Compressible Aerodynamics

Brief Revisit of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics plays a crucial role in the study of high-speed compressible flows. In fluid
mechanics of low speed flow, thermodynamic considerations are not needed. The pressure
changes associated with low speed flow are too small compared to the absolute pressure that
the density is practically independent of pressure and the velocity field can be approximated to
be solenoidal. In low speed flow the heat content of the fluid is so large compared to the kinetic
energy of the flow that the temperature remains nearly constant even if the whole kinetic energy
is transformed into heat. The opposite is true in high-speed flow problems and thermodynamics
becomes an integral part of high-speed flows.

The physical basis of thermodynamics is formalized in the principal laws. The law of
conservation of energy is one of these principal laws. It introduces the concept of internal
energy of a ‘system’. A thermodynamic system is certain quantity of matter separated from the
‘surroundings’ or the ‘environment’ by an ‘enclosure’ and an enclosure is a closed surface with
its properties defined everywhere. An enclosure may or may not transmit heat, work or mass.
The other principal laws of thermodynamics introduce and define the properties and concepts of
temperature and entropy. Classical thermodynamics is concerned with equilibrium state of
uniform matter, that is, with states in which all local mechanical, physical and thermal quantities
are virtually independent of both position and time. Thermodynamic results may be applied
directly to fluids at rest when their properties are uniform. Observation also shows that results
for equilibrium states are approximately valid for the non-equilibrium non-uniform states
common in practical fluid dynamics. The departure from equilibrium in a moving fluid may
appear to be large but they are apparently small in their effect on thermodynamic relationships.

Fluid mechanics of perfect fluids (without viscosity and heat conductivity) is an extension of
equilibrium thermodynamics to moving fluids. In addition to internal energy, kinetic energy of the
fluid needs to be considered. The ratio of the kinetic energy per unit mass to the internal energy
per unit mass is a characteristic dimensionless quantity of the flow problem and in the simplest
cases is directly proportional to the square of Mach number.

The concepts of thermodynamics are helpful in fluid mechanics for the additional reason that in
both subjects the objective is a set of results which apply to matter as generally as possible,
without regard for the different molecular properties and mechanism at work. Additional results
may be obtained by taking into account any known molecular properties of a fluid (with the aid
of kinetic theory in case of certain gases).

It is a fact of experience that the state of a given mass of fluid in equilibrium under the simplest
possible conditions is specified uniquely by two parameters, which for convenience may be

chosen as the specific volume   1  and the pressure p. All other quantities describing the

state of the fluid are function of these two parameters of state. One of the most important of
these quantities is the temperature. ‘A mass of fluid in equilibrium has the same temperature as
a test mass of fluid also in equilibrium if the two masses remain in equilibrium when placed in
thermal contact’ (Zeroth law of thermodynamics). The relation between the temperature T and
the two parameters of state may be written as
f ( p, , T )  0
This exhibits the arbitrariness of the choice of the two parameters of state. The equation is
called ‘the equation of state’. Generally written as p  p ( , T ) and is called ‘thermal equation of
state’. Another important quantity describing the state of the fluid is the internal energy per unit
mass E. The change in the internal energy of the system (mass of fluid) at rest due to a change
of state is defined by the first law of thermodynamics. The change is such that satisfies the
conservation of energy when account is taken of both heat given to the fluid and work done on
the fluid. Thus if the state of a given uniform mass of fluid is changed by a gain of heat of
amount Q per unit mass and by the performance of work on the fluid of amount W per unit
mass, then
D E  Q +W
E  E (v, T ) is the caloric equation of state
The internal energy E is a function of the state parameters, and the change which may be either
infinitesimal or finite depends only on the initial and final states, but Q and W are measures of
external effects and may separately depend on the particular way in which the transition
between the two states is made. When the fluid is thermally isolated from its’ surrounding, no

exchange of heat can occur (Q  0) ; and any change in the state of the fluid that may occur is
called ‘adiabatic’.

The most common way of performing work on the system is compression. Analytic expression
can be obtained if the change is ‘reversible’. This implies that the change is carried out so slowly
that fluid passes through a succession of equilibrium states, the direction of the change being
without effect. At each stage, the pressure ‘p’ is uniform, so the work done on unit mass of fluid
for small decrease in volume is p . Thus for an infinitesimal reversible transition from one
state to another neighbouring state,
dE   Q - p
The particular path by which the initial and final equilibrium states are joined is relevant here,
because p is not in general a function of  alone.

Another practical quantity of some importance is the ‘specific heat’ of the fluid, which is the
amount of heat given to unit mass of the fluid per unit rise in temperature in a small reversible
change. The specific heat may be written as

c  Q
T
This is not uniquely determined until the conditions under which the reversible changes occur

are specified. An equilibrium state is a point on a ( p, ) plane (indicator diagram) and a small

reversible change ( p,  ) starting from a point A may proceed in any direction.

adiabatic

A
mn isothermal

If the only work done on the fluid is that done by compression, the heat  Q which must be
supplied to unit mass is determined as
 E   E 
 Q     p +    + p
 p     p

and the change in temperatures is

 T   T 
 T     p +   
 p     p

The specific heat thus depends on the ratio

p
 , and hence on the choice of direction of the
change from A. Two particular well defined choices are changes parallel to the axes of the
indicator diagram giving the principal specific heats

 Q   E      Q   E 
Cp      + p  ; C     
 T  p  T  p  T  p  T   T 
The ratio of the principal specific heats ( g ) is given as

Cp ��p� ��  � ��
p � �� �
g � � � � � � � �
�
C �� ad �
�� T ��p�
T ��p�
ad

Thermodynamic variables are defined either as extensive variables or as intensive variables.

The value of an extensive variable depends on the mass of the system while the value of an
intensive variable does not depend on the total mass of the system. Both sets refer to state
variables only. For every extensive variable an intensive variable (per unit mass termed as
specific variable) can be introduced.

The weighted ratio - p  in a small reversible change is the ‘bulk modulus of

 1 
elasticity’ of fluid. For fluid dynamical purposes, its’ reciprocal - or is more useful.
p  p
This is called the ‘coefficient of compressibility’. Like ‘specific heat’, the ‘bulk modulus’ or the
‘coefficient of compressibility’ takes a different value for each direction of change. Adiabatic and
isothermal changes correspond to two particular directions with special significance and the first
law requires the ratio of the two corresponding bulk modulus to equal the ratio of the principal
specific heats.

Thermal equation of state for all gases at low density limits

p = ρRT, T in K, ºC + 273.16 or ºF + 459.69

This defines a family of perfect gases, one for each value of R. Any gas at low enough density
approaches a perfect gas with a particular value of R. R is called the specific gas constant
which is the universal gas constant divided by the molecular weight of the gas. The caloric

equation of state for a perfect gas is E = constant ×T  C T

Every real gas can be liquefied. The highest temperature at which this is possible is called
critical temperature Tc, the corresponding pressure and density are called critical pressure pc

and critical density c . Critical variables are characteristics of a gas and depend on

p �2 p
�
intermolecular forces. At the critical point  2  0. An equation of state for a real gas must
�v �v
involve at least two parameters besides R, say pc and Tc as in van der Walls equation.
 � 1 a �
p   RT � -
1 - b RT �
� �
27
a b RTc , a b 2  27 pc
8
The internal energy of a van der Walls gas is
a
E  E0 ( T ) -  E0 ( T ) - a

p
The compressibility factor of a gas is defined as Z  .
 RT

A set of adiabatic lines can be drawn through each point of the indicator diagram defining the
direction of a small reversible change involving no gain or loss of heat. The family of these
adiabatic lines can be regarded to define equal value of some new function of state. The
function is termed ‘entropy’ and its properties are the subject of the second law of
thermodynamics. The second law implies the existence this extensive property of the fluid in
equilibrium such that in a reversible transition from an equilibrium state to another neighbouring
equilibrium state, the increase in entropy is proportional to the heat given to the fluid and the
constant of proportionality itself is a function of state. The constant of proportionality depends
only on the temperature and can be chosen as the reciprocal of the temperature. With entropy
per unit mass of a fluid S, we have
T  S   Q = the infinitesimal amount of heat given reversibly.
This is the means by which the thermodynamic or absolute scale of temperature is defined.

An adiabatic reversible transition takes place at constant entropy, and the process is called
isentropic. It is a consequence of the second law that in an adiabatic irreversible change the
entropy cannot diminish. The second law is thus the law of possibility. It determines what can
possibly happen and what cannot.

Hence, for a small reversible change in which work is done on fluid only by compression
T  S   E + p
Since the equation contains only functions of state, the relation must be valid for any
infinitesimal transition in which work is done by compression, whether reversible or not. If the

transition is irreversible T  S � Q , and  W �- p

Another function of state which like internal energy and entropy is convenient for use in fluid
mechanics particularly when effects of compressibility of the fluid are important is the enthalpy
or heat function. The enthalpy of unit mass of fluid (H) is
H  E + p
�  H   E + p + p  T  S + p
The relation involves only state functions. For a reversible small change at constant pressure
 H  Q
Helmholtz free energy (F) is another important parameter defined as
F = E – TS per unit mass
 F   E - T  S - S T  - p - S T
Thus, the gain in free energy per unit mass in a small isothermal change, whether reversible or
not, is equal to p . When this small isothermal change is reversible the gain in free energy is
equal to the work done on the system.
Another form of free energy is Gibbs free energy defined as
G  E + pv - TS = H – TS

 G  V  p - S T
Using  and S as the two independent parameters

��
E� ��
E�
T  S   E + p � � � - p, � � T
�
�� s ��S�


�2 E
may be obtained in two different ways.
 S
��
��2 E � �� p� �2 E ��
T�
� � - � �, � �
 S � ��
��� S�
  S ��
�� �S

Hence

��p � ��T�
� � - � �
��
S�  �
�� S

�
�� ��
T�
Similarly, � �  � �
��S�
p ��p�
S

�
�� ��
S � ��p � ��S�
� �  - � �; � � � �
��
T�p ��
p�T ��
T�  �
�� T

may be obtained by forming the double derivative, in two different ways, of the functions

E + p , E - TS and E + p - TS  H - TS
�H �F �G
The four relations given above are known as Maxwell’s thermodynamic relations.
Alternatively, from the first relation

��
T� ��
T ���p�
� �  � �� �
�
�� s ��p� �
v s
s � �

��p� ��p � �� � ��

T�
� �  - � � � � - � �
��
S� �
�� s ��S�p �
�� s

 � ��
�� T�
� � � � �
��S�
p ��p�
s

‘Coefficient of thermal expansion’ of fluid is defined as

�
1 ��
b � �
 ��
T�p

It plays an important role in considerations of the action of gravity on a fluid of non-uniform

temperature.

Specific heats using entropy

Q S
C T
T T
��S� ��S�
� C p  T � �, C  T � �
��
T�p ��
T�

��S� ��S�
Using S  S ( T , ) ,  S  � � T + � �
��
T� �
�� T

��S� ��S � �� �
S ���
� � �  � �+ � �� �
��
T�p ��
T�   ��
�� T �
T�p

��S� ��p�
Since � � � �
�
�� T ��
T�

�� �
p ���
C p - C  T � �� �
��  �
T �� T�p

The right hand side can be calculated from the equation of state.
In terms of easily measurable quantities,

� ��  ��
p ��� ���
C p - C  T �
- � �� �� � �
 ��
� �� T �
T� ��
p� T�
p

2
�� �
p ��� �� �
p ���
 -T � �� �  - b T � �� �
 ��
�� T �
T�p  ��
�� T �
T�p
Relationship between increments of S and E due to small changes in two parameters (useful for
fluid flow problems with non-uniform temperature) can be obtained as follows.
Using S  S ( T , p )

��S� ��
S�
�  S  � � T + � � p
��
T�p ��p�
T

��S � C p ��S� �
��
� � , � � - � �
��
T� p T ��
p�T ��
T�p

 T ��� T
�  S  Cp - � � p  C p - b p
T �� T�p T

or T  S  C p T - b T  p   E + p

Except  S and E , others are directly observable. To determine the relative importance of the
two terms on the right hand, their ratio can be written as
C pT Cp  p     T
-     
b Tp C p - C    T  T  p p

  
  T
g  T  p

g -1   
  p
 p  T
from which it will be possible to see whether one term is dominant.

Some important relations for perfect gases

Using S  S (  , T )
��S� ��S�
� dS  � �dT + � �d
��
T� �
�� T

dT ��p�
 C + � �d
T �� T�


dT �R �
 C +� � d considering perfect gas
T � �
Integrating between state (1) & (2)
2 dT 2 R
S 2 - S1  �C + � d
1 T 1 

For a calorically perfect gas C p , C , R are constant

T2 
� S 2 - S1  C ln + R ln 2
T1 1
Similarly, S  S ( p, T )

��S� ��
S�
� dS  � �dT + � �dp
��
T�p ��
p�T

dT ��� dT �R �
 Cp - � �dp  C p -� �dp for a perfect gas
T �� T�
p T �p �
Integrating
T2 p
S 2 - S1  C p ln - R ln 2
T1 p1

Hence, for isentropic processes

Cp / R
T p p �T �
C p ln 2  R ln 2 � 2  �2 �
T1 p1 p1 �T1 �

g g -1
g p 2  T2 
Cp R  , Hence  
g -1 p1  T1 

Similarly,
2 T
R ln  -C ln 2
1 T1

-C R
 2  T2  C

1
or,  
 1  T1  R g -1

-1 g -1 1
 2  T2   2  T2  g -1
   or  
 1  T1  1  T1 

g g g -1
p    T 
Hence, 2   2    2 
p1  1   T1 

----xxx---