11/5/2010 Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTO…

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Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD – A Fracture Mechanics Key Services

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Topics Covered
- Audrey Bressler, John Alexander
Background and Tom Augustin
Increasing Material Demands
Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD
The CTOD Test Process
Sample Machining for the CTOD Test
Commonly Used Test Specimens
Testing Nomenclature for the CTOD Test
The Importance of the Pre-Fatigue Crack
Pre-Cracking
Fatiguing the Sample
Initiation and Propagation of a Fatigue Crack
Initiation and Growth of a Crack
Tracking Crack Length
Stress Distributions
Crack Front Examination
Fracture
Maintaining Constant Temperature
Stress Intensity Factor
Data Analysis
CTOD Failure Types
Pop-in Failures
Calculating CTOD Values
The Final Result

Background

Even the strongest and hardest-working materials on earth - pipes, drills,

munitions, girders - crack. A crack is the beginning of failure, but when and how
dramatically will the failure occur?

Increasing Material Demands

The world demands more-greater quantities of energy, taller buildings, longer

pipelines, faster and higher-flying aircraft. Material scientists have responded with
stronger and more durable metals, but every one, given the right set of
circumstances, will crack.

We know more and demand more of materials than ever before. Rather than
reacting to problems as they occur, more and more industries are choosing to be
proactive in failure prevention by testing materials properties beyond the normal
testing requirements. One such test that goes beyond traditional material property
analysis is the CTOD test, which is gaining popularity in the oil and gas industry.

Crack Tip Opening Displacement CTOD

Crack Tip Opening Displacement test or CTOD is one of a family of fracture

mechanics tests that measures the resistance of a material to growing a crack.
Similar tests (i.e., da/DN, K1C, KEE, and J1C) can determine fracture resistance of
a material, but CTODis particularly suited to pipeline and drilling equipment. The
CTOD test is used to determine the fracture mechanics properties of ductile
materials and can be thought of as the simulated opening of a pre-existing fatigue
crack prior to fracture. The data that result from this opening can be used for
critical defect assessment, in which the critical defect size can be determined.

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The CTOD Test Process

Please note that the following is a simplified version of the CTOD test process and
does not cover all aspects of the test, such as personalized testing specifications.

A CTOD test can be broken into 4 main steps:

1. Machining of the test specimen (Sample Machining);

2. Fatiguing of the specimen within specified limits (Pre-Cracking);
3. Breaking of the specimen under controlled conditions (Fracture);
4. Post analysis of the specimen and resultant data to obtain the CTOD value
(Data Analysis).

Sample Machining for the CTOD Test

Unlike other destructive material tests, the CTOD test has multiple factors that
can affect the resultant value. Not only is the test temperature a variable, but
the specimen size can also affect the results, as well as the conditions in which
the result can be used. It is important to use the maximum thickness of specimen
possible when performing the test. As a general rule, if a material meets the TOD
test requirements at a given test size, then the results can be extrapolated to
apply to thinner sections, but not thicker.

Figure 1. Machining test samples for CTOD testing.

Commonly Used Test Specimens

For structural and pipe materials used in the oil and gas industries, the most
commonly used specimens are a rectangular three-point bend or a square three-
point bend. The rectangular three-point bend is preferable, except where there is
limited material or a surface notch needs to be evaluated.

Testing Nomenclature for the CTOD Test

As with other destructive material tests, the CTOD value can vary, depending on
the direction of the test. The various testing specifications have their own
nomenclature to describe the sample and notch direction in respect to the grain
flow or weld direction. This nomenclature is typically the same as that of a charpy
test.

The Importance of the Pre-Fatigue Crack

The calculation of the final CTOD value is dependent on the depth of a pre-fatigue
crack from the surface of the specimen. As it is impractical to fatigue a crack from
the actual specimen surface, the specimen is machined to include a notch, which
will act as the initiation point of the fatigue crack and be included in the overall
length of the fatigue crack used for the calculation of the CTOD value.

National standards are used for the actual testing criteria.

Pre-Cracking

On completion of machining of the specimen, an actual fatigue crack is induced at

the base of the starter notch. This crack must be of sufficient length to bypass
any area of plastic deformation that may have been occurred during the machining
process. The crack length is typically based on the size of the sample, the method
of notch manufacture, the width of the notch, the shape of the notch, and
practical time restraints. The overall length from the surface of the sample to the
crack tip must fall within given parameters. Other factors that also must be
considered include the angle of the crack in respect to the specimen and the
difference in length of the crack as seen on the exposed surfaces. The operation
is typically performed in air at room temperature.

Fatiguing the Sample

Fatiguing the sample requires a minimum and maximum fatigue load. If the loads
selected to induce the fatigue crack are too low, then the fatigue time may
become restrictive-or, at the extreme, a crack may not develop. If the loads are
too high, then a plastic zone may result which would affect the CTOD result-or,
again at the extreme, the sample may fracture prematurely. The national

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standards specify criteria to ensure a valid test sample, including: a minimum to
maximum load ratio of less than 0.1, a change in stress intensity relating to the
modulus of the material, and a maximum load based on the material tensile
properties, specimen size and span used.

Figure 2. Fatiguing the CTOD test sample.

Initiation and Propagation of a Fatigue Crack

Initiation and propagation of a fatigue crack is dependent on the configuration of

the sample, the crack length and the loading conditions. This relationship
determines the stress intensity factor (K) at the fatigue crack tip, and can be
determined for a three-point bend by the following formula:

[Where K is the stress intensity factor, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen
thickness, W the specimen width and a the crack length].

Figure 3. Fatigue loading of the CTOD test sample.

During the fatigue operation, W, B and S remain constant. The equation

demonstrates a definitive relationship between the crack length, load and stress
intensity.

Initiation and Growth of a Crack

To initiate and grow a fatigue crack for a CTOD test, various methods can be
used.

a. Constant Load - A constant load amplitude (load) is the most common

situation. However, for the purposes of growing a fatigue crack for a CTOD it
is not the most practical. In order to meet the validity requirements imposed
by the specifications, the load ratio selected would have to be determined
based on the final crack length. As a result, the crack growth rate would
increase as the length increased; however, it would be slow in the initial
stages of crack length. This method can result in an extended time to grow
the crack of the required length.
b. Decreasing Load - By calculating the load restrictions for a given crack
length, it is possible to start the fatigue operation with a high load and
decrease it to the limits required as the crack grows. Done carefully, this can
save time in obtaining valid fatigue crack front, but it should be noted that
reducing the load by too great an amount can result in the crack propagation
slowing or even stopping. In this case, a given number of fatigue cycles would

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be needed to initiate the crack again.
c. Constant K - During the fatiguing of a CTOD sample, S, W and B will remain
constant. As such, the relationship between the crack length, load and stress
intensity can be utilized in the growth of a fatigue crack. From the equation it
can be seen that by keeping the change in stress intensity constant, the load
will drop proportionally as the crack length increases.

This method will result in an even load drop as the crack grows and will prevent
the crack arrest that can occur when method b is used.

It is possible to combine aspects of the three methods to further increase to

efficiencies of the crack propagation. By starting with a high K and reducing it as
the crack extends, one can reduce the time necessary to grow a crack while
keeping within the specification requirements.

Tracking Crack Length

Tracking the actual crack length can be done in a number of ways, such as:

a. Visual measurement can be made on the sample. Using this method, only the
crack length at the outer surface can be determined. To enhance the crack,
non-destructive testing techniques such as dye penetrant or magnetic
permeability work well.
b. The compliance technique depends on a 5th order polynomial in which the
coefficients are based on the specimen geometry and material properties.
Typically, a clip gage is attached to the sample at the machined opening and
electronically records the opening that is then related to the crack length. The
recorded length can then be used to automatically adjust the load, based on
the method decided for the crack growth, resulting in a smooth load drop.
c. The potential drop across the crack depends on ohm’s law: as a crack grows
the potential will increase. As with the compliance technique, this method can
be directly associated with the load control and hence give a smooth load
transition.

Figure 4. Tracking crack length of CTOD test samples.

While performing the fatigue operation, it is important to remember that only the
outer surface can be measured and confirmed. The fatigue is propagating across a
plane inside the sample, and as such the length cannot be visually confirmed until
the test is complete and the sample fractured open. The compliance and potential
drop techniques can provide information about the internal situation of the fatigue
crack.

Stress Distributions

Variance in length across the fatigue crack front increases in materials in which an
even stress distribution is not present, i.e. in a weldment. In these cases, various
operations may be necessary to produce a linear crack front. Precompression of
the sides of the sample and reverse bending are two of the most common
techniques employed.

Crack Front Examination

On completion of the fatigue operation, the visible crack front must be visually
examined to ensure compliance to the specification, e.g. within length tolerances
from the surface and between sides, straightness and the absence of any obvious

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surface bifurcations.

Figure 5. Examination of fracture surfaces can provide information about the type
of failure that has taken place.

Fracture

The actual breaking of the specimen is performed under monotonic conditions,

which means that the sample is under increasing load until fracture, and at a
static temperature.

Maintaining Constant Temperature

Fractures can be affected by temperature, therefore it is important to control the

temperature throughout the test. Testing in a liquid alcohol bath with CO2 as a
cooling medium is one of the most common methods to achieve this.

Stress Intensity Factor

The rate of testing is determined by the change in the stress intensity factor
during the initial application of load. As was seen in the equation, the stress
intensity is dependent on the load and crack length. Since the crack length is not
measurable until the sample is fractured, it is not possible to confirm the actual
testing rate until completion of the test. An estimated crack length must be used
to determine the testing rate-with the actual test rate confirmed to be with in the
validation limits.

During the application of the load, a clip gage is used to measure the opening at
the mouth of the fatigue crack. This opening is plotted against the load applied.

Figure 6. Use of a clip gage allows crack opening width to be measured.

Data Analysis

After the sample has been fractured, scientists perform various operations to
determine the CTOD type and value.

The fracture face must be examined in conjunction with the plot of the load vs.
the crack mouth opening. From this, the type of fracture can be determined.

CTOD Fracture Types

Three main categories of fracture exist:

a. m – in which the fracture face exhibits tearing and the final fracture occurs
under decreasing load
b. u – in which the fracture face exhibits tearing and the final fracture occurs
under increasing load
c. c – in which the fracture face does not exhibit tearing and the final fracture
occurs under increasing load

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Figure 7. The various modes of failure during CTOD testing.

Pop-in Failures

A 4th type of failure can occur which is known as a pop-in. In this situation,
either a load drop, a displacement increase, or both is observed, and the load
then recovers to exceed the initial condition. When a pop-in occurs, the material
has partially fractured; however, the remaining ligand is sufficient to withstand
the increase in load. It is often possible to see the cause of the pop-in on the
fracture face. The validity of the pop-in is evaluated based on the changes in load
and/or displacement. If deemed valid, the final calculation of the CTOD value is
based on the load and displacement at the pop-in occurrence.

The length of the fatigue fracture and any tearing (in the case of a u type
fracture only) should be measured. The fatigue crack length is used in the CTOD
calculation.

Calculating CTOD Values

From the plot, the maximum load and the plastic component (Vp) of the crack
opening is determined for use in the CTOD calculation.

The CTOD value is calculated from the following formula:

where δ is the CTOD, F is the load, S the span, B the specimen thickness, W the
specimen width, a the crack length, v the poison’s ratio, Vp the plastic component
corresponding to the load at the critical event, z is the clip gage height and σYS
is the yield at test temperature.

The Final Result

When the graphical data has been analyzed, the sample measured and examined,
and the CTOD value calculated, the validity of the result must also be evaluated.

As discussed above, some of the validity requirements of the CTOD test cannot
be determined until the test is completed. A value may be obtained, there may be
a minimum value of CTOD and/or type of fracture restrained, but, the test must
also be valid. It is possible to have a result with a sufficient value to meet the
specification requirement, but still have an invalid test. Similarly, your result may
be lower than required with an invalid test. In these cases, the result obtained
should not be used and the test should be repeated.

Source: Stork Materials Technology.

For more information on this source please visit Stork Materials Technology.

Da te Adde d: Apr 18, 2006

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