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Beta-lactamases produced by Gram-negative organisms are usually Structure of a Streptomyces albus beta-
[1]
secreted, especially when antibiotics are present in the environment. lactamase
Identifiers
Symbol β-lactamase domain
Contents Pfam PF00144
Structure Pfam clan CL0013
Penicillinase
InterPro IPR001466
Resistance in Gram-negative bacteria
Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)
PROSITE PS00146
Types SCOP 56601
TEM beta-lactamases (class A)
SUPERFAMILY 56601
SHV beta-lactamases (class A)
CTX-M beta-lactamases (class A) Available protein structures:
OXA beta-lactamases (class D) Pfam structures
Others
PDB RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj
Treatment
Inhibitor-resistant β-lactamases PDBsum structure summary
Treatment of ESBL/AmpC/carbapenemases
IntEnz IntEnz view
General overview BRENDA BRENDA entry
According to genes
ESBLs ExPASy NiceZyme view
Inhibitor-Resistant β-lactamases
KEGG KEGG entry
AmpC
Carbapenemases MetaCyc metabolic pathway
According to species PRIAM profile
Escherichia coli or Klebsiella
PDB structures RCSB PDB PDBe PDBsum
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Gene Ontology AmiGO / QuickGO
Detection
Evolution Search
Structure
The structure of a Streptomyces β-lactamase is given by1BSG.
Penicillinase
Penicillinase is a specific type of β-lactamase, showing specificity for penicillins,
again by hydrolysing the β-lactam ring. Molecular weights of the various
penicillinases tend to cluster near 50 kiloDaltons.
Types
Others
Other plasmid-mediated ESBLs, such as PER, VEB, GES, and IBC beta-lactamases, have been described but are uncommon and
have been found mainly in P. aeruginosa and at a limited number of geographic sites. PER-1 in isolates in Turkey, France, and Italy;
VEB-1 and VEB-2 in strains from Southeast Asia; and GES-1, GES-2, and IBC-2 in isolates from South Africa, France, and Greece.
PER-1 is also common in multiresistant acinetobacter species in Korea and Turkey. Some of these enzymes are found in
Enterobacteriaceae as well, whereas other uncommon ESBLs (such as BES-1, IBC-1, SFO-1, and TLA-1) have been found only in
Enterobacteriaceae.
Treatment
While ESBL-producing organisms were previously associated with hospitals and institutional care, these organisms are now
increasingly found in the community. CTX-M-15-positive E. coli are a cause of community-acquiredurinary infections in the UK,[12]
and tend to be resistant to all oral β-lactam antibiotics, as well as quinolones and sulfonamides. Treatment options may include
nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin, mecillinam and chloramphenicol. In desperation, once-daily ertapenem or gentamicin injections may also
be used.
Inhibitor-resistant β-lactamases
Although the inhibitor-resistant β-lactamases are not ESBLs, they are often discussed with ESBLs because they are also derivatives
of the classical TEM- or SHV-type enzymes. These enzymes were at first given the designation IRT for inhibitor-resistant TEM β-
lactamase; however, all have subsequently been renamed with numerical TEM designations. There are at least 19 distinct inhibitor-
resistant TEM β-lactamases. Inhibitor-resistant TEM β-lactamases have been found mainly in clinical isolates of E. coli, but also
some strains of K. pneumoniae, Klebsiella oxytoca, P. mirabilis, and Citrobacter freundii. Although the inhibitor-resistant TEM
variants are resistant to inhibition by clavulanic acid and sulbactam, thereby showing clinical resistance to the beta-lactam—
lactamase inhibitor combinations of amoxicillin-clavulanate (co-amoxiclav), ticarcillin-clavulanate (co-ticarclav), and
ampicillin/sulbactam, they normally remain susceptible to inhibition by tazobactam and subsequently the combination of
piperacillin/tazobactam, although resistance has been described. This is no longer a primarily European epidemiology, it is found in
[9]
northern parts of America often and should be tested for with complex UTI's.
Carbapenemases
Carbapenems are famously stable to AmpC β-lactamases and extended-spectrum-β-lactamases.Carbapenemases are a diverse group
of β-lactamases that are active not only against the oxyimino-cephalosporins and cephamycins but also against the carbapenems.
Aztreonam is stable to the metallo-β-lactamases, but many IMP and VIM producers are resistant, owing to other mechanisms.
Carbapenemases were formerly believed to derive only from classes A, B, and D, but a class C carbapenemase has been described.
Amino acid sequence diversity is up to 10% in the VIM family, 15% in the IMP family, and 70% between VIM and IMP. Enzymes of
both the families, nevertheless, are similar. Both are integron-associated, sometimes within plasmids. Both hydrolyse all β-lactams
except monobactams, and evade all β-lactam inhibitors. The VIM enzymes are among the most widely distributed MBLs, with >40
VIM variants having been reported. Biochemical and biophysical studies revealed that VIM variants have only small variations in
[14]
their kinetic parameters but substantial differences in their thermal stabilities and inhibition profiles.
As of February 2009, the class A Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) globally has been the most common carbapenemase,
and was first detected in 1996 in North Carolina, USA.[16] A 2010 publication indicated that KPC producing Enterobacteriaceae
were becoming common in the United States.[17]
CMY (Class C)
The first class C carbapenemase was described in 2006 and was isolated from a virulent strain of Enterobacter aerogenes.[18] It is
[19]
carried on a plasmid, pYMG-1, and is therefore transmissible to other bacterial strains.
SME (Serratia marcescens Enzymes), IMI (IMIpenem-hydrolysing β-lactamase), NMC and CcrA
In general, these are of little clinical significance.
CcrA (CfiA). Its gene occurs in ca. 1-3% of B. fragilis isolates, but fewer produce the enzyme since expression demands appropriate
migration of an insertion sequence. CcrA was known before imipenem was introduced, and producers have shown little subsequent
increase.
Treatment of ESBL/AmpC/carbapenemases
General overview
In general, an isolate is suspected to be an ESBL producer when it shows in vitro susceptibility to the second-generation
cephalosporins (cefoxitin, cefotetan) but resistance to the third-generation cephalosporins and to aztreonam. Moreover, one should
suspect these strains when treatment with these agents for Gram-negative infections fails despite reported in vitro susceptibility. Once
an ESBL-producing strain is detected, the laboratory should report it as "resistant" to all penicillins, cephalosporins, and aztreonam,
even if it is tested (in vitro) as susceptible. Associated resistance to aminoglycosides and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, as well as
high frequency of co-existence of fluoroquinolone resistance, creates problems. Beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate,
sulbactam, and tazobactam in vitro inhibit most ESBLs, but the clinical effectiveness of beta-lactam/beta-lactamase inhibitor
combinations cannot be relied on consistently for therapy. Cephamycins (cefoxitin and cefotetan) are not hydrolyzed by majority of
ESBLs, but are hydrolyzed by associated AmpC-type β-lactamase. Also, β-lactam/β-lactamase inhibitor combinations may not be
effective against organisms that produce AmpC-type β-lactamase. Sometimes these strains decrease the expression of outer
membrane proteins, rendering them resistant to cephamycins. In vivo studies have yielded mixed results against ESBL-producing K.
pneumoniae. (Cefepime, a fourth-generation cephalosporin, has demonstrated in vitro stability in the presence of many ESBL/AmpC
strains.) Currently, carbapenems are, in general, regarded as the preferred agent for treatment of infections due to ESBL-producing
organisms. Carbapenems are resistant to ESBL-mediated hydrolysis and exhibit excellent in vitro activity against strains of
Enterobacteriaceae expressing ESBLs.
According to genes
ESBLs
Strains producing only ESBLs are susceptible to cephamycins and carbapenems in vitro and show little if any inoculum effect with
these agents.
For organisms producing TEM and SHV type ESBLs, apparent in vitro sensitivity to cefepime and to piperacillin/tazobactam is
common, but both drugs show an inoculum effect, with diminished susceptibility as the size of the inoculum is increased from 105 to
107 organisms.
Strains with some CTX-M–type and OXA-type ESBLs are resistant tocefepime on testing, despite the use of a standard inoculum.
Inhibitor-Resistant β-lactamases
Although the inhibitor-resistant TEM variants are resistant to inhibition by clavulanic acid and sulbactam, thereby showing clinical
resistance to the beta-lactam—beta lactamase inhibitor combinations of amoxicillin-clavulanate (Co-amoxiclav), ticarcillin-
clavulanate, and ampicillin/sulbactam, they remain susceptible to inhibition by tazobactam and subsequently the combination of
piperacillin/tazobactam.
AmpC
AmpC-producing strains are typically resistant to oxyimino-beta lactams and to cephamycins and are susceptible to carbapenems;
however, diminished porin expression can make such a strain carbapenem-resistant as well.
Carbapenemases
Strains with IMP-, VIM-, and OXA-type carbapenemases usually remain susceptible. Resistance to non-beta-lactam antibiotics is
common in strains making any of these enzymes, such that alternative options for non-beta-lactam therapy need to be determined by
direct susceptibility testing. Resistance tofluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides is especially high.
According to species
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
There have been few clinical studies to define the optimal therapy for infections caused by ESBL producing Pseudomonas
aeruginosa strains.
Detection
Beta-lactamase enzymatic activity can be detected using nitrocefin, a chromogenic cephalosporin substrate which changes color from
[22]
yellow to red upon beta-lactamase mediated hydrolysis.
Evolution
Beta-lactamases are ancient bacterial enzymes. The class B beta-lactamases (the metallo-beta-lactamases) are divided into three
subclasses: B1, B2 and B3. Subclasses B1 and B2 are theorized to have evolved about one billion years ago and subclass B3s is
[23]
theorized to have evolved before the divergence of the Gram-positive and Gram-negative eubacteria about two billion years ago.
The other three groups are serine enzymes that show little homology to each other. Structural studies have shown that groups A and
D are sister taxa and that group C diverged before A and D.[24] These serine-based enzymes, like the group B betalactamases, are of
[25]
ancient origin and are theorized to have evolved about two billion years ago.
The OXA group (in class D) in particular is theorized to have evolved on chromosomes and moved to plasmids on at least two
separate occasions.[26]
Etymology
The "β" (beta) refers to the nitrogen's position on the second carbon in the ring. Lactam is a portmanteau of lactone (from the Latin
lactis, milk, since lactic acid was isolated from soured milk) and amide. The suffix -ase, indicating an enzyme, is derived from
[27]
diastase (from the Greek diastasis, "separation"), the first enzyme discovered in 1833 by Payen and Persoz.
See also
ESBL-producing E. coli
Nitrocefin
β-lactamase inhibitor
References
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External links
Online ESBL genotyping tool (EGT)
Online Amino Acid Sequences for ESBL enzymes
beta-Lactamases at the US National Library of MedicineMedical Subject Headings(MeSH)
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