, Cascallar & Dochy, 2013; Noroozi,
Weinberger, Biemans, Mulder & Chirazi, 2012).
Research has also been done on the relationship of collaborative learning with the
other skills of the 21st century, particularly creativity and critical thinking skills. There
have been studies to investigate whether working in groups create more creativity
than individuals working alone. The findings are generally negative, with most
studies suggesting that people who work in groups tend to be less creative than those
individuals working alone on similar tasks (Diehl & Stroebe, 1987; Larey & Paulus,
1999; Thompson, 2003; West, Borrill and Unsworth, 1998).
Research found that critical thinking skill, which is another 21st century skill when
combined with collaboration shows that collaboration can help in the enhancement of
critical thinking skills. Gokhale (1995) compared individual student performance and
group performance. Students performed factual knowledge recall tasks and critical
thinking tasks as individuals and also as a group. Both the individual and group
approaches were found to be effective in increasing factual knowledge. On the other
hand, it was found that collaborative learning was significantly more beneficial to
enhance critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Research on collaboration and critical thinking is important as it shows that the same
type of activity may not yield the same effects when it is done in a group and when
students are collaborating. This simply means that even when students are working
in a group, it may not necessarily mean that they are collaborating. On the contrary,
students may be working collaboratively but not together in the same place.
8.5 ASSESSMENT OF COLLABORATIVE SKILLS
The assessment of collaboration learning is an important process but it also has some
challenges. A few questions crop up regarding the assessment of collaborative
learning. In the assessment, is it the individual or the group outcomes which is more
important as a result of collaboration? What about the individualÊs ability to work
with others in the group? Webb (1997) asserted that the assessments traditionally
have been interested in either the individual or group outcomes. However, there have
been more emphasis and focus recently on the ability of individuals to work with
other members in the group.
The challenge in the assessment of collaboration skills is on how to determine the

individual performance. It is a question of how to assign marks or scores to each
individual member in a particular group to ensure that the real competency is
measured. This might be easier to tackle in a small group but it becomes a real
challenge in large-scale assessments. Binkley et al. (2012) presented the operational
definitions of collaboration and divide these into knowledge, skills and attitudes as
three main areas of assessment. The three main areas are then detailed into several
behavioural measures which are further described. The detailed definitions by
Binkley et al. (2012) are presented as follows;
Knowledge
 Interact effectively with others
o Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak
 Work effectively in diverse teams
o Know and recognize the individual roles of a successful team and
know own strengths and weaknesses, and recognizing and accepting
them in others
 Manage projects
o Know how to plan, set, and meet goals and to monitor and re-plan in
the light of unforeseen developments
Skills
o Speak with clarity and awareness of audience and purpose. Listen
with care, patience, and honesty
o Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner
o Leverage social and cultural differences to create new ideas and
increase both innovation and quality of work
 Manage projects
o Prioritise, plan, and manage work to achieve the intended group result
 Guide and lead others
o Use interpersonal and problem-solving skills to influence and guide
others toward a goal
o Leverage strengths of others to accomplish a common goal
o Inspire others to reach their very best via example and selflessness
o Demonstrate integrity and ethical behaviour in using influence and
power
Attitudes/values/ethics
o Know when it is appropriate to listen and when to speak
o Conduct themselves in a respectable, professional manner
o Show respect for cultural differences and be prepared to work
effectively with people from a range of social and cultural
backgrounds
o Respond open-mindedly to different ideas and values
 Manage projects
o Persevere to achieve goals, even in the face of obstacles and competing
pressures
 Be responsible to others
o Act responsibly with the interests of the larger community in mind
In 2015, for the first time, the Programme for International Student Assessment
(PISA), included a collaborative problem-solving component in the assessment.
Previously, in 2012, PISA only assessed individual studentÊs ability to solve
problems. The shift is made to address the growing emphasis on collaborative
learning and students who are able to work more effectively in team environments.
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. Why are collaborative learning and collaboration skills so

important that even PISA assesses it?
2. Will it be more advantageous for certain culture, people, society or
nations that have more people practicing collaboration? Discuss.
8.6 ENHANCING THE COLLABORATIVE

LEARNING
Collaborative learning could be enhanced with concerted efforts at every level of the
learning. Various efforts could be taken from the classroom level up to the national
level to ensure that the collaborative learning initiatives are well executed and
maximum benefits are reaped.
The Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21) which is a national nonprofit
organisation in The United States that advocates for 21st century readiness for every
student, presented six education levels for collaborative learning initiatives. Each of
the levels is discussed with focus on three important aspects – intervention,
assessment and evaluation. This section will discuss these aspects on the six levels,
namely; classroom, school, out-of-school, school district, state and national.
The first level is the classroom. The classroom intervention determines the extent to
which collaboration is being developed and modelled in classroom environment. This
should be supported by embedding opportunities for collaboration into the
classroom culture. For the assessment, collaboration should be embedded into all
aspects of student learning, curriculum and instruction. The classroom facilitator
should also address the diverse abilities of the students and ways of collaboration.
Evaluation in the classroom should focus on both the student collaboration and team
building skills. Results from regular assessment of studentÊs growth should be
reported to the parents.
The second level is the school. The school level intervention should examine how
collaboration is taught and demonstrated across classrooms and grades. The school
should focus its educational goals on collaboration as both, a process and an outcome.
The assessment of collaboration skills should be given high priority. The school
should develop a common vision, plan and strategy to be included in teaching and
learning.
The third level is out-of-school. In out-of-school level or context, learning activities

should be redesigned to close gaps in ensuring that these support both collaborative
and individual learning experiences. The assessment should incorporate
collaboration into programmes , activities and services while supporting the building
of staff capacity through professional development and professional learning
communities. In evaluation, efforts should be done to encourage student growth in
collaboration as integral part of programme outcomes. Evidence of collaborative
learning experiences should be documented.
The fourth level is the school district. At the school district level, the intervention
should include determining how resources are used to promote collaboration in
learning spaces and culture. Resources should be allocated as needed and there
should be encouragement of mediated interactions and blended learning
opportunities. As for the assessment, resources should be provided to schools to
incorporate collaboration into teaching and learning. Evaluation at this level will
include efforts to develop and support 21st century assessment data systems for
educators, parents and students.
The fifth level is the state. At the state level, there should be promotion of teaching
practices and learning environments that promote collaboration. As for the
assessment, the state should provide the districts with curricular and instructional
resources as well as professional development initiatives. The evaluation at the state
level should include the development of collaboration rubrics to assess student
growth. There should be efforts to incorporate evaluation of collaboration skills in all
assessments and promote collaboration as a critical student outcome.
The sixth level is the national level. At this level, there should be continuous support
for the ongoing research on effective collaboration. Resources should be developed to
help promotion of collaboration for learning. For the assessment, there should be
efforts towards funding of research and development projects on interventions which
will increase the studentsÊ collaboration skills. The evaluation effort at this level
should support the development of high quality collaboration assessments and
rubrics.
ACTIVITY 8.4
Discuss on the role you could play in enhancing the collaborative
learning at the various levels discussed above. Who else could play a
role in doing the initiatives?
SELF CHECK 8.1
(a) What is the collaboration and collaborative learning?

(b) What are the benefits of collaborative learning?
(c) Describe the differences between collaborative learning and
cooperative learning.
(d) What are the main areas can be measure using assessment of
collaboration?
• Collaborative skill is essential in the 21st century as it develops teams and

enhances productivity.
 In collaborative learning, the learners actively use their prior learning to acquire
more knowledge and benefit from the diverse viewpoints of others working
with them.
 Collaborative learning results in higher achievement and greater productivity,

both for the individual as well as the team.
 In cooperative learning, each individual plays his or her role in part of the task
and work is done together while in collaborative learning, each individual
works on a part but may work separately. The parts are then brought together
to form the whole.
 The research on collaborative learning shows a desirable effect on groups when

cognitive outcomes are investigated – often from the feedback and discussion
on a learner’s thinking.
 Students might be working in a group but that does not necessarily mean that
they are collaborating. On the other hand students may be working
collaboratively but not together in the same place.
 The challenge in assessing collaborative skills is in determining the individual

performance. Collaboration could be assessed through knowledge, skills and
attitudes/values/ethics.
 The P21 proposes six education levels for collaborative learning initiatives,
namely; classroom, school, out-of-school, school district, state and national.
 Each level is discussed with focus on three important aspects – intervention,

assessment and evaluation.
 Collaboration skills will be an important asset in any learner of the 21st century.
Assessment – knowledge, skills and Cooperative learning

attitudes Evaluation
Collaborative learning Intervention
Collaborative skills
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Topic Global
Citizenship
9 Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss Global Citizenship Education (GCED) and its importance in

the 21st century;
2. Analyse the roles of the state in globalisation;
3. Explain the international conflicts in the post-Cold War; and
4. Elaborate on gender equality in the world.
INTRODUCTION
The more global citizens there are, and the more ctive and effective they
are, the more progress the world will make.
Bill Gates,
(Founder of Microsoft)
Welcome to Topic 9. This topic will be divided into four parts. Firstly, this topic
will discuss on Global Citizenship Education and its importance in the 21st
century. In the subtopic, learners will be exposed to the definition of Global
Citizenship Education, the objectives and lastly its importance. Next, this topic
will focus on the roles of the state in globalisation. The question to ponder is
whether the role of the state will be more powerful or the other way round due to
globalisation.
166 TOPIC 9 GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
Equally important in this topic is international conflicts in the post-Cold War era
in particular the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait that occcurred in the early
1990s as well as the Libya Civil War that has happened in 2012. These two
conflicts are selected for the purpose of discussion because the former happened
right after the collapse of the Berlin Wall, followed by the political and economic
instabilities in Soviet Union which signified the road to the end of the Cold War.
Meanwhile, the latter was the democratic uprising by the people that began in
late December 2010 in Tunisia and spread to many other Arab countries
including in Libya as a result of long-term suffering by the oppressive regimes
and discrimination and low standard of living. This democratic uprising is also
known as the Arab Spring. Finally, this topic will delve into gender equality in
the 21st century from the political and economic aspects.
9.1 GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION AND

ITS IMPORTANCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY
What is the global citizenship education? Why do we need to learn this topic? Is it
another topic telling people what to think and act? Before we delve into these
issues, letÊs begin our discussion with a brief background of the global citizenship
education or better known as GCE or GCED. In this topic, the abbreviation of
GCED will be used instead of GCE to avoid any confusion.
In September 2012, the then UN Secretary-General, Mr Ban Ki Moon has launched

Global Education First Initiative (GEFI) through the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) to promote global citizenship
education. The GEFI aims to foster global citizenship as one of its three education
priorities. The other two priorities are to put every child in school and to improve
the quality of learning (Global Education first Initiative).
After that, in 2013, two main UNESCO events which are the Technical
Consultation on Global Citizenship Education and the ﬁrst UNESCO Forum on
Global Citizenship Education held in Seoul, Republic of Korea and Bangkok,
Thailand respectively. These two documents provided foundation works for
GCED and in support of GEFI. For further details of these documents, you may
refer to these website
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002241/224115E.pdf and
http://www.unescobkk.org/education/news/article/unesco-forum-on-global-
citizenship-education/.
Two years later in May, in Incheon, Republic of Korea, the Incheon Declaration
was adopted at the World Education Forum (WEF). The Incheon Declaration has
emphasised the commitment of the education community to Education 2030 and
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development to recognise the important role
TOPIC 9 GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION ⊳ 167
played by education, consists one goal that is explicitly committed to Sustainable

Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) for the development in the world.
The next milestone of the emergence of GCED can be traced back to the adoption
of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) during UN General Assembly on September 2015 as
the UN celebrates its seven decades of establishment. The 2030 Agenda constitutes
17 goals. For instance, Goal 4 „Quality EducationÊ. There are seven targets under
this goal and three means of implementation. In target 4.7:
ÂBy 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to
promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education
for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender
equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and
appreciation of cultural diversity and of cultureÊs contribution to sustainable
development‰
(Sustainable Development Goal 4)
This goal apparently highlights the importance of GCED and its strategies for the
next fifteen years.
Figure 9.1:
9.1 Sustainable Development Goals
Source:
Source http://www.peace-ed-campaign.org/17-ways-education-influences-the-un-
sustainable-development-goals/
What is global citizenship education?
According to the document of the Technical Consultation on Global Citizenship

Education 2013, GCED is transformative, giving learners the opportunity and
competencies to realise their rights and obligations to promote a better world and
future (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002241/224115E.pdf).
Furthermore, GCED also focuses on learning from other transformative education
processes, like human rights, inter-national or intercultural understanding,
sustainable development as well as education for peace.
So, based on the above definitions, it can be said that GCED empowers learners to
think, share and act for a more just, peaceful, inclusive and sustainable world.
Moving on, letÊs discuss the objectives of the GCED.
The fundamental objective of GCED is to nurture respect for all, build a sense of
belonging to a common humanity and help learners to become responsible and
active global citizens. Nevertheless, the other aims of GCED are to empower
learners so that they can engage and assume active roles, both locally and globally;
to face and resolve global challenges and ultimately to become proactive
contributors to a more just, peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable
world (UNESCO, 2014). The GCED has three main conceptual dimensions which
are cognitive, socio-emotional and behaviour. The details of these three main
conceptual dimensions are explained in Table 9.1 below.
Table 9.1 Three main conceptual dimensions of GCED

Cognitive To acquire knowledge, understanding and critical thinking about
global, regional, national and local issues and the
interconnectedness and interdependency of different countries and
populations.
Socio-emotional To have a sense of belonging to a common humanity, sharing
values and responsibilities, empathy, solidarity and respect for
differences and diversity.
Behavioural To act effectively and responsibly at local, national and global
levels for a more peaceful and sustainable world.
Source:
Source UNESCO, 2015
Importance of GCED
You may ask why the GCED is important when there are so many issues
happening locally and at the same time global issues concentrated mainly in the
developing world. Well, the importance of the GCED is due to increasing pressure
to expand the role of education to address global problems. Hence, the role of
education in the 21st century should go beyond standard topics traditionally that
has been taught in the classrooms or lecture halls. Nevertheless, an education that
goes beyond the classroom or lecture hall is what our „educated‰ societies should
be focused on in the 21st century. The theories, concepts or even models that have
been taught in the classrooms or lecture halls provide us with the knowledge, yet
these are not sufficient. It is time for us as a global citizen to live with these
theories, concepts or models in our daily life. For instance, the education of the
sustainable development should not be taught per se, but it should focus on how
people should react and practice in their daily life. In fact, we were taught a long
time ago on the 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle) of the environment. However, it
is 5Rs or even 6Rs now. The correct order of 5Rs are Refuse, Reduce, Reuse,
Repurpose, Recycle. Meanwhile, the 6Rs are Reduce, Rethink, Refuse, Recycle,
Reuse and Repair.
Next, according to Mr Ban Ki-moon, former UN Secretary-General during the

launch of the Secretary GeneralÊs Global Education First Initiative (GEFI):
„Education gives us a profound understanding that we are tied together as citizens
of the global community, and that our challenges are interconnected‰
(https://cisv.org/resources/educational-content-research/active-global-
citizenship/).
Evidently, it shows the world that we are living in now is more complex and
challenging. The world has become more interdependent and interconnected. Any
actions that happen locally will have effects not only on our community, our city,
but on all of us, the world itself. Therefore, we must understand each other, live as
one global citizen and prepare our younger generation to find the solutions for the
challenges in this interconnected world.
Source:
Source Photo from the authorÊs file
Nevertheless, according to Toh Swee-Hin, Laureate of the UNESCO Prize for Peace
Education in 2000: „Important entry points for GCED are peace education, human
rights education, education for international understanding, education for
sustainable development. They are like a river with many tributaries; in this river
we can mix and learn from each other.‰ (UNESCO, 2014). Thus, the GCED will
help us to develop the attitudes to care and empathy for others in this mutual
environment. For instance, human rights issues in Palestine conflict has yet to be
resolved since the establishment of the „Israel‰ on 14 May 1948. This conflict is not
about ÂtheirÊ conflict. It is „our‰ conflict. The systematic oppression and
discrimination are happening daily against the Palestinians. As a global citizen and
through GCED, we can play our roles to create awareness and make our
community aware of this issue.
Without a doubt, literacy and numeracy are important, but we must not only
emphasise on education that can be measured, but equally important to delve into
the issues like, change, interdependence, identity and diversity, rights and
responsibilities, peace building, poverty and wealth, diversity, sustainability and
global justice which contribute to, contemporary global issues at local, national and
global levels as informed, engaged, responsible and responsive global citizens.
Every year, we have more architects, accountants, engineers, dentists and many
others, but how many of these people are the agents of the positive change in this
world. How many of them are aware of the trade war between China and the US,
the Syrian Crisis, the ethnic conflicts in Yemen that are resulting in the food crisis,
global warming and many others? Hence, through GCED, we will be more
emphatic, compassionate, adaptable, tolerance of what is happening be it locally or
internationally.
The national educational context is important in integrating GCED into the

educational systems of any country (be it the school curriculum, training
curriculum of teachers and school administrators and in the non-formal training
programs of both governmental and non-governmental organizations) (Plantilla,
2018). It is because GCED is not about „you‰ or „I‰, but rather „we‰ and „us‰. As
mentioned earlier, GCED is not alien in our educational context as it has already
been in our education syllabus since primary and secondary levels like in
Language subjects, History, Geography, Civil Education because the themes of
GCED revolves on peace education, poverty, human rights, cultural diversity and
many others.
In conclusion, GCED is not a passive learning process on cosmopolitanism, but to

promote understanding leading to action among the global citizens locally and
internationally. GCED is not static, but dynamic. GCED enables the learners to be
more sensitive, proactive and alert to political, social, cultural and economic world
realities as they unfold. According to George Santayana: „A manÊs feet should be
planted in his country, but his eyes should survey the world‰
(https://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/george_santayana_125570).
Consequently, there is a need that the themes of GCED should be embedded into
education syllabus of any course as it can cultivate respect for the world and each
other, to provide our citizens with the understanding of a diverse world, to
respond to the unfamiliar with empathy, to empower youth to lead our societies,
to embrace peace, to activate civil participation, to enjoy our differences. According
to Education Minister, Dr Maszlee Malik, in line with the Malaysian Education
Development Plan to enable every student to leave school as a global citizen, with
core and universal values and a strong Malaysian identity
(http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2018/09/30/student-exchange-programme-
important-development-national-education-maszlee).
SELF-CHECK 9.1
(a) Explain what ‘global citizenship’ is in your own words.

(b) What are the common characteristics of the global citizenship
definitions?
(c) Identify FOUR sub-themes of global citizenship education.
(d) What are the core dimensions of GCED?
ACTIVITY 9.1
(a) Share an experience that made you feel a sense of belonging to

the global community.
(b) In your opinion, should the Ministry of Education make Global
Citizenship Education (GCED) as a compulsory course in tertiary
education? Discuss your arguments with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE.
(c) How can GCED be implemented at local, national and global
levels?
(d) What is the change that you as a learner want to bring about as a
global citizen in the world?
9.2 IS THE STATE 'POWERLESS' IN

GLOBALISATION?
Undeniably, ÂglobalisationÊ is the contested terminology among the scholars in
international relations. LetÊs take a look at a few definitions on globalisation.
Definition of globalisation
The word ÂglobalisationÊ is widely used, but what does it mean? First of all,
globalisation can be referred to as the growing interconnectedness of
governments, non-state actors and populations throughout the world through a
variety of political, economic, technological, cultural, environment and other
interactions (Klesner,2014).
According to Anthony McGrew (2017) „Globalisation – simply the widening,

deepening and speeding up of worldwide interconnectedness – is a contentious
issue in the study of world politics.
Furthermore, globalisation can also be defined as „the intensification of

worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local
happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa‰
(Giddens, 1990).
Fundamentally, there is a general agreement about the definition of globalisation.

Globalisation is the process whereby the world is getting smaller and
interconnected in many ways such as culture, human activities and trade.
Globalisation has been around for centuries and it is not something new in the
world. Government policymakers, party leaders, business and industry,
academia, trade union leaders and the mass media all talk about the impact of
globalisation and how it can change our lives. Many people see international
trade and investment growth as globalisation in the past two decades.
Globalisation is pushing down national borders and integrating the global
economy. Some people refer to globalisation as a "global village." The perception
of whether"globalisation" is good or bad, is still a matter of opinion.
The original state role was created from the Westphalian Model, portraying the
state as the highest power with complete sovereignty, with an internal role to
provide to and govern for the people of the state and an external role as an actor
in world politics; the current role of the state is different politically, socially,
technologically and economically (Buchanan, 2012). However, globalisation has
altered the function of the state politically as it has strengthened the relationship
between the states and resulted to the dependency among one another. States
were created to be sovereign but now, due to globalisation, often give their
sovereignty away to ÂpoolingÊ (Shaw, 2000, 185) in conventions, contracting,
coercion and imposition (Krasner, 1995/6).
Globalisation has resulted in the state that has to encounter the challenges
beyond their geographical boundaries. For instance, the Syrian Civil War which
originated starting with peaceful demonstration by the Syrian pro-democracy
activists on March 2011 after one of the 15 boys that were arrested was killed
because the Syrian armies brutally tortured him. President Syria, Bashar al-Assad
has responded to the mass protest by killing hundreds of demonstrators and
imprisoning others involved in the mass demonstrations. Due to globalisation,
this incident has spread across the world. Foreign interventions like Hezbollah,
the majority of Shia in Iraq and Iran has rented the support to Bashar al-AssadÊs
regime, while, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar have backed the insurgent groups
against the Assad government. These foreign interventions have caused the state
not only have to delve with the pressure of the internal civilians, but also external
intervention. The war itself excited European Muslims and led many to
volunteer, often seeing themselves as would-be freedom fighters rather than
clandestine terrorists. (Byman February 27, 2018). Inevitably, it started as the civil
war, but now with the backing of foreign interventions, this internal war has
lasted for almost nine years and there is still no sign that this civil war will end
anytime soon.
Today, there are many non-state actors like the United Nations (UN), World
Bank (WB), Multinational Corporations (MNCs) besides the state are affecting
international politics due to the globalisation. The state remains central and
important in the international system, but its role is clearly transforming. The
role of the state has been transformed from the controller to the protector. This
can be seen especially in the political and economic sector. Politically, the state
will protect its political system, while economically, the state will have to
diversify its economic activities in order to attract the foreign direct investor at
the same time not jeopardising its infant economy activities. For instance, China
was once on its own land, but in 1979, it has implemented Open Door Policy to
attract foreign investors to invest and expand their businesses in China to speed
up the growth of the economy. At the same time, the political system is
remaining as it is since the independence in 1949 which are a unitary state with a
one-party system controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CPC).
Globalisation has created imbalances between the states. Certain states become so
powerful and vice-versa. In fact, "in recent decades an imbalance has emerged
between successful efforts to craft strong and well-enforced rules facilitating the
expansion of global markets, while support for equally valid social objectives, be
they labour standards, the environment, human rights or poverty reduction, has
lagged behind" (UN, 2000, Millennium Report, A/54/2000). Consequently,
globalisation has opened up developing countryÊs markets to skew competition
with multinationals which has ensured that most of the wealth of such countries
end up in the developed world. In exchange, the developing country is left with
more unemployment, poverty and diseases.
The states can become powerful if the citizens of the states can seize the
opportunities of globalisation. The citizens are required to access to higher
quality education system, information and communication technologies (ICT),
social security nets and many others. Meanwhile, the role of the government is
equally important too. The government can provide affordable access and good
coverages to these services to the citizens. Although it will be a daunting task for
the developing states due to lack of the facilities and accessibility, but the
government can minimise the cost of globalisation by strengthening the state
institutions and social welfare policies for its citizens.
The negative impact that globalisation brings also cannot be neglected at all.
Globalisation increased the risk of the various countries' economies, particularly
the developing countries where the economic sovereignty and economic security
are faced with the new challenges. The South-North economic gap further
widens. Even if in developed country, because of the change of economic
structure, the application of sophisticated technology leads to the lesser use of
labour in the production line. Consequently, it has resulted in a higher
unemployment rate. The trade protectionism of all forms has been on the rise.
Some countries also take the opportunity of globalisation, to promote their own
values, the economic regime and social systems to other country forcefully and
thus erode the values of the receiving countries. If these issues cannot be solved,
globalisation can be perceived as an unhealthy development to the state.
In conclusion, the phenomenon of globalisation did not make the state becomes
powerless, but it actually expands and strengthen the roles of the state itself. The
state is still remain central in the international system despite the challenges from
non-state actors as well as the phenomenon of globalisation. This is because, in
world of global enmeshment, simply to achieve domestic objectives national
governments are forced to engage in extensive multilateral collaboration and
cooperation. (Baylis, Smith & Owens, 2016). Undeniably, the roles of the state
have transformed, but no means to become ÂpowerlessÊ. The state has to become
more proactive and dynamics or else the sovereignty of the state is at stake.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
(a) In your own words, explain the definition of globalisation.

(b) Based on this subtopic, identify at least THREE features of
globalisation.
(c) Why must there be “globalisation”?
(d) What is the role of the state in managing globalisation?
ACTIVITY 9.2
(a) Reflect on the impacts of globalisation in your country.

(b) Select any ONE developing country in the world, how globalisation
has influenced that countryÊs government policy?
(c) In your opinion, how is the role of the state in globalisation today
different from fifty years ago? Discuss with your coursemates in
myINSPIRE.
(d) Do you think globalisation can happen without the Internet?
Discuss.
9.3 INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS: THE POST-

COLD WAR
According to Muzaffer Ercan Yilmaz (2007), post-Cold War signified the
emergence of the intra-state conflict rather than inter-state conflict. The former
delves into the conflicts that happens within the border of state, while the latter is
the conflict happening between two or more states. Even, the numbers of the
inter-state have declined, but it does not mean, it is not significant. Hence, there
will be two case studies on the inter-state and intra-state conflict. For inter-state
conflict, we will be focusing on the conflict between Iraq and Kuwait or better
known as Iraq and the Persian Gulf War 1990-1991. In contrast, for intra-state
conflict, the Libya Civil War in 2012 will be our main discussion.
Iraq and the Persian Gulf War 1990-

1990-1991
The Gulf War was not the first war in the Gulf region. In fact, the first Gulf War
occurred between Iran-Iraq in 1980 till 1988. However, the Gulf War between
Iraq and Kuwait was indeed the first Gulf War during the post-Cold War period.
The Gulf War or Operation Desert Storm erupted when Iraq led by Saddam
Hussein attacked Kuwait on 2 August 1990. The attack on Kuwait guaranteed
both the financial and military legacy of Iraq. KuwaitÊs oil riches would empower
the Iraqi administration to revive the state and to pay its war debt incurred
during the Iran-Iraq (1980 to 1988) with the Arab countries. The genuine victory
over Kuwait would assure the case of triumph over Iran. The invasion was
additionally seen as an approach to extend Iraqi authority over Kuwait as well as
over the Gulf as a whole. Consequently, the invasion by SaddamÊs regime has
granted them to direct oil costs and quantities to serve its economic interests.
More importantly, with its aggressive military power and economic capability, it
would allow Iraq to become the most powerful state in the Middle East.
Despite the UN resolutions, diplomatic moves, the freezing of IraqÊs and

KuwaitÊs assets, and the imposition of sanctions aimed at forcing the voluntary
withdrawal by Iraq, Kuwait remained under Iraq's control. However, after the
launch of Operation Desert Storm by the US, finally a ceasefire was declared. The
aftermath of this war saw Kuwait liberated, and Iraq suffered the loss of life and
mass destruction of their infrastructure. This war also marked the beginning of
the „New World Order‰.
Libya Civil War

Amongst those countries affected by the 2010–2011 Arab Spring was Libya
despite its President Colonel Muammar GaddafiÊs assurance that his people
would not revolt against him unlike other Arab nations. The Libyan peopleÊs
nationwide uprising against the more than four decades (1969–2011) ruling of the
autocratic regime of Gaddafi began in January 2011. Initially, it started as
nonviolent protests simultaneously with other protests in the Arab Spring. It had
taken weeks before violence broke out in clashes between the police and the
protesters on the streets of Libya beginning from 17 February 2011 (Danahar,
2013). Consequently, Libyan oppositions started to form what became known as
the National Transitional Council to unite efforts to bring about a change of
ruling in Libya. This was achieved by bringing down the regime through civil
disobedience in February 2011. Due to the extensive opposition and uprising of
the people – even amongst officials who used to serve in the government –
GaddafiÊs forces started losing its control of several cities in eastern Libya,
starting with Benghazi (Danahar, 2013).
In March 2011 GaddafiÊs army began to counter the uprising by using force
which resulted in regaining many territories which had been previously lost to
the opposition. Gaddafi intensified its campaign against the remaining main
bastion of the opposition forces in Benghazi with a stronger force. The
involvement of foreign powers such as the US, UN and also NATO not only
ended Muammar GaddafiÊs 42-year rule over Libya but also caused him to be
killed in the battle of Sirte. He was the only leader who was murdered in the
Arab Spring.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
(a) What are the assumptions of the post-Cold War?

(b) What is the difference between inter-state conflict and intra-state
conflict? Provide examples.
(c) Identify the causes that resulted in the eruption of the Libya Civil
War.
(e) What were the effects of the Libya Civil War?
ACTIVITY 9.3
(a) What are the differences between conflict, war and crisis? Provide
examples to support your understanding.
(b) Based on the case study on „Iraq and the Persian Gulf War 1990-
1991‰, do you think the intervention of the US in the Persian Gulf
War 1990–1991 was legitimate? Discuss.
(c) Do you think the current condition in Iraq is better than when it was
under the administration of Saddam Hussein? Discuss your answer
with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum.
(d) Select any TWO (2) academic journal articles regarding the intra-
state conflicts that occurred after the Cold War era, then write a
review for both the articles in less than 200 words.
9.4 GENDER EQUALITY IN THE 21ST

CENTURY
First and foremost, what is meant by gender equality? What is gender equality in
the 21st century? What is the importance of gender equality? These and more
will be discussed in the following paragraph. Before, we delve into the detail of
what is gender equality, letÊs start with the term gender. According to the World
Health Organisation (WHO), gender refers to the socially constructed
characteristics of women and men – such as norms, roles and relationships of and
between groups of women and men (http://www.who.int/gender-equity-
rights/understanding/gender-definition/en/).
On the other hand, gender equality is associated with sustainable development

and it is important to achieve human rights for all in the world regardless
gender. In todayÊs world, sometimes, gender is thought to be synonymous with
women (Tickner, 2017, p. 266).
Gender equality is an important development objective by itself and it is closely

related to economic development (World Bank, 2011; Duflo, 2012). The
importance of achieving gender equality within and outside the household has
been recently reaffirmed in the recently adopted Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs)
(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld).
There are 17 goals of sustainable development under the new sustainable

development agenda to be achieved in the next 15 years to end poverty, to
preserve and conserve the planet as well as to ensure the prosperity for
everybody living in this world from 2015 to transform our world for a better
place to live. Of the 17 goals, one of the goals is gender equality. Under Goal 5,
Gender Equality, is to achieve gender equality and empower all women and
girls. The overall objective of gender equality is a society in which women and
men enjoy the same opportunities, rights and obligations in all spheres of life.
Among other targets to be achieved by 2030, the fifth SDG calls for the
recognition of unpaid work, equal access to ownership, and „equal opportunities
for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic and public
life‰.(Spotlight on Sustainable Development Goal 5: Achieve gender equality and
empower all women and girls)
„For me, a better democracy is a democracy where women do not only have the
right to vote and to elect but to be elected.‰·Michelle Bachelet, former head of
UN Women, former president and defence minister of Chile, in The New York
Times
(Torregrosa, 2012)
According to the Demographic Statistics Second Quarter (Q2) 2018, Malaysia has
a population of 15,663.4 million women equivalent to 48.37 percent of the total
population, which stands at 32,385.0 million (Demographic Statistics Second
Quarter (Q2) 2018, Malaysia). However, womenÊs representation in party
leadership, especially in the Parliament of Malaysia, is very low. Even after the
New Malaysia is formed after May 2018 under Tun Dr MahathirÊs leadership,
there are only 32 women or 16.36 per cent has been elected into the House of
Representative (Dewan Rakyat) though there is an increase of nine women as
compared to DatoÊ Sri Najib RazakÊs administration. Also, for the first time in the
history of Malaysia, we have the female Deputy Prime Minister which is Dato'
Seri Dr Wan Azizah binti Dato' Dr Wan Ismail. Undoubtedly, the level of
women's formal political representation in Malaysia is low and does not reach
the 30 percent quota as endorsed by the Economic and Social Council during the
United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China in
September 1995. Logically, if women make up 48% of the total population in
Malaysia, by right, it should have 48% of representation in all policymaking
levels. In the international arena, according to Inter-Parliamentary Union, as of
1st October 2018, there are 48 countries in the world that have more than 30%
female representation in the Lower or single house with Rwanda on the top of
table which has 49 women or 61.3 per cent, followed by Cuba, Bolivia, Mexico
and Grena. Timor Leste is the only AsiaÊ country that surpassed the 30% quota of
women representation in the Lower House. (For further info,
http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm).
Political aspect aside, the economic aspect of gender equality should be taken
seriously. In most of the countries, women are discriminated. They are not
allowed to work. Even, if they are allowed to work, their salary is underpaid
compared to the amount of work given to them. This fact is not understated.
According to the Institute for WomenÊs Policy Research, in 2017, female full-time,
year-round workers made only 80.5 cents for every dollar earned by men, a
gender wage gap of 20 percent (Pay equity & discrimination). However, there is a
light at the end of every tunnel. Beginning 1 January 2018, Iceland is the first
country in the world that enforces equal payment of salary between men and
women. In the event that the employer pays women less than men, they are
risked to get fine by the government. Evidently, Iceland has been ranked by the
World Economic Forum (WEF) as the world's most gender-equal country for the
last nine years (In Iceland, it's now illegal to pay men more than women, 2018).
In conclusion, the advocacy of gender equality is about the human rights and
inclusiveness. The equal rights regardless of gender, whether male or female in
all spheres of life. How can a country develop when the society is discriminated
and marginalised economically, politically and socially?
ACTIVITY 9.4
(a) Recently, you were asked to give a talk on „Gender Equality of the
work place in the 21st Century‰. Prepare the draft of the talk and
share it with your classmates in myINSPIRE.
(b) Design an interactive activity in myINSPIRE that emphasise on the
importance of gender equality
SELF-CHECK 9.4
(a) In your own words, explain the meaning of gender equality.

(b) Why do you think the term gender equality is always associated
with the equality of women with man and not the other way?
• Global Citizenship Education (GCED) empowers learners to think, share

and act for a more just, peaceful, inclusive and sustainable world.
• There are three core conceptual dimensions of GCED which are cognitive,
socio-emotional and behavioural.
 The themes of GCED should be embedded into education syllabus of any
course as it can cultivate respect for the world and each other, to provide
our citizens with the understanding of a diverse world, to respond to the
unfamiliar with empathy, to empower youth to lead our societies, to
embrace peace, to activate civil participation, to enjoy our differences.
 Globalisation is the process whereby the world is getting smaller and
interconnected in many ways such as culture, human activities and trade.
 The phenomenon of globalisation did not make the state becomes
powerless, but it actually expands and strengthen the roles of the state
itself. The state is still remain central in the international system despite the
challenges from non-state actors as well as the phenomenon of
globalisation
• Iraq and the Persian Gulf War 1990-1991 marked the beginning of the „New
World Order‰after the end of the Cold War.
 Libya Civil War began in January 2011 with the Libyan oppositions started
to form National Transitional Council to unite efforts to bring about a
change of ruling in Libya of President Colonel Muammar Gaddafi.
• Gender equality is about human rights. The equal rights regardless of
gender, whether male or female in all spheres of life.
Conflict International Organisation

Gender Equality State
Global Citizenship Education Sustainable
Globalisation
Development Goals
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http://www.peace-ed-campaign.org/17-ways-education-influences-the-un-
sustainable-development-goals/
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https://cisv.org/resources/educational-content-research/active-global-
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https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=430
&bul_id=NENzMmpvRWEvMnFIL0lmMVBIaUJKdz09&menu_id=L0pheU
43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09
Duflo, E., 2003. Grandmothers and granddaughters: Old-age pensions and

intrahousehold allocation in South Africa. World Bank Economic Review,
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In Iceland, it's now illegal to pay men more than women, (2018). Wowen’s Right.
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equity-discrimination/
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training-18th-aptw.html
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(30 September 2018). Retrieved from
http://www.thesundaily.my/news/2018/09/30/student-exchange-
programme-important-development-national-education-maszlee
Sustainable Development Goal 4. Retrieved from

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4
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Owens, P. (2017). The globalisation of world politics: An introduction to
international relations (6th ed.). New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press.
Torregrosa. L. L., (2012). Evaluating challenges women face. The New York
Times, 6 March. Retrieved from
https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/07/us/07iht-letter07.html
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from
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld
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The Role of the United Nations in the 21st Century", A/54/2000.
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Washington, DC: World Bank.
Yilmaz. M. E. Intra-state conflicts in the post-cold war era. International Journal on

World Peace, Vol. 24, No. 4 (December 2007). pp. 11-33
Topic The
Environment
10 and Us
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State reasons for conserving the environment;
2. Describe major global environmental issues;
3. Explain the concept of green technology and its importance;
4. Discuss the concept of sustainability; and
5. Demonstrate ways to improve your ecological footprint.
INTRODUCTION
This topic ÂThe Environment and UsÊ, aims to introduce key concepts and prompt
discussions which allow us to re-evaluate our position in the environment. We
begin by discovering the environment, its benefits and the importance of
conserving it. We need to appreciate the intricate inter-relations among various
components within the environment. We need to expand our view from an
individual perspective that is confined to us and our home to a collective
perspective that concerns the global world as our surroundings. We have to
expand our responsibilities to play a part in conserving the environment. We
must identify the factors that affect the environment. What are the major
environmental issues that we are facing today? Immediate collective actions are
needed to address them.
186 TOPIC 10 THE ENVIRONMENT AND US
Can we turn to technology for solution? What is green technology? You will
learn about the concepts of „green‰ and „green technology‰ which are needed in
order to make informed decisions. We shall also explore the concept of
sustainability and the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs). You may recall a
few SDGs from Topic 9. What do we hope to achieve by 2030? What can be done
from an individual perspective to protect and conserve our environment? Do you
know your own ecological footprint? Let us explore these questions and do our
part in creating a better environment.
10.1 WHY SHOULD WE CARE ABOUT THE

ENVIRONMENT?
The term „environment‰ refers to the surroundings or conditions in which a
particular activity is carried in. Our natural environment refers to the condition in
which human beings along with other living things live in a surrounding of crucial
aggregates of air, water, minerals and other non-living elements.
The environment which living and non-living things occupy is known as

biosphere. The only biosphere that exists in the universe is found on Earth. It is a
thin layer around the Earth that consists of lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere. Lithosphere is the solid part of the Earth which is made of soil and
rocks, while hydrosphere and atmosphere refer to the water and air that surrounds
the Earth, respectively. You may read more about biosphere by referring to
encyclopaedias such as the Britannica Encyclopaedia (the online version can be
found at: https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere).
Ecology is the branch of science which studies how living things interact with one
another and with the surrounding physical environment. For convenience, a
segment of the biosphere is often identified as an ecosystem and is studied by
observing and analysing various interactions that exist within the system. An
ecosystem is a defined area where a community of living things (micro
organisms, plants and animals known as biotic components) interact with one
another and with non-living components (sunlight, temperature, water and
others that are referred to as abiotic components). An ecosystem:
(a) has a community that lives and interacts with one another in a locale. The
term community in biology refers to an interacting group of various
organisms within a common location. A community can be broken down to
smaller groups by referring to populations which are characterised by the
number of organisms of a particular species.
TOPIC 10 THE ENVIRONMENT AND US ⊳ 187
(b) has an arbitrary boundary that is defined according to the nature of the study
being conducted. A well-defined or sharp boundary is not possible in reality.
Nevertheless, there is a classification of major communities called biome.
(c) is referred to by its type of biomes. There are various biome classifications. You
may view attractive visuals of biomes at the following sites:
 https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biome/; and
 http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm (Biomes mapping
(Schaffner, 2010) at West Tisbury Elementary School, Massachusetts,
United States).
(d) are analysed by tracing the movement of energy and matter. The rule of
nature where matter and energy are conserved are:
(i) Matter is recycled
Matter may move from one ecosystem to another but is never
destroyed. It is recycled from one form to another.
(ii) Flow of energy
The incoming energy is absorbed by the ecosystem never diminishes.
The form of energy changes and eventually dissipates as heat and
radiation.
The cycle of matter and energy is best understood by analysing how the
solar energy that is absorbed by producers (plants including trees) is taken
up by primary consumers (herbivores and omnivores) and secondary and
tertiary consumers (carnivores). Energy in the form of heat is produced
during the cycles. Another group that has a significant role is detritivores
(consumers that feed on dead plants and animals). Figure 10.1 shows an
image depicting the Food Web.
Figure 10.1:
10.1 Flow of energy among producer, consumer and decomposer (detritivores)
[Source: https://ubisafe.org/explore/discomposition-clipart-food-
web/#gal_post_2175_discomposition-clipart-food-web-4.jpg]
How about us, the human population? Where do we belong in the food web?
Within an ecosystem, we can identify several separate systems. A system has a

defined boundary and a surrounding environment. It can have various
components within the defined boundary. It can be classified as a closed system
with a closed boundary with no input and output. Or it can be classified as an
open system with open boundaries that allow exchanges of material and energy.
A tree is an example of an open system. It has a defined boundary and various

components (roots, trunk, branches, twigs, leaves). A tree absorbs sunlight,
carbon dioxide, water and other elements (input) to keep the tree healthy and
strong. In return, the tree produces oxygen and other matters (output). Do you
know that one large tree can produce enough oxygen for four people in a day
(North Caroline State University, n.d.)? You may learn about other benefits of
trees at https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/treesofstrength/benefits.htm.
ACTIVITY 10.1
A tree interacts with other biotic components and abiotic components.
Consider the interactions of a tree in your garden. Suppose your
neighbour sprays insecticide in his garden, will it affect the tree in
your garden? Discuss this problem with your peers in the online
forum. Extend your discussion to consider the pollution caused by the
use of chemical pesticides at a farm in your neighbourhood. Discuss
whether you should be concerned about activities and development
projects in your city, municipality or district.
Ecological services include provision of necessary resources such as the air that
we breathe
breathe, drinking water,
water and food.
food A large number of herbs and plants are
also useful as medicinal resources.
resources Another important provision from our natural
ecosystem is raw materials such as timber. There are many other services that
may not be obvious to us. In addition to these Provisioning Services,
Services The
Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) („Ecosystem Services‰, n.d.)
lists three other ecosystem service categories: Regulating, Supporting and
Cultural Services. TEEB is hosted by the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP). According to TEEB,
Regulating Services include air quality control, pollination, biological

control, soil fertility, carbon sequestration and storage, soil erosion control,
wastewater treatment, climate control and extreme event buffer;
Supporting Services include habitats and genetic diversity; and Cultural
Services cover benefits for recreation, tourism, aesthetic and spiritual
purposes.
Your ability to describe the natural environment, the interactions among

among various
components/elements within our ecosystem and the factors/conditions that can
affect the ecosystem is important.
important We need to understand how the human
population have been interacting with the environment and how we have
contributed to the environmental issues we are facing today. In using the
ecosystem services afforded by our natural environment, we have failed to realise
that there are others in our ecosystem, and we have failed to behave in a
responsible manner.
SELF CHECK 10.1
Try to answer the following questions to check whether you have

achieved the targeted learning outcomes.
(a) What is a biosphere?
(b) What are the features of an ecosystem and the services it offers?
(c) How does the nature of an open system in our ecosystem affect it?
What are the factors that can affect it? Use an example to illustrate.
(d) Why should we be concerned about the environment?
10.2 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

As you become more aware of the close interactions between various biotic and
abiotic components in our environment, you realise the potential risk of some of
the environmental issues have global significance. What are the measures that
have been taken in the past? Have they been effective? Can we improve the
situation by making more accurate conclusions about the environmental issues?
In using the ecological provisioning ecosystem services we have made tremendous

changes to the environment. We have cleared much of the forest, used raw
materials extensively, industrialised food production, built dams, and carried out
many other activities that resulted in changes to the land cover and water surfaces.
Upon completing this sub-topic, youou should be able to investigate and analyse the
efforts.
global environmental issues; and conduct critical analysis of the mitigation efforts
Can you
you illustrate the impact of our societyÊs actions on nature
nature?
10.2.1 Changing Land Cover and Water Surfaces

Land cover refers to our earthÊs surface covering, from bare to mosses, lichens,
grasses, scrublands and evergreen forests (see biomes). This classification is
different but connected to the land use classification which refers to the activities
being carried out in the area.
Land cover changes are classified as either: (i) land conversion involving
complete alteration such as deforestation to facilitate agriculture expansion; or
(ii) land modification whereby changes occur but do not alter the type of land
cover due to activities such as logging. Much of the worldÊs natural and semi-
natural vegetated land cover (81%) was turned into cropland between 1992 and
2015 (OECD, 2018). Deforestation is the term used to describe the clearing of
forest cover for other uses. Visit the Global Forest Watch website to discover the
current state of deforestation. You will learn that Malaysia for example, has lost
25% of its tree cover (equivalent to 7.29 Mha) since 2000.
Urbanisation (see sub-section 10.2.6) and Water Surface Changes are two other
drivers that cause land cover changes. We have lost our natural land and water
surfaces; and gained artificial land and water surfaces. Apart from the changes to
water surface caused by development of water dam (artificial water surfaces) and
land reclamation, the change in sea-
sea-level is also an alarming environmental issue.
What causes the sea-level to rise? An in-depth coverage on this issue can be
found in Global Environmental Issues (2004). Can there be a global action to
mitigate the issue of the changing land cover?
10.2.2 Climate Change

Is climate change the greatest environmental threat to the Earth today? You may
observe the rise in the global average temperature through the NASA (National
Aeronautical and Space Administration) site at:
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/WorldOfChange/DecadalTemp
The world has warmed since 1860 from the period of the Industrial Revolution
(Harris, 2004). It is unlikely that the unusual rise in global average temperature is
due to natural forces alone. The global average temperature is expected to
increase at a much higher rate over the following decades along with other
climatic variables. Global warming is a symptom of climate change. Other signs
of climate change include droughts, storms and flash floods, snow melts and
rising sea levels. The sign of climate change are different from region to region.
Climate change and accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere bring
about direct and indirect impacts which include:
• Heat waves, cold waves and other extreme weather events such as flash
floods, droughts, landslides and wildfires;
• Increased morbidity and mortality rates;
 Water contamination and other natural biophysical disruptions;
 Disruption and contamination of food; and
 Disruption of energy and other human socio-economic systems.
What are some of the impacts of climate change on humans?
An important development in managing climate change is the adoption of the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992,
adoption of Kyoto Protocol in 1997, and the establishment of the International
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988. The IPCC was formed by the World
Meteorological Organisation and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP). It is an international collaboration of scientists which conducts regular
assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts and future risks,
and options for adaptation and mitigation. You may read the IPCCÊs assessment
reports online at www.ipcc.ch. What is the trend depicted in the latest report?
How well have we been mitigating this issue?
Read the article at: https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46020959
10.2.3 Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variability that exists among all living things including
genetic variability within a species. It is of great biological, societal, ethical to
economic values to us. You should be able to list the specific values that
biodiversity offers us (see Table 5.1 on page 96, Harris, 2004). Global distribution
of the biodiversity on earth is uneven. Malaysia is one of the few countries with a
rich biodiversity. Other countries in the region include Indonesia, Thailand,
India, China, and Australia. Madagascar is another biodiversity hotspot with
90% of plants and animals endemic to the country alone. Other hotspots are
located in South America (Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru). The
uneven distribution is one of the many complications in managing the loss of
biodiversity. Why are we losing our biodiversity? Land cover and water surface
changes, climate change, tourism, and pollution are some of the threats to the
environment.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) developed at the 1992 Earth

Summit in Rio de Janeiro is one of earliest and most important global initiatives
to conserve our biodiversity. What are other efforts? How can we mitigate the
loss of biodiversity effectively?
10.2.4 Population and Development

Let us seek to understand the impact of human society on our natural world. The
world human population exceeded 7.5 million people in 2018. The latest human
population figure can be found at http://www.worldometers.info/world-
population/. Our socio-economic development is steep and unbalanced, with
wide disparity. Our demand for water, food, energy and space has increased and
largely exceeded supply. Problems such as water scarcity,
scarcity unsustainable food
production (and the land cover change), consumption and wastage, aggravated
by inequity, and unequal global energy
energy consumption must be addressed. The call
from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) for
a collective action on water, food and energy nexus is timely. Read more about it
in OECDÊs report at:
https://www.oecd.org/env/resources/Global%20Forum%20on%20Environmen
t%20-%20Background%20Note%20-%2019%20Nov%202014.pdf.
Development of the human society has led to the change in land cover and land
use, especially from natural forest to cropland, in particular to support our food
demand. Buildings and artificial surfaces have grown vertically and horizontally
(see the next sub-section on Urbanisation). Artificial water zones such as water
dams have been built to support our increasing demand for water. Our coastal
zones are overdeveloped. These have resulted in other environmental problem:
soil erosion and degradation.
degradation Discuss the steep, unbalanced, and wide disparity
of our socio-economic development. A good read for this sub-topic is Chapter 2
from Environment and Society: A Critical Introduction (2014).
10.2.5 Pollution
Pollution refers to the introduction of substances by humans that causes harmful
effects. Apart from air, water and soil pollution, we are also concerned about
pollution in the form of excessive heat, radiation, noise, and light. Human beings
are largely responsible for causing severe environmental pollution worldwide.
Why do we pollute our environment?
Pollution is pervasive and affects every being on earth, from the carbon dioxide
(CO2) in our atmosphere, to polychlorinated biphenyl (PCP) in our bodies to acid
on our land (Speth & Haas, 2006). Extensive use of chemicals is a major problem
in our environment. The sources of chemical pollutants vary from agriculture snd
industries to transportation and households. For example, emissions from coal-
fired power plants pollute the air, and transforms into acid rain which pollutes
the water and the soil. Acid rain is an example of transboundary pollution.
pollution Air
pollutants such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), CO2 and oxides of nitrogen cause

ozone depletion and greenhouse effects which also contribute to the Climate
Change. Pollution is also one of the factors which harm natural water resources
and the life associated with them. According to Speth & Haas (2006), pollution
and silt from runoff are some of the factors (apart from overfishing) that destroy
mangroves and coastal wetlands, affecting marine lives. It is crucial to identify
the types of pollutants that are widespread. We ought to be concerned about
toxic pollutants such as organic pollutants and heavy metals; and the threat these
pose to humans and other life forms. What can we do to mitigate pollution?
10.2.6 Urbanisation
Urbanisation refers to the process of changing social and environmental
landscapes („Urbanization and health‰, 2012). It is primarily driven by rural-
urban migration leading to the vertical and horizontal expansion of urban space
into buildings and artificial surfaces. Globally, an area in the size of the United
Kingdom (244 000 km2) has been converted into built-up areas since 1990 (OECD,
2018). It might be difficult for some to see urban space (with clean and green
spaces) as an environmental issue. According to McGranahan and Satterthwaite
(2004), environmental burdens for maintaining such cities may well be in distant
locations, and displaced rather than eliminated. They highlighted the fact that
„the poorest urban population in the poorest countries tend to have the worst
environmental health conditions in and around their homes and also among the
lowest level of greenhouse gas emissions per person. The ambient environments
of heavily industrialised and motorised cities in the middle-income countries
tend to be highly distressed environmentally, with worst ambient air pollution
problems. And it is the populations of the wealthiest cities that have the largest
footprints, and that are the biggest per capita drivers of
global environmental footprints
climate change‰.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Select one global environmental issue that you are concerned about.
Describe the issue, its causes, its implications for the environment and
human beings, and global policy responses. Propose an initiative that
your peers and you can do to mitigate the issue. Working in a group can
allow for sharing of resources and enable you to cover more issues.
SELF CHECK 10.2
„We have been unable to resolve environmental issues despite

extensive research, media attention, increased public awareness,
campaigns by environmental pressure groups and international
agreements; and we still pursue activities which perpetuate the
problems‰, (Harris, 2004). Discuss this statement in the online forum.
An important observation concerning these issues is the complex linkages among

them which emphasises the management of uncertainty and risk in global
policymaking (Speth & Hass, 2006). What are your thoughts on this observation?
Watch the YouTube video entitled Environmental Issues: Global Warming by

Cracknell and Tam (2013) at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MVvnj-tS-s
10.3 GREEN TECHNOLOGY AND

ENVIRONMENT
While technology and a techno-centric society have generated negative impacts in
the area of environmental issues, green technologies are seen as potential solutions
and an opportunity for greater innovations and reforms. Table 10.1 list selected
areas where green technology and sustainability have received much attention.
Technology in itself is often not the real issue. What matters is our understanding
of the „green‰ concept, awareness of environmental ethics, paradigm shift in our
thought processes, and change in our practices. The need to act responsibly lies in
moral relationship towards our fellow beings and other aspects of our natural
environment. In order for us to act responsibly, we require a paradigm shift into
what we think is the nature and scope of our responsibility. To act, to go „green
„green‰
green‰
means „to pursue knowledge and practices that lead to more environmentally
friendly and ecologically responsible decisions, and lifestyles which can help to
protect the environment and sustain its natural resources for its current and future
generations‰ (Going green, n.d); within which the concept of green technology
lies. Green technology refers to the use of science and technology to conserve and
protect the environment. It can lead to reduction of greenhouse gases, and is an
essential component of Green Growth Strategy.
Strategy
Table 10.1:
10.1 Trends in Green Technology and Sustainable Solutions by Sector
Energy Renewable (Alternative) energies

Food Production Sustainable Agriculture Practices, Organic Farming
Water Water Treatment/ Purification Technology
Built Environment Green Building
Manufacturing Industry Design for Environment, Green Engineering
Transport Sector Green transportation
Waste Recycling, Other Waste Management Technologies
Environment Remediation and Conservation Efforts
ACTIVITY 10.3
Read about extended producer responsibility (you may refer to Chapter 5
of Environment and Society: A Critical Introduction (2014). Discuss
among your colleagues how green technology can emerge as a solution
for an improved environment.
SELF CHECK 10.3

1. What is meant by “go green”?
2. What is green technology? Provide a few examples.
3. What are the roles of consumers in promoting green technology?
10.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

Sustainable Development Goals
Goals known as SDGs refer to the 17 goals along with
169 targets developed by the United Nation in 2015 as an action plan for people,
planet, prosperity and peace (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/). The goals
and targets are designed to stimulate actions by all for the next 15 years. Refer to
Figure 10.2 and Table 10.2.
Table 10.2:
10.2 Sustainable Development Goals by the United Nation
Goal 1 End poverty in all forms everywhere
Goal 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote
sustainable agriculture
Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well being for all at all ages
Goal 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all
Goal 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls
Goal 6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all
Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all
Goal 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all
Goal 9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster innovation
Goal 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries
Goal 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable
Goal 12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns
Goal 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts
Note: Acknowledging that the UNFCCC is the primary international,
intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.
Goal 14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for
sustainable development
Goal 15 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems,
sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land
degradation and halt biodiversity loss
Goal 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide
access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions
at all levels
Goal 17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership
for Sustainable Development
[Source
Source:
Source United Nations
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/post2015/transformingourworld/publication]
What do these goals mean to you? What are the causes of the unsustainable
global society that we live in today? Are we part of the problem? How can we be
part of the solution? These are some of the questions you must ask yourself.
The term „sustainable development‰ was defined in the 1987 Brundtland Report
as „development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of the future generations to meet their own needs‰ (The World
Commission of Environment and Development). The SDGs represent these
aspirations in various interconnected areas. The sustainability revolution
connects communities (livelihood, education and culture), ecology/environment,
and economy. The need for a collective action is embedded in SDG17. There are
numerous movements all around the world that promotes awareness,
knowledge, and support for the revolution towards a sustainable global society.
The Natural Step is an example of a Non-Profit Organisation with such a
commitment (see https://thenatutalstep.org).
We need to act. We must take the steps needed to change, and to become an
advocate for the change.
ACTIVITY 10.4
Select one SGD,
SGD, identify its targets,
targets, and discuss how you can take
community. List
collective actions towards realising the goal in your community
relevant stakeholders.
stakeholders You may use any of the targets to plan and carry
out a project for the Khidmat Masyarakat course.
SELF CHECK 10.4
1. Explain the concept of sustainability.

2. List all 17 SDGs and explain the nature of the unsustainable global
society that we live in today.
3. How can we be a part of the solution towards creating a
sustainable global society? Explain.
10.5 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT AND YOU

At a personal level, we ought to look into our own ecological footprint. What is
ecological footprint? Ecological footprint is a resource accounting tool.
tool It is used by
the Global Footprint Network to measure global ecological footprint, which refers
to demand on and supply of nature. nature You can measure your own ecological
footprint using the online tool hosted by the Global Footprint Network at
https://www.footprintnetwork.org/our-work/ecological-footprint/. The site also
allows you to discover each countryÊs ecological deficit, and the worldÊs ecological
deficit. The world ecological footprint is monitored using the ecological overshoot
day. Explain the Ecological Overshoot Day.
There are many Internet resources that provide suggestions or measures that you
can take to reduce your ecological footprint and improve our eco-management
efforts. An example of a good resource may be studied at:
http://myfootprint.org/en/take_action/reduce_your_footprint/
SELF CHECK 10.5

1. What is ecological footprint?
2. Why do we need to measure our own ecological footprint, and the
country’s ecological deficit?
3. How can you reduce your own ecological footprint?
‘A community is a ship; everyone ought to be prepared to take the helm’ – Henrik Ibsen
• Environment refers to our surrounding which consist of the land, water and
air that we share with other living things.
• The biosphere is a thin layer around the earth occupied by living and non-
living things. It consists of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.
• An ecosystem is an area where a community of living things (micro
organisms, plants and animals which are referred to as biotic components)
interact with one another along with non-living components (such as
sunlight, temperature, water and others that are referred to abiotic
components).
• Land cover is the earth’s surface covering, which ranges from bare to
mosses, lichens, grasses, scrublands, and evergreen forests.
 Climate change refers to changes in regional and global climate patterns.
 Biodiversity is the variability of all living things including genetic
variability within a species.
 Populations are characterised by the number of organism of a particular
species. The human population is an example.
 Pollution is the introduction of substances by humans that cause harmful
effects.
 Urbanisation is the process of changing social and environmental landscape
in urban areas (“Urbanization and health”, 2012).
 Green technology is the use of science and technology to conserve and
protect the environment.
 Sustainable development was defined as the development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs (Brundtland Report, 1987)
 Global ecological footprint measures the demand on and supply of nature.
Biodiversity Green Technology

Biosphere Land Cover and Land Use
Climate Change Pollution
Ecological Footprint Population Growth
Ecosystem Surface Water
Environment Sustainable Developmental Goals
Cracknell H. & Tam, R., (2013, Jan 10) Environmental Issues: Global Warming (PSA)
Retrieved at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MVvnj-tS-s
Ecological Footprint. (n.d.). Global Footprint Network. Retrieved from

https://www.footprintnetwork.org/our-work/ecological-footprint/
Ecosystem Services. (n.d.). The Economics of Ecosystem & Biodiversity Retrieved

from http://www.teebweb.org/resources/ecosystem-services/
Federal Office for Spatial Development ARE. (n.d.). 1987: Brundtland Report.
Retrieved from https://www.are.admin.ch/are/en/home/sustainable-
development/international-cooperation/2030agenda/un-_-milestones-in-
sustainable-development/1987--brundtland-report.html
Going green. (n.d.). Middletown Thrall Library (2008-2017) Retrieved from

http://www.thrall.org/special/goinggreen.html
Harris, F. (ed.) (2004). Global Environmental Issues. West Sussex: John Wiley &
Sons Ltd.
Home.:. Sustainable development knowledge platform. (n.d.). United Nation,

Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/
http://www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-outlooks/monitoring-land-
cover-change.htm
Manahan, S. E. (2007). Environmental Science and Technology: A Sustainable

Approach to Green Science and Technology. 2nd ed. Florida, USA: CRC Press.
McGranahan, G. & Satterthwaite, D. (2004). Urbanisation concepts and trends.

London: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).
OECD (2014) Global forum on environment: New perspectives on the water-

energy-food nexus. OECD Publishing. Retrieved at
https://www.oecd.org/env/resources/Global%20Forum%20on%20Environm
ent%20-%20Background%20Note%20-%2019%20Nov%202014.pdf.
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Monitoring Land Cover Change. Paris, France: OECD.
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OUMH1103

Module Writers: Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman

Moderators: Dr Wirawani Kamarulzaman

Developed by: Open University Malaysia

First Edition, April 2019

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), April 2019, OUMH1103

Topic 1 Being 21st Century Learner 1

Topic 2 Study Skills: Essay and Exams 14

Topic 3 Numeracy Skills 36

Topic 4 Digital Literacy 57

Topic 5 Creativity and Innovation 86

Topic 6 Critical Thinking and Reasoning Skills 115

6.3 Skills of Critical Thinking and Reasoning 123

Topic 7 Communication Skills 132

Topic 8 Collaborative Skills 150

Topic 9 Global Citizenship Education 165

Topic 10 The Environment and Us 185

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Study Activities Study Hours

1. Describe using examples the expected characteristics and literacy levels of a

Topic 5 introduces the meaning of creativity, innovation and design thinking.

Topic 8 looks at collaborative skills through the discussion on collaboration and

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

1.1 SKILLS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Learning & Digital

1.1 Dominant Categories of 21st Century Learning Skills

1.1 21st Century Skills

Category of Skills Type of Skills

 Critical thinking skills – ability to analyse and

 Numeracy skills - able to reason with numbers and

gestures, body language and our personal

(a) Critical thinking: you are able to solve problems.

1.2 ROLES OF THE 21ST CENTURY LEARNER

(a) Curius to Find Out

(b) Pursue Learning

(c) Create Knowledge

(d) Ask Question

(e) Share Information

(g) Get Ahead in Self-

(h) Passionate to Learn

(i) Concern to Humankind

Take a little break

1.3 21ST CENTURY LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Traditionally, we were expected to memorise our subjects to score well in exams.

(f) Measure accomplishment and not time spent on the topic.

(g) Provide flexibility on how we acquire knowledge.

Essentially, the facilities and infrastructures and other resources and

Have you experienced 21st century learning environment? Discuss how it

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF 21ST CENTURY

Table 1.2: 21 Characteristics of 21st Century Learner

My actions for learning ⁄ Tick if itÊs true

1 I analyse facts to make decision.

4. I work together in team projects.

7. I can easily use social media apps.

8. I have respect for otherÊs culture.

9. I see value in protecting environment.

10. I ensure my well-being is taken care.

13. I see challenges as way of keeping my interest.

14. I make sure the task is completed successfully despite of

18. I will use the available resources to accomplish my learning