1 (A)

Tyler’s Model
Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following questions:
 What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
 What educational experiences can be provided that is likely to attain these purposes?
 How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
 How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Tyler’s Model by diagram

This adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 20). Curriculum Studies.

The model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation. In this model,
evaluation is terminal. It is important to note that:
 Objectives form the basis for the selection and organization of learning experiences.
 Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum.
 Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist.
To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation with the outcomes.

Taba’s Model
Taba’s model based upon the curriculum development process similar to Tyler's, but introduced
additional steps and called for more information to be provided for each of them. The model is:

Taba’s model by diagram

1
 Diagnosis of needs

Formulation of objectives

Selection of content

Organization of content

Selection of learning experiences

Organization of learning experiences

Determination of what to evaluate and the ways and means of doing it.

Wheeler’s Model
Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler’s model. Instead of a
linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model. Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not
terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the goals, which
influence other stages.

Wheeler’s Model by diagram

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Adapted from Urevbu, A. O. (1985: 22). Curriculum Studies.
Wheeler contends that:
 Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of learning which
yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these ultimate goals as outcomes.
 Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This results
in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal level.
 Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that content.

1 (B)
Hilda Taba is a curriculum theorist, a curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator. She had a
strong belief that students could be taught to think — specifically to analyze information and
create concepts. She believed that students make generalizations only after data are organized.
She believed that students can be led toward making generalizations through concept
development and concept attainment strategies. According to Taba, the best way to deal with
increase in knowledge is to emphasize the "acquisition, understanding, and use of ideas and
concepts rather than facts alone."

Turner and Fattu were initially interested to develop a diagnostic test for teachers to identify the
learning difficulties which students had to encounter. The mastery over the subject matter is

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essential for teachers to diagnose the students learning difficulties. It is an assumption of this
model. This model of teaching utilizes stimulated teaching to develop problem solving skills.
The learning difficulties are diagnosed and suggestions are given for improvement. This model is
more useful for teachers rather than classroom teaching.

The following are the comparisons Tanners model and Taba's mode by using a table according to
(Sigalla, 2003).
TANNER'S MODEL TABA’S MODEL
It is interactive model of curriculum It is linear model of curriculum development
development
It has double arrows It has single arrows
It has four elements of curriculum It has seven elements of curriculum
development development
It is a two way interaction It is a one way interaction
Philosophy serves as the source of selection Curriculum development process should be
of curriculum components preceded by situational analysis to
determining learning needs
Its proponent is tanner and Tarner an Its proponent is Taba a linearist
interactionist
The model improved the kerrs model which The model modified the tyler's model which
had no phyilosophy and seemed better than had only five elements and linear also
all who discussed about the model

1(C)
The following are the reasons as to why does wheelers model seem to have the same
shortcomings as Tabas model;

i).There is still a one to one relations between the elements, if he would make them relate and
affect every other elements in the model by removing numbers he could differ from Taba's model

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ii).The numbering by wheeler from 1-5 seem to suggest that curriculum always start with
objectives and ends with evaluation

iii).There is no connection between objective and evaluation although it has seven steps

2(A)
Evaluation can be seen as synonymous with tests, descriptions, documents, or even management.
Many definitions have been developed, but a comprehensive definition presented by the Joint
Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation (1994) holds that evaluation is “systematic
investigation of the worth or merit of an object. “This definition centers on the goal of using
evaluation for a purpose. Accordingly, evaluations should be conducted for action-related
reasons, and the information provided should facilitate deciding a course of action.

Evaluation is an independent, systematic investigation into how, why, and to what extent
objectives or goals are achieved. It can help the Foundation answer key questions about grants,
clusters of grants, components, initiatives, or strategy (Twersky F, 2012).

(B)
Measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects Example: When we use a personality test
such as the EPQ (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire) to obtain a measure of Extraversion –‘how
outgoing someone is’ we are measuring that personality characteristic by assigning a number (a
score on the test) to an object (a person). Measurement is a systematic, replicable process by
which objects or events are quantified and/or classified with respect to a particular dimension.
This is usually achieved by the assignment of numerical values (Weiner J, 2007)

(C)
Assess refers to make a judgment about (something) to officially say what the amount, value, or
rate of (something). Evaluate or estimate the nature, ability, or quality of (something). The
teacher to evaluate the ability of students in the class.

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(3)

Curriculum development is a local, regional, or state/provincial level process that student

teachers often have difficulty comprehending (Hansen, Fliesser, Froelich, & McClain,
1992). In their eyes, it is something undertaken by authorities (e.g., regional advisory
committee members or school board writing teams) with years of experience in the
school system. The expectation of the teacher candidates, often enough, is that they will
learn how to teach and thereby become effective at transmitting the knowledge, skills,
and attitudes associated with a particular subject or program. Education practitioners
with years in the profession know differently. Successful practice in the classroom is
inextricably linked to curriculum development-the everyday decisions about both what
to teach and how to teach. According to Hansen E, (1995) explains five principles of
curriculum designs as the following;

The Essence of Curriculum Design the Need for a Conceptual Framework

Curriculum design, like education as a whole, relies on the explanation of phenomena that theory
provides, but is not itself theoretical. The terms educational theory or curriculum theory can be
employed only through a loose and nonscientific use of the word "theory." At its most scientific,
curriculum design, is an applied science; like medicine and engineering, it draws on theory from
the pure sciences, but itself develops not theory but operating principles to guide decision
making in practical situations. (Pratt, 1980, p. 9)

Pratt's view about the place of theory in understanding the curriculum design process, clarifies
the theory/practice dichotomy. Curriculum development, in his opinion, is a practical
phenomenon that does not couple well with theory (i.e., theory does not drive curriculum
development and curriculum development does not drive theory). Pratt is convinced that
curriculum cannot be governed by theory alone.

Pratt defines design as a deliberate process of devising, planning, and selecting the elements,
techniques, and procedures that constitute an organized learning endeavor. Embedded in the
notion of designing, according to Pratt, is a deeper set of understandings that imply the

6
production of something that is conceptual as well as material (p. 5). "The curriculum designer
… must develop priorities to guide the selection of tasks to be performed, as well as be able to
perform them" (p. 10).

Conceptualizing Attitudes and Beliefs about Learning

Miller and Seller (1985) describe three orientations that are useful and pertinent to developing
and understanding one's beliefs and attitudes about learning: (a) the transmission position, (b) the
transaction position, and (c) the transformation position. Each is helpful in understanding the
philosophical, psychological, and social contexts in which curriculum is developed. In the
transmission position, the function of schooling is viewed as transmitting facts, skills, and values
to students. This orientation stresses mastery of conventional school subjects through traditional
teaching methodologies, particularly textbook learning. The people most often associated with
this view are Thorndike and Skinner. In the transaction position, the student is seen as rational
and capable of intelligent problem solving. Education is viewed as a dialogue between the
student and the curriculum in which the student reconstructs knowledge through a dialogical
process. The historical antecedent is the period of the Enlightenment, and the influential people
most closely allied with the transaction position, according to Miller and Seller, are Horace
Mann, John Dewey, and Jean Piaget. The concept dialogical is described by Shor (1992) as a
third idiom that relates academic language used in schools with or to concrete experience and
colloquial discourse use in everyday life. The transformation position focuses on personal and
social change, with attention to ecological interdependence and the interrelatedness of
phenomena generally. The historical roots of this position are traced to Rousseau. The
transformation position conceives of social change as a movement toward harmony with the
environment rather than as an effort to exert control over it. This position embodies the idealistic
notion that students should learn what they want to learn.

An Epistemological Rationale

Epistemology, that branch of philosophy that deals with the origin, nature, and limitations of
knowledge, has fueled debate in education for years. The argument over academic versus
utilitarian curriculum, for example, can be found in the education literature today (Goodson,

7
1987), as well as at the turn of the century (Dewey, 1916/1966). The duration of the debate is
testimony to the potency and relevance of the nature of technological knowledge as an issue.

When education, under the influence of a scholastic conception of knowledge which ignores
everything but scientifically formulated facts and truths, fails to recognize that primary or initial
subject matter of an active doing, involving the use of the body and the handling of material, the
subject matter of instruction is isolated from the needs and purposes of the learner, and so
becomes just something to be memorized and reproduced on demand. (Dewey, as cited in Miller
& Seller, 1985, p. 65-66)

Dewey's views on problem solving, according to Miller and Seller, are almost household
knowledge. "According to Dewey, intelligence is developed through the individual's interaction
with the social environment, particularly through solving problems" (Miller & Seller, 1985, p.
65). The distinction between an academic and utilitarian curriculum can be described as the
difference between having knowledge [academic] and being able to demonstrate or apply that
knowledge [utilitarian]. Learners in school settings are asked to demonstrate retention of factual
information (i.e., short term knowledge, through tests, exams, quizzes, or some form of recall).
Do they get a chance to apply that knowledge?

Often the knowledge needed to complete a concrete assignment or project gives students a fuller
context in which to make sense of factual knowledge. When a need has been recognized and
internalized by the learners, they ultimately respond to the need.

The Curriculum Development/Planning Process

The curriculum development process can be puzzling to new teachers. The process is often
discussed in the literature as a blueprint for developing a curriculum that has applicability across
a range of subjects (i.e., a macro view); however, it is also defined as the plan teachers adopt in
the classroom for organizing learning activities (i.e., a micro view). Both interpretations of
curriculum development are valid and helpful in conceiving and continually implementing
successful learning activities for students. Having developed a conceptual framework and an

8
understanding of the essence of curriculum design, it is important for aspiring teachers to
become familiar with macro and micro level planning, learning theory, and student
assessment/program evaluation.

Macro level curriculum planning in North America, whether highly centralized or decentralized,
is often the result of task force reports and competing prescriptions of what should be taught in
schools. The end products of such processes are interesting to analyze. The Commonwealth of
Virginia (1992), for example, has produced a statewide technological education curriculum for
its schools and school teachers. That curriculum has been carefully and professionally crafted,
covers a specific band of the technological education curriculum spectrum, provides educators
with excellent curriculum materials, and demonstrates one process for developing curriculum.
An alternative approach has been adopted in the Province of Ontario, where only general
learning outcomes are specified at the provincial level. Responsibility for the more detailed
development of the curriculum has been embraced by school boards and systems of school
boards. Both approaches to the development of a new curriculum-one centralized, the other
decentralized-are valid and merit ongoing analysis and study.

The Political Realities of Curriculum Development

To say that curriculum development matters in education are often highly politicized is an
understatement. The reality in curriculum development at the school and university level is that
many subject groups compete for a place in the school curriculum. Teacher education and, by
association, schooling, are not neutral in their organization and curriculum content. Political
scientists are thus inclined to ask questions like the following: Does the current spotlight on
technological education constitute a conspiracy by government to augment business and industry
interests, or is it a reform for the well-being of students, schools, and society? The importance of
understanding political reality is that it forces educators to consider the way interest groups
compete for the establishment of their vision of a particular area of the curriculum (McCormick,
1990).

Goodson (1991), an educational sociologist, argues that curriculum practice "is a multifaceted
concept, constructed, negotiated, and renegotiated at a variety of levels and in a variety of

9
arenas" (p. 49). In other words, it is a political process. Wotherspoon (1987), in an article entitled
"Conflict and Crisis in Canadian Education," describes the negotiation through the structures of
domination that have come to pervade Canadian education systems and practices. He suggests
that "despite claims for `democracy,' `objectivity,' and `equality of opportunity,' schooling has
continued to reinforce a social structure which is highly stratified along class, gender, and racial
lines" (p. 2). Educational change in Canada, he contends, has also repeatedly borne the mark of
struggle by groups which have had alternative visions. Such a perspective is touted, according to
Wotherspoon, to promote an active and critical rather than a passive and accepting way of
looking at the world: "Education in this sense involves probing for a critical understanding of the
patterns that underlie our observed social reality for the purpose, where necessary, of changing
that reality" (Wotherspoon, 1987, p. 2).

(4).
Phases of evaluation at school level are as follows;
Evaluation can be viewed as a cyclic process which involves preparation, assessment, evaluation
and reflection phase.

Preparation phase; decision are made to identify what is to be evaluated, the type of evaluation
(formative, summative or diagnostic) to be used, the criteria against which student learning
outcomes will be judged and the most appropriate assessment techniques which to gather
information on student progress.
Assessment phase; the teacher identifies information gathering techniques, construct or select
instruments, administer them to the student and collects the information on students learning
progress. The teacher continuous to make decision on this phase, the identification and
elimination of bias (such a gender and cultural) from the assessment techniques and instruments,
and the determination of where, when, and how assessment will be conducted are examples of
important considerations for the teacher.

10
Evaluation phase; the teacher interpret the assessment information and makes judgment about
students progress. Based on the judgments or evaluations, teachers make decisions about
students learning programs and report on progress to students, parents and appropriate school
personnel.

Reflection phase; the teacher consider to which the previous phases in the evaluation process has
been successful. Specifically the teacher evaluates the utility and appropriateness of the
assessment techniques used. Such reflections assist the teacher in making decisions concerning
improvements or modifications to subsequent teaching and evaluation.

(5).
According to Thungu et al (2008) the following are the importance of evaluation at school
It helps to assess the effectiveness of the teaching strategies
 It helps to compare the performance of learners in different schools,
 It provide data which the head teachers will use when placing new learners,
 It helps to evaluate school efficiency,
 It helps to compare old and new teaching materials,
 It helps to indicate the effectiveness of curriculum implementation, especially during
school supervision,
 It helps to identify areas in which learners need remedial teaching.

(6).
Methods of evaluation; According to Mamidi and Ravishankar (1998) identifying several
methods available for collecting information or data.
Personal interview, questionnaire or schedule, personally distributed or mailed questionnaire and
checklist, group interviews, discussion, systematic observation procedure, practical performance,
anecdotal records and critical incidents, opinion of agencies, and experiments.

(7).
Differences between measurement, assessment and evaluation. According to Sigalla (2003)
explain as follows;

11
Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical object
are determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in determining the IQ
of a person. The phrase this test measures IQ is commonly used. Measuring such things as
attitudes or preferences also applies. When we measure, we generally use some standard
instruments to determine how big, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight something
actually is. Standard instruments are instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers, and
pressure gauges. We measure to obtain information about what is, such information may or may
not be useful, depending on the accuracy of the instrument we use and our skills of using them.
Assessment is the quite different from measurement, and has uses that suggest very different
purposes. Assessment is the process by which information is obtained relative to some known
objective or goal. We assess at the end of a lesson or unit, we assess progress at the end of a
school year through testing, and we assess verbal and quantitative skills through such
instruments as the SAT and GRE. Whether implicit and explicit, assessment is most useful
connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is designed. A test or assessment
yields information relative to an objective or goal, in the sense we test or assess to determine
whether or not an objective or goal has been obtained.
Evaluation is the process of examining the subject and rating if basing on its important features.
Inherent in the idea of evaluation is “value.” When we evaluate, what we are doing is engaging
in some process that is designed to provide information that will help as make the judgment
about a given situation. Any evaluation process requires information about situation in question.
A situation is an umbrella term that takes into account such idea as objectives, goals, standards
and procedures. Evaluation will yield information regarding the worthiness, appropriateness,
goodness, validity and legality of something for which a reliable measurement or assessment has
been made.
REFFERENCES

Blank, R. (1993) Developing a System of Education Indicators: Selecting, Implementing, and

Reporting Indicators. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis

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Hansen, R. E. (1995). Five principles for guiding curriculum development practice: The case of
technological teacher education. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 32(2),
30-50.

Pratt, D. (1994). Curriculum planning: A handbook for professionals. Toronto, ON: Harcourt
Brace.

Twersky F, (2012).Evaluation Principles and Practices: An internal working paper: The William
and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Karen Lindblom.

Urevbu, A. O. (1985). Curriculum studies. Ikeja: Longman.

Weiner J (2007), Measurement: Reliability and Validity Measures: Johns Hopkins University.

Wotherspoon, T. (1987). Introduction: Conflict and crisis in Canadian education. The political
economy of Canadian schooling, (pp. 1-15). Toronto, ON: Methuen.

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