English: Reading and Writing Skills
PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department
SESSION 2
Text as Connected Discourse |
Techniques in Selecting & Organizing Information
Discourse
Definition
~the use of words to exchange thoughts and ideas
~connected speech or writing
~spoken or written communication between people,
especially serious discussions of a particular subject
~(In literature): speech or writing normally longer than
sentences which deals with a certain subject formally in
the form of writing or speech
Modes
a. Exposition – explains and informs
b. Narration – tells a story or event
c. Description – describes a person, place, thing, or
events
d. Argumentation – convinces others of a point-of-view
regarding a topic or issue
Six Rules of Writing (by Holly Bailey-Hoffman)
1. Everything depends on the main idea.
2. Write with intention.
3. Write in formal (not informal) language.
4. Be specific.
5. Cite your sources.
6.Be concise.
Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information
A. Brainstorming
In brainstorming, you can write in words, fragments or
occasionally in sentences your thoughts. Normally, the
thoughts should lead to other thoughts.
B. Graphic organizers
~Purpose
Graphic Organizers help you categorize and put in order
ideas or concepts. They present concepts in a clearer
and more systematic manner, thereby making you and
your readers see better at one glance the relationships
between different ideas in a text (Madrunio, et al.,
2009).
Kinds of Graphic Organizer
a. Flowchart
A flowchart or sequence chart shows a series of
steps or events in the order in which they take place
(Braxendell, 2003). It is a useful graphic organizer for
teaching students the steps necessary to reach the
end product or idea.
Uses/examples:
a) In reading and literature classes, flowcharts
illustrate the key events of a chapter or story.
b) In science classes, they can help outline the
procedures of certain scientific processes.
c) In history classes, flowcharts can help create
timelines of historical events.
b. Fishbone (or Ishikawa) diagram
Is called as such because it resembles the skeleton
of a fish. It was created by Kaoru Ishikawa, an
engineering professor in Japan. It is a graphic
organizer that allows you to list down to explore
many aspects of cause and effect. The diagram
helps the students clearly see ideas in a visual way.
The fishbone diagram is used for more complex
topics which have more details to be enumerated.
c. Cluster graphic organizer
~A non-linear chart that can help to synthesize and
organize data about multiple traits, facts, or
characteristics of a single topic.
~can be in the shapes of stars, webs, circles, or
squares.
C. Outlining
A method of organizing your thoughts by allowing you
to see the order of your ideas or the flow of your
thoughts. Outlines usually contain headings and
subheadings. Headings are usually the main ideas of
your writing while the subheadings are the support or
explanation of your main ideas.
Make sure that your headings and subheadings are
marked by a consistent pattern of organization. For
example, your headings are marked by Roman numerals
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English: Reading and Writing Skills
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while subheadings (or sub-subheadings) are marked by
capital or lowercase letters, respectively.

Remember to also check for parallel construction of

your ideas. Don‘t worry if your ideas are still not yet
precise. That is the point why you are using outlines in
the first place

Types of Outlines:

i. Topic Outline
A topic outline is usually composed of a few words or
short phrases. The purpose of the topic outline is to
let you see what your initial ideas about the topic are.
These ideas can still be rearranged or changed later SETTING
on. • The setting of the story answers the questions
ii. Sentence Outline where did the story take place? And when did
Longer and more comprehensive than the topic the story happen?
outline since entries are composed of complete CHARACTER
sentences.
• Characters are the agents of action of the story.
Usually, the characters of a story move the plot
forward. Characters can be people, animals, or
even inanimate objects or things.
SESSION 3
Narration

Elements of a Narrative POINT OF VIEW

PLOT • Point of view, in narrative writing, answers the

• The plot of a narrative is the sequence of
events. As you think of your story, think about
which event comes first, second, thirds, and so
on. This means that the events are arranged
according to TIME.
question “Who is telling the story?” Writers can
choose from three major types of points of
view. The first type is called the first person
point of view. It makes use of pronouns like “I”
or ”We”. Another type of point of view is the
second person point of view. It makes use of
only one pronoun –YOU. The last type of point
of view is the third person point of view. Here
the writer uses pronouns like “He”, “She”, and
“They”.

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English: Reading and Writing Skills
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SESSION 4
Description
Topic: The Alverno Heights Retreat House
Connelly (2014) defines description as a mode of writing that Sensory Details:
presents facts, images, and impressions of people, things, 1. The five-storey building is surrounded by fruit-bearing
and events. It records what we see, hear, feel, taste, touch trees, colorful bushes, and various flowering shrubs
and smell. 2. The pathway from the tall gate to the entrance door of
Example: the building is lined with flowering shrubs.
3. The entrance door opens to a well-kept and orderly
This particular coffee mug is a ceramic hot beverage holder office.
that is three inches high and two inches in diameter at the 4. The quiet corridors lead to the rooms of the retreatants.
mouth. The mug tapers down to one-and-a-half inches at its 5. All the rooms are well-ventilated and orderly.
base. The mug also has a handle that is in the shape of a half 6. There are no stairs, just rubberized ascending and
heart. The interior of the mug is white, and the exterior is a descending ramps leading to the fourth, third, second,
rust-orange color. All surfaces of the coffee mug are glazed. and ground floors.
On the underside of the coffee mug is printed “MICROWAVE 7. The passageways are wide.
OVEN AND DISHWASHER SAFE” and “MADE IN CHINA”. The 8. The floors are clean and shiny.
coffee mug has a capacity of twelve fluid ounces. 9. The kitchen and the dining rooms smell of freshly-baked
bread, brewed coffee, and aromatic dishes clean plates,
https://englishcompost.wordpress.com/2012/04/27/sample- drinking glasses, and utensils are neatly arranged on long
descriptive-paragraph/ tables
Dominant Impression:
Objective and subjective description The Alverno Heights Retreat House is a haven for weary
minds because of its peaceful ambience.
Objective Description Subjective
Description Sample Paragraph:
The Alverno Heights Retreat House in Cebu
Characteristics presents an accurate shares a writer‘s
record of factual details PERSONAL Nothing can motivate a retreatant more than a peaceful
that others can see or FEELINGS, and welcoming Retreat House. The Alverno Heights Retreat House in
verify. IMPRESSIONS, Cebu is such a place. It is a haven for weary minds because it exudes
and ATTITUDES. a peaceful ambience and is surrounded by fruit-bearing trees,
Examples includes facts everyone Includes praises colorful bushes, and various flowering shrubs.
can AGREE ON i.e or criticisms It is a white, five-storey, concrete structure built at the
location, size, age, etc. slopes of a mountain that overlook the province of Cebu. From the
road though, a visitor gets the feeling that it is only a one-storey
Uses College research advertising, building. It looks more like a sprawling bungalow because of its
papers as well as personal essay, numerous rooms that include two conference rooms, a chapel, two
business reports , and blogs dining rooms, a meditation room, and offices for the Sisters who own
and run the place. The pathway from the gate to the entrance door
news, biographies
of the building is lined with various flowering shrubs of different
colors. The entrance door opens to a well-kept orderly office. Inside
Creating Dominant Impressions the spacious building are rooms with spotlessly clean cabinets, desks,
and beds that are covered with smooth and newly-laundered sheets
 The goal of descriptive writing is not to list everything and soft pillows. Surprisingly, although it is a five-storey building,
you can think of but rather to select details that create there are no stairs. Instead, there are wide rubberized ascending and
dominant impressions readers will remember. These descending passageways that lead you to the different floors and
rooms. You also never get hungry in the retreat house because the
impressions should be supported by details that appeal
kitchen always smells of freshly-baked bread and brewed coffee.
to the senses. During mealtime, one‘s appetite is stirred up by the aromatic scent of
Example: dishes. On long tables are clean plates, drinking glasses, and utensils.
The mountains are beautiful. Indeed, the retreat house is for anyone who seeks peace and respite
What does beautiful look like? from this bustling world.
The mountains are stacked like dominos, their white
Remember! The dominant impression is the controlling idea of
caps crisscrossing the western sky.
your descriptive writing.

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English: Reading and Writing Skills
PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department
SESSION 5
Definition | Exemplification
According to Fawcett (2004), to define is to explain what a
word or term means.
As a mode of paragraph writing, definition paragraphs are
useful in fields like the sciences and business.
Single-sentence definition
a. Definition by synonym
b. Definition by class
c. Definition by negation
a. Single-sentence definition by Synonym
A synonym is a word that has the same meaning as the
word being defined. An effective synonym should be an
easier or more familiar term than the word being defined.
Ex. Gregarious means sociable.
To procrastinate is to postpone needlessly.
A wraith is a ghost or a phantom.
b. Single-sentence definition by Class
When defining by class, you place the word to be defined in
a larger group or class to which it belongs.
-Definition by class is often used in a lot of formal writing
such as examinations, papers, and reports (Fawcett, 2004).
Ex. Lemonade is a drink…
A dictatorship is a form of government…
Single-sentence definition by Class
• After determining the class or group the word
belongs to, you will now provide the distinguishing
characteristic of the word.
• A distinguishing characteristic is a detail that makes
the word different from other words that belong in
the same class or group.
• Ex. Lemonade is a drink made of lemon, sugar, and
water.
• A dictatorship is a form of government in which one
person has absolute control over his or her subjects.
So when writing a single-sentence definition by class,
remember this form:
Word + Class or group + Distinguishing Characteristics
Single-sentence definition by Class
- Remember! When writing a definition by class, be
careful not to place the word or term in a too broad
or vague category .
- Ex. Saying “Lemonade is a food…” makes it
difficult for you to provide a distinguishing
characteristic as there are too many types of food.
c. Single-sentence definition by Negation
- Definition by negation means the writer defines a
word by saying what it is not, then saying what it is.
- Definition by negation is an effective way of defining
terms especially if the reader already has a
preconceived idea about what a term means.
- Ex. College is not just a place to have a good time but
a place to grow intellectually and emotionally.
- A good parent does not just feed and clothe a
child but loves, accepts, and supports that child
for who he or she is.
Steps in Definition Writing
1. Use any one of the three basic ways of developing
single-sentence definitions; the single-sentence
definition becomes your topic sentence.
2. Develop your paragraph by supporting your
definition through examples
Tip: Phrases like can be defined as or means that found at
the beginning of the paragraph can give the readers a clue
that you are developing a definition paragraph.
Ex. Webster's II New Riverside University Dictionary
defines mother's day as "A day for honoring mothers and
motherhood, observed annually on the second Sunday in
May." For the family, it is not a normal day: busy with chores
and work around the house, and empty of excitement. It is a
day when children get up earlier than usual, and excitedly try
to keep their plans for celebration secret from their mothers.
It is a day when mothers pretend not to hear the kids’
excitement and preparations, and show absolute surprise
when they, smiling and parading down the hall, carefully and
awkwardly bring orange juice and overdone toast for her
breakfast in bed, as a sign of love. Mother's Day is a day for
remembering - a happy day for people who warmly think of
their mothers, a sad day for those who no longer have them,
and a day for most of the world to celebrate a very special
member of the family - the mother.
Reminders:
1.Identify a topic.
2.Brainstorm about the topic (What do you want to include?
What do you want the readers to know?)
3.Begin with a topic sentence that defines the word.
4.Proceed writing supporting sentences that explain the
defined word.
5.End with a concluding sentence that restates the topic or
makes a prediction about it.
Exemplification is giving an example or examples in order to
make something clearer.
Examples illustrate an idea, issue, event, theory, or
characteristic.
Examples explain something or support a point of view.
Examples are specific items that represent something larger.
Thus, when writing an exemplification paragraph, you are
giving examples to illustrate an idea.
Types of examples
1. A single extended example provides in-depth details about
a person, place, or thing that illustrates something more
general. If a single example is particularly vivid and
compelling, it can sometimes be enough to support its main
idea. A single example may also be a narrative, a story that
illustrates the topic sentence.
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Sometimes fear can be a great motivator. Once when I was in

high school, I tried out for a part in the school play. I was Transitional Expression
surprised and thrilled when I was given one of the leads.
Never for a moment, however, did I consider how long my The simplest way to tell your reader that an example is going
part was or how hard I would have to work to memorize it. All to follow is to say so. The following partial list of transitional
I could think of was how much attention I was getting from expressions below can help you introduce examples.
my friends. I even ignored the warnings of the play‘s director
who told me I would in trouble if I did not begin to memorize
For instance Another instance of
my lines. The reality of my situation finally sank in during our
first dress rehearsal when I stumbled all over my lines, and the
rest of the cast laughed at me. That night, and for the two For example Another example of
weeks leading up to the play, I spent hours going over my
lines. Miraculously, I got through the first night of the play An illustration of Another illustration of
without missing (at least obviously missing) many of my lines. this
As a result of that experience, I learned two things: first, I
A case in point is Here are a few
could do almost anything if I was frightened enough and
examples
second, that I would never try out for another play.
- Jerry Doyle (Student) To illustrate Here are illustrations
of, instance of
2. A multiple example paragraph uses several examples to
support the main idea. Tips in using multiple examples:
Sample paragraph: 1. Choose a variety of examples. Use examples that include
facts, statistics, or expert testimony to create sound
“The tragedy of youth,” wrote by the Irish support.
playwright, George Bernard Shaw, “is that it is wasted on the 2. Avoid examples that require extensive explanations.
young.” I recall our history, the youths who started Asia‘s first 3. Choose examples readers will recognize and understand
revolution against Western imperialism, who sought to 4. Place examples in a logical order – by time or by
establish Asia‘s first republic. For example, Rizal was 35 years importance
old when the Spaniards executed him; Aguinaldo, Mabini, and 5. Make sure your examples directly support your topic
Luna were all in their thirties when the revolution was sentence or controlling idea.
underway; Gregorio del Pilar, who died in that epic Tirad Pass
battle in 1899, was only 24. Andres Bonifacio was 33 and his Why are examples important?
wife Gregoria, the Lakambini of the Katipunan was 21. Indeed
this partial list illustrates that the Philippine Revolution was First, they give credibility. They make your claim seem
led by young people. possible and authentic. Second, examples lend personality to
your lesson. Facts and theories can be forgotten but
Tips in using a single example: examples are more often retained. (Riddell, 2009)
1. Choose the best example you can think of, one that fully
illustrates or supports your main idea. SESSION 6
2. Explain the significance of your example to prevent readers Comparison and Contrast
from seeing it as an isolated situation. You can
demonstrate the significance of an example by adding facts COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
or statistics.
Comparison and contrast measure similarities and
3. Focus on those details that directly support your point.
Delete minor items. Remember, your goal is not to tell a differences. Comparison examines how two things are alike.
story but to present an example. On the other hand, contrast looks into how they are different.
In the future, your job might require you to use comparison
to make decisions. As a consumer, you often use contrast to
determine which product to buy, which apartment to rent, or
which cell phone plan to use.

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The Purpose of Comparison and Contrast (Connelly, 2014) Alternating Pattern

Comparison and contrast paragraphs are used for five
reasons:
1 To show differences between related subjects
2 To recommend a choice between subjects
3 To show how something has changed over time,
creating a ―before and after view of a single subject.
To create a ―present vs. future comparison to predict
upcoming events or contrast a current problem and a
proposed solution.
5 To contrast advantages and disadvantages of a single
subject.
Tips for Writing Comparison Paragraphs:
1 Create direct and clear sentences that describe
both items.
2 Use details and examples to describe both items
3 Point out key similarities and key differences
4 Use specific words rather than general or
abstract words
5 Avoid details that require too much explanation
A paragraph developed using the alternating pattern also
begins with the topic sentence introducing the two subjects
to be contrasted. The paragraph then proceeds to discuss the
specific points, examples, and details of the first subject
followed by the specific points, examples, and details of the
second subject.
4
Alternating Pattern
First A, point 1; then B, point 1
First A, point 2; then B, point 2
First A, point 3; then B, point
SESSION 7
Identifying Problems and their Solutions through the Cause
and Effect
Causes are the reasons while effects are the results.
TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS
For Cause and Effect

To show causes To show effects

Methods of Organizing details in Comparison and/or The first cause (second, third) One important effect
Contrast paragraphs
The first reason (second, third) Another result
There are two ways to organize details in comparison
and contrast paragraphs (Fawcett, 2004). Yet another factor A third outcome
Subject by Subject Pattern Because As a result
The subject by subject pattern divides the paragraph Is caused by Consequently
into two parts. The topic sentence already introduces the two
subjects to be compared or contrasted. The first part of the Results from Then, next, so
paragraph discusses the first subject and its supporting
details. The second paragraph discusses the second subject Diagram Showing Relationship between Cause & Effect and
and its supporting details. The subject by subject pattern is Problem Solution
generally used in comparison and contrast paragraphs.

Subject By Subject Pattern

First all A: point 1

Point 2

Point 3

Then all B: point 1

Point 2

Point 3

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PROBLEM-SOLUTION
 A problem – solution paragraph divides information
into two main sections: one that describes a
problem and one that describes a solution.
 A problem can be defined as some tension, gap, or
even a goal – something unknown, unresolved or
something that causes confusion.
 A solution is an idea or a course of action to resolve
the problem or to take steps towards its resolution.
SESSION 8
Persuasion
• To persuade is to convince a reader that a particular
point of view is the correct one (Fawcett, 2004,
p.150).
• An opinion held with complete assurance (Merriam-
Webster)
• However, persuasion is easier said than done. It is, in
fact, a very complex process. Persuasion is also not
the same as argumentation.
• Argumentation, though similar to persuasion, appeals
to emotions.
• Persuasion uses a balance between argumentation
(appeal to intellect) and valid emotional appeal.
(Roldan, 2010)
WHERE IS PERSUASION USED?
 POLITICS
 AT HOME
 CHURCH
 MARKETPLACES
 SCHOOL
 MALLS
SKILLS NEEDED IN WRITING PERSUASIVELY
 Use of Appropriate Language
 Use of Accurate Details
 Expertise in the Subject Matter
 Correct Tone
 Proper Arrangement of Materials
THINGS TO REMEMBER WHEN WRITING PERSUASIVELY
1. Relate your thesis to the existing opinion or attitude
2. Appeal to the dominant interests and motives of the
readers
3. End with an incontrovertible appeal
4. Use specific information
5. Be reasonable and reasoning
SESSION 9
Editing Technique—Organization and Coherence
Organization in Writing
When writing, you need to present your ideas in a
manner that makes sense to the readers. Thus, you organize
your thoughts well and effectively. Simply put organization is
the ―logical progression and completeness of ideas in a text‖
(Cali, n.d.). Organizing your writing focuses on two key areas
– text structure and coherence.
I. Text Structure
A text structure is the beginning, middle, and end
pattern most paragraphs take. Different types of writing
(expository, narrative, descriptive, persuasive, etc.) have
different text structures depending on audience and purpose.
You can refer to the previous lessons on the patterns and
modes of writing to know how they differ in terms of text
structure.
A. Beginning
~The beginning of any writing is always difficult to write. An
effectively written beginning can draw the reader into a
piece of writing while a mediocre one can discourage a
reader from reading further (Cali, n.d.)
Most introductions or beginnings have two purposes. One
is to draw the reader‘s attention and two is to prepare the
reader for the direction your writing is going to make.
B. Middle
~The main chunk of your writing would involve you writing
the supporting information of your paragraph. The kind of
supporting information you will provide depends on the
type of mode of paragraph development you are going to
use.
C. Clincher
~The clincher is the last part of your paragraph structure. In
this part, the writer draws to a close the ideas he or she
mentioned and developed in the previous parts. A clincher
can be of three types: summary, restatement, or a
concluding statement.
-A summary clincher sentence condenses the entire thought
of your paragraph in one sentence.
-A restatement mentions again your main idea albeit in
different words. Here, you can use synonyms and a different
sentence structure to restate your topic sentence or thesis
statement.
-Finally, a concluding statement is a recommendation or a
prediction about the future based on your topic sentence or
thesis statement.
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English: Reading and Writing Skills
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Coherence in Writing
Coherence comes from the Latin word cohere which
means to stick together. Coherence in writing, then, refers to
smooth transition and connection of ideas.
TRANSITION WORDS
There are six categories of transition words:
1. Spatial order. Words used in descriptive writing to signal
spatial relationships, such as above, below, beside, nearby,
beyond, inside, and outside.
2. Time order. Words used in writing narratives, and
instructions to signal chronological sequence, such as before,
after, first, next, then, when, finally, while, as, during, earlier,
later, and meanwhile.
3. Numerical order. Words used in expository writing to signal
order of importance, such as first, second, also, finally, in
addition, equally important, and more or less importantly.
4. Cause/effect order. Words used in expository writing to
signal causal relationships, such as because, since, for, so, as a
result, consequently, thus, and hence.
5. Comparison/contrast order. Words used in expository
writing to signal similarities and differences, such as (for
similarities) also, additionally, just as, as if, as though, like, and
similarly; and (for differences) but, yet, only, although,
whereas, in contrast, conversely, however, on the other hand,
rather, instead, in spite of, and nevertheless.
6. General/specific order. Words used in descriptive reports
and arguments to signal more specific elaboration on an idea,
such as for example, such as, like, namely, for instance, that is,
in fact, in other words, and indeed.
SESSION 10
Editing Technique—Mechanics and Language Use
A. Spelling
~spelling words correctly is just as important as finding
the correct words to capture your ideas in both written
or spoken language.
Reasons Why Good Spelling Matters:
1. COMMUNICATION
One of the most important reasons why good spelling matters
is that it facilitates communication. Standardising spelling
makes it a lot easier to understand texts. If everybody spelled
words differently, how would we be able to communicate
properly?
2. STANDARDS
Good spelling is considered to be a fundamental part of our
language. Just think how annoyed you'd be if we didn't spell-
check these articles? If we care about our language, which is a
huge part of how we communicate, we must maintain
standards and do our best to spell correctly.
3. AVOID CONFUSION
Good spelling helps to avoid confusion. It can be difficult to
understand what someone means if they haven't paid attention
to writing correctly. Incorrect spelling can even lead to serious
mistakes being made - just think how grave the consequences
could be if a doctor or nurse misspelled a patient's notes.
4. FUTURE PROSPECTS
You might think that spelling isn't important any more, but
poor spelling could actually seriously affect your prospects and
career. Let's say an employer has two candidates for a job. One
resumé is full of mistakes, the other is spotless. The two
candidates may have equal qualifications, but the employer will
always gain a better impression from the one who has carefully
checked their spelling.
5. SPELL CHECK FAILURES
It's important to be able to spell so that you don't depend on
spell checkers. They won't pick up words that are correctly
spelt, but the wrong word for the context.
For example, I once checked a manuscript that mentioned "The
Pope's vice." The Pope may well have had vices, but clearly the
author meant "The Pope's voice." If I had not known the
difference between 'vice' and 'voice,' that mistake would now
be in university libraries around the world.
6. COMPREHENSION
How easy will it be to understand something if it's full of errors?
Comprehension is vital in so many contexts.
We need to be able to understand the written medium.
If you're reading a manual, for example, it has to be correct, or
you won't understand it properly.
7. DISTRACTION
Another problem with poor spelling is that it is a distraction
from the text you are reading. Just think how hard it would be
to lose yourself in a book if you kept coming across mistakes. So
make the effort to spell correctly whenever you write
something.
8. GOOD IMPRESSION
When you write something, it leaves an impression on those
who read it. If you make spelling errors, that impression will not
be a positive one. It's essential that work documents and
college work have impeccable spelling, or you could end up
losing out.
It is understandable that someone might have trouble spelling
if they are dyslexic or not a native speaker of English.
(Adapted from lifestyle.allwomenstalk.com)
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B. Punctuation
Period (.)
The period is perhaps the easiest punctuation mark to
master. It ends a sentence. Difficulty generally arises only
when the period is used with other punctuation marks.
~Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a
statement.
Example: I know him well.
~If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that
ends in a period, do not follow it with another period.
Incorrect: This is Alice Smith, M.D..
Correct: This is Alice Smith, M.D.
Correct: Please shop, cook, etc. We will do the laundry.
~Question marks and exclamation points replace and
eliminate periods at the end of a sentence.
Incorrect: I've never seen Who's Afraid of Virginia
Woolf?.
Correct: I've never seen Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?
Question Mark (?)
~The question mark is used at the end of a direct
question.
Example: What is she doing tonight?
~When a direct question occurs within a larger sentence,
it takes a question mark.
Example: Would they make it on time? she wondered.
~When the question mark in the title comes at the end of
a sentence that would itself require a question mark or
period, the additional question mark or period is
omitted.
Example:
Have you read Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?
I have not read Mark Twain’s “Is He Living or Is He
Dead?”
Exclamation Mark (!)
~The exclamation point is a mark of terminal
punctuation. As such, it should not be followed by a
period or question mark. Some writers will use both a
question mark and exclamation point for an exclamatory
question, but only the exclamation point is truly
necessary.
Example:
Correct: What in the world are you doing up there!
Incorrect: What in the world are you doing up there?!
~When a quotation ends with an exclamation point, a
comma that would ordinarily be placed inside the closing
quotation mark is omitted.
Example:
Correct: “Get out,” Marcus said.
Correct: “Get out!” Marcus yelled.
Incorrect: “Get out!,” Marcus yelled.
Comma (,)
~The presence or absence of a comma can change the
meaning of a sentence. In extreme cases, an erroneous
comma can make a sentence mean the exact opposite of
what the writer intended.
~The comma separates grammatical components of the
sentence.
Example: Jenny bought some fruits, chicken, and pasta
for dinner.
It was a long, noisy, nauseating flight.
Jane will bring the food, Jose will bring the
drinks, John will bring the music, and Jackie
will bring the cops.
~The most important function of the comma is to set off
non-restrictive or nonessential information.
(Example) I will give the document to my brother, Tom.
The writer has only one brother. The brother's name is
nonessential and therefore set off with a comma.
(Example) I will give the document to my brother Tom.
The writer has more than one brother. In this case, the specific
brother—Tom—is essential information and should not be set
off with a comma.
(Example) Nathaniel Hawthorne’s first novel, Fanshawe,
was published anonymously in 1828.
Hawthorne had only one first novel.
~When an explanation or definition occurs as an
appositive, it should be set off with commas.
Example:
Mary Smith, a staff writer at the Big City Times,
recently wrote a book of love.
Kim, the cheerleader of the Blue Knight Pep
Squad, is his sister.
Colon (:)
~The colon is used to introduce a list of items.
Example: The bookstore specializes in three subjects: art,
architecture, and graphic design.
REMEMBER!
Do not, however, use a colon when the listed items are
incorporated into the flow of the sentence.
Correct: The bookstore specializes in art, architecture,
and graphic design.
Incorrect: The bookstore specializes in: art, architecture,
and graphic design.
~The colon can be used to emphasize a phrase or single
word at the end of a sentence.
Example:
After three weeks of deliberation, the jury finally
reached a verdict: guilty.
Five continents, three dozen countries, over a hundred
cities: this was the trip of a lifetime.
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English: Reading and Writing Skills
PRELIM HANDOUT by: AdDU-SHS English Department
~The colon is used to separate two independent clauses
when the second explains or illustrates the first. In such
usage, the colon functions in much the same way as the
semicolon. As with the semicolon, do not capitalize the
first word after the colon unless the word is ordinarily
capitalized.
Example:
-I have very little time to learn the language: my new
job starts in five weeks.
-A college degree is still worth something: a recent
survey revealed that college graduates earned
roughly 60% more than those with only a high school
diploma.
-All three of their children are involved in the arts:
Richard is a sculptor, Diane is a pianist, and Julie is a
theatre director.
~A number of students were caught playing
computer.
~Everybody is invited in the party.
~Some kids were left in the mall.
b. Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Pronouns are dependent on the antecedent
they take place.
Examples: Pronoun Antecedent
~Ana was seen in school before she got lost.
~ Michael is visiting his friend on the weekend.
~Tine and Mae took their mom on a lunch date.
~ The scholars need their allowance today.
~ A student must refer this problem to his or her
teacher.

Semicolon (;)
~Most commonly, the semicolon is used between two
independent clauses (i.e., clauses that could stand alone as
separate sentences) when a coordinating conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or,yet, so) is omitted.
Example: The upperclassmen are permitted off-campus
lunch; the underclassmen must remain on campus.

REMEMBER!
The example above could be recast with the conjunction but,
in which case a comma, rather than a semicolon, would be
required.
Example: The upperclassmen are permitted off-campus
lunch, but the underclassmen must remain on campus.
~The semicolon is also used between two independent
clauses linked by a transitional expression
(e.g., accordingly, consequently, for
example, nevertheless, so, thus).
Example:
-Heavy snow continues to fall at the airport; consequently,
all flights have been grounded.
-Hyperinflation makes it extremely difficult to keep track of
prices; thus a quart of milk might cost $10 in the morning
and $200 in the afternoon.

C. Grammar
a. SV Agreement
A subject in a sentence should always be paired
with the appropriate forms of the verb.
Examples:
~He eats lunch in the cafeteria.
~She plays DOTA.
~They dance gracefully.
~The number of students is increasing.
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