Comparative Analysis of Bio Gas Production from

Kitchen Waste

Session 2015-2019

Supervisor: Engr. Quratulain Ilyas

Submitted By:
Waheed ul Haq BT-15302

Anees ul Hasnain Ahmad BT-15305

Shoaib Irshad BT-15307

Babar Ali BT-15309

Muhammad Bassil Farooq BT-15310

Department of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

Quaid e Azam College of Engineering Technology, Sahiwal
Affiliated with
University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore
 Acknowledgement
We wish to express our profound gratitude and indebtedness to Engr. Quratulain
Ilyas, Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, Quaid e
Azam College of Engineering Technology, Sahiwal, for introducing the present topic
and for her inspiring guidance, constructive criticism and valuable suggestions
throughout this project work.

Last but not least, my sincere thanks to all my friends & seniors who have patiently
extended all sorts of help for accomplishing this undertaking.
 Letter of Authorization

B.Sc Mechanical Engineering Technology

Group A, Session-2015

Subject: Approval of Final Year Project Group

Dear Students,

This is to authorize that the following students of “B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering

Technology” Waheed Ul Haq, Anees Ul Hasnain, Shoaib Irshad, Babar Ali & Bassil Farooq
have to submit the project report to me with title “Comparative Analysis of Bio Gas
Production from Kitchen Waste”. All of you have my authorization to prepare your report
for the fulfillment of your course requirement. Precede your work as you have outlined in
your plan and report to me your progress weekly. I look forward to weekly reports and, of
course, to your final report.

Regards,

ENGR. QURAT-UL-AIN ILYAS

Lecturer
Mechanical Engineering Department
Quaid-e-Azam College of Engineering & Technology, Sahiwal
2/1/2019

Cc:
HOD Mechanical
Registrar
 Letter of Transmittal

Qurat-Ul-Ain Ilyas
Lecturer, Mechanical Department
QCET Sahiwal,
June 15, 2019.

Subject: Submission of Report

Respected Madam,

We are pleased to submit the report that you asked for & gave us the authorization to work on
“Analysis of Biogas Production from Kitchen Waste”. This report is an essential part of our
course; we tried our best to work on it carefully and sincerely to make the report informative. The
study we conducted enhanced our knowledge to make an executive report. This report has given
us an exceptional experience that might have immense uses in the future endeavors and we
sincerely hope that it would be able to fulfill your expectations.
We have put our sincere effort to give this report a presentable shape and make it as informative
and precise as possible. We thank you for providing us with this unique opportunity.

Sincerely yours,

BT-15302 Waheed Ul Haq,

BT-15305 Anees-ul-Hasnain Ahmad,
BT-15307 Shoaib Irshad,
BT-15309 Babar Ali,
BT-15310 Muhammad Bassil Farooq
 Final Approval

This is to certify that we have read this report submitted by Group “A” and it is our judgment that
this report is of sufficient standard to warrant it acceptance
Quaid-e-Azam College of Engineering & Technology, Sahiwal for the degree to
B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering Technology

COMMITTEE:

1. External Examiner ______________________________

2. Supervisor, ______________________________
Engr. Quratulain Ilyas

3. Head of Department, ______________________________

Dr. Anees Ur Rehman

4. Rector of QCET, ______________________________

Ch. Mubashir Hassan
Project Brief

Project Title: Analysis of Biogas Production from Kitchen Waste

Name of Organization: Quaid-e-Azam College of Engineering & Technology,

Sahiwal

Objective: The objective of our project is to promote the sustainable

production of renewable energy from the biogas obtained of
agricultural residues and food and beverage industry waste
(agro-food waste) in small-scale concepts for energy self-
sufficiency.

Under Taken By: Group “A”

Supervised By: Engr. Quratulain Ilyas

Starting Date: February 01, 2019

Ending Date: June 15, 2019

Tool Used: Ms Word, Ms Excel, Mendeley

 Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction to Renewable Energy Recourses ..........................................................................1
1.1.1 Power Generation ...............................................................................................................4
1.1.2 Heating................................................................................................................................4
1.1.3 Transportation .....................................................................................................................4
1.1.4 Growth of Renewable .........................................................................................................5
1.2 Renewable Energy Resources Types.........................................................................................5
1.2.1 Solar Energy .......................................................................................................................5
1.2.2 Wind Energy .......................................................................................................................5
1.2.3 Biomass ..............................................................................................................................6
1.2.4 Tidal Power.........................................................................................................................7
1.2.5 Geothermal Energy .............................................................................................................7
1.3 World Energy Situation .............................................................................................................7
1.3.1 Trends .................................................................................................................................8
1.3.2 Population Growth ..............................................................................................................8
1.3.3 Shift in Global Economic Power ........................................................................................8
1.3.4 Increased Urbanization .......................................................................................................8
1.3.5 Aging Population ................................................................................................................9
1.3.6 Demand ...............................................................................................................................9
1.4 Pakistan’s Power Crisis ...........................................................................................................10
1.4.1 2013 National Power Policy of Pakistan ..........................................................................11
1.4.2 Learning from the Experience of Neighbors ....................................................................11
CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................................................13
2.1 Biogas Production Methods ....................................................................................................13
2.1.1 Biogas ...............................................................................................................................14
2.1.2 Characteristics of Biogas ..................................................................................................15
2.1.3 Properties of Biogas..........................................................................................................15
2.1.4 Factors Affecting Yield and Production of Biogas ..........................................................15
2.1.5 Benefits of Biogas Technology ........................................................................................16
2.2 Production Process ..................................................................................................................16
 2.2.1 Principles for Production of Biogas ..................................................................................16
2.2.1.1 Aerobic Digestion ..........................................................................................................17
2.2.1.2 Anaerobic Digestion ......................................................................................................17
2.3 Anaerobic Digestion ................................................................................................................17
2.3.1 Hydrolysis .........................................................................................................................17
2.3.2 Acidification .....................................................................................................................17
2.3.3 Methanogenesis ................................................................................................................18
2.3.4 Symbiosis of Bacteria .......................................................................................................18
2.4 Flow Chart for Biodegradation ................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................................20
3.1 Literature Review ....................................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................................23
4.1 Selection of Feed Stock ...........................................................................................................23
4.1.1 Work Plan .........................................................................................................................23
4.1.2 Source of Kitchen Waste ..................................................................................................23
4.1.3 Lab Scale ..........................................................................................................................23
4.1.4 Large Scale .......................................................................................................................23
4.2 Precautions While Collecting Sample .....................................................................................23
4.2.1 Kitchen waste....................................................................................................................23
4.2.2 Installation ........................................................................................................................24
4.3 Analysis of GAS Produced in Reactor ....................................................................................24
4.3.1 Syringe Method ................................................................................................................24
4.3.2 Procedure Followed ..........................................................................................................24
4.4 Objectives ................................................................................................................................24
4.5 Analytical Methods & Calculations ........................................................................................25
4.5.1 Total Solids (TS %) ..........................................................................................................25
4.5.2 Volatile Solids (VS %) .....................................................................................................25
4.5.3 Volatile Fatty Acid (VFA) ................................................................................................26
4.5.3.1 Method 1 ........................................................................................................................26
4.5.3.2 Method 2 ........................................................................................................................26
CHAPTER 5.................................................................................................................................28
5.1 Experiments .............................................................................................................................28
5.1.1 Experiment 1.....................................................................................................................28
 5.1.2 Experiment 2.....................................................................................................................28
5.1.2.1 Composition of Kitchen Waste of Different Hostels .....................................................29
5.1.2.2 Discussions ....................................................................................................................30
5.1.2.3 Flame and Its Classification according to Color............................................................31
5.1.3 Experiment 3:....................................................................................................................31
5.2 Sizing of Biogas Plant .............................................................................................................33
5.2.1 Overview...........................................................................................................................33
5.2.2 Determine Gas Demand for Domestic Use ......................................................................33
5.2.3 Sizing the Digester ............................................................................................................33
5.2.4 Gas Holder Sizing .............................................................................................................34
CHAPTER 6.................................................................................................................................35
6.1 Case Study ...............................................................................................................................35
6.1.1 Analysis 1 .........................................................................................................................35
6.1.2 Analysis 2 .........................................................................................................................36
6.1.3 Analysis 3 .........................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER 7.................................................................................................................................37
7.1 Limitations and Future Scope ..................................................................................................37
7.1.1 Limitations ........................................................................................................................38
7.1.2 Future Scope .....................................................................................................................38
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .........................................................................................................39
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................40
List of Figures
Fig 1.1 : World Power Generation Source ……. ............................................................................1

Fig 1.2: Global Public Support for Energy Sources ......................................................................2

Fig 1.3: Solar Energy .....................................................................................................................5

Fig 1.4: Population Growth ...........................................................................................................8

Fig 1.5: Energy Demand by Region ...............................................................................................9

Fig 1.6: World Primary Energy Consumption .............................................................................10

Fig 2.1 Flow chart of anaerobic digestion ………………...…………….,…………………...19

Fig 6.1: Kitchen waste and Cow dung ………………………………………………….……….28

Fig 6.2: Blue Flame Burned Gas ………………………………………………………………29

Fig 6.3: Composition of Kitchen waste …...…………………….………………………………...30

Fig 6.4: Flame Color and Temperature ……………………..………………………………..…31

Fig 6.5: Cow dung Bio Gas Plant ……………………………………………………………..32

Fig 6.6: Biogas Plant Culture …………………………………………………………………..32

List of Tables
Table 2.1: Composition of biogas …………………………………………………….………15

Table 2.2: General features of biogas …………………….…………………………..…….16

Table 5.1: Days by Results ……………………………………………………………..……29

Table 6.1 Hostel Areas ………………………………………………………………….…….35

Table 6.2 Analysis of Gas .....................................................................................................36

CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction to Renewable Energy Recourses

Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat.
Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas electricity generation, air and
water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

Based on REN21's 2016 report, renewable contributed 19.3% to humans' global energy
consumption and 24.5% to their generation of electricity in 2015 and 2016, respectively. This
energy consumption is divided as 8.9% coming from traditional biomass, 4.2% as heat energy
(modern biomass, geothermal and solar heat), 3.9% from hydroelectricity and the remaining 2.2%
is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and other forms of biomass. Worldwide investments in
renewable technologies amounted to more than US$286 billion in 2015, with countries such as
China and the United States heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Globally, there
are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar
photovoltaic’s being the largest renewable employer. As of 2015 worldwide, more than half of all
new electricity capacity installed was renewable.

Fig 1.1 : World Power Generation Source

At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy
contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are
projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least
two countries, Iceland and Norway, generate all their electricity using renewable energy already,
and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100% renewable energy in the future. At

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least 47 nations around the world already have over 50 percent of electricity from renewable
resources. Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to fossil
fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable
energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security, climate
change mitigation, and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded
that as Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation
would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies. In
international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such
as solar power and wind power.

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to
rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human
development. Former United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable
energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. As most of renewable
energy technologies provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in
conjunction with further electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can be converted to
heat (where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels), can be converted into
mechanical energy with high efficiency, and is clean at the point of consumption. In addition,
electrification with renewable energy is more efficient and therefore leads to significant reductions
in primary energy requirements, because most renewable energy technologies do not need a
thermodynamic cycle with high losses. Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more
efficient and cheaper and their share of total energy consumption is increasing. Global installed
electricity generating capacity in 2017 was 2.2 TW. Growth in consumption of coal and oil could
end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewable and natural gas. Renewable energy flows
involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat.

Fig 1.2: Global Public Support for Energy Sources

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As the International Energy Agency explains:

Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various
forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in
the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass,
geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide
geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number
of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological
diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic
benefits. It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by burning of
fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save
associated health costs that amount to several hundred billion dollars annually only in the United
States. Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or
indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for
almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the sun is expected
to make the surface of the earth too hot for liquid water to exist.
Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and
increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives
and commercialization. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry
weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors. According to a 2011 projection
by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world's
electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environment.
As of 2011, small solar Photovolit (PV) systems provide electricity to a few million households,
and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more. Over 44 million households use
biogas made in household-scale digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and more than 166 million
households rely on a new generation of more-efficient biomass cook stoves. United Nations'
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest
nations to new levels of prosperity. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world
already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable
energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond, and
some 120 countries have various policy targets for longer-term shares of renewable energy,
including a 20% target of all electricity generated for the European Union by 2020. Some countries
have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewable. Outside Europe, a diverse
group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020–2030-time frame
that range from 10% to 50%.
Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas: electricity generation, hot
water/space heating, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

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1.1.1 Power Generation
By 2040, renewable energy is projected to equal coal and natural gas electricity generation. Several
jurisdictions, including Denmark, Germany, the state of South Australia and some US states have
achieved high integration of variable renewable. For example, in 2015 wind power met 42% of
electricity demand in Denmark, 23.2% in Portugal and 15.5% in Uruguay. Interconnectors enable
countries to balance electricity systems by allowing the import and export of renewable energy.
Innovative hybrid systems have emerged between countries and regions.

1.1.2 Heating
Solar water heating makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries, most
notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these systems are
installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an
estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating
systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of
biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has
surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly. The newest addition
to Heating is from Geothermal Heat Pumps which provide both heating and cooling, and also
flatten the electric demand curve and are thus an increasing national priority.

1.1.3 Transportation
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or
starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-
food sources such as trees and grasses are also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol
production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a
gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in
the USA and in Brazil. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually
used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from
diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the
most common biofuels in Europe. A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered completely or
significantly by direct solar energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels
convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy. The term "solar vehicle" usually implies that
solar energy is used to power all or part of a vehicle's propulsion. Solar power may be also used to
provide power for communications or controls or other auxiliary functions. Solar vehicles are not
sold as practical day-to-day transportation devices at present, but are primarily demonstration
vehicles and engineering exercises, often sponsored by government agencies. High-profile
examples include Planet Solar and Solar Impulse. However, indirectly solar-charged vehicles are
widespread and solar boats are available commercially.

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1.1.4 Growth of Renewable
From the end of 2004, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60% annually for
many technologies. In 2015 global investment in renewables rose 5% to $285.9 billion, breaking
the previous record of $278.5 billion in 2011. 2015 was also the first year that saw renewables,
excluding large hydro, account for most of all new power capacity (134 GW, making up 53.6% of
the total). Of the renewables total, wind accounted for 72 GW and solar photovoltaic’s 56 GW;
both record-breaking numbers and sharply up from 2014 figures (49 GW and 45 GW respectively).
In financial terms, solar made up 56% of total new investment and wind accounted for 38%.

1.2 Renewable Energy Resources Types

1.2.1 Solar Energy

A Solar Energy Solar Energy has the greatest potential for providing clean, safe, and reliable
power. The solar energy falling on the Earths continents is more than 200 times the total annual
commercial energy currently being used by humans. The government started solar power adoption
with subsidies. A consumer who installs a solar panel array on a house can sell surplus energy to
the local utilities. The solar panel cost, reduced to 50%, which would make solar Powered
Electricity cost comparable with other types of fuel, is possible within the next decade. Solar
Energy can be classified as two types 1. Passive solar and 2. Active solar. Passive solar energy is
making direct and indirect use of thermal energies from the
sun. Indirect use of Energy is possible only in building (or)
structures. A southern exposure of a building guarantees the
maximum exposure of the sun’s rays. Special metal leaf
covering over windows and roofs can block out the sun during
the summer months. Special thermal solar collectors can
circulate water through the collection unit that collect the
sun’s thermal energy for heating the water for use. Active
Solar Energy is the use of the sun’s Electromagnetic radiation
in generating Electrical Energy. Generally, semiconductor
silicon Boron solar chips are used for this. The problem of
these chips one that they have low Efficiency ratio and can
only be used in supplying Energy needs of small devices.

Fig 1.3: Solar Energy

1.2.2 Wind Energy
Wind, ultimately driven by atmospheric air, is just another way of collecting Energy. Sun also
heats the atmosphere, which produces wind. It works on cloudy days and Rainy season also. The

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location of wind turbines is a very important factor, which influences the performance of the
machine. The windmills are generally located at the top of a tower to heights approximately 30 m.
To avoid turbulence from one turbine affecting the wind flow at others it is located at 5-15 times
blades diameter. Windmills are working both in horizontal axis and vertical axis. The basic
mechanics of the two systems are similar. Wind passing over the blades is converted in to
mechanical power, which is fed through transmission to an electrical generator. Wind turbines will
not work in winds below 13 km an hour. They work best where the wind speed averages 22 km an
hour. Most of wind turbines produced at the present time is horizontal axis turbine with three
blades, 15-30 m diameter, producing 50-350 KW of Electricity. Wind energy produces no air or
water pollution, involves no toxic or hazardous substances, and poses no threat to public safety.

1.2.3 Biomass
Biomass is the most important source for energy productions supplied by agriculture. Effective
harnessing of bio-energy can energize entire rural milieu in a country like India where nature offers
various types of biomass. This energy is also available in the form of biodegradable waste, which
is the rejected component of available biomass. Biomass energy refers to fuels made from plants
and animal wastes. The Biomass resource is, organic matter in which the energy of sunlight is
stored in chemical bonds. When the bonds between carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules are
broken by digestion, combustion (or) decomposition these substances release stored energy.
Biomass energy is generated when organic matter is converted to Energy. In alcohol fermentation,
the starch in organic matter is converted to sugar by heating. This sugar is then fermented and
finally ethanol is distiller and then blended with another fuel. An aerobic digestion converts
biomass, especially waste product such as municipal solid waste and market waste. In this process,
the facultative bacteria breakdown the organic material in the absence of oxygen and produce
methane and carbon dioxide. Bioconversion is a nonpolluting, environmentally feasible and cost
effective process. The effluent and digester residues are rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, which
can be recycled back to the soil as a fertilizer. By using this method, we can derive 70% of the
energy. The biomass is mixed with water and stored in an airtight tank. The organic wastes
(Municipal Solid Waste) are collected separately and dried natural method and shredded to the
maximum particle size of 2 – 4 mm. This was stored in a plastic container at room temperature
and was characterized and it was used during all anaerobic digestion treatment. Domestic sewage
was collected from a college campus before disposal. It was used in all anaerobic digestion
experiment for diluting the feedstock to achieve the required total solids concentration for the
present investigation. Experiments were carried out in 5 lit. Capacity batch type reactors operating
in semi continuous mode with daily feeding. The digester was operated at room temperature at a
constant hydraulic retention time of 25 days with different organic loading rate. To start with, the
digester was initiated by charging with 2.75 lit. of feed stocks (2% TS) along with 2 lit. of feed
sludge. The digester was maintained anaerobic ally and stabilization was to take place for two
weeks. During this stabilization period, pH was maintained in the range of 6.5 to 7.5 by adding
sodium hydroxide. The pH and gas production were measured every day. It was found that the

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maximum biogas production is 0.36m3/kg of VS added/day at the optimum organic loading rate
of 2.9 kg of VS / m3/d. In Chennai the government set up a power plant using vegetable waste as
fuel. Daily 40 tons of market waste is going to be used for the power plant. The power plant will
generate about 4800 units of electricity/day. The gas comprises 65% of methane and 35% of
carbon di oxide and is transferred into a gasholder and finally electrical energy is produced. The
power generated from the plant will be sold at Rs.3.15/unit.

1.2.4 Tidal Power

Oceans cover Two Thirds of the Earth’s surface. This water is vast reservoir of renewable energy.
India is naturally located in seashore side and covered 3 sides by sea. The movement of the water
at the coastal front in kinetic energy that can be converted into Electrical energy. The energy spread
out along the thousands of km of coasts, in favorable location, the energy density can average 65
MW/mile of coastline an amount which can lead to economical wave generated Electricity. The
cheapest method to draw tidal power is that the oscillating water columns use the force of waves
entering a fixed device to generate Electricity. The waves entering the anchored compress air in a
vertical pipe. This compressed air can be used to simply derive a turbine generator producing
Electricity. The main problem of wave power plants is cyclone and severe storms. During this
period the plant is not working.

1.2.5 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable. Resources of geothermal
energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles beneath the
Earth's surface, and down even deeper to the extremely high temperatures of molten rock called
magma. Almost everywhere, the shallow ground or upper 10 feet of the Earth's surface maintains
a nearly constant temperature between 50° and 60°F (10° and 16°C). Geothermal heat pumps can
tap into this resource to heat and cool buildings. A geothermal heat pump system consists of a heat
pump, an air delivery system (ductwork), and a heat exchanger-a system of pipes buried in the
shallow ground near the building. In the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat
exchanger and pumps it into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the process is reversed,
and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the heat exchanger. The heat removed from
the indoor air during the summer can also be used to provide a free source of hot water.
1.3 World Energy Situation
More than 80 percent of today's energy demand is still produced using fossil fuels, causing
significant harm to the environment in the form of greenhouse gas emissions and pollution. You
will also understand why investments in renewable energy sources are not scaling as fast as
expected, and a 100 percent reliance on renewable energy sources is becoming more and more
unrealistic. Based on the growth trends, the world will inevitably be resource and carbon
constrained in transition to sustainability. The society and the economy will have to go through
major transformations, and the environment and the supply of resources will be under pressure.

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rising energy prices, and reinforcement of countermeasures for global warming, renewable energy
sources have taken the spotlight. Bio-fuels are one form of renewable energy that has become more
widespread. Also, bio-fuels have been introduced and expanded as alternative fuel for the
transportation sector and as a form of liquid renewable energy that can be blended with petroleum.
However, since the source material of bio-fuels is sometimes the same as for food, an increase in
grocery prices has drawn attention to the next generation of bio-fuels being non-food sourced.

1.3.1 Trends
World population will continue to grow before stabilizing around 10 billion people. Nearly all of
this growth will be in the less developed countries. At the same time, urbanization will grow and
population will become older.

Fig 1.4: Population Growth

1.3.2 Population Growth
World population is estimated to increase by 2 billion people to more than 9 billion by 2050, driven
mainly by population growth in the emerging economies that will represent 85% of global
population.

1.3.3 Shift in Global Economic Power

60% of global GDP (gross domestic product) will be in these emerging countries by 2050.

1.3.4 Increased Urbanization

We expect to go from 3 to 6 billion people living in cities in 2050. The new infrastructure will be
built in Asia and Africa.

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1.3.5 Aging Population
We are not only becoming more people, we are becoming older. Today we are some 500 million
people over 65. By 2050 this will have increased more than 3 times to above 1.6 billion.

1.3.6 Demand
Demand for energy in the world will continue to grow as population in the emerging countries
grows. The focus in these countries is to improve quality of life and reduce poverty, which requires
economic growth and more use of resources, not the least energy. Any decrease in energy
consumption in the developed nations as a result of efficiency improvements and more conscious
use of energy will be more than offset by an increase in demand in less developed parts of the
world. A generally accepted assumption is that world demand of energy will rise by 50% by 2050,
with no growth in the OECD countries (The Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development)

Fig 1.5: Energy Demand by Region

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 Fig 1.6: World Primary Energy Consumption

1.4 Pakistan’s Power Crisis

Pakistan is currently facing a severe and multifaceted energy crisis. Electricity shortages exceeded
7,000 megawatts in 2011; the gas shortfall is 2 billion cubic feet per day. The energy shortages are
estimated to cost around 2 percent of GDP (gross domestic product) annually. This shortfall is the
result of the failure, over successive governments’ tenures, to invest enough to expand power
system capacity. Low and declining investment and savings rates (including in power) reflect
macroeconomic weaknesses.
 Successive governments have set tariffs on electric utilities below cost recovery levels. The
difference is paid as subsidy, which is unaffordable and diverts resources from other priorities.
With utilities unable to cover their costs of production, investment has lagged.
 The efficiency of Pakistan’s utilities both in producing electricity and collecting dues varies
considerably. Some companies compare with the best in South Asia. Others do not achieve
half those performance levels. Supply costs thus remain higher than warranted.
 The current government plans to address the financial constraint and has raised tariffs. Further
increases are required but will prove politically challenging. The record on past governments’
efforts in the sector is mixed. Utility managers are not held accountable for their companies’
performances, and there is continued interference in the utilities’ affairs. Prosecution of power
theft remains weak.
 The 2013 power policy includes an ambitious agenda to increase generation, raise tariffs, and
improve efficiency. Private expertise, finances, and management will be mobilized. Some
donors support the government’s efforts. Experiences in other countries, especially India, may
provide lessons for Pakistan.
 The reform agenda faces opposition, but the government must stick to it. Contributions from
all stakeholders’ consumers, investors, financiers and donors, media, and civil society are
essential if the challenges are to be overcome.
Pakistan is experiencing an acute energy crisis. Partly due to chronic losses and underinvestment,
electricity supply from utilities is well short of demand. The deficit has exceeded 7,000 megawatts
Page | 10
(MW), 1 or about one-third of peak demand, during extreme periods. The country also faces a
growing shortage of natural gas, its largest primary fuel source after biofuels, used mainly by the
poor, who lack reliable access to electricity or other energy sources. Fluctuations in the global
price of oil have substantially increased power generation costs and strained budgets. The
government’s policy to maintain power tariffs below the cost of supply, as determined by the
National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA), requires large subsidies from the budget.
Delays in disbursing these subsidies are contributing to persistent intersectoral debts that have
imperiled the creditworthiness of public and private generation companies, including the Water
and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), fuel suppliers, refineries, and domestic oil and gas
producers. Collectively, the shortages impose large costs on the economy as a whole—estimated
at about 2 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) annually3—through lower output, exports,
and employment. Consumers have started using alternate power sources. Industrial and
commercial entities install their own generators. Households use back-up generators or battery
powered units, often at significantly higher costs. Small and medium-sized industrial and
commercial enterprises and poor households often cannot afford these high-cost alternatives and
go without power. The electricity shortage has severe social and political effects. Protests and
demonstrations against long hours of scheduled and unscheduled power outages—that is, load
shedding—are regular phenomena and often lead to destruction of public property. In 2013, the
Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz party swept into power in nationwide elections partly due to
pledges to tackle the energy problems that its predecessors had failed to address. But its first year
in office saw only partial progress in addressing the deep structural issues facing the energy
system.

1.4.1 2013 National Power Policy of Pakistan

In July 2013, shortly after taking office, the new Pakistan Muslim League-Nawaz government
released its own power policy.28 It was well received among Pakistan’s donor partners, including
the IMF(International Monetary Fund. Following the IMF’s approval of its $6.6 billion extended
fund facility in September 2013, the government of Japan, , and the World Bank prepared projects
and programs to support the implementation of energy sector reforms, including the withdrawal
of tariff differential subsidies over a three-year period.

1.4.2 Learning from the Experience of Neighbors

Despite the difference in size between India and Pakistan many Indian states have power grids on
par with Pakistan’s national system32 India’s power sector offers lessons for Pakistani
policymakers to consider.33 The Indian system has expanded rapidly in the past five years, with
rates of supply and consumption growth now reaching double digits. However, in the early years
of the last decade and again in 2008–10, power supply shortages constrained Indian economic
growth. As in Pakistan, most Indian utilities still cannot finance all their costs from their own
revenues and rely on both federal and state subsidies for 10–12 percent of their total financial
resources.34 However, Indian domestic savings are sufficiently large— the savings rate in India

Page | 11
has remained above 20 percent for the past two decades35—to finance investment and operating
costs in other priority sectors, in contrast to Pakistan, which cannot easily afford a similar subsidy
program because its savings rate has been below 15 percent and declining over the same period.
Despite the Indian power sector’s inability to fully finance all expenditures from its own resources,
it continues to attract substantial private investment. Its 1990s policies offered generous incentives,
including sovereign guarantees, for private investment in generation. These saw limited success,
particularly as investors had to obtain multiple approvals and clearances for their projects.36 over
time, sovereign guarantees were replaced by competitive bidding and opening of the market for
private power. This has allowed investors to dispose of a portion of their output on the merchant
power market.

Page | 12
CHAPTER 2

2.1 Biogas Production Methods

Due to scarcity of petroleum and coal it threatens supply of fuel throughout the world also problem
of their combustion lads to research in different corners to get access the new sources of energy,
like renewable energy resources. Solar energy, wind energy, different thermal and hydro sources
of energy, biogas are all renewable energy resources. But, biogas is distinct from other renewable
energies because of its characteristics of using, controlling and collecting organic wastes and
at the same time producing fertilizer and water for use in agricultural irrigation. Biogas does not
have any geographical limitations nor does it require advanced technology for producing energy,
also it is very simple to use and apply. Deforestation is a very big problem in developing countries
like India, most of the part depends on charcoal and fuel-wood for fuel supply which requires
cutting of forest. Also, due to deforestation it leads to decrease the fertility of land by soil erosion.
Use of dung, firewood as energy is also harmful for the health of the masses due to the smoke
arising from them causing air pollution. We need an eco-friendly substitute for energy.

Kitchen waste is organic material having the high calorific value and nutritive value to microbes,
that’s why efficiency of methane production can be increased by several order of magnitude as
said earlier. It means higher efficiency and size of reactor and cost of biogas
production is reduced. Also in most of cities and places, kitchen waste is disposed in
landfill or discarded which causes the public health hazards and diseases like malaria,
cholera, typhoid. Inadequate management of wastes like uncontrolled dumping bears
several adverse consequences: It not only leads to polluting surface and
groundwater through leachate and further promotes the breeding of flies , mosquitoes,
rats and other disease bearing vectors. Also, it emits unpleasant odor & methane which is a major
greenhouse gas contributing to global warming. Mankind can tackle this problem(threat)
successfully with the help of methane however till now we have not been benefited, because of
ignorance of basic sciences – like output of work is dependent on energy available
for doing that work. This fact can be seen in current practices of using low calorific inputs like
cattle dung, distillery effluent, municipal solid waste (MSW) or sewerage, in biogas plants, making
methane generation highly inefficient. We can make this system extremely efficient by using
kitchen waste/food wastes. In 2003, Dr. Anand Karve (President ARTI) developed a compact
biogas system that uses starchy or sugary feedstock material and the analysis shows that this new
system is 800 times more efficient than conventional biogas plants.

Why this type of Plant?

The proper disposal of Kitchen waste will be done in eco-friendly and cost-effective way. While
calculating the cost effectiveness of waste disposal we have to think more than monitory prospects.
Page | 13
The dumping of food in places and making the places unhygienic can be taken good care of. It
adds to the value of such Biogas plants. Using the natural processes like microorganism's kitchen
waste & biodegradable waste viz paper, pulp can be utilized. Anaerobic digestion is a controlled
biological degradation process which allows efficient capturing & utilization of biogas (approx.
60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide) for energy generation. Anaerobic digestion of food waste
is achievable but different types, composition of food waste results in varying degrees of methane
yields, and thus the effects of mixing various types of food waste and their proportions should be
determined on case by case basis.

Anaerobic digestion (AD) is a promising method to treat the kitchen wastes. While anaerobic
digestion for treatment of animal dung is common in rural parts of developing countries,
information on technical and operational feasibilities of the treatment of organic solid waste is
limited in those parts. There are many factors affecting the design and performance of anaerobic
digestion. Some are related to feedstock characteristics, design of reactors and operation
conditions in real time. Physical and chemical characteristics of the organic wastes are important
for designing and operating digesters, because they affect the biogas production and process
stability during anaerobic digestion. They include moisture content, volatile solids, nutrient
contents, particle size, & biodegradability. The biodegradability of a feed is indicated by biogas
production or methane yield and percentage of solids (total solids or total volatile solids) that are
destroyed in the anaerobic digestion. The biogas or methane yield is measured by the amount of
biogas or methane that can be produced per unit of volatile solids contained in the feedstock after
subjecting it to anaerobic digestion for a sufficient amount of time under a given
temperature which is taken to be laboratory temperature in our case.

Different Methods have been developed to increase speed of fermentation for the bacteria gas
producers, reduction of the size of the reactors, the use of starchy, sugary materials for their
production, the modification of the feeding materials for fermentation and the exit of the effluent
for their better employment, as well as compaction of the equipment’s to produce gas in small
places like back-yard, among others. Larger facilities operating costs can be reduced; per unit to
the point that in the current economic framework, very large Anaerobic Digestion facilities can be
profitable whereas small ones are not this is what Economics of scale is. If energy prices continue
to rise and the demand for local waste treatment, and fertilizers increases, this framework may
change.

2.1.1 Biogas
Biogas is produced by bacteria through the bio-degradation of organic material under anaerobic
conditions. Natural generation of biogas is an important part of bio-geochemical carbon cycle. It
can be used both in rural and urban areas.

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 Component Concentration (by volume)
Methane (CH4) 55-60 %

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 35-40 %

Water (H2O) 2-7 %

Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) 20-20,000 ppm (2%)

Ammonia (NH3) 0-0.05 %

Nitrogen (N) 0-2 %

Table 2.1: Composition of biogas

2.1.2 Characteristics of Biogas

Composition of biogas depends upon feed material also. Biogas is about 20% lighter than air has
an ignition temperature in range of 650 to 750 0C. An odorless & colorless gas that burns with
blue flame similar to LPG gas. Its caloric value is 20 Mega Joules (MJ) /m3 and it usually burns
with 60 % efficiency in a conventional biogas stove. This gas is useful as fuel to substitute
firewood, cow-dung, petrol, LPG, diesel, & electricity, depending on the nature of the task,
and local supply conditions and constraints. Biogas digestor systems provides a residue organic
waste, after its anaerobic digestion(AD) that has superior nutrient qualities over normal organic
fertilizer, as it is in the form of ammonia and can be used as manure. Anaerobic biogas digesters
also function as waste disposal systems, particularly for human wastes, and can, therefore,
prevent potential sources of environmental contamination and the spread of pathogens and
disease causing bacteria. Biogas technology is particularly valuable in agricultural residual
treatment of animal excreta and kitchen refuse (residuals).

2.1.3 Properties of Biogas

 Change in volume as a function of temperature and pressure
 Change in calorific value as a function of temperature, pressure and water vapor content
 Change in water vapor as a function of temperature and pressure

2.1.4 Factors Affecting Yield and Production of Biogas

Many factors affecting the fermentation process of organic substances under anaerobic condition
are.

 The quantity and nature of organic matter

 The temperature
 Acidity and alkanity (PH value) of substrate

Page | 15
  The flow and dilution of material
Energy Content 6-6.5 kWh/m3

Fuel Equivalent 0.6-0.65 l oil/m3 biogas

Fuel Equivalent 6-12 % biogas in air

Ignition Temperature 650-750 *C

Critical Pressure 75-89 bar

Critical temperature -82.5 *C

Normal Density 1.2 kg/m3

Smell Bad eggs

Table 2.2: General features of biogas

2.1.5 Benefits of Biogas Technology

 Production of energy.
 Transformation of organic wastes to very high quality fertilizer.
 Improvement of hygienic conditions through reduction of pathogens.
 Environmental advantages through protection of soil, water, air etc.
 Micro-economical benefits by energy and fertilizer substitutes.

2.2 Production Process

A typical biogas system consists of the following components:

 Manure collection
 Anaerobic digester
 Effluent storage
 Gas handling
 Gas use

Biogas is a renewable form of energy. Methanogen (methane producing bacteria) are last link in
a chain of microorganisms which degrade organic material and returns product of decomposition
to the environment

2.2.1 Principles for Production of Biogas

Organic substances exist in wide variety from living beings to dead organisms . Organic matters
are composed of Carbon (C), combined with elements such as Hydrogen (H), Oxygen
(O), Nitrogen (N), Sulphur (S) to form variety of organic compounds such as carbohydrates,
Page | 16
proteins & lipids. In nature MOs (microorganisms), through digestion process breaks the complex
carbon into smaller substances.

There are 2 types of digestion process:

1. Aerobic digestion.
2. Anaerobic digestion

2.2.1.1 Aerobic Digestion

The digestion process occurring in the presence of Oxygen is called aerobic digestion and
produces mixtures of gases having carbon dioxide (CO2), one of the main “green houses”
responsible for global warming.

2.2.1.2 Anaerobic Digestion

The digestion process occurring without (absence) oxygen is called anaerobic digestion which
generates mixtures of gases. The gas produced which is mainly methane produces
5200-5800 KJ/m3 which when burned at normal room temperature and presents a viable
environmentally friendly energy source to replace fossil fuels (non-renewable).

2.3 Anaerobic Digestion

It is also referred to as biomethanization, is a natural process that takes place in absence of air
(oxygen). It involves biochemical decomposition of complex organic material by various
biochemical processes with release of energy rich biogas and production of notorious effluents

 Hydrolysis
 Acidification
 Methanogenesis
 Symbiosis of Bacteria

2.3.1 Hydrolysis
In the first step the organic matter is enzyme like externally by extracellular enzymes, cellulose,
amylase, protease & lipase of microorganisms Bacteria decompose long chains of complex
carbohydrates, proteins & lipids into small chains. For example, Polysaccharides are converted
into monosaccharide. Proteins are split into peptides and amino acids.
2.3.2 Acidification
Acid-producing bacteria, involved this step, convert the intermediates of fermenting
bacteria into acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. These bacteria are anaerobic and can grow
under acidic conditions. To produce acetic acid, they need oxygen and carbon. For this, they use

Page | 17
dissolved O2 or bounded-oxygen. Hereby, the acid-producing bacteria creates
anaerobic condition which is essential for the methane producing microorganisms. Also , they
reduce the compounds with low molecular weights into alcohols, organic acids,
amino acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and traces of methane. From a chemical point,
this process is partially endergonic (i.e. only possible with energy input), ), since bacteria alone
are not capable of sustaining that type of reaction.

2.3.3 Methanogenesis
(Methane formation) Methane-producing bacteria, which were involved in the third step,
decompose compounds having low molecular weight. They utilize hydrogen, carbon dioxide
and acetic acid to form methane and carbon dioxide. Under natural conditions, CH4 producing
microorganisms occur to the extent that anaerobic conditions are provided, e.g. under water (for
example in marine sediments),and in marshes. They are basically anaerobic and very sensitive to
environmental changes, if any occurs. The methanogenic bacteria belongs to the archaebacteria
genus, i.e. to a group of bacteria with heterogeneous morphology and lot of
common biochemical and molecular-biological properties that distinguishes them
from other bacteria’s.

2.3.4 Symbiosis of Bacteria

Methane and acid-producing bacteria act in a symbiotically way. Acid producing bacteria create
an atmosphere with ideal parameters for methane producing bacteria (anaerobic
conditions, compounds with a low molecular weight). On the other hand, methane-producing
microorganisms use the intermediates of the acid producing bacteria. Without consuming them,
toxic conditions for the acid-producing microorganisms would develop. In real time fermentation
processes the metabolic actions of various bacteria acts in a design. No single bacteria are able to
produce fermentation products alone as it requires others too.

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2.4 Flow Chart for Biodegradation

Fig. 2.1 Flow chart of anaerobic digestion

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CHAPTER 3
3.1 Literature Review
1: ARTI (Appropriate Rural Technology of India) (2003) has developed a compact biogas plant
which uses waste food rather than any cow dung as feedstock, to supply
biogas for cooking. The plant is sufficiently compact to be used by urban households, and about
2000 are currently in use – both in urban and rural households in Maharashtra.
The design and development of this simple, yet powerful technology for the people, has won
ARTI the Ashen Award for sustainable Energy 2006 in the Food Security category.
Dr. Anand Karve (ARTI) developed a compact biogas system that uses starchy
or sugary feedstock (waste grain flour, spoilt grain, overripe or misshapen fruit,
nonedible seeds, fruits and rhizomes, green leaves, kitchen waste, leftover food, etc).
Just 2 kg of such feedstock produces about 500 g of methane, and the reaction is completed with
24 hours. The conventional biogas systems, using cattle dung, sewerage, etc. use about 40 kg
feedstock to produce the same quantity of methane, and require about 40 days to complete the
reaction. Thus, from the point of view of conversion of feedstock into methane, the system
developed by Dr. Anand Karve is 20 times as efficient as the conventional
system, and from the point of view of reaction time, it is 40 times as
efficient. Thus, overall, the new system is 800 times as efficient as the conventional biogas system.

2: Hilkiah Igoni (2008) studied the Effect of Total Solids Concentration of

Municipal Solid Waste on the Biogas Produced in an Anaerobic Continuous Digester. The
total solids
(TS) concentration of the waste influences the pH, temperature and
effectiveness of the microorganisms in the decomposition process. They investigated
various concentrations of the TS of MSW in an anaerobic continuously stirred tank
reactor (CSTR) and the corresponding amounts of biogas produced, in order to determine
conditions for optimum gas production. The results show that when the percentage total solids
(PTS) of municipal sold waste in an anaerobic continuous digestion process increases, there
is a corresponding geometric increase for biogas produced. A statistical analysis of the
relationship between the volume of biogas produce and the percentage total solids concentration
established that the former is a power function of the latter, indicating that at some point in
the increase of the TS, no further rise in the volume of the biogas would be obtained.

3: Kumar et al., (2004) investigated the reactivity of methane. They concluded that it has more
than
20 times the global warming potential of carbon dioxide and that the concentration of it in the
atmosphere is increasing with one to two per cent per year. The article continues by highlighting
that about 3 to 19% of anthropogenic sources of methane originate from landfills. Shalini Singh[4]
et al. (2000) studied the increased biogas production using microbial stimulants.
They studied the effect of microbial stimulant aquasan and teresan on biogas yield from cattle
Page | 20
dung and combined residue of cattle dung and kitchen waste respectively. The result shows that
dual addition of aqua an to cattle dung on day 1 and day 15 increased the
gas production by 55% over unamended cattle dung and addition of Teresa to cattle dung : kitchen
waste (1:1) mixed residue 15% increased gas production. Lessens et al. (2004) completed a study
on a biogas operation to increase the total biogas yield from 50% available biogas to 90% using
several treatments including: a mesophilic laboratory scale continuously stirred tank
reactor, an up flow biofilm reactor, a fiber liquefaction reactor releasing the bacteria
Fibrobacter succinogenes and a system that adds water during the process. These methods were
sufficient in bringing about large increases to the total yield; however, the study was under a very
controlled method, which leaves room for error when used under varying conditions. However,
Boulais et al. (2004) did determine that minor influxes in temperature do not severely impact the
anaerobic digestion for biogas production.

4: As Taleghani and Kia (2005) observed, the resource limitation of fossil fuels and the problems
arising from their combustion has led to widespread research on the accessibility
of new and renewable energy resources. Solar, wind, thermal and hydro sources,
and biogas are all renewable energy resources. But what makes biogas distinct from other
renewable energies is its importance in controlling and collecting organic waste material and at
the same time producing fertilizer and water for use in agricultural irrigation. Biogas
does not have any geographical limitations or requires advanced technology for
producing energy, nor is it complex or monopolistic.

5: Murphy, McKeog, and Kiely (2004) completed a study in Ireland analyzing the usages of biogas
and biofuels. This study provides a detailed summary of comparisons with other
fuel sources with regards to its effect on the environment, finical dependence, and functioning
of the plant. One of the conclusions the study found was a greater economic advantage with
utilizing biofuels for transport rather than power production; however, power generation was more
permanent and has less maintenance demands.

6: Thomsen et al. (2004) found that increasing oxygen pressure during wet
oxidation on the digested biowaste increased the total amount of methane yield. Specifically,
the yield which is normally 50 to 60% increased by 35 to 40% demonstrating
the increased ability to retrieve methane to produce economic benefits.

7: Carrasco et al. ( 2004) studied the feasibility for dairy cow waste to be
used in anaerobic digestive systems. Because the animal’s wastes are more
reactive than other cow wastes, the study suggests dairy cow wastes should be chosen
over other animal wastes.

8: Jantsch and Mattiasson (2004) discuss how anaerobic digestion is a suitable

method for the treatment of wastewater and organic wastes, yielding biogas as a useful
by-product. However, due to instabilities in start-up and operation it is often not
Page | 21
considered. A common way of preventing instability problems and avoiding acidification
in anaerobic digesters is to keep the organic load of the digester far below its maximum capacity.
There are a large number of factors which affect biogas production efficiency including:
environmental conditions such as pH, temperature, type and quality of substrate;
mixing; high organic loading; formation of high volatile fatty acids; and inadequate
alkalinity.

9: Jong Won Kang et al (2010) studied the On-site Removal of H2S from Biogas Produced by
Food Waste using an Aerobic Sludge Biofilter for Steam Reforming Processing. They show that
A biofilter containing immobilized aerobic sludge was successfully adapted for the removal of
H2S and CO2 from the biogas produced using food waste. The biofilter efficiently removed 99%
of 1,058 ppmv H2S from biogas produced by food waste treatment system at a retention time
of 400 sec. The maximum observed removal rate was 359 g-H2S/m3/h with an
average mass loading rate of 14.7 g-H2S/m3/h for the large-scale biofilter. The large-scale biofilter
using a mixed culture system showed better H2S removal capability than biofilters
using specific bacteria strains. In the kinetic analysis, the maximum H2S removal rate (Vm) and
half saturation constant (Ks) were calculated to be 842.6 g-H2S/m3/h and 2.2 mg/L, respectively.
Syngas was generated by the catalytic steam reforming of purified biogas, which indicates the
possibility of high efficiency electricity generation by SOFCs and methanol manufacturing.

10: Taleghani and Kia, (2005) outlined the economic, and social benefits of biogas production.

The economic benefits were as follows:

1. Treatment of solid waste without long-term follow-up costs usually due to soil and
water pollution
2. Increased local distribution of fertilizer, chemical herbicides, and pesticide demand
3. Generation of income through compost and energy sales (biogas/electricity/heat) to
the public grid
4. Improved soil/agriculture productivity through long-term effects on soil structure and
fertility through compost use
Reduction of landfill space and consequently land costs.

The social and health effects associated with biogas include:

1. Creation of employment in the biogas sector

2. Improvement of the general condition of farmers due to the local availability of soil-
improving fertilizer
3. Decreased smell and scavenger rodents and birds

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CHAPTER 4

4.1 Selection of Feed Stock

4.1.1 Work Plan
This work is conducted in two phases, 1st laboratory scale and 2nd at large scale in plastic tank.

4.1.2 Source of Kitchen Waste

The waste used in this study is collected from Homi-bhbha hall of residence,
NIT Rourkela. Waste contains the cooked rice, vegetables and non-used vegetables waste. This
waste is crushed by mixer grinder and slurry was prepared mixing with water.

4.1.3 Lab Scale

In lab scale this experiment was done in 1lit, 2lit & 20lit bottles, digester.
Here different concentration & combination of wastes are used. Different parameters of input
and effluent like total solid, volatile solid, volatile fatty acid, pH, Temperature, Nitrogen,
Carbon, Phosphorous will be measured. After that in 20 lit. plastic container study done to check
the gas production.

4.1.4 Large Scale

Here two syntax tanks will be used, one of 1000 lit from digester and other of 750 lit for
gas collector. Here also different parameter will be checked like.

 Total solid – increasing the feeding rate from 100 gm to 5 kg and to check effect on gas
production and effluent quality.
 PH – to check change in PH and control of PH
 Temperature effect
 Quality and quantity of produced biogas

4.2 Precautions While Collecting Sample

4.2.1 Kitchen waste

1. A separate container for coconut shells, egg shells, peels and chicken
mutton bones. These will be crushed separately by mixer grinders.
2. Different containers of volumes 5l to collect the wet waste, stale cooked food, waste milk
products. The vegetables refuse like peels, rotten potatoes coriander leaves collected in
bags.

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4.2.2 Installation
Important aspect in smoother running of plant by avoiding the choking of the plant. This occur
due to thick biological waste that not reaches to the microorganisms to digest. The easy answer
to this problem is to convert solid wastes into liquid slurry . mixer can be used to convert
solid into slurry.

4.3 Analysis of GAS Produced in Reactor

4.3.1 Syringe Method

Syringe method was used for the measurement of amount of methane and carbon dioxide in our
gas produced. A syringe fitted with flexible tube and dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution
was used for carbon dioxide percentage estimation, since NaOH absorbs CO2 but does not
absorbs methane.

4.3.2 Procedure Followed

1. Prepare 100 ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution by dissolving granules of Noah in about
100 ml of water.
2. Take 20-30 ml sample of biogas produced during experiment into the syringe (initially fill
syringe with H2O to reduce air contamination) and put end of the tube into the NaOH
solution, then push out excess gas to get a 10 ml gas sample.
3. Now take approximately 20 ml of solution and keep the end of the tube submerged in the
NaOH solution while shaking syringe for 30 seconds.
4. Point it downwards and push the excess liquid out, so that syringe plunger level reaches 10
ml. Now read the volume of liquid, which should be 3-4 ml indicating about 30-40% of
gas absorbed so we can say the balance of 65-60% is methane.

If the flame does not burn properly and you get over 50% methane (a reading of less than 5 ml of
liquid) you must have nitrogen or some other gas present.

4.4 Objectives
Optimization of gas production

Comparison with conventional plants

Effect of different parameters viz.

 Temperature

 PH
Page | 24
  Total & volatile solid concentration

 Alkalinity

 C:N Ratio

To increase the production by using

 Additives

 Nutrients

 Nitrogen source

Check optimization of gas production at lab scale and field scale.

4.5 Analytical Methods & Calculations

4.5.1 Total Solids (TS %)

It is the amount of solid present in the sample after the water present in it is evaporated. The
sample, approximately 10 gm is taken and poured in foil plate and dried to a constant weight at
about 105 0C in furnace.

TS % = (Final weight/Initial weight) * 100

4.5.2 Volatile Solids (VS %)

Dried residue from Total Solid analysis weighed and heated in crucible for 2hrs at 500 0C in
furnace. After cooling crucible residue weighed.

VS % = [100-(V3-V1/V2-V1)] * 100

V1= Weight of crucible.

V2= Weight of dry residue & crucible.

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V3= Weight of ash & crucible (after cooling)
4.5.3 Volatile Fatty Acid (VFA)
Volatile fatty acids (VFA's) are fatty acids with carbon chain of six carbons or fewer. They can
be created through fermentation in the intestine. Examples include: acetate, propionate, and
butyrate. There are many titration methods for VFA measurement, WE are used two method for
VFA measurement.

4.5.3.1 Method 1

1. Take 100 ml sample in beaker

2. Filter the sample.
3. Check pH of filtrate.
4. Take 20 ml of filtrate and add 0.1M HCl until pH reaches 4
5. Heat in the hot plate for 3 mint
6. After cooling titrate with 0.01M NaOH to take pH from 4 to 7.
7. Amount of HCl & NaOH recorded
Total VFA content in mg/l acetic acid = (Volume of NaOH titrated) * 87.5

4.5.3.2 Method 2

Titration procedure for measurements of VFA and Alkalinity

Before analysis, the sample needs to be filtered through a 0.45μm membrane filter. Filtered sample
(20-50ml) is put into a titration vessel, the size of which is determined by the basic requirement to
guarantee that the tip of the pH electrode is always below the liquid surface.

Initial pH is recorded

The sample is titrated slowly with 0.1N sulphuric acid until pH 5.0 is reached. The added volume
A1 [ml] of the titrant is recorded. More acid is slowly added until pH 4.3 is reached. The volume
A2 [ml] of the added titrant is again recorded.

The step is repeated until pH 4.0 is reached and the volume A3 [ml] of added titrant recorded once
more.

A constant mixing of sample and added titrant is required right from the start to minimize exchange
with the atmosphere during titration.

Page | 26
Calculation

Alk = A * N * 1000 / SV

Alk = Alkalinity [mmol/l], also referred to as TIC (Total Inorganic Carbon).

A = Consumption of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4, 0.1N) to titrate from initial pH to pH 4.3 [ml].
A= A1 + A2 [ml].
N = Normality [mmol/l ].
SV = Initial sample volume [ml]

VFA = (131340 * N * B / 20) - (3.08 * Alk) – 10+9

VFA = Volatile fatty acids [mg/l acetic acid equivalents]

N = Normality [mmol/l]

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CHAPTER 5
5.1 Experiments
5.1.1 Experiment 1
(Kitchen waste and Cow Dung Mixture)

Firstly, on household stage we carry an experiment to

Judge the result of producing biogas, for this purpose
We use kitchen waste and cow dung mixture, this
experiment taken in laboratory level. We use following
material in experiment
A 2-liter bottle
50 gm kitchen waste + cow dung Fig 6.1: Kitchen waste and Cow dung
Rest water (1.5 liter)

Result: Gas production was found but not measured.

Note: Gas production is in very less quantity because size of digester is not much enough to
produce measured able biogas. Also, lack of latest apparatus to measuring of biogas, it is not
possible for us to measure the minimum produced biogas values.

5.1.2 Experiment 2
(Blue flame Burned Gas)

In this experiment we are able to produce blue flame because some advancement takes in digester
size and techniques. This experiment is also on laboratory level. Three different bottles with
different sizes are use.

Different sets of 1 liter & 2 liters bottles.

Three different sets with different composition are installed as below.

1. 200gm cow dung was mixed with water to make 1lit slurry which is poured in 1lit bottle.
2. 50gm grinded kitchen was mixed with 150gm cow dung and water is added to make 1lit solution
which is poured in 1lit bottle.
3. 400gm cow dung was mixed with water to make 2lit slurry which is poured in 2lit bottle.

Result: In all of the 3 sets gas production occurs and gas burned with blue flame. Process
continues, volatile fatty acids (VFA) are produced which causes the decrease in PH of solution.

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Note: It take minimum one day to start decomposition in digester for better results.
Age factor of cow is most important, young cow dung not much better producing biogas
than old age.

Fig 6.2: Blue Flame Burned Gas

5.1.2.1 Composition of Kitchen Waste of Different Hostels

Average composition of kitchen waste was analyzed on various occasions. Over 50 % of waste
was composed of uncooked vegetable & fruit waste. Eggs, raw meat, the main source of
pathogens were relatively low in mass at 1.5% & 1.2% also about 15% of cooked meat was there

Composition of kitchen waste:

A. Rotten fruits and vegetable

B. Cooked meat
C. Uncooked meat
D. Bread
E. Teabags
F. Eggs
G. Cheese

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 Composition of Kitchen Waste
6% 10%%
5%
2%

16%
53%

17%

Rotten fruits and vegitable Cooked Meat Uncooked meat Bread Teabags Eggs Cheese

Fig 6.3 : Composition of Kitchen waste

5.1.2.2 Discussions
From the result it has been seen that in set 2 which contain kitchen waste produces more gas,
compare to other two set. In set 2 with kitchen waste produces average 250.69% more gas than
set 1 (with 200gm cow dung) and 67.5% more gas than set 3 (with 400gm cow dung). Means
kitchen waste produces more gas than cow dung as kitchen waste contains more nutrient than
dung. So, use of kitchen waste provides more efficient method of biogas production.

Average
Set 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
no/day day day day day day day day day

1 0.3 m3 0.35 m3 0.20 m3 0.10 m3 - 0.40 m3 0.25 m3 0.10 m3 0.242 m3

0.80
2 1.50 m3 1.20 m3 0.50 m3 - 0.60 m3 0.90 m3 1.15 m3 0.95 m3
m3

0.85
3 0.75 m3 0.58 m3 0.35 m3 - 0.20 m3 0.70 m3 1.00 m3 0.632 m3
m3
Table 5.1: Days vise Results

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5.1.2.3 Flame and Its Classification according to Color
A flame (from Latin flame) is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic
reaction taking place in a thin zone. Very hot flames are hot enough to have ionized gaseous
components of sufficient density to be considered plasma.

Fig 6.4: Flame Color and Temperature

5.1.3 Experiment 3:
(Cow dung water added inoculum)

In this experiment we select a local Cow dung biogas production plant, this plant held in rural area
of Sahiwal. This plant is in Small scale and produce 5 m3 average of Biogas at daily bases. In this
experiment we focus on the production and methods of Biogas Plant and also analyze to our
Laboratory and small-scale biogas plant.
This digester contains the following composition.

 20lit digester
 Cow dung + inoculums + water added
 Cow dung - 2.5 lit
 Inoculums - 3.8 lit
 Water -13.5lit

Result: added of in Inoculums in digester, increase the percentage value of production of biogas
up to 5m3

Note: size and environment are major key effect. A small amount of material containing bacteria,
viruses, or other microorganisms that is used to start a culture of decomposition. NaOH and
NaHCO3 added to increase and adjust PH value of Biogas.

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Fig 6.5: Cow dung Biogas Plant

Fig 6.6: Biogas Plant culture

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5.2 Sizing of Biogas Plant
5.2.1 Overview
The size of the biogas plant depends on the quantity, quality and kind of available biomass and on
the digesting temperature. The following points should be considered.

5.2.2 Determine Gas Demand for Domestic Use

The gas demand can be defined on the basis of energy consumed previously. For example, 1 kg
firewood then corresponds to 200 l biogas, 1 kg dried cow dung corresponds to 100 l biogas and
1 kg charcoal corresponds to 500 l biogas.

The gas demand can also be defined using the daily cooking times. The gas consumption per
person and meal lies between 150 and 300-liter biogas. For one-liter water to be cooked 30-40 l
biogas, for 1/2 kg rice 120-140 l and for 1/2 kg legumes 160-190 l are required.

Compared to other gases, biogas needs less air for combustion. Therefore, conventional gas
appliances need larger gas jets when they are used for biogas combustion. About 5.7 liters of air
are required for the complete combustion of one liter of biogas, while for butane 30.9 liters and
for propane 23.8 liters are required.

5.2.3 Sizing the Digester

The size of the digester, i.e. the digester volume Vd, is determined on the basis of the chosen
retention time RT and the daily substrate input quantity Sd.

[m3 = m3/day × number of days]

The retention time, in turn, is determined by the chosen/given digesting temperature. For an
unheated biogas plant, the temperature prevailing in the digester can be assumed as 1-2 Kelvin
above the soil temperature. Seasonal variation must be given due consideration, however, i.e. the
digester must be sized for the least favorable season of the year. For a plant of simple design, the
retention time should amount to at least 40 days. Practical experience shows that retention times
of 60-80 days, or even 100 days or more, are no rarity when there is a shortage of substrate. On
the other hand, extra-long retention times can increase the gas yield by as much as 40%.

The substrate input depends on how much water has to be added to the substrate in order to arrive
at a solids content of 4-8%.

Substrate input (Sd) = biomass (B) + water (W) [m3/d]

In most agricultural biogas plants, the mixing ratio for dung (cattle and / or pigs) and water (B: W)
amounts to between 1:3 and 2:1.
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5.2.4 Gas Holder Sizing
The size of the gasholder, i.e. the gasholder volume Vg, depends on the relative rates of gas
generation and gas consumption. The gasholder must be designed to:

 cover the peak consumption rate gcmax (->Vg1) and

 hold the gas produced during the longest zero consumption period tzmax (->Vg2)

Vg1 = gcmax × tcmax = vcmax Vg2 = Gh × tzmax

where gcmax = maximum hourly gas consumption
[m3/h] tcmax = time of maximum consumption
[h] vcmax = maximum gas consumption [m3] Gh
= hourly gas production [m3/h] = G ÷ 24 h/d
tzmax = maximum zero-consumption time [h]

The larger Vg-value (Vg1 or Vg2) determines the size of the gasholder. A safety margin of 1020%
should be added:
Vg = 1.15 (±0.5) × max (Vg1, Vg2)

Practical experience shows that 40-60% of the daily gas production normally has to be stored.
The ratio Vd ÷ Vg (digester volume ÷ gasholder volume) is a major factor with regard to the
basic design of the biogas plant. For a typical agricultural biogas plant, the Vd/Vg-ratio amounts
to somewhere between 3:1 and 10:1, with 5:1 - 6:1 occurring most frequently.

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Chapter 6
6.1 Case Study
From our experiment we are able to produce around 10 lit of biogas daily in a 20-lit reactor
Digester

According to our purpose of our project we were trying to design reactors of 1000 lit for each
and every hostel of near universities (at the backyard of the mess, using kitchen waste directly
as a feedstock)

Hence, we can conclude that we can produce 650 lit of biogas daily in 1000 lit reactor, under ideal
conditions (like maintaining pH, VFA, Alkalinity, etc.).

Sr. No HOSTEL NAME CONSUMPTION OF

LPG (per month)

1 Al Hassan Boys Hostel, Sahiwal 1412.4 kg

2 Jubail Brother Hostel, Sahiwal 3547.5 kg

3 Bilal Boys Hostel, Sahiwal 2038 kg

Table 6.1 Hostel Areas
6.1.1 Analysis 1
(Biogas and LPG analysis per Day)

Calorific value of Biogas = 6 kWh/m3

Calorific value of LPG = 26.1 kWh/m3
Let’s us assume we need to boil water sample of 100 gram
We have energy require to boil 100-gram water = 259.59 KJ
Hence,
We need biogas to boil 100-gram water = 12.018 ltr
And, we need LPG to boil 100-gram water = 2.76 ltr Therefore, amount of water which can be
boiled using this much Biogas = 5.408 lit/day Now, amount of LPG required to boil 5.408 lit of
water per day = 149.26 lit So. We can save up to 10 cylinders of LPG per day.

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6.1.2 Analysis 2
(Biogas production analysis in evening and morning time)
Let us use the Biogas produced in our plant for Breakfast & evening snacks (1 hr in morning and
1 hr in the evening)

650 lit if used for 2 hrs gives = 66.46 * 103 J /day

Let V be the amount of LPG used to produce same amount of energy
Hence, we get, V = 2827.56 lit i.e. Mass (m) of LPG = 6.079 kg
Therefore, per month consumption of LPG = 182.38 kg which is equivalent to 12.84 cylinders.

6.1.3 Analysis 3
(Comparison of our biogas digestor with Conventional)
Biogas systems are those that take organic material (feedstock) into an air-tight tank, where
bacteria break down the material and release biogas, and a mixture of mainly methane with some
carbon dioxide. The biogas can be burned as a fuel, for cooking or other purposes, and the solid
residue can be used as organic compost. Through this compact system, it has been demonstrated
that by using feedstock having high calorific and nutritive value to microbes, the efficiency of
methane generation can be increased by several orders of magnitude. It is an extremely user
friendly system.

Table 6.2 Analysis of Gas

In a kitchen waste biogas system, a feed of kitchen waste sample produces methane, and the
reaction is completed in 52 hours. Conventional bio-gas systems use cattle dung and 40kg
feedstock is required to produce same quantity of methane.

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Chapter 7
7.1 Limitations and Future Scope
The depletion of fossil fuels and increasing of taxes on energy sources evokes to find another
source for energy production. Bio fuels are attracting global attention as an alternate transportation
fuels due to advantages of their being produced from locally available renewable resources, lower
pollution potential, and biodegradable nature. Energy is a treated as a tool for economic growth,
social development, human welfare and improving the comfort of life. The energy demand for
agriculture, industry, transport, commercial and domestic purposes increases exponentially all
over the world. Thus excess consumption of energy resulting the world a dependent on fossil fuels
and creating a threat to the environment. But also the depletion of fossil fuels and increasing taxes
of energy sources for that region will find another source of energy. Production of an alternative
fuel used as an energy input to us and pointing the economical development of the world and
shows economic prosperity and quality of life. The alternative fuel production comes to our mind
because after the main energy resources that are fossil fuel will be depleted within next several
decades, growth in population and industrialization the world is unavoidably faced with shortage
of fossil fuel. In India, demand for petrol and diesel fuels is very high and imported petroleum
products a large amount of capital is required and for that the economic development is become
downward. Biomass energy systems create many environmental issues like global warming,
greenhouse gases effect. This Biomass fuel sources are easily available in rural and urban areas all
over the world. In 1884, Guano who was a student of Pasteur had an aerobically produced biogas
by mixing of the cattle manure and water solution and prepares slurry at 350C and he was capable
to produce a gas of 100 L/m3 of manure. Biogas produced by the biological breakdown of organic
matter in the absence of oxygen and the organic waste like dead plants, animal materials, animal
dung and kitchen wastes, and some biodegradable materials like biomass, manures, sewage,
municipal waste, plant material and crops is converted by the anaerobic digestion and produce a
gaseous fuels and treated as biogas. Biogas is the composition of some gases like methane (CH4)
and carbon dioxide (CO2) and a small quantity of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and moisture (H2O)
and can be easily combusted with oxygen. As we know that the mixture of gases that is methane,
hydrogen sulphide and carbon -monoxides which can easily burn out and could produce a high
amount of energy as a fuel. Many countries depend on biogas for any type of heating, cooking and
running the vehicles, etc. As it contains some amount of water vapors and the moisture, it causes
variations in heating temperatures during burning. The organic wastes which are normally left as
untreated, releases two main green house gases like Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2) and causes global warming.

Page | 37
7.1.1 Limitations
From our research we have found that there are several limitations for the production of a biogas
plant. These include: time constraints; lack of organic waste in order to make it profitable;
notenough interest and information among public. Firstly, time constraints are an issue because
there are only five months to conduct the entire feasibility study which included the background
research, interviews, and analysis among others. If this project were to take place it would require
much more in-depth research. Another limitation to the project is the lack of organic waste
accumulated on campus. All the Organic Wastages are collected from nearby restaurants. Also,
some leakage was there in the prototype that was build. It was found that due to the un uniform
shape of the top plate of the fixed gas holder type the plant could not take the amount of gas
pressure it should accumulate. So, a plain surface structure is required to reduce the leakage.

7.1.2 Future Scope

• Work may be carried out for designing fermentation chamber and accessories for optimum
process of biogas
• Analysis of gases maybe done to ensure safety and environmental protection
• Scaling of the project for implementation in large Scale

Page | 38
Executive Summary
Biogas will promote the sustainable production of renewable energy from the biogas obtained of
agricultural residues and food and beverage industry waste (agro-food waste) in small-scale
concepts for energy self-sufficiency.

Anaerobic digestion (AD) for biogas production is a proven technology that is well known in the
municipal waste and wastewater treatment plants. It is commercially ready to use and has multiple
benefits (energy savings, waste management cost savings, reduction of environmental impact,
reduction of carbon footprint, etc.).

The same technology can be applied to other organic waste such as agro-food waste. The
motivation behind biogas is based on the observation that, despite its multiple benefits, AD is not
yet widely implemented in the agro-food sector. The small-scale AD concept, applied soundly in
the appropriate locations, is a sustainable solution from the economic (energy savings due to self-
consumption, waste management savings), energy (self-consumption and reduced losses due to
near use) and environmental (reduced or zero transport costs for raw materials and digestate, CO2
emission abatement) point of view.

Strategic Objectives:

1. To trigger investment made by the European agro-food sector in renewable energy

production with small-scale biogas plants for energy self-consumption.
2. To increase the renewable energy production from biogas with small-scale concepts for
energy self-sufficiency.
3. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions due to the consumption of renewable energy sources
and to the adequate waste management.
4. To increase governmental support to biogas technology by new regulations on energy
selfsufficiency with net balance.

Page | 39
References

[1] Kale, S.P and Mehele, S.T. kitchen waste based biogas plant.pdf. Nuclear agriculture and
Biotechnology/ Division.

[2] Karve .A.D. (2007), Compact biogas plant, a low cost digester for biogas from waste starch.
http://www.arti-india.org.

[3] Karve of Pune A.D (2006). Compact biogas plant compact low-cost digester from
waste starch. www.bioenergylists.org.

[4] Shalini sing, sushil kumar, M.C. Jain, Dinesh kumar (2000), the increased biogas
production using microbial stimulants.

[5] Hilkiah Igoni, M. F. N. Abowei, M. J. Ayotamuno and C. L. Eze (2008), Effect of Total
Solids Concentration of Municipal Solid Waste on the Biogas Produced in an
Anaerobic Continuous Digester.

[6]Tanzania Traditional Energy Development and Environment Organization (TaTEDO),

BIOGAS TECHNOLOGY- Construction, Utilization and Operation Manual.

[7] The University of Southampton and Greenfinch Ltd. - Biodigestion of kitchen waste

A comparative evaluation of mesophilic and thermophilic biodigestion for the

stabilisation and sanitisation of kitchen waste.

[8] Ranjeet Singh, S. K. Mandal, V. K. Jain (2008), Development of mixed inoculum for
methane-enriche-biogas-production.
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[9] Kumar, S., Gaikwad, S.A., Shekdar, A.K., Kshirsagar, P.K., Singh, R.N. (2004).
Estimation method for national methane emission from solid waste landfills.
Atmospheric Environment. 38: 3481–3487.

[10] Jantsch, T.G., Matttiason, B. (2004). An automated spectropphoyometric system for

monitoring buffer capacity in anaerobic digestion processes. Water Research. 38: 3645-
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[11] Thomsen, A.B., Lissens, G., Baere, L., Verstraete, W., Ahring, B. (2004). Thermal wet
oxidation improves anaerobic biodegradability of raw and digested biowaste.
Environmental Science and Technology.38: 3418-3424.

[12] Meres, M., Szczepaniec-Cieciak, E., Sadowska, A., Piejko, K., Oczyszczania, M.P.,
Szafnicki, K. (2004). Operational and meteorological influence on the utilized
biogas composition at the Barycz landfill site in Cracow, Poland. Waste Management
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