Engineering Challenges Associated With Building Structures Erected in Waterlogged Area

ENGINEERING CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH BUILDING
STRUCTURES ERECTED IN WATERLOGGED AREA

(A CASE STUDY OF BADAGRY DIVISION)
BY
SOFIDIYA, ADEOYE OLABINJO

(CVE/16/0792)
A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE.
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA (PGD) IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
OCTOBER, 2018
i
CERTIFICATION
This project work has been certified to be carried out and submitted by SOFIDIYA,
ADEOYE OLABINJO with matriculation number CVE/16/0792 and has been found
to be adequate both in scope and quality in partial fulfilment for the award of the Post
Graduate Diploma (PGD) in Civil Engineering of the Federal University of
Technology, Akure, Ondo State.
Supervisor: ……………………………...........
Prof. C.S. Okoli
ii
DEDICATION
This project is especially dedicated to Almighty God, for success of the project and to
my wife for her continued support toward my career growth.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
With heartfelt gratitude, I appreciate the guidance, support and blessings of God
Almighty who through the years have supported and guided me through my course of
life endeavour.
I am very grateful to my project supervisor who also doubles as the Head of Civil
Engineering Department, Prof. C.S. Okoli for his cooperation and assistance
necessary for the successful completion of the project. His wealth of experience and
words of advise are immeasurable. All members of staff of Civil Engineering
Department are all appreciated.
My appreciation also goes to my wife and children for their patience, understanding
and role played all through the start of the program to its successful completion. I pray
God will continue to bless them.
Finally, my appreciation goes to my friends and colleagues in the department of Civil

Engineering and all those who contributed to the success of the postgraduate studies.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page
CERTIFICATION .........................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ ix
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of Study....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Study Area ....................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. 3
1.4 Aim of the Study ............................................................................................. 4
1.5 Objectives ........................................................................................................ 4
1.6 Scope and Limitations ..................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................... 5
LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................. 5
2.1 Background .................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Water Logged Soil .......................................................................................... 5
2.3 Different Types of Water Logging in the Field............................................... 5
2.4 Factors Affecting Formation of Water-Logging ............................................. 6
2.5 Harmful Effects of Water logging ................................................................... 6
2.6 Excavation of Foundation in Water Logged Sites .......................................... 7
2.6.1 Constructing drains ....................................................................................... 8
2.6.2 Constructing deep wells ........................................................................... 8
2.6.3 Freezing process............................................................................................ 8
2.6.4 Chemical consolidation of soil................................................................. 9
2.6.6 By Constructing sand drains .................................................................. 10
2.7 Land Reclamation ......................................................................................... 11
2.7.1 Applicability of Land Reclamation ........................................................ 11
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................... 18
METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................................... 18
v
3.1 Method of Data Collection ............................................................................ 18
3.2 Field Study .................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Constraints..................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................ 20
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................. 20
4.1 Results ........................................................................................................... 20
4.2 A Comprehensive Analysis of Responses to Questionnaires by Inhabitants 21
4.3 Response to Questionnaire for the Inhabitants of the Buildings ................... 21
4.3.1 Tenancy .................................................................................................. 21
4.3.2 Age of Respondent ................................................................................. 22
4.3.3 How long have you been living in this house? ...................................... 24
4.3.4 How long have you been experiencing problems with this building? ... 25
4.3.5. Does this building have an approved building plan? ............................. 26
4.3.6 Which of the following are/is problem(s) of you? ................................. 27
4.3.7 Did you seek professional advice? ......................................................... 29
4.3.8. Why did you choose to build in this area? ............................................. 30
4.3.9. Who did you contact? ............................................................................ 32
4.3.10 Who constructed the house for you? ...................................................... 33
4.3.11 When it rains do you experience flooding in this area? ......................... 35
4.3.12 Is there any drainage system in your area? ............................................ 36
4.3.13 How easy is it for you to maintain this building? .................................. 37
4.3.14 One of the challenges in this area is sewage disposals, are you affected?
38
4.3.15 One of your problems is sewage disposal, which is in use in this house
38
4.3.16 What is you source of water? ................................................................. 40
4.3.17 At what level did you obtain good drinking water? ............................... 41
4.3.18 What is the effect of surface water on this system? ............................... 42
4.4 Analysis of Responses to Questionnaires by Professionals .......................... 44
4.4.1 Your Profession ..................................................................................... 44
4.4.2 Work experience .................................................................................... 45
4.4.3 Which of the following(s) would you consider the possible problem(s)
of building in waterlogged areas? ........................................................................ 46
4.4.4 Which of the problem(s) listed is the most prominent? ......................... 47
4.4.5. Which is the best solution to settlement in waterlogged area? .............. 48
vi
4.4.6 The sources of problems with building in most waterlogged area could
be mostly because of what? ................................................................................. 50
4.4.7 Why is it costly to build in waterlogged areas? ..................................... 51
4.4.8 What sewage disposal system will you recommend for buildings in
waterlogged areas? ............................................................................................... 52
4.4.9 What practical suggestion will you offer to any one building in a
waterlogged area? ................................................................................................ 53
CHAPTER FIVE ......................................................................................................... 54
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 54
5.1 Conclusion..................................................................................................... 54
5.2 Recommendation ........................................................................................... 54
5.2.1 Recommendation to Inhabitants ............................................................ 55
5.2.2 Recommendation to Landowners in Waterlogged Area ........................ 55
5.2.3 Recommendation to the Professionals ................................................... 55
5.2.4 Recommendation to the Local Government .......................................... 56
5.2.5 Recommendation for sewage disposal method for the inhabitants of
Ajah 57
5.2.6. Recommendation to the State Government ........................................... 57
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 58
APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................. 59
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1: Tenancy. .................................................................................................... 22

Figure 4.2: Graphical representation of the age of respondents. ................................. 23
Figure 4.3: Number of Years The Respondents Have Stayed In The Area. ................ 24
Figure 4.4: Number of Years the Respondents Have been experiencing the Problem.
...................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.5: Number of buildings with approved plan. ................................................. 27
Figure 4.6.Problems Experienced by Respondents...................................................... 29
Figure 4.7: Seeking for Professional advice. ............................................................... 30
Figure 4.8: Responses to reasons for building in the area. .......................................... 31
Figure 4.9: Responses to whom the respondents contacted. ........................................ 33
Figure 4.10: Who constructed the house for the respondents ...................................... 34
Figure 4.11: Experience of respondents during flood. ................................................. 35
Figure 4.12: Responses to availability of drainage. .................................................... 36
Figure 4.13: Responses to cost maintaining the house. ............................................... 37
Figure 4.14: Responses to effect of sewage disposal problem in the area. .................. 38
Figure 4.15: Responses to effect of sewage disposal problem in the house. ............... 39
Figure 4.16: Responses to source of water. ................................................................. 41
Figure 4.17: Responses to depth where drinking water is available ............................ 42
Figure 4.18: Responses to effect of surface water on the system. ............................... 43
Figure 4.19: Responses to effect of surface water on the system. ............................... 44
Figure 4.20: Respondent’s work experience. ............................................................... 46
Figure 4.21: Respondents identified problem of building in waterlogged area. .......... 47
Figure 4.22: Response to most prominent problem. .................................................... 48
Figure 4.23: Response to solution to settlement in waterlogged area.......................... 49
Figure 4.24: Response to solution to settlement in waterlogged area.......................... 51
Figure 4.25: Response to reason for high cost of building in waterlogged area. ......... 52
Figure 4.26: Response on recommended sewage disposal system. ............................. 53
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Total Number of Respondents and Their Categories. ................................ 21
Table 4.2: Tenancy....................................................................................................... 21
Table 4.3: Age of Respondents. ................................................................................... 23
Table 4.3: Number of Years The Respondents Have Stayed In The Area. ................. 24
Table 4.4: Number of Years the Respondent Has Been Experiencing the Problem.... 25
Table 4.5: Building with approved plan. ..................................................................... 26
Table 4.6.Problems Experienced by Respondents ....................................................... 28
Table 4.7: Did you seek professional advice? ........................................................... 30
Table 4.8: Why did you choose to build in this area? .................................................. 31
Table 4.9: Whom did you contact? .............................................................................. 33
Table 4.10: Who constructed the house for you? ........................................................ 34
Table 4.11: Experience of respondents during flood ................................................... 35
Table 4.12: Responses to availability of drainage ....................................................... 36
Table 4.13: Responses to cost maintaining the house.................................................. 37
Table 4.14: Responses to effect of sewage disposal in the area. ................................. 38
Table 4.15: Response to sewage disposal problem in the house. ................................ 39
Table 4.16: Responses to source of water. ................................................................... 40
Table 4.17: Responses to depth where drinking water is available ............................. 42
Table 4.18: Responses to effect of surface water on the system. ................................ 43
Table 4.19: Profession of respondents. ........................................................................ 44
Table 4.20: Respondent’s work experience ................................................................ 45
Table 4.21: Respondents identified problem of building in waterlogged area. .......... 46
Table 4.22: Response to most prominent problem. ..................................................... 48
Table 4.23: Response to solution to settlement in waterlogged area ........................... 49
Table 4.24: Responses to sources of problems with building in most waterlogged .... 50
Table 4.25: Response to reason for high cost of building in waterlogged area. .......... 52
Table 4.26: Response on recommended sewage disposal system ............................... 53
ix
ABSTRACT
Lagos State is costal state with similar topography to most coastal regions in the
world. As such, it will always be impacted by the consequences of climate change in
the area of rising sea levels, tidal surges, water logging of soils, erosion and the health
problems and diseases that come with it in the flooded areas. The rate of population
growth along the Lagos coast present many challenges. One of these challenges is in
ensuring the safety and security of a population that is continually threatened by
natural hazards such as flooding, coastal erosion and storm surge. In waterlogged
areas, ground water table is very high which may obstruct the construction of and
maintenance cost. This is usually the case with the most art of Lagos State of Ajah,
Lekki peninsula, Ijanikin, Badagry, Victoria Island, Ikoyi and Apapa for most part of
the year from the months of May to October. It is in this light that this research work
focuses on the Engineering problems associated with buildings in waterlogged areas
of Lagos State and their solutions with Badagry division used as a case study. The
research work accompanied with the use of questionnaires to obtain reliable
information from the same sampled population of the inhabitants of Badagry. The
recommendations given are with the view to making the areas around the coastal
areas to be inhabited with the involvement of all stakeholders.
x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of Study
The largest city and former capital of the West African country of Nigeria, Lagos is
located the southwester end of Nigeria’s Atlantic coastline. The city’s area comprises
of Lagos Island, in Lagos Lagoon, on the Bight of Benin in the Gulf of Guinea. Lagos
is the country’s industrial hub and commercial center and its principal seaport, and it
has an international airport. The topography of Lagos is dominated by its system of
islands, sandbars, and lagoons.
Badagry (57km from Lagos) was founded in about 1425 A.D. The town is situated in
westernmost part of all the Nigerian major towns. It occupy a narrow stretch of land
between the Badagry Beach that has inlets into the sea at Cotonou and the Atlantic
Ocean. (According to Mabogunje (1971). They lie within the young sedimentary salt-
bearing strata that covers the bulk of Benin coastlands. The area has a mean monthly
temperature fluctuating between 220c and 300c while the relative humidity is high all
through the year. A remarkable aspect of this climate is the cooling effect of the sea-
breeze from the gulf of Guinea. Rainfall in these settlements is between 1000mm and
2000mm annually. All the territory is low-lying. The highest point on Badagry being
only 22 feet (7 meters) above sea level.
Traditionally, the occupation of the people are chiefly fishing, farming and animal
husbandry, some of the crops cultivated include maize, cassava, beans, palm trees,
coconut trees, royal palm trees, citrus trees and various vegetables. Cottage industries,
which from time immemorial engaged the attention of the people, ranged from boat
1
building, net making, mat making, bamboo furniture, food processing mills, and raffia
works, wine tapping and traditional house building.
Lagos state is coastal state with similar topography to most coastal regions in the
world. As such, it will always be impacted by the consequences of climate change in
the area of rising sea levels, tidal surges, water logging of soil, erosion and the health
problems and diseases that come with it in the flooded areas.
The rate of population growth along the Lagos coast presents many challenges. One of
these challenges is in ensuring the safety and security of a population that is
continually threatened by natural hazards such as flooding, coastal erosion and storm
surge.
In water-logged areas, ground water table is very high which may obstruct the
construction of deep and underground structures. Salt-water intrusion may cause
corrosion of materials and maintenance cost. This is usually the case with most part of
Lagos state for most part of the year from the months of May to October.
Furthermore, the development of official and residential estates along the coast of the
Atlantic Ocean in Lagos state is a major problem that circumvents basic environmental
principles, which should be adopted in the planning of coastal towns and cities
(Adelekan, 2009). Elsewhere in the world, such areas are at best developed for hotels,
gardens, parks, swimming pools and less frequented facilities. Yet rising at a pace of
one-metre per 50 years, ocean surge may herald Armageddon for the city but the
general populace seems not to be aware of this very important fact. Inhabitants of the
Lagos state coastal communities live in a low-lying coastal environment with fragile
costal ecosystems and a high reliance on tourism, agriculture and industry for
economic activity – all of which are vulnerable to the impacts of a changing climate.
2
Consequently, this project seeks to evaluate the engineering problems associated with
civil engineering projects in Badagry division and proffer solutions to them.
1.2 Study Area
Badagry local government area lies on the narrow coastal lowland of the south western
part of Lagos state and is situated on about 129.5 square kilometers of landmass along
the foreshores of featuring sandy beaches, swamps, mangroves and creeks. It is
bounded in the north by Ogun state, in the south by the Atlantic Ocean while at its
western and eastern boundaries are Seme and Ojo local government area respective.
With a total population of 283, 791 persons according to 2006 population census.
Badagry local government area is rapidly urbanizing with diverse economic activities
like banking, old discovery, retail and wholesale trading, commercial transportation
and monumental real estate development for both residential and commercial
purposes. The population of the area has increased geometrically in recent time and
with the population growth rate in Lagos State of +5.61 the current population in
Badagry area can be estimated as 2,000,000 person approximately.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
The engineering problems associated with building in these areas are; settlement of
structures, sewage disposal, drainage construction, damp proofing of building,
pavement construction, erosion, water population and collapsing of soil during
excavation . It has caused the construction cost to increase and many completed
buildings have been abandoned. It is therefore important to carry out this study to
identify the problems and proffer solution.
3
1.4 Aim of the Study
The aim of this project is to proffer solutions to the engineering problems associated
with buildings in waterlogged areas.
1.5 Objectives
i. To identify and measure the problems associated with buildings in waterlogged
areas at the study area;
ii. To identify the problems with occupants living in these areas; and
iii. To identify possible construction methods with building in waterlogged areas.
1.6 Scope and Limitations
Previous works on this subject has been carried out on the Ajah area of Lagos State.
This project work seeks to identify the possible engineering problems in the Badagry
area of Lagos state using Badagry and environment as a case study.
4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background
Water logging is one of the major problems of land degradation in Lagos State.
Unscientific management of soil, obstruction of natural drainage system by various
development activities are the main factors responsible for disrupting the balance of
inflow and outflow of water, leading to water logging
2.2 Water Logged Soil
Meaning of water logged soil: Soil that is saturated with water for a sufficient long
period in a year is said to be submerged or water logged soil. Water logging is,
however, caused mainly because of man-made factors like deforestation and poor
upkeep of watersheds; developmental activities such as construction of roads, bridges,
railway lines, building resulting in choking of natural drainage ad indiscriminate
dumping of refuse.
2.3 Different Types of Water Logging in the Field
i. Riverine flood water logging: In the rainy season, flood may come to the
nearby land from the river having excess floodwater.
ii. Oceanic floodwater logging : Ocean water spreads in the nearby land cause
water logging.
iii. Seasonal water- logging: Run off water accumulates in the low lands and
depression in the rainy season.
iv. Perennial water- logging: Deep water, swamp etc., get rain run-off water and
seepage water from canal causing perennial water-logging.
5
v. Sub soil water-logging. High water table in the rainy season.
2.4 Factors Affecting Formation of Water-Logging
i. Climatologicaly factor: due to high rainfall water accumulates on the soil
surface.
ii. Flood: Flood water is usually causing water-logged situation in the field.
iii. Seepage from canal: Ground water levels are closer to the surface due to
seepage from canal.
iv. Land shape: Saucer- shaped land gets water from high-lands which results into
water-logging.
v. Uncontrolled and unwanted irrigation: excess irrigation may cause
accumulation of water on the soil surface
vi. Drainage: Poor drainage system is responsible for water-logging in the field.
2.5 Harmful Effects of Water logging
With respect to water logging and salinity, there are following harmful effects:
i. Waterlogged soil provide excellent breeding grounds for mosquitoes, and
cause malaria.
ii. Destruction of roads occurs due to reduced bearing capacity of waterlogged
soil.
6
iii. Rise of water through capillary in the buildings, causes dampness and therefore
causes diseases. This is also causes peeling off plasters and appearance of salt
patched on the walls of the buildings.
iv. Disruption in Traffic Movement
v. Water pollution
vi. Disruption in Normal life
vii. Water borne diseases
viii. Damage of roads
ix. Damage of trees and vegetation
x. Damage of houses and eventual collapse
xi. Increase of insects
xii. Damage of household goods
xiii. Increase of construction and maintenance cost
xiv. Damage of underground service lines
xv. Death and damage of fisheries
xvi. Damage to food crop
2.6 Excavation of Foundation in Water Logged Sites
Excavation of foundation in water logged sites poses a great problem for the site
engineer. There are various methods of dealing with the situation, which depend upon
the depth of excavation, depth of water table, and many other factors. The following
7
methods are generally adopted while digging foundations trenches in waterlogged
sites.
2.6.1 Constructing drains
This method is generally adopted in shallow foundations in water-logged ground. In
this method, drains of suitable size are constructed at the sides of the foundations
trench. The drains collect sub-soil water from the sides and the enclosed and convey it
into a shallow pit or sump well. From the sump, the water is continuously bailed or
pumped out. This is the cheapest method of draining excavated area and can be easily
adopted by deploying unskilled labor and by using simple equipment.
2.6.2 Constructing deep wells
In coarse soils, porous rock or in sites where large quantity of sub-soil water is
required to be drained out, 30 to 60cm diameter wells are sometimes constructed at 6
to 15m centers all-round the site for temporary drainage of the ground. The water
collected in the wells is pumped out continuously. This method can be adopted for
depths of excavation up to 24m.
2.6.3 Freezing process
This process is suitable for excavation in waterlogged soils like sand, gravel and silt. It
is advantageously used for deep excavation such as foundation for bridges etc
especially when excavation is to be made adjacent to an existing structure or near
some waterways. The process consists in forming a sort of coffer darn by freezing the
soil around the area to be excavated. Freezing pipes encasing smaller diameter inner
pipes are sunk about one meter centre to centre along the periphery of the area to be
excavated. The layout of the pipes should preferably be such that the area enclosed is
8
circular in plan. Freezing liquid is then supplied to the freezing pipes by refrigeration
plant. This makes the ground around the pipes to freeze and form a thick wall of
frozen earth around the area to be excavated. This process can be used up to 30m
depth of excavation.
2.6.4 Chemical consolidation of soil
In this method, the soft water-logged soil is converted into a semi-solid mass by
forcing chemicals like silicates of soda and calcium chloride into the soil. This method
is used for small works.
2.6.5 Well point system
This is a method of keeping an excavated area dry by intercepting the flow of ground
water with pipe wells driven deep into the ground. The main components of a well
point system are: (i) the well points (ii) the riser pipe (iii) the header pipe and (iv) the
pumps. The well points consists of perforated pipe about 120cm long and 4cm in
diameter. This pipe has a ball valve to regulate the flow of water and a screen to
prevent the mud from entering into the pipe. The well point tube is connected to 5 to
7.5cm diameter pipe known as riser and is sunk into the ground by jetting. The well
points are suitably spaced (normal spacing being 100cm c/c) so as to enclose the
whole area to be excavated. The riser pipes at their upper ends are connected to a
header pipe, which in turn is connected to a high capacity suction pump.
After all the well points are installed and connected, the suction pump is put into
operation. Due function, the ball valve in the well point gets closed and the ground
water is drawn in through the well point screen. The water from the well point is
sucked up through the riser pipes, flows through the header pipe and is finally
discharged away from the site of the work. This method can be successfully adopted
9
for depth of excavation up to 18m. Since the suction pump is normally not used to lift
water above 6m depth in deep excavations, where it is necessary to lower water table
to a greater depth, multi- stage system of well point is used.
2.6.6 By Constructing sand drains
Sand drains prove very effective in marshy soils. Soil becomes marshy by the process
of deposition of thick layers of clays and silts mixed with organic matter by the
passage of time. Marshy soil is thus subjected to capillarity and has a high pore water
pressure. When this type of soil is subjected to load, its wet soils contents are
gradually pushed out on both sides and this results in subsidence of the ground. To
avoid this, sand drains are made in the ground. The diameter of the sand drains
normally varies between 300mm to 45mm and their centre-to-centre spacing may vary
from 3 to 6 metre. The hole for making the sand drains can be made by driving steel
pipe casting into the ground. The drain holes are driven deeper than the marshy layer
possibly up to an underlying rock or firm base. The marsh in the pipes is removed by
means of jet. Selected type of sand is then filed into the pipes and the pipes are
withdrawn leaving vertical sand piles in the ground. A thick layer of sand (sand
blanket) is spread over the entire area to be consolidated. When the sand layer is
subjected to load, the water from the much of the marshy soil gets squeezed into the
vertical sand drains.
The capillary action, the water from the sand drains rises up and is fed into the sand
blanket from where, it can be drained out. The objective of consolidation of soil by
this method is to develop increased soil resistance to superimposed loads usually
consisting of earth fills in highway or port construction.
10
2.7 Land Reclamation
Land reclamation is a management practice that is usually associated with resources
extraction. It is the process of returning damaged land to its original condition or to an
acceptable condition through land smoothing and/or critical area planting. Steep slopes
and high walls are usually taken down to a stable grade for safety and drainage. In
addition, missing or poorly functional natural resources are often resorted to a
condition that is consistent with the surrounding area. This may include the application
of topsoil, vegetation, proper drainage, and landscaping practices.
The land reclamation process should include a Document of Reclamation. This
determines the timelines and effectiveness of the reclamation process as well as other
site- specific concerns. It is most commonly applied at the beginning of a development
process to ensure the final land use is appropriate and is in accordance with the town
requirement (USEPA, 2002).
2.7.1 Applicability of Land Reclamation
Land reclamation is applicable to all mining or similar activities where land features
and natural resources are disrupted (although it is most commonly implemented on
land that is 2 acres or larger in size). Although it is typically applied to areas that have
been “mined out”, land reclamation should not be limited to mining properties. Land
reclamation can be applied to any property with degraded natural conditions that may
be permanently improved through actions that adjust topography and drainage,
establish vegetation for erosion control and habitat, and protect surface and ground
water resources (USEPA, 2002).
According to Nkwunonwo (2016), of all the widespread natural hazards with the
large-scale human, economic and environmental impacts, flooding surpasses. In the
11
urban areas, the threats of this hazard are substantial and call for more attention,
which, within the context of sustainable human and urban development, is
increasingly and important problem in social science research. Urban flooding is a
relatively new hazard phenomenon, which is progressively galvanizing significant
concerns globally due to the economic and political significance of cities. Flood risk
management, based on the UNSIDR idea of living with floods rather than fighting
them, provides systematic techniques for tackling this hazard. However, the
insufficiency or lack of the pertinent capacities, which are fundamental to best
practices in flood risk management, undermine these techniques in many developing
countries (DCs), such as Nigeria and Bangladesh. This study, through a desktop
review of various published materials, focusing on urban flooding and management
experiences in Lagos, Dhaka and Maputo, explores the lack of these capacities.
Among other issues, the idea of resilient cities and communities as well as sustainable
urban development will be realistic in the DCs only if adequate attention is given to
capacity development.
Adebayo, J. (2015) in his investigation of Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and influence of
urban planning revealed that, contrary to popular wisdom, climate change or unusually
high rainfall is not the primary cause of the flooding problems in Lagos. Rather, the
increased urbanization, lax planning laws in relation to the erection of buildings in
flood plains and the lack adequacy of storm drainage facilities in the city are to blame.
It is argued that a lasting solution to the flooding problem will require the
incorporation of sustainable drainage systems within the existing flood management
strategy for the city and planning for this must start now.
12
Lekan O. (2015), in his article reported that rapid population growth has remained a
hindrance to sustainable housing development in Lagos and Nigeria at large. In other
words, acute rise in population have led to increasing shortage in dwelling units in
Lagos state with the state accounting for 5 million out of the 18 million housing
deficits the nation incurs. The consequent of this has been urban problems like
overcrowding environmental hazards, poor living condition, inadequate and poor
infrastructure, homelessness, increased rate of poverty and social vices among several
others. The need to stimulate progressive urbanization through adequate housing
delivery thus constitutes a critical challenge to development.
J. David in the paper Damage to foundation from Expansive soils explains expansive
soils owe their characteristics to the presence of swelling clay minerals. As they get
wet, the clay minerals absorb water molecules and expand, conversely, as they dry
they shrink, leaving large voids in the soil. Swelling clays can control the behviour of
virtually any type of soil if the percentage of clay is more than about 5 percent by
weight. Soils with smectite clay minerals, such as nanotmorillonite, exhibit the most
profound swelling properties. The most obvious way in which expansive soils can
damage foundations is by uplift as they swell with moisture increases. Swelling soils
lift up and crack lightly loaded, continuous strip footings, and frequently cause distress
in flow slabs. Because of the different building loads on different portions of a
structure’s foundation, the resultant uplift will vary in different areas. Such differential
movement of the foundation can also cause distress to the framing of a structure.
According to the paper, expensive soils pose the greatest hazard in regions with
pronounced wet and dry seasons. The annual cycle of wetting and drying causes soils
to shrink and swell each year. Thus, the arid regions of the country are much more
13
susceptible to damage from expansive soils than regions that maintain moist soil
conditions throughout the year.
The paper also mentioned that the best way to avoid damage from expansive soils is to
extend building foundations beneath the zone of water content fluctuation. The reasons
is twofold; first, to provide for sufficient skin friction adhesion below the zone of
drying, and, second, to resist upward movement when the surface soils become wet
and begin to swell.
Another way of mitigating expensive soil problems is to collect surface runoff and to
limit surface infiltration during the rainy winter months.
In conclusion, the paper mentioned that expensive soils cause major damage to light
foundations and associated structures. However, engineers have the ability to
recognize swelling clays soils and to design structures that can withstand the effects.
Enlightened design of deep foundations and effective drainage of landscape irrigation
and swimming pool leakage could dramatically reduce damage to new homes. Grading
codes and building codes need to recognize the hazards of expansive soils and provide
explicit mitigations.
Towhid, (2004), in his paper mentioned that logged water becomes polluted with solid
waste, silt and contaminates that are washed off from roads. The increase in volume
and rate of logged water causes erosion and siltation. It becomes a burden for the
inhabitants of that urban area, leading to unhygienic environment and creating adviser
social, physical, economical as well as environmental impacts.
Oloyede, (2010) attributed causes of building collapse as due to man’s negligence in
some vital areas in construction such as soil investigation, incorporating design for
14
extra loads, stress from winds, earthquakes, uneven terrain, use of substandard
building materials, poor monitoring and overall poor workmanship.
Madu, 2005, identified causes of building failure as due to natural occurrences such as
earthquakes, tornadoes, flood, etc. Other causes according to him include factors such
as omission, carelessness leading to use of deficient structural drawings, absence of
proper supervision of projects, alteration of approved drawings, use of substandard
materials, corruption in the Nigerian system, building without approved drawings and
translocation of building plans to different sites.
Adebayo, (2000), opined that efficiency in skill and experience is important in creating
valuable workmanship in building construction.
Ayinuola, (2004) pointed accusing finger to all parties in the building industry, clients,
architects, engineers, town planners in the local authorities and contractors stating that
they have contributed to building failures in various dimensions
Ukpata, (2006), opined that the spate of building collapse in the country could always
be traced to unsafe actions of parties involved in building process starting from clients
to building consultant, contractors and users.
Adebayo (2006), opined that building collapse incidences can be controlled or
minimized if the client is ready to pay for high quality materials and for expert
professional services.
Olagunyi, (2013) opined that collapse of building either total or partial collapse of
some of its components leads to the failure of building to perform its intended function
of protection, safety or stability.
15
According to Ikpo, (1998), the degree of building failure can be related to the degree
of deviation of the building from its “as built” state which in most cases represents the
acceptable standard within the neighborhood, locality, state or country.
Joyce (2014) noted that the rate of population growth along the Lagos coast presents
many challenges. One of these challenges is in ensuring the safety and security of a
population that is continually threatened by natural hazards such as flooding, costal
erosion and storm surge. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Third Assessment Report (2001) concluded that climate change is most likely o have
important impacts on settlements in coastal or riverine locations especially where
rapid urbanization is occurring alongside economies that are dependent on climate –
sensitive resources. Storm surge is an environmental hazard that leads to the loss of
habitat in estuarine ecosystems, the loss of beaches and damage to properties and
natural resources (IPCC, 2007). Furthermore, the development of official and
residential estates along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in Lagos state is a major
problem that circumvents basic environmental principles which should be adopted in
the planning of coastal towns and cities. Elsewhere in the world such areas are at best
developed for hotels, gardens, parks, swimming pools and less frequented facilities.
The coastal shelf of Victoria Island is at present barely two metres (six feet) above see
level. A remarkable percentage of 15 million Lagosians see Victoria Island and its
satellite peninsula, Lekki as the best part of the state to invest in, and obtain
superlative returns in real estate. Yet rising at a pace of one-metre per 50 years, ocean
surge may herald Armageddon for the city but the general populace seems not to be
aware of this very important fact. Inhabitants of the Lagos State coastal communities
16
live in a low-lying coastal environment with fragile coastal ecosystems and a high
reliance on tourism, agriculture and industry for economic activity- all of which are
vulnerable to the impacts of a changing climate. Consequently, this study evaluate the
vulnerability of coastal communities in Lagos State to climate change hazards. This is
to fill the gap in knowledge as it relates to climate change communication and the
implementation of effective, relevant an culture- and demographically- compliant
adaptation policies. Ignoring this aspect of research might result in the unsuccessful
implementation of policies aimed at mitigating and adapting to climate change, waste
of financial and human resources. The failure of the region to join the global
community in combating climate change and the great loss of physical, social, human
and economic resources due to the negative impacts and hazards of climate change,
some of which can still be prevented. This is because one of the best ways to minimize
the impacts from costal hazards is through better preparedness and a more informed
public.
17
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Method of Data Collection
The methodology used for this project is the use of questionnaire. This questionnaire is
designed with series of questions and to the prompts for gathering information from
respondents. A total of 50 respondents were interviewed.
3.2 Field Study
For the purpose of the project work, I took a case study of a site for Adeniran
Ogunsanya College of Education (AOCOED) International School, Oto/Ijanikin and
AOCOED Library Extension are currently being constructed. Getting the required
documentation and assistance of the Engineers was not a challenge as the project was
co-incidentally being handled by our office as the consulting structural engineers as at
the time of the project.
This way, I could follow up with construction from the start of the project with Soil
Investigation and to the completion of the structural elements. Soil investigation
carried out for different areas was used to determine appropriate choice of foundation.
There was a great gain in carrying out the soil investigation as the recommendation
provided led two (2) choice of foundation.
The first is the use of raft for relative high bearing capacity areas of about 40KN/m 2
and the use of piles for the lower soil bearing capacity areas (marshy land). Piles in
these areas where driven to a 12m depth where there is firm soil capable of taking the
loads from the superstructure.
18
The water level within the site as off the time of investigation was 600mm below the
natural ground level. This was also a challenge to the foundation footing which have
to be found above the ground water table.
3.3 Constraints
Much of the constraint in getting appropriate feedback from the questionnaires despite
the introduction letter and presenting of the school identity card. Many inhabitants are
usually apprehensive with filling of documents, as they are not convinced the exercise
is only for academic purpose.
This is however not the case with the questionnaire for professionals as they were
promptly filled. Another constraint for me is the dearth of prior information in the area
of research in the Civil Engineering although there are articles that touches on aspects
of the project.
19
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results
This research work was conducted through the use of questionnaire, which were
properly administered and distributed randomly. Test results already carried out by the
contractor were collected and studied. The test result were collected to ascertain the
results from the test collected from the inhabitants of Ajah, in eti – Osa Local
Government area and the professionals of the construction industry.
Fifty (50) questionnaires were distributed for a period of one month three weeks and
50 of the questionnaires were returned. The responses from those collected were
analyzed using statistical tables and graphical presentation in charts.
The research identifies the problem, causes and proffers possible solution to the
identified problem with practical suggestions gathered from the field to mitigate future
engineering problems.
The research focuses primarily on the problems associated with buildings in
waterlogged area of Ajah and environs. This ultimately will increase building practices
in these types of areas that are predominant in the coastal areas of Lagos State.
The following pages cover a detailed discussion of the results of the field data
gathered.
20
4.2 A Comprehensive Analysis of Responses to Questionnaires by
Inhabitants
The total number of respondents and their categories are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Total Number of Respondents and Their Categories.
Respondent No. of No. returned No. not returned
Questionnaire
Landlord 30 25 5
Tenant 20 13 7
Others 5 2 3
Total 55 40 15
Percentage Total 100 62.5 37.5
4.3 Response to Questionnaire for the Inhabitants of the Buildings
This is divided into two (2) sections i.e. sections A and B. Section A seeks to get the
personal details of the inhabitants and Section B seeks to identify the type of problem
they are facing in the house.
4.3.1 Tenancy
A. Landlord
B. Tenant
C. Specify
Table 4.2: Tenancy.
Choice of Option No. of Respondent
A. 25
21
B. 13
C. 2
The graphical representation of choice of responses by the respondents is shown in Figure
4.1
30
25
No. of Respondent
20
15
10
0
A B C
Choice of option
Figure 4.1: Tenancy.

Most of the structure in the Ajah environment are affordable bungalows and one
storey buildings majorly built by the early settlers in the land popularly known as the
“Omonile”. The area has received little attention from government in the areas of
basic infrastructure whereas the landowners are only concerned with their local
houses and the collection of rent. In this way making of repairs is usually a burden on
the landowners due to the high cost of maintenance works.
A number of those interviewed expressed serious concern with the spate of the area
especially during the rains with many others regretting the situation of the
inhabitants.
4.3.2 Age of Respondent
A. 6 - 25 years
22
B. 26 – 35 years
C. 36 – 45 years
D. 45 years and above
The age of respondents is shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Age of Respondents.
A. 4
B. 6
C. 18
D. 12
Figure 4.2 is the graphical representation of the age of respondents.
20
18
16
No. of Respondent
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
A B C D
Choice of option
Figure 4.2: Graphical representation of the age of respondents.
Most of the responses were from age group of 36 – 45 years, which is closely
followed by the ages of 26 – 35 with the lower percentage, of the ages of 25 and
below. The most correspondent provided reliable information for the questionnaire
having leave in the area for quite a number of time.
23
4.3.3 How long have you been living in this house?
(a) 1 – 5 years. (b) 6 - 10 years (c) 11 – 15 years (d) 16 years and above
Table 4.3 indicates the number of years the respondents have stayed in the area.
Table 4.3: Number of Years The Respondents Have Stayed In The Area.
A. 14
B. 11
C. 8
D. 7
The graphical representation of responses to age of respondents is in Figure 4.3.
16
14
12
No. of Respondents
10
0
A B C D
Choice of option
Figure 4.3: Number of Years The Respondents Have Stayed In The Area.
The majority of the people leaving in the area who responded have only stayed a few
years with those who have stayed below 5 years having a percentage of 35% followed
by those who have leaved between 6 – 10 years having 27.5%. From this, it observed
24
that area is a fast growing area of Lagos having achieved such development in a very
short time frame.
4.3.4 How long have you been experiencing problems with this building?
(a) 1 -3 yrs past (b) The last 5 yrs (c) Since the building was
constructed (d) Others(s) specify……………………….
The responses to this question above are in Table 4.4
Table 4.4: Number of Years the Respondent Has Been Experiencing the Problem.
A. 10
B. 5
C. 20
D. 5
The number of years the respondents have been experiencing the problem is in Figure
4.4.
25
20
No. of respondents
15
10
0
A B C D
Choice of option
Figure 4.4: Number of Years the Respondents Have been experiencing the Problem.
25
Many of the structures visited do not show visible signs of distress but faces other
engineering problems resulting from the location of the structure in these waterlogged
areas. In this regard, a majority of the correspondent indicated that their structures
have been having problems from the time of construction, followed by some who
indicated that the challenges are occasioned by periods in raining season a situation
they ascribe to the rising water level. A few however indicated that their structure is
without any problem.
4.3.5. Does this building have an approved building plan?
A. Yes
B. No.
C. I do not know
The responses are in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Building with approved plan.
A. 5
B. 30
C. 5
The responses on the number of buildings with approved plan is presented in Figure
4.5.
26
35
30
No. of respondents
25
20
15
10
0
A B C
Choice of option
Figure 4.5: Number of buildings with approved plan.
It is clear from the records that a high degree of these houses do not have building
plans. Many of thhe bungalows do not have building plans. Only some of the store
buildings have architectural plans as declared by some. On the other hand, many of the
tenants are unaware if the buildings they occupy have building plans. The area of Ajah
is also home to some estate houses, which are serviced and have complete building
plans. These are however, occupied by the affluent.
Section B seeks to identify the type of problems faced by the inhabitants, details of the
responses are given in the following sections.
4.3.6 Which of the following are/is problem(s) of you?
(a) Excessive Dampness
(b) Excessive Settlement
(c) Drainage problems
(d) Sewage Disposal
(e) Pavement construction
(f) All of the above
27
(g) Other(s) specify
The responses to the above questions are in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6.Problems Experienced by Respondents
A. 8
B. 5
C. 5
D. 0
E. 2
F. 20
G. 0
The graph of the responses is in Figure 4.6.
28
25
20
No. of Respondents
15
10
0
A. B. C. D. E. F. G.
Choice of option
Figure 4.6.Problems Experienced by Respondents.
From the graphical representation one can say majority of the buildings are suffering
from most of the challenges associated with buildings in waterlogged areas with many
choosing the option of all of the above, a situation which is prevalent in 75% of the
Ajah area. Why we can attribute some of the challenges inherent in these areas to poor
construction practice, some of the challenges can also be mitigated with government
intervention in the areas of drainages and providing basic infrastructure of drainage
around the areas of Ajah and its environment including canals, which are currently
lacking.
4.3.7 Did you seek professional advice?
a. Yes
b. No
29
Table 4.7: Did you seek professional advice?
a. 10
b. 15
The graphical representation of the responses are in Figure 4.7.
16
14
12
No. of Respondent
10
0
A B
Choice of option
Figure 4.7: Seeking for Professional advice.
From the graphical representation, many of the landowners did not consult a
professional in the course of construction. While a few percentage of those who seek
professional advice at the early stages of the construction do not engage them during
the construction stages but rely on the services of the local builders.
It is noteworthy that this will pose a challenge in the future as the integrity of the
structure can be questioned.
4.3.8. Why did you choose to build in this area?
a. Cheap cost of land
b. The land was inherited
c. The building was inherited
30
d. It is a commercial area
e. I just like the area
Table 4.8: Why did you choose to build in this area?
A 15
B. 5
C. 0
D. 5
E. 0
16
14
12
No. of respondents
10
0
A B C D E
Choice of option
Figure 4.8: Responses to reasons for building in the area.

Most of the landowners in the Ajah area are not the original settlers. They have moved
from different areas of Lagos State primarily due to the availability of lands and the
31
cheap cost of land in comparison to the mainland areas of Lagos, which are built areas.
In the graphical illustration, about 60% of the Landlords are in this category.
A few other 20% of the Landowners have inherited such lands while the other 20%
have chosen the area for commercial purpose due to its nearness to the highly
commercial area of Lekki and Victoria Island, both of which are in the Island of Lagos
State.
There is however a change in the current situation in the cost of land over the years as
the population have increased tremendously giving rise to the increase in the cost of
Land. This trend have increased tremendously over the last 5 years with the cost going
to increase more with the reconstruction of the major roads and the development of
the Lekki free Trade zone. The free trade zone is currently undergoing monumental
changes from several notable construction amongst which are the Dangote Refinery,
Dangote Fertilizer Plant, Proposed New Airport and Sea Port all in the same region.
These projects when finally executed will increase the standard of living of the
inhabitants in these areas, affecting the price of goods and services including the cost
of landed properties.
4.3.9. Who did you contact?
a. A construction firm
b. A qualified consultant
c. A qualified builder
d. A local builder
32
Table 4.9: Whom did you contact?
A. 5
B. 8
C. 2
D. 10
12
10
No. of respondents
0
A. B. C. D.
Choice of option
Figure 4.9: Responses to whom the respondents contacted.

As previously mentioned, many of the landowners have engaged the services of local
builders, making its choice the highest with a figure of 40%, followed by a few which
in recent time have engaged the services of qualified consultant in the construction
industry. However, a few landowners making about 32% have engaged the services of
a construction firm and others have engaged the services of a qualified builder.
4.3.10 Who constructed the house for you?
a. a registered constructed company
b. Local builder
33
c. A qualified builder
d. Other(s) specify
Table 4.10: Who constructed the house for you?
A. 8
B. 15
C. 2
D. 0
16
14
12
No. of Respondents
10
0
A. B. C. D.
Choice of option
Figure 4.10: Who constructed the house for the respondents
From the graphical illustration, local builders make up 60% of those building with the
construction company companies making 32%. This explain the reason why building
of landowners who have engaged the services of local builders are more susceptible
the associated problems of building in waterlogged areas.
34
4.3.11 When it rains do you experience flooding in this area?
b. when it rain heavily only
c. Little flood
d. Flooded during the rainy season
Table 4.11: Experience of respondents during flood
A. 18
B. 2
C. 5
D. 15
The graphical representation of the responses are in Figure 4.11
20
18
16
No. of Respondents
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
A. B. C. D.
Choice of options
Figure 4.11: Experience of respondents during flood.
The responses shows whenever it rains heavily about 50% experience flooding while
20% says they experience just little 10% declared that there is constant flooding
through the rainy season. No. person said they do not experience flooding. It is
35
definitely clear that they are usually flooded during the raining season because of it
poor drainage system. Some of the buildings are usually flooded when it rains heavily.
4.3.12 Is there any drainage system in your area?
a. Yes
b. No.
Table 4.12: Responses to availability of drainage
A. 10
B. 30
35
30
No. of Respondents
25
20
15
10
0
A. B.
Choice of option
Figure 4.12: Responses to availability of drainage.

About 25% of the persons have drainage system in the area while 75% person does
not have any drainage system. It was observed that the areas are usually dry and
looking good during the dry season. This usually is the challenge with the inhabitants
36
moving into the area during the dry season only to realize that the area is a ‘swimming
pool’ during the rains, a situation they complain bitterly off.
4.3.13 How easy is it for you to maintain this building?
b. Very cheap
b. Moderately
c. Very expensive
d. Other(s) specify
Table 4.13: Responses to cost maintaining the house.
A. 5
B. 15
C. 20
D. 0
25
20
No. of Respondents
15
10
0
A B C D
Choice of option
Figure 4.13: Responses to cost maintaining the house.
37
About 50% say it very expensive to maintain their buildings, while 37.5%, 12.5% says
it is moderat3ely and very cheap r3espectively about the cost maintain the building.
4.3.14 One of the challenges in this area is sewage disposals, are you affected?
a. Yes
b. No

Table 4.14: Responses to effect of sewage disposal in the area.
A. 20
B. 20
25
20
No. of Respondents
15
10
0
a. b.
Choice of option
Figure 4.14: Responses to effect of sewage disposal problem in the area.

4.3.15 One of your problems is sewage disposal, which is in use in this house
a. Soak – away
b. Direct pit latrine
c. Remove bucket
d. No toilet at all
38
e. Others (Specify)

Table 4.15: Response to sewage disposal problem in the house.
A. 20
B. 5
C. 0
D. 15
E 0
25
20
No. of Respondent
15
10
0
A. B. C. D. E
Choice of option
Figure 4.15: Responses to effect of sewage disposal problem in the house.

Closely about 50% declared they have soak – away system in use, 12.5% uses the pit
latrine while about 37.5% uses no toilets at all. There is no use of removal bucket in
the area.
Due to the level of ground water, it is a challenge to build proper soak-away, as they
have to be of reinforced concrete, which is very expensive to some of the landowners,
especially those who have built bungalows.

39
It was observed that most often the respondent did not know all what remover bucket
is all about. From the responses of the professionals in the construction industries,
most of them recommended this system as a way of disposing sewage in waterlogged
areas than any other method being used in the area.
4.3.16 What is you source of water?
(a) Government pipe borne water
(b) Local well hand drawn
(c) Local borehole facility
(d) Borehole

Table 4.16: Responses to source of water.
A. 0
B. 20
C. 5
D. 15
40
25
20
No. of Respondents
15
10
0
A. B. C. D.
Choice of option
Figure 4.16: Responses to source of water.
The water supply is said it be 0% by Government while Local well accounts for 50%
of the source of water with local borehole provided by Non-governmental bodies and
corporate social responsibility by firms are located at some points within the area.
Most of the other homes have their own source of water and accounts for about 37.5%
of the water source.
4.3.17 At what level did you obtain good drinking water?
a. At 5m depth
b. At 8m depth
c. At 10m depth
d. At 15m depth
41
Table 4.17: Responses to depth where drinking water is available
A. 0
B. 0
C. 10
D. 20
25
20
No. of Respondents
15
10
0
A. B. C. D.
Choice of option
Figure 4.17: Responses to depth where drinking water is available
For those who used well, bored hole says they got good drinking water at a depth of
10m and 20m respectively. So it is clear that the people using the well as their own
means of getting water are not taking in water that is fit for drinking, so in due course
a lot them might suffer from disease due to bad water consumption and if they do not
further treat the water before drinking.
4.3.18 What is the effect of surface water on this system?
a. The water is salty
b. It has taste
42
c. Water not fit for drinking
d. Water is further treated, before drinking
e. Others(s) specify

Table 4.18: Responses to effect of surface water on the system.
A. 15
B. 5
C. 5
D. 15
E. 0
16
14
12
No. of Respondents
10
0
A. B. C. D. E.
Choice of option
Figure 4.18: Responses to effect of surface water on the system.

From the graph, 37.5% of respondent says is that water is salty while 12.5%, 12.5%
declared respectively that it has taste, not fit for drinking the water is further treated
before drinking mean while none specified any other effect of the surface water on his
system.
43
4.4 Analysis of Responses to Questionnaires by Professionals
4.4.1 Your Profession
a. Structural Engineer
b. Builder
c. Architect
d. Geologist

Table 4.19: Profession of respondents.
Respondent No. of No. No. not

Questionnaire returned returned
Structural Engineer 15 10 5
Builder 10 8 2
Geologist 5 2 3
Architect 10 5 5
Total 40 25 15
Percentage Total % 100 62.5 37.5
45
40
No. of Respondents
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Structural Builder Geologist Architect Total
Engineer
Profession
No. of Questionnaire No. returned No. not returned
Figure 4.19: Responses to effect of surface water on the system.
44
Foremost of the professionals who responded to the questionnaires are the structural
engineers as seen from the table above. This is followed in the order of builders,
Architects and Geologist. The architect, structural engineers, and the builders are the
professionals primarily responsible for building in the waterlogged areas from the
conception, design and execution of the building respectively. In this way, the deal
with the challenges from building in waterlogged area to prevent settlement problems
and future building collapse.
4.4.2 Work experience
a. Fresh graduate
b. 1 – 5 years
c. 6 – 10 years
d. 10 – 15 years
e. 15 years and above

Table 4.20: Respondent’s work experience
A. 10
B. 15
C. 8
D. 5
E 2
The pie chart showing the responses are in Figure 4.20.
45
5%
13% 25% A.
B.
C.
20%
D.
E
37%
Figure 4.20: Respondent’s work experience.
4.4.3 Which of the following(s) would you consider the possible problem(s) of
building in waterlogged areas?
a. Flooding resulting from poor drainage
b. Capillary action leading to dampness in building
c. Settlement problem resulting from inadequate foundation
d. Sewage system problem
e. Other(s) specify

Table 4.21: Respondents identified problem of building in waterlogged area.
A. 10
B. 20
C. 5
D. 5
46
13%
25%
A.
12%
B.
C.
D.
50%
Figure 4.21: Respondents identified problem of building in waterlogged area.
About 40% said capillary action to dampness in building, while 37.5%, 12.5% and 5%
mentioned flooding, sewage system and settlement problem respectively as the
possible problem of building in waterlogged areas. Most of the houses surveyed were
suffering from the about first two problems. It is noteworthy that a major part of the
project timeframe was within the rains and could experience the situation first hand. I
also noticed that, contrary to my initial perception, that the buildings are not yet in
distress as they are relatively new, a situation, which will change in the future if
attention is not focused on the challenges, faced by this areas.
4.4.4 Which of the problem(s) listed is the most prominent?
a. Flooding resulting from poor drainage
b. Capillary action leading to dampness in building
c. Settlement problem resulting from inadequate foundation
d. Other(s) specify
47
Table 4.22: Response to most prominent problem.
A. 20
B. 15
C. 5
D. 0
13% 0%
A.
B.
50%
C.
37%
D.
Figure 4.22: Response to most prominent problem.
A major source of concern in most of the areas is flood, dampness in buildings and
settlement problems that are eminent in the near future. One of the challenges facing
these areas is also the nearness to water bodies, which overflow during the peak of
the rains and the level of land above sea level.
4.4.5. Which is the best solution to settlement in waterlogged area?
a. Sand filling of the area
b. Pile foundation
c. Raft foundation

48
Table 4.23: Response to solution to settlement in waterlogged area
A. 15
B. 10
C. 15
13% 0%
A.
B.
50%
C.
37%
D.
Figure 4.23: Response to solution to settlement in waterlogged area.
Many of the professionals say it depends on the structure. In their opinion, they will
choose all option depending on the location and the structure in question. Going by
this assertion, about 37.5% of the professionals indicated that the primary thing to do
in these areas is too sand fill and stabilize the soil. About 25% indicated that some
form of piling is necessary an indication which depends on the sub soil strata
although this is an expensive solution. Another 37.5% indicated that for the most
past, a raft foundation is usually sufficient for the type of structures built in the area.
The professionals said the solution to settlement in wat3rloggted area is to use pile
foundation and after sand filling of area first. Ralf foundation could be used if the
structures being erected is not too heavy as to causes as to causes settlement.
49
It was observed that for most of the buildings with suspended floors, raft foundation
is predominantly in use in the area after sand filling.
4.4.6 The sources of problems with building in most waterlogged area could be
mostly because of what?
a. Poor construction
b. Poor structural design
c. Poor maintenance
d. Poor construction of drainage
e. Others(s) specify

Table 4.24: Responses to sources of problems with building in most waterlogged
A. 5
B. 8
C. 5
D. 15
E 2
50
6% 14%
A.
B.
23% C.
43%
D.
E
14%
Figure 4.24: Response to solution to settlement in waterlogged area.

The cause of problem in most waterlogged areas are (i) poor construction of existing
drains (ii) poor construction of structures in such areas due to the poor structural
design of these building. Others specified lack of planning in most areas by the initial
landowners as an attendant cause.
It was observed during the field survey that poor drainage is still a problem in these
areas, and the continuous engagement of unqualified personnel in the construction of
these buildings will compound the problem in the future because of the issue of
settlement. The lack of planning also poses a challenge as most of the areas are sold
for buildings without adequate provision for drainage.
4.4.7 Why is it costly to build in waterlogged areas?
a. Rapid concentration and population
b. Lack of alternative land in other parts of Lagos State
c. Inherited land
d. Other(s) specify
51
Table 4.25: Response to reason for high cost of building in waterlogged area.
A. 5
B. 25
C. 3
D. 7
18% 12%
A.
8% B.
C.
D.
62%
Figure 4.25: Response to reason for high cost of building in waterlogged area.
The majority of the professional indicated that the principal reason is that other parts
of Lagos are already built up leaving many who intend to build to these areas.
4.4.8 What sewage disposal system will you recommend for buildings in
waterlogged areas?
a. Pit Latrine
b. Removal bucket
c. Soak-away system
52
Table 4.26: Response on recommended sewage disposal system
A. 5
B. 2
C. 33
12%
5%
A.
B.
C.
83%
Figure 4.26: Response on recommended sewage disposal system.

Most people responded that the soak – away system is the best means of sewage
disposal in these areas.
4.4.9 What practical suggestion will you offer to any one building in a
waterlogged area?
Most of the professionals suggested the waterlogged areas should be sand filled before
embarking on the development of such areas. In addition, experts should be engaged
both in the design and in the construction phase.
53
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION
5.1 Conclusion
The following conclusions were made based on the findings of this study.
i. The increase in building of structure in waterlogged area is due to the scarcity
of land in Lagos mainland. The rapid growth in population of Lagos as a
commercial city has also make building such area attractive.
ii. The project have also emphasized the need to engage professionals and
stakeholders in the development of structures in waterlogged areas.
iii. Federal/State Local Government attitude towards housing for its citizen’s
gives room to the problems examined, as there are no regulation or byelaws to
restrict quack contractors from constructing in waterlogged areas. The lack of
infrastructure in the area also compounds the problem.
iv. From the review of the literature in the project, it will be observed that with
the right method of construction and necessary infrastructure, building in
waterlogged areas could be done and these could be put to good use.
v. Usually, a lot still has to be done by the individuals, Government authorities;
Engineers as for as waterlogged areas and constructing of structure are
concern.
5.2 Recommendation
The following recommendations are considered appropriate for the following
stakeholders in the built industry
i. Inhabitants in waterlogged areas
ii. Landowners
54
iii. Professionals in the construction industry
iv. Local Government/State Government
5.2.1 Recommendation to Inhabitants
i. Clearing of existing drainage to prevent blockages
ii. Dumping of refuse in recommend place or collection bins
iii. Report to appropriate Local Government drainage department if any serious
flood occurrence in the area
5.2.2 Recommendation to Landowners in Waterlogged Area
i. To seek professionals in the development of buildings
ii. To Adhere to building regulations by the town planning authorities
iii. Contact a registered construction company for any construction work on such
sites or for advice on such sites
iv. Contact Local Government authorities for advice concerning construction
works in such areas.
5.2.3 Recommendation to the Professionals
Raising building off the ground using piers and columns, thereby creating automatic
passage for floodwater under the building.
i. Engineers should recommend soil investigation to their clients prior to design
to ascertain the soil sub strata and soil bearing capacity and
ii. Appropriate Designing of structures using building codes and developing
control measure to combat Hooding problems
iii. Respect construction bylaws as laid down by the Government
iv. Respect the principles of sewage disposal in construction
55
v. To follow the code of ethics in building regulation laid down by Nigeria
society of Engineers (NSE) and counsel for the Regulation of engineering in
Nigeria (COREN).
5.2.4 Recommendation to the Local Government
i. To carry out environmental impact assessment and advise inhabitants of the
areas on through its assessment.
ii. A datum level should be establish in every waterlogged area and ensured it is
respect currently being done for waste disposal.
iii. To collaborate with the inhabitants in the provision of sewage disposal similar
to that by currently be3ing done for waste disposal.
iv. Regular collection of refuse and disposal should be carried out in the
communities.
v. Provision of public sewer.
vi. All building plans should be crosschecked an approved before construction
works start.
vii. Provide bylaws concerning construction in waterlogged areas and ensure they
are respected.
viii. Each Local government should ensure pipe borne water is provided to the
committee.
ix. Where the Local Government is rich enough large waterlogged area should be
reclaimed before people are allowed to construct e.g. Ajah, Lekki Peninsula,
Ikoyi etc.
56
5.2.5 Recommendation for sewage disposal method for the inhabitants of Ajah
The method of Remover Buckets of sewage disposal could be used in waterlogged
areas (Ajah in particular). It is very economical with the involvement of the Local
Government or public private partnership.
5.2.6. Recommendation to the State Government
i. Government should be proactive in the planning of the waterlogged areas in
Lagos State to ensure the provision of the basic amenities necessary to make
living in the areas habitable. Construction of roads, drainages and canals
should be promptly carried out prior to the settling of inhabitants.
ii. Shoreline protection should be done on the bank of seas to prevent upsurge of
water in committees.
iii. State Government should ensure that qualified or competent persons carry out
developments in waterlogged area.
iv. Byelaw for construction in waterlogged areas should be laid down and local
government should see that it is being adhere to by those concern
v. The state government should reclaim large waterlogged area before people are
allowed to construct on them strictly following building regulations, as laid
down by the Government of Society of engineers. The state Government
should collaborate with relevant professional bodies such Nigeria Society of
Engineers (NSE) and environment experts in order to achieve the best method
in the areas of construction.
57
REFERENCES
Adebayo. J. A. (20111), Lagos (Nigeria) flooding and influence of urban planning
Retrieved November 2017

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270466516
Cekan O. (2015), Population and Habitation in Lagos State, retrieved December 2017
from http://nigeriarealestatehub.com/
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2006): National Building Code Published by Lexis

Betterworths, South Africa retrieved November 15, 2016 from
htt://sdngnet.com
I.G. (2015), Building Collapse in Nigerian: The Causes, Effects, Consequences and
Remedies, International Journal of Civil Engineering, Construction and Estate
Management Vol. 3, No. 4, pp 41 – 49, October 2015
Kenneth E (2001): Settlement of foundation on Expansive Clays Due to Moisture
Demand of Trees, Retrieved November 15, 2017,

http://www.foundationperformance.org
Kenneth E (2008): Settlement of foundation on Expansive Clays Due to Moisture

Demand of Trees, Retrieved December 2016, http://cigmat.cive.uh.edu
Nkwunonwo U.C. (2016) Exploring the Inadequacy of Pertinent Capacities for Urban
Flood Risk Management in the Developing Countries, Retrieved November

15, 2017 https://thescipub.com/abstract/10.3844/jss
Rogers J.D. (n,d) Damage to foundations from expansive soils retrieved from
https://web.mst.edu
58
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNNAIRE
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH THE
BUILDING IN WATERLOGGED AREAS IN LAGOS STATE.
(A CASE STUDY OF BADAGRY LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA)
Dear respondents,
a. All information required is strictly for academic purpose
b. The privacy of the information is adequately guaranteed
c. The clear and straight forward answers are highly valued (please tick the
appropriate boxes)
d. Where your answers fails outside the ones offered, please use the space
provided for your answers.
Thank you for your cooperation

Sofidiya Adeoye Olabinjo
September, 2017
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INHABITANTS

SECTION A
Name: ………………………………………………………………………
Address: ……………………………………………………………………
Occupation: …………………………………………………………………
1. Tenancy
(a) Landlord (b)Tenant (c) Other(s) specific
…………….
2. Age of respondent
(a) 16-25 yrs (b) 26-35yrs (c) 36-45yrs (d)40 yrs
and above
3. How long have you been living in this house
(a) 1-5yrs (b)6-10yrs (c)11-15yrs (d) 16yrs and
above
59
4. How long have you been experiencing problems with this building?
(a) 1-3yrs past (b) the last 5 yrs (c) since the building was
constructed (d) other(s) specify
……………………………….
5. Does this building have an approved building plan?
(a) Yes (b)No (c) I don’t know 4
SECTION B
1. Which of the following is/are the problem(s) of your building

(a) Excessive dampness (b)settlement in the building
(c) Lack of drainage (d) lack of sewage disposal
(e) Lack of pavement construction (f) all of the above
2. Why did you choose to build or live here
(a) Cheaper cost of land (b) the land/building was inherited
(c) It is a commercial area (d) cheaper cost of rent
(e) It is a personal choice
3. Di you seek professional advise before building/relocation to this house?
(a) Yes (b)No
4. If yes, whom did you contact?
(a) A contractor
(b) A consultant engineer
(c) An estate agent
(d) A qualified builder
(e) A local builder
(f) Other(s) specify ……………………………………………….
5. Do you have a building plan?
(a) Yes (b)No
6. Who constructed the house for you?
(a) A registered company
(b) A local builder
(c) A qualified builder
60
(d) Other(s) specify ………………………………………………
7. During raining season, do you experience flooding in this area?
(a) Yes (b)No
8. Is there any drainage in this area?
(a) Yes (b)No
9. What is your opinion on maintenance cost for this building?
(a) Very cheap (b)moderate (c) expensive (d) very expensive
10. One of the challenges in this area is sewage disposal, are you affected?
(a) Yes (b)No
11. Which method of disposal do you use?
(a) Soak away
(b) Direct pit latrine
(c) Removal bucket
(d) Not toilet at all
(e) Other(s) specify ………………………
12. What is your source of water
(a) Government pipe borne water
(b) Local well hand drawn
(c) Local well with pumping facility
(d) Borehole
13. At what depth is your source of water
(a) At 5m depth (b) at 10m depth (c)at 15m depth (d)over
20m depth
14. Is this water fit for drinking
(a) Yes (b)No
15. If your answer is no, how do you get drinking water
(a) The water is further treated
(b) Purchase of local treated water
(c) Other(s) specify ……………………………….
16. What is the effect of surface water on the water
61
(a) The water is colored
(b) Water is salty
(c) Water has taste
QUESTIONNAIRE TO PROFESSIONALS IN THE CONSTRUCTION

INDUSTRY
SECTION A
Name: ………………………………………………………………………
Address: ……………………………………………………………………
Occupation: …………………………………………………………………
1. Your profession
(a) Structural Engineer
(b) Builder
(c) Architect
(d) Geologist
2. Work experience
a. Fresh graduate
b. 1-5yrs
c. 6-10yrs
d. 10-15yrs
e. 15 yrs and above
SECTION B
1. Which of the following(s) would you consider the possible problem(s) of
building in waterlogged areas?
(a) Flooding resulting from poor drainage
(b) Capillary action leading to dampness in building
(c) Settlement problem resulting from inadequate foundation
(d) Sewage system problem
(e) Other(s) specify ……………………………….
2. Which of the problem(s) listed is the most prominent?
(a) Flooding resulting from poor drainage
(b) Capillary action leading to dampness in building
62
(c) Settlement problem resulting from inadequate foundation
(d) Other(s) specify ……………………………….
3. Which is the best solution to settlement in waterlogged area
(a) Sand filling of the area
(b) Pile foundation
(c) Raft foundation
4. The sources of problems with building in most waterlogged area could be
mostly because of
a. Poor construction
b. Poor structural design
c. Poor maintenance
d. Poor construction of drainage
e. Other(s) specify ………………………..
5. Building in waterlogged areas is expensive to construct and to maintain, yet
it is on increase in the number of building in such areas. What are the
reasons you can possibly ascribe this?
a. Rapid concentration and population
b. Lack of alternative land in other parts of Lagos State
c. Inherited land
d. Other(s) specify ……………………………
6. What sewage disposal system will you recommend for building in
waterlogged areas?
a. Pit latrine
b. Removal bucket
c. Soak-away system
7. What practical suggestions will you offer to any one building in a
waterlogged area? Most of the professionals suggested the waterlogged
areas should be sand filled before embarking on the development of such
areas. In addition, experts should be engaged both in the design and in the
construction phase.
63

Engineering Challenges Associated With Building Structures Erected in Waterlogged Area

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Engineering Challenges Associated With Building Structures Erected in Waterlogged Area

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

ENGINEERING CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH BUILDING

STRUCTURES ERECTED IN WATERLOGGED AREA

SOFIDIYA, ADEOYE OLABINJO

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

Graduate Diploma (PGD) in Civil Engineering of the Federal University of

Technology, Akure, Ondo State.

Prof. C.S. Okoli

Finally, my appreciation goes to my friends and colleagues in the department of Civil

Figure 4.1: Tenancy. .................................................................................................... 22

1.1 Background of Study

has an international airport. The topography of Lagos is dominated by its system of

islands, sandbars, and lagoons.

only 22 feet (7 meters) above sea level.

works, wine tapping and traditional house building.

world. As such, it will always be impacted by the consequences of climate change in

problems and diseases that come with it in the flooded areas.

these challenges is in ensuring the safety and security of a population that is

construction of deep and underground structures. Salt-water intrusion may cause

civil engineering projects in Badagry division and proffer solutions to them.

1.2 Study Area

the foreshores of featuring sandy beaches, swamps, mangroves and creeks. It is

Badagry area can be estimated as 2,000,000 person approximately.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

structures, sewage disposal, drainage construction, damp proofing of building,

pavement construction, erosion, water population and collapsing of soil during

identify the problems and proffer solution.

with buildings in waterlogged areas.

i. To identify and measure the problems associated with buildings in waterlogged

areas at the study area;

iii. To identify possible construction methods with building in waterlogged areas.

1.6 Scope and Limitations

area of Lagos state using Badagry and environment as a case study.

Unscientific management of soil, obstruction of natural drainage system by various

inflow and outflow of water, leading to water logging

2.2 Water Logged Soil

upkeep of watersheds; developmental activities such as construction of roads, bridges,

railway lines, building resulting in choking of natural drainage ad indiscriminate

2.3 Different Types of Water Logging in the Field

nearby land from the river having excess floodwater.

depression in the rainy season.

seepage water from canal causing perennial water-logging.

2.4 Factors Affecting Formation of Water-Logging

i. Climatologicaly factor: due to high rainfall water accumulates on the soil

seepage from canal.

v. Uncontrolled and unwanted irrigation: excess irrigation may cause

accumulation of water on the soil surface

2.5 Harmful Effects of Water logging

i. Waterlogged soil provide excellent breeding grounds for mosquitoes, and

ii. Destruction of roads occurs due to reduced bearing capacity of waterlogged

patched on the walls of the buildings.

iv. Disruption in Traffic Movement

vi. Disruption in Normal life

vii. Water borne diseases

viii. Damage of roads

ix. Damage of trees and vegetation

x. Damage of houses and eventual collapse

xi. Increase of insects

xii. Damage of household goods

xiii. Increase of construction and maintenance cost

xiv. Damage of underground service lines

xv. Death and damage of fisheries

xvi. Damage to food crop