VCE Maths Methods CAS Units 1 2 Text Book

VCE M AT HEM AT I CS U N I T S 1 & 2
MATHS QUEST 11
Mathematical
3RD EDIT ION

Methods CAS
ROBYN WILLIAMS | NICOLAOS KARANIKOLAS | KYLIE BOUCHER
GAYLE ROBERTS | JENNIFER NOLAN | GEOFF PHILLIPS
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
ROBERT CAHN | DOUGLAS SCOTT | HOWARD LISTON
SUPPORT MATERIAL
JOHN DOWSEY | DENNIS FITZGERALD | EMILY HUI | CAROLINE MEWS
VINOD NARAYAN | PETER SWAIN | DAVID TYNAN | IAN YOUNGER
WAYNE YOUNGS | SIMONE RICHARDSON | DINA ANTONIOU | NORRENE HILL
Third edition published 2013 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2009

Second edition published 2010
Typeset in 10/12pt Times LT Std
© John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2009, 2010, 2013
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data
Title: Maths quest 11 mathematical methods

CAS/Robyn Williams . . . [et a l.].
Edition: 3rd ed.
ISBN: 978 1 118 31058 8 (paperback)
978 1 118 31067 0 (flexisaver)
978 1 118 31060 1 (ebook)
Notes: Includes index.
Target audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: Mathematics — Textbooks.
Other authors/
contributors: Williams, Robyn (Robyn Ellen) 1967–
Dewey number: 510
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Contents
Introduction vi 2K Using technology to solve quadratic equations 80
About eBookPLUS viii Exercise 2K 82
Acknowledgements ix 2L Simultaneous quadratic and linear equations 83
Exercise 2L 87
CHAPTER 1 ■ Summary 90
■ Chapter review 92
Linear functions 1
■ ICT activities 95
1A Solving linear equations and inequations 1 ■ Answers 96
Exercise 1A 3
1B Rearrangement and substitution 4 CHAPTER 3
Exercise 1B 6
1C Gradient of a straight line 8
Cubic and quartic functions 105
Exercise 1C 10 Polynomials of degree 3 and 4 105
1D Sketching linear functions 12 3A Expanding 105
Exercise 1D 14 Exercise 3A 106
1E Simultaneous equations 15 3B Long division of polynomials 107
Exercise 1E 17 Exercise 3B 109
1F Finding the equation of a straight line 18 3C Polynomial values 109
Exercise 1F 20 Exercise 3C 110
1G Distance between two points and midpoint of a 3D The remainder and factor theorems 111
segment 21 Exercise 3D 113
Exercise 1G 22 3E Factorising polynomials 114
1H Linear modelling 24 Exercise 3E 116
Exercise 1H 25 3F Sum and difference of two cubes 117
■ Summary 27 Exercise 3F 118
■ Chapter review 28 3G Solving polynomial equations 118
■ ICT activities 34 Exercise 3G 120
■ Answers 35 3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method 121
Exercise 3H 124
CHAPTER 2
3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method 126
Quadratic functions 39 Exercise 3I 127
2A Polynomials 39 3J Graphs of cubic functions in power function
Exercise 2A 40 form 128
2B Expanding quadratic expressions 41 Exercise 3J 130
Exercise 2B 43 3K Domain, range, maximums and minimums 132
2C Factorising quadratic expressions 44 Exercise 3K 134
Exercise 2C 46 3L Modelling using technology 136
2D Factorising by completing the square 47 Exercise 3L 137
Exercise 2D 50 3M Finite differences 138
2E Solving quadratic equations — Null Factor Law 50 Exercise 3M 142
Exercise 2E 53 ■ Summary 144
2F Solving quadratic equations — completing the
■ ICT activities 150
square 55
■ Answers 151
Exercise 2F 57
2G The quadratic formula 58 EXAM PRACTICE 1
Exercise 2G 61
Based on Chapters 1–3 159
2H The discriminant 62
Exercise 2H 66 CHAPTER 4
2I Graphs of quadratic functions as power functions
(turning point form) 66 Relations, functions and transformations 161
Exercise 2I 68 4A Set notation 161
2J Graphs of quadratic functions (intercepts Exercise 4A 162
method) 70 4B Relations and graphs 163
Exercise 2J 78 Exercise 4B 165
4C Domain and range 167 6E Identities 269
Exercise 4C 170 Exercise 6E 272
4D Types of relations (including functions) 172 6F Sine and cosine graphs 273
Exercise 4D 174 Exercise 6F 277
4E Power functions (hyperbola, truncus and square root 6G Tangent graphs 280
function) 175 Exercise 6G 282
Exercise 4E 182 6H Solving trigonometric
4F Function notation 183 equations 283
Exercise 4F 186 Exercise 6H 287
4G Special types of function (including hybrid 6I Applications 288
functions) 187 Exercise 6I 290
Exercise 4G 189 ■ Summary 293
4H Inverse relations and functions 192 ■ Chapter review 296
Exercise 4H 193 ■ ICT activities 301
4I Circles 193 ■ Answers 302
Exercise 4I 195
EXAM PRACTICE 2
4J Functions and modelling 197
Exercise 4J 197 Based on Chapters 1– 6 307
■ Summary 200 CHAPTER 7
■ ICT activities 209 Matrices 309
■ Answers 210 7A Addition and subtraction of
matrices 309
CHAPTER 5
Exercise 7A 315
Exponential and logarithmic functions 217 7B Multiplying matrices 316
Introduction 217 Exercise 7B 318
5A Index laws 217 7C Solving matrix equations 320
Exercise 5A 220 Exercise 7C 324
5B Negative and rational powers 221 7D Matrices and transformations 325
Exercise 5B 224 Exercise 7D 328
5C Indicial equations 224 ■ Summary 330
Exercise 5C 226 ■ Chapter review 331
5D Graphs of exponential functions 227 ■ ICT activities 335
Exercise 5D 230 ■ Answers 336
5E Logarithms 231
EXAM PRACTICE 3
Exercise 5E 233
Based on Chapters 1– 7 339
5F Solving logarithmic equations 234
Exercise 5F 236 CHAPTER 8
5G Logarithmic graphs 236
Exercise 5G 237
Rates of change 341
5H Applications of exponential and logarithmic 8A Identifying rates 341
functions 238 Exercise 8A 342
Exercise 5H 239 8B Constant rates 343
■ Summary 243 Exercise 8B 345
■ Chapter review 246 8C Variable rates 347
■ ICT activities 250 Exercise 8C 348
■ Answers 251 8D Average rates of change 349
CHAPTER 6 Exercise 8D 351
8E Instantaneous rates 353
Circular functions 255 Exercise 8E 355
6A Trigonometric ratio revision 255 8F Motion graphs (kinematics) 357
Exercise 6A 256 Exercise 8F 359
6B The unit circle 258 8G Relating the gradient function to the original
Exercise 6B 261 function 364
6C Radians 262 Exercise 8G 364
Exercise 6C 264 8H Relating velocity–time graphs to position–time
6D Symmetry 265 graphs 365
Exercise 6D 268 Exercise 8H 366
iv Contents
8I Rates of change of polynomials 369 11B Calculating probabilities 478
Exercise 8I 373 Exercise 11B 481
■ Summary 375 11C Tree diagrams and lattice diagrams 483
■ Chapter review 377 Exercise 11C 485
■ ICT activities 383 11D The Addition Law of Probabilities 487
■ Answers 384
Exercise 11D 490
CHAPTER 9 11E Karnaugh maps and probability tables 492
Exercise 11E 495
Differentiation 389 11F Conditional probability 497
9A Introduction to limits 389 Exercise 11F 500
Exercise 9A 392 11G Transition matrices and Markov chains 501
9B Limits of discontinuous, rational and hybrid Exercise 11G 506
functions 393 11H Independent events 507
Exercise 9B 395 Exercise 11H 511
9C Differentiation using first principles 397 11I Simulation 513
Exercise 9C 399 Exercise 11I 515
9D Finding derivatives by rule 400 ■ Summary 516
Exercise 9D 405 ■ Chapter review 518
9E Rates of change 407 ■ ICT activities 523
Exercise 9E 410 ■ Answers 524
9F Sketching graphs containing stationary points 412
CHAPTER 12
Exercise 9F 417
9G Solving maximum and minimum problems 418 Combinatorics 529
Exercise 9G 421 12A The addition and multiplication principles 529
■ Summary 423 Exercise 12A 531
■ Chapter review 425 12B Permutations 533
■ ICT activities 431 Exercise 12B 534
■ Answers 432
12C Factorials 536
CHAPTER 10 Exercise 12C 537
12D Permutations using nPr 538
Antidifferentiation (integration) 437
Exercise 12D 540
10A Antidifferentiation 437 12E Permutations involving restrictions 541
Exercise 10A 439 Exercise 12E 544
10B Deriving the original function from the gradient 12F Arrangements in a circle 545
function 440
Exercise 12F 546
Exercise 10B 442
12G Combinations using nCr 547
10C Approximating areas enclosed by
Exercise 12G 549
functions 444
12H Applications to probability 551
Exercise 10C 448
Exercise 12H 554
10D The fundamental theorem of integral
calculus 452 ■ Summary 557
Exercise 10D 456 ■ ICT activities 561
10E Applications of antidifferentiation 457 ■ Answers 562
Exercise 10E 459
■ Summary 463 EXAM PRACTICE 5
■ Chapter review 465 Based on Chapters 1–12 565
■ ICT activities 468 ■ Answers 567
■ Answers 469
EXAM PRACTICE 4 Cumulative exam practice 569

Based on Chapters 1– 10 473 Functions and graphs 569
Algebra 570
CHAPTER 11 Rates of change and calculus 573
Introductory probability 475 Probability 575
■ Answers 585
11A Introduction to experimental probability 475
Exercise 11A 477 Index 587
Contents v
Introduction
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vi Introduction
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Acknowledgements
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Acknowledgements ix
CHAPTER 1
Linear functions
CHAPTER CONTENTS DIGITAL DOC
doc-9695
1A Solving linear equations and inequations 10 Quick Questions
1B Rearrangement and substitution
1C Gradient of a straight line
1D Sketching linear functions
1E Simultaneous equations
1F Finding the equation of a straight line
1G Distance between two points and midpoint of a segment
1H Linear modelling
1ASolving linear equations

and inequations
A linear equation is one that involves a variable raised to the power of 1 only. Recall that x1 is the same
1
as x, so a linear equation involving x would contain only x’s, and not x , x2, x3, x −1, x −2 and so on. For
2
8
example, y = 7x − 3, ax + by = c and 3 x + 1 = 9 are all linear equations.
1 1
Note that y = is not a linear equation, as the is really x −1.
x x
To isolate a particular variable — known as ‘making x (or whatever the variable is) the subject’ — we
focus on the variable by ‘undoing’ other terms and operations. Remember to do the same operation to both
sides of an equation, in the reverse order to that originally used to make up the equation.
Though the focus of this chapter is linear equations, some other types of equations will be included
for skills practice.
When there is only one variable involved in an equation, we may attempt to solve and find a numerical
value by rearranging to make the variable the subject.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Solve the following linear equations.

3x − 2 ⎛ 4x ⎞
a 7x − 4 = 17 b +5=1 c 2⎜ − 1⎟ = 6
4 ⎝ 5 ⎠
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 7 x − 4 = 17

2 Add 4 to both sides. 7 x = 21
21
3 Divide both sides by 7. x=
7
x=3
3x − 2
b 1 Write the equation. b +5=1
4
3x − 2 −
2 Subtract 5 from both sides. = 4
4
CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 1

3 Multiply both sides by 4. 3 x − 2 = − 16
4 Add 2 to both sides. 3 x = − 14
−14
3
c 1 Write the equation. c 2⎜
⎛ 4 x − 1⎞ = 6
⎝ ⎟⎠
5
4x
2 Divide both sides by 2. −1 = 3
5
4x
3 Add 1 to both sides. =4
5
4 Multiply both sides by 5. 4 x = 20
20
4
x=5
When an equation has variables on both sides, at some stage they must be gathered together on the
same side of the equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Solve:
9 x + 3 13 x + 7 3 − x 9( x + 7)
a 4x − 3 = 3(6 − x) b = c = + 1.
2 3 4 10
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 4x − 3 = 3(6 − x)

2 Expand the right-hand side (RHS). 4x − 3 = 18 − 3x
3 Collect x’s on one side, for example, the side that results 7x − 3 = 18
in a positive x term, in this case, the left-hand side (LHS).
(That is, add 3x to both sides.)
4 Add 3 to both sides. 7x = 21
5 Divide both sides by 7. 21
x=
7
x=3
b 1 Write the equation. b 9 x + 3 13 x + 7

=
2 3
2 Find the lowest common denominator for both terms. LCD = 6
3 Write all terms with the common denominator, 3(9 x + 3) 2(13 x + 7)
=
adjusting numerators accordingly (so that numerator and 6 6
denominator have been multiplied by the same amount).
4 Now that all terms have the same denominator, the 3(9 x + 3) = 2(13 x + 7)
numerators must be equal. (Multiply each side by 6.)
5 Expand all brackets. 27 x + 9 = 26 x + 14
6 Collect x’s on the LHS and numbers on the RHS. 27 x − 26 x = 14 − 9
7 Simplify and solve. x=5
3 − x 9( x + 7)
c 1 Write the equation. c = +1
4 10
2 Find the lowest common denominator for all three terms. LCD = 20
2 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

3 Write all terms with the common denominator, 5(3 − x ) 2 × 9( x + 7) 20
adjusting numerators accordingly (so that numerator and = +
20 20 20
denominator have been multiplied by the same amount).
4 Now that all terms have the same denominator, the 5(3 − x) = 18(x + 7) + 20
numerators must be equal. (Multiply each term by 20.)
5 Expand all brackets. 15 − 5x = 18x + 126 + 20
6 Collect x’s on the RHS and numbers on the LHS. 15 − 126 − 20 = 18 x + 5 x
− 131 = 23 x
−131
7 Simplify and solve. =x
23
−131
x=
23
There is only one solution to a linear equation. For example, the equation 3x + 2 = 8 has the solution
x = 2. The solution to a linear equation can be represented as a single point on a number line. If the
equals sign is replaced with an inequality sign, the solution is a portion of a number line. These
expressions are referred to as linear inequations (sometimes called inequalities).
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Solve the following linear inequations.

a 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5 b −3m + 5 < −7
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the inequations. a 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5
2 Combine the variable terms by subtracting 3x − 7 ≥ 5

3x from both sides.
3 Add 7 to both sides. 3x ≥ 12
4 Divide both sides by 3. x≥4
b 1 Write the inequations. b −3m + 5 < −7
−3m
2 Subtract 5 from both sides. < −12
3 Divide both sides by −3. Reverse the inequality sign, m>4
as you are dividing by a negative number.
Exercise 1A Solving linear equations and inequations

1 WE1 Solve the following linear equations.
DIGITAL DOC
a 3x − 19 = −13 b 4x + 25 = −7 c 9x + 19 = −2 doc-9696
3x − 1 12 − 3 x 4x − 6 Equation solvers
d =5 e =5 f −7=3
4 3 3
7x + 4 ⎛ 3 x − 1⎞ = 10 ⎛ x⎞
g − 8 = −9 h 2⎜ ⎟⎠ i 7 8− = 77
3 ⎝ 5 ⎝ 4⎠
2 WE2 Solve the following linear equations.
a 2x − 9 = 3(2x − 11) b 7x − 1 = 17(3x − 13) c x + 11 = 2(x + 12) d 3x − 7 = 3(35 − 2x)
x+2 x−5 x + 11 2( x + 14) 4 x + 66 13 − 3 x x + 10 2(7 − 3 x )
e = f = g = h =
6 3 3 9 3 4 9 5
6 x + 7 5x + 1 2 x + 29 x + 44 7 x − 9 21 − x 17 − x 49 + 2 x
i = +1 j = +2 k = − 18 l = +5
5 4 3 8 9 3 2 5

3 WE3 Solve the following linear inequations.
11 − 3 x 19 − x
a 15 − 6x ≤ 2 b ≥6 c −
+ 3 > −1
7 4
4 − x 2( x + 1)
d 16 − 4x < 7(1 − x) e 3x − 7 ≥ 2(35 − 2x) f ≤
3 6
1B Rearrangement and substitution

When there is more than one variable involved in an equation, we may rearrange the equation to make a
particular variable the subject using the same rules of equation solving described in the previous section.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Rearrange each of the following to make the variable in parentheses the subject.
1 m
a 6x + 8y − 48 = 0 (y) b s = ut + at 2 k(u) c T = 2π k(k)
2 k
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 6x + 8y − 48 = 0
2 Add 48 to both sides. 6x + 8y = 48

3 Subtract 6x from both sides. 8y = 48 − 6x
Divide both sides by 8. 48 − 6 x

4 y=
8
Cancel if possible. Here, divide the numerator and 24 − 3 x

5 y=
denominator by 2. 4
24 3
6 Other ways of representing the answer are shown or y = − x
opposite. 4 4
3
= 6− x
4
−3
= x+6
4
b 1 Write the equation. b s = ut + 12 at 2
2 Subtract 12 at 2 from both sides. s − 12 at 2 = ut
3 Multiply both sides by 2. 2s − at 2 = 2ut

2s − at 2
4 Divide both sides by 2t. =u
2t
2s − at 2
5 Write the equation with the desired variable on the left. u=
2t
m
c 1 Write the equation. c T = 2π
k
2 Divide both sides by 2π. T m

=
2π k
3 Square both sides. T2 m

=
4π 2 k
4 Form the reciprocal of both sides to make k the 4π 2 k

=
numerator. T2 m

5 Multiply both sides by m. 4π 2m
=k
T2
4π 2m
6 Write the equation with the desired variable on the left. k=
T2
Once a variable is isolated, we may substitute values of other variables to calculate various values of
the isolated variable. The following worked example illustrates some practical applications.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
a The formula for converting temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (F) (which is the system used in
5( F − 32)
the USA) to degrees Celsius (C ) is C = .
i Make F the subject. 9
ii What is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit when the temperature measured in degrees
Celsius is 21° C?
b The area (A) of a circle is given by A = π r 2, where r is the radius. Calculate the value of r correct
to 2 decimal places when A = 20 cm2.
THINK WRITE
5( F − 32)
a i 1 Write the equation. a i C=
9
2 Multiply both sides by 9. 9C = 5( F − 32)
9C
3 Divide both sides by 5. = F − 32
5
9C
4 Add 32 to both sides. + 32 = F
5
9C
5 Write the equation with F first. Sometimes it may be F= + 32
appropriate to use a common denominator. 5
9C + 160
or F =
5
9 × 21
ii 1 Replace C with 21. Note that 9C means 9 × C. ii F= + 32
5
189
2 Evaluate F. F= + 32
5
F = 37.8 + 32
F = 69.8
so 21°C = 69.8 °F
b 1 Write the equation. Solve for r (make r the subject) b A = πr2
as follows.
A
2 Divide both sides by π. = r2
π
A
3 Take the square root of both sides, and write r first. r=
As r is the radius, we take the positive root only. π
4 Substitute A = 20 into the new formula. If A = 20,

20
r=
π
5 Evaluate r. r = 2.52 cm, correct to 2 decimal
places

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Note: In this example, m represents metres, m/s represents metres per second (velocity),
and m/s2 represents metres per second per second (acceleration).
The final velocity, v m/s, of an object that begins with velocity u m/s and accelerates at
a m/s2 over a distance of s m is given by the equation v2 = u2 + 2 as.
a Find the value of v when u = 16, a = 2 and s = 36.
b Rearrange the given equation to make s the subject.
c Find the distance travelled by an object that begins with a velocity of 10 m/s and has a final
velocity of 4 m/s while accelerating at −1 m/s2.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the given equation and then make v the subject a v 2 = u 2 + 2as
by finding the square root of both sides.
v = ± u 2 + 2as
2 Substitute u = 15, a = 2 and s = 36. = ± 162 + 2 × 2 × 36
3 Simplify and evaluate v. = ± 256 + 144
= ± 400
= ± 20
The final velocity is 20 m/s.
b 1 Begin with the given equation. b v 2 = u 2 + 2as
2 Subtract u2 from both sides. v 2 − u 2 = 2as
3 Divide both sides by 2a. v 2 − u2
=s
2a
v 2 − u2
4 Reverse so that s is given on the left. s=
2a
c 1 Match the variables with the given information. c u = 10
v=4
a = −1
v 2 − u2
2 Write the formula that has s as the subject s=
(see part b above). 2a
3 Substitute the values given in step 1. 4 2 − 10 2
=
2 × −1
4 Simplify and evaluate. 16 − 100

= −
2
− 84
= −
2
= 42
5 Explain the answer in words. The object travels 42 m in its initial
direction.
Exercise 1B Rearrangement and substitution

1 WE4 Each of the following is a real equation used in business, mathematics, physics or another
area of science. Make the variable shown in parentheses the subject in each case.
a A=L+P (P) b A = lw (l)
d
c v= (t) d C = 2πr (r)
t

kQq
e E = αθ + βθ 2 (β) f F= (r)
r2
1 2 1 2
g Fd = mv − mu (v) h v = γ rT (γ)
2 2
i S = 2w(l + h) + 2lh (w) j S = 2πr2 + 2πrH (H)
2 WE5 Calculate the value of the subject (the first mentioned variable), given the values of the other
variables.
k
a I= 2 k = 60, d = 15
d
b E = K + mgh K = 250, m = 2, g = 10, h = 5
1
c D = (n − 2
)λ n = 3, λ = 2.8
d E = hf0 − W h = 6.62, f0 = 5000, W = 20 000
e v = ω r 2 − y2 ω = 2, r = 1.6, y = 1
3 Make the variable in parentheses the subject and find its value using the given information.
a A = l2 (l) A = 60
4
b V= 3
πr3 (r) V = 1000
c v = u + at (a) v = 25, u = 0, t = 6
l
d T = 2π (l) T = 4, g = 9.8
g
cα 2
e K= (c) K = 6.9, α = 0.05
1− α
4 WE6 The perimeter, P, of a rectangle of length l and width w may be found using the equation
P = 2(l + w).
a Find the perimeter of a rectangle of length 16 cm and width 5 cm.
b Rearrange the equation to make w the subject.
c Find the width of a rectangle that has perimeter 560 mm and length 240 mm.
5 The area of a trapezium (Figure A) is given by A =

⎛ a + b ⎞ , where a and b are the lengths
h
⎝ 2 ⎠
of the parallel sides and h is the height.
a Find the area of the trapezium shown in Figure B.
b Using Figure A, find an equation for determining side a in terms of the area A and side b.
c Find a in Figure C.
9m
a
50 cm
16 m 62 cm a
h Area
A Area = 2000 cm2
b 21 m
Figure A Figure B Figure C
⎛ r ⎞2
6 The size of a 2-year investment account with a particular bank is given by A = D 1 + ,
⎝ 100 ⎠
where A is the amount ($) in the account after two years, D is the initial deposit ($) and r is the
interest rate (%).
a Find the amount in such an account after two years if the initial deposit was $1000 and the
interest rate was 6%.
b Make r the subject of the equation.
c Find the rate required for an initial deposit of $1000 to grow to $2000 after 2 years.

7 The object and image positions for a lens of focal length f are related by
1 1 1
the formula + = , where u is the distance of the object from the lens
u v f
and v is the distance of the image from the lens. 2 3 4
a Make f the subject of the equation.
b Make u the subject of the equation.
c How far from the lens is the image when an object is
30 cm in front of a lens of focal length 25 cm?
b
8 The length of a side of a right-angled triangle can be found using
Pythagoras’ theorem: c2 = a2 + b2, where c is the length of the longest side, and a and b are the lengths
of the two shorter sides. Find the value of b in the triangle above.
1
9 The volume of a cone is given by the rule V = 3 π r2h, where r is the radius of the widest r
DIGITAL DOC part of the cone and h is the vertical height of the cone. Given that the volume of a
doc-9697
Career profile cone is 100 cm3 and its radius at the widest point is 12 cm, find the height of the
h
Rick Morris – vigneron cone, expressing your answer in terms of π.
1C Gradient of a straight line cone

The gradient of a line describes its slope or steepness.
y y y y
Zero
gradient Infinite
Negative
Positive gradient gradient
gradient
x x x
x
y The gradient may be calculated using the formula:

(x2, y2) rise y −y
m = run or m = 2 1
Rise x 2 − x1
(x1, y1) Run These terms are illustrated at left.
Here are two examples of where gradient can affect our
x everyday lives. Can you think of others?
A cliff face with

a steeper
gradient
provides a
greater
challenge for
climbers.
Scientists calculate the required gradient of solar

panels so that the maximum amount of energy is
absorbed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the gradient of this linear graph using the intercepts shown. y
THINK WRITE
14
1 Identify the rise and run.
Rise = 14, run = 2.
14
2 Calculate m = rise . m=
run 2
=7 −2 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Calculate the gradient of the line passing through the points (3, −6) and (−1, 8).
THINK WRITE
y2 − y1 y2 − y1
1 Use the formula m = . m=
x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1
2 Match up the terms in the formula with the values given.
(x1, y1) (x2, y2)
(3, −6) (−1, 8)
8 − −6
3 Substitute the given values. m= −
1− 3
14
14
4 Simplify. =
= −−
44
−
7
5 Cancel if possible. = −7
= 2
2
If the angle a line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis is known, the gradient may be found
using trigonometry applied to the triangle shown below.
rise
θ
run x
tan (θ ) = opposite = rise = m

adjacent run
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
y
a Calculate the gradient (accurate to 3 decimal places) of a line making
an angle of 40° to the positive x-axis.
b Calculate the gradient of the line shown at right. Express your answer 60°
to 2 decimal places. x
y
THINK WRITE
a Since the angle the line makes with a m = tan (θ)

the positive x-axis is given, the = tan (40°) 40°
formula m = tan (θ) can be used. = 0.839, correct to x
3 decimal places

b 1 The angle given is not the one between b θ = 180° − 60° y
the graph and the positive direction of the = 120°
x-axis. Calculate the required angle θ.
60° θ
2 Use m = tan (θ) to calculate m to m = tan (θ) x
2 decimal places. = tan (120°)
= −1.73
Exercise 1C Gradient of a straight line

1 WE7 Calculate the gradient of each of the following linear graphs using the intercepts shown.
a y b y
6
2
−3 x 6 x
2 WE8 Without drawing a graph, calculate the gradient of the line passing through:
a (2, 4) and (10, 20) b (4, 4) and (6, 14)
DIGITAL DOC c (10, 4) and (3, 32) d (5, 31) and (− 7, 25).
doc-9698 3 WE9a Calculate the gradient (accurate to 3 decimal places) of a line making the angle
Gradient of a
straight line given with the positive x-axis.
a 50° b 72°
c 10° d − 30°
e 150° f 0°
g 45° h 89°
4 WE9b Calculate the gradient of each line below. Give answers to 2 decimal places.
a y b y
43°
x
69°
x
c y d y
x
28° 15°
x
5 Which of these lines has:

y B
a a non-zero positive gradient? D
5
b a negative gradient? 4
c a zero gradient? 3
2
d an undefined gradient? 1 C
−5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
−2
A −3
−4
−5

6 MC
a Which of the following lines has a b Which of the following lines has a
gradient of −2? gradient of 3?
y A y
B A C D B C
5 5
4 4
3 3
2
E 2
1
1 D
−5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x −5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5 E
7 Burghar plots the coordinates of a proposed driveway on a plan that is shown below. What is the
gradient of the proposed driveway?
Garage
way
Drive
2 m
17 m
8 An assembly line is pictured below. What is the gradient of the sloping section? (Give your answer as a
fraction.)
BOFFO
Made in
Austra
lia
BOFFO
Made in
Austra
lia
BOFFO
Made in
0.85 m Austra
lia
15 m
9 Determine the value of a in each case so the gradient joining the points is equal to the value given.
a (3, 0) and (5, a), gradient 2
b (2, 1) and (8, a), gradient 5
DIGITAL DOC
c (0, 4) and (a, −11), gradient 3
doc-9699
d (a, 5) and (5, 1), gradient −2 SkillSHEET 1.1
Using a gradient to
10 For safety considerations, wheelchair
find the value of a
ramps are constructed under regulated parameter
specifications. One regulation requires
that the maximum gradient of a ramp
exceeding 1200 mm in length is 1 .
14
a Does a ramp 25 cm high with a
horizontal length of 210 cm meet
the requirements?
1
b Does a ramp with gradient meet
18
the specifications?
c A 16 cm high ramp needs to be
built. Find the horizontal length
of the ramp required to meet the
specifications.

The general form for linear equations is y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the line and c is the
y-intercept.
y y
m
ient
ad
Gr
y = mx + c y-intercept
x x
Gradient y-intercept
x-intercept
These lines have identical

gradients (equal m values).
To sketch a graph from a linear equation expressed in general form, follow these steps.
Step 1 Plot the y-intercept on a set of axes.
Step 2 Find and plot a second point on the line. Do this by substituting any value of x into the equation
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9700 and finding the corresponding y-value.
WorkSHEET 1.1 Step 3 Join the two points.
Alternatively, you can use a CAS calculator or other graphing technology.
To find the equation of a line given the gradient and y-intercept, simply substitute the values of m and
c into y = mx + c.
Sketching linear graphs using intercepts y

To draw a graph, only two points are needed. A line may then be drawn
through the two points, and will include all other points that follow the
given rule. The two points can be chosen at random; however, it is often
easier to sketch a graph using the points where the graph crosses the axes.
These points are called x- and y-intercepts. The x-intercept occurs when x
y = 0, and the y-intercept occurs when x = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Sketch the graph of y = −x + 6, showing x- and y-intercepts.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). Substitute If x = 0: y = −1 × 0 + 6

x = 0 into the equation. y= 6 (0, 6)
2 Find the x-intercept (when y = 0). If y = 0: 0 = −x + 6

Substitute y = 0 into the equation. x=6 (6, 0)
3 Mark the intercepts on a set of axes. y
4 Join the intercepts with a straight line.

(0, 6)
(6, 0)
x

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Sketch the graph of 3x − 2y = 12.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). Substitute If x = 0: 3 × 0 − 2y = 12

−2y = 12
x = 0 into the equation.
12
y= −
2
y = −6
2 Find the x-intercept (when y = 0). Substitute If y = 0: 3x − 2 × 0 = 12
y = 0 into the equation. 3x = 12
x=4
3 Mark the intercepts on a set of axes. y
4 Join the intercepts with a straight line.

4 x
−6
The graphs of some equations do not have two intercepts, as they pass through the origin (0, 0). Such
equations are of the form y = k x or a x + by = 0.
To sketch graphs of such equations, we use (0, 0) and any other point, for example the point where
x = 1. (We could choose any other non-zero value.)
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Sketch the graph for the equation 4 x − 3y = 0.

THINK WRITE/DRAW TUTORIAL
eles-1404
1 Try substituting x = 0 to find the y-intercept. If x = 0: 4 × 0 − 3y = 0 Worked example 12
−3y = 0
y=0
2 Note that the graph passes through (0, 0)
(0, 0). There is no point substituting
y = 0, as we know we’ll get x = 0.
3 Substitute another x-value. In this example If x = 1: 4 × 1 − 3y = 0
we use x = 1. 4 − 3y = 0
4 = 3y
4
y=
3
4
(1, )
3
4 Plot the points (0, 0) and (1, 43 ) on a set of y
axes. Note that 4 is 1 1 , which is a little less 2
3 3
than 1 1 . (1, 4–3 )
2
1
(0, 0)
1 x

Exercise 1D Sketching linear functions
1 Use a CAS calculator or other method to sketch graphs of the following equations on the same set of axes.
a y=x b y = 2x c y = 3x d y = −x e y = −2x
2 In question 1, what is the effect on the graph of the number in front of the x (the ‘x-coefficient’ or
‘gradient’)?
3 Use a CAS calculator or other method to sketch graphs of the following equations on the same set of axes.
a y=x+1 b y=x+2 c y=x+3 d y=x−4
4 Use a CAS calculator or other method to sketch graphs of the following equations on the same set of
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9701 axes.
Linear graphs a y = 2x + 1 b y = 2x − 7 c y = −3x + 6 d y = 3x − 5
5 In questions 3 and 4, what is the effect on the graph of the number at the end of the equation (the
‘y-intercept’)?
6 Write the equation of a line having the following properties (where m = gradient and
c = y-intercept).
a m = 2, c = 7 b m = −3, c = 1 c m = 5, c = −2
2 1 −3 −1
d m= ,c= e m = 4, c = 2 f y-intercept 12, gradient −2
3 3
7 Rearrange the following equations and state the gradient and y-intercept for each.
−y
a 2y = 8x + 10 b 3y = 12x − 24 c = 3x − 1 d 16 − 4y = 8x
e 21x + 3y = −27 f −10x + 5y = 25 g −11y − 2x = 66 h 8x + 3y − 2 = 0
i 15 − 6y + x = 0 j 2y + 7 + 5x = 0
8 State the equation for each of the following graphs.
a y b y
6
5 3
4 2
− 1– 3 1
2
2 −2 0 2 x
1 −1
−2
−1 0
−1
1 2 x −3
−2 −4
−5
c y d y
3 5
2 4
1 3
2
−2 −1 0 1 2 x 1
−1
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−3 −1
−4 −2
−5 −3
−4
−5
e y f y
9
5 8
4 7
3 6
2 5
1 4
−1 0 1 2 3 4 x 3
−1 2
−2 1
−3
−4 −3 −2 −1 −10 1 2 3x
−5 −2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9

9 WE10 Sketch graphs of the following linear equations, showing x- and y-intercepts.
a y = 6x + 18 b y = 3x − 21
c y = −2x − 3 d y = 10 − 5x
e y = −9x + 30 f y = 2(x − 8)
10 WE11 Sketch graphs for each of the following equations.
a 2x + 3y = 6 b 4x + 5y = 20
c 6x − 3y = −18 d 7x − 5y = 35
11 Sketch the graph for each equation.
a 6x + 7y + 42 = 0 b 5x − 2y + 20 = 0
c −3x + 4y − 16 = 0 d y − 3x + 6 = 0
12 WE12 Sketch the graph for each equation.
a x+y=0 b x−y=0
c 2x + y = 0
13 MC Which of the following is in the form ax + by = c?
A 2x − 3y − 1 = 0 B 2x + 3y + 1 = 0
C 2x + 3y = x D 2x + 3y = 1
2
E y= x−1
3
14 MC The x- and y-intercepts for the equation 2y = −3x + 12 are (respectively):

A 2 and 3 B −3 and 12
−
C 4 and 6 D −4 and −6
E 4 and 6
15 MC Which of the following has a y-intercept of −3?
A y = −3x − 3 B y = −3x + 3
C x + 3y = 9 D x − 3y + 9 = 0
E 3x + y + 9 = 0
1E Simultaneous equations
Simultaneous equations are groups of equations containing
y
two or more variables. In this section, we look at pairs of linear
equations involving the variables x and y. Each equation, as Both graphs have
we have learned in previous sections, may be represented by a the same x- and
linear graph that is true for many x- and y-values. If the graphs x y-values here.
intersect (when wouldn’t they?), the values of x and y at the
intersection are those that make both equations true.
Graphical solution
Finding the point of intersection of two straight lines can be done graphically; however, the accuracy of
the graph determines the accuracy of the solution.
Consequently, using a calculator to solve the equations graphically is more reliable than reading the
solution from a hand-drawn graph.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Use a CAS calculator to solve the following simultaneous equations graphically.

y = −3x + 5 4x − 7y + 8 = 0
THINK WRITE
1 Using a CAS calculator, make y the subject of the solve (4x − 7y + 8 = 0, y)

second equation. 4( x + 2)
Complete the entry line as: Result: y =
7
solve (4x − 7y + 8 = 0, y)

2 On a Graphs page, complete the function entry f 1(x) = −3x + 5
lines as: 4( x + 2)
f 2(x) =
f 1(x) = −3x + 5 7
4 × ( x + 2)
f 2( x ) =
7
Use the calculator to find the intersection point.
3 Write the answer. Solving y = −3x + 5 and 4x − 7y + 8 = 0
simultaneously produces the solution
(1.08, 1.76).
Algebraic solution
It is possible to solve simultaneous equations without graphs, that is, algebraically. The methods of
substitution and elimination taught in earlier years may be used.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Use the substitution method to solve the following simultaneous equations.

y = 2x + 5
−x + 3y = 25
THINK WRITE
1 Write down and label the equations. y = 2x + 5 [1]

−x + 3y = 25 [2]
−x
2 Substitute [1] into [2] and label the resulting + 3(2x + 5) = 25 [3]
equation [3].
−x
3 Solve [3] for x and label the solution as [4]. + 6x + 15 = 25
5x + 15 = 25
5x = 10
x=2 [4]
4 Use the solution to solve for y and label the Substitute [4] into [1].
solution as [5]. y = 2(2) + 5
y=4+5
y=9 [5]
5 State the complete answer. Solution: (2, 9)
6 Optional check: substitute [4] and [5] into [2] Check in [2].
to check that these values for x and y make LHS = −x + 3y
[2] true. = −2 + 3(9)
= 25
= RHS ✓
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Use the elimination method to solve these simultaneous equations.

2 x + 9y = −5
5 x − 2y − 12 = 0
THINK WRITE
1 Write down and label the equations. 2x + 9y = −5 [1]

5x − 2y − 12 = 0 [2]
2 Rearrange [2] so it is in a similar form to [1]. 5x − 2y = 12 [3]
Call this [3]. Write down [1] again. 2x + 9y = −5 [1]

3 Obtain 10x in both [1] and [3]. 2 × [3] 10x − 4y = 24 [4]
5 × [1] 10x + 45y = −25 [5]
4 Eliminate x as shown. [5] − [4]: 49y = −49
− 49
5 Solve for y. y=
49
y = −1 [6]
6 Substitute [6] into [1] to find x. Substitute [6] into [1].
2x + 9 (−1) = −5
2x − 9 = −5
2x = −5 + 9
2x = 4
x=2 [7]
State the solution. −1)
7 Solution: (2,
8 Again, [6] and [7] may be checked in [2] if desired. Check in [2].
LHS = 5x − 2y − 12
= 5(2) − 2(−1) − 12
= 10 + 2 − 12
=0
= RHS ✓
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Two shoppers buy the following at a fruit shop, paying the amounts given. What was the cost of
each apple and each banana?
Shopper 1: 4 apples and 3 bananas for $2.59
Shopper 2: 6 apples and 5 bananas for $4.11
THINK WRITE
1 Decide on variable names for the unknown Let a = cost of an apple (in cents).
quantities. Let b = cost of a banana (in cents).
2 Write equations involving these variables. 4a + 3b = 259 [1]
Work in terms of cents. 6a + 5b = 411 [2]
3 Choose a variable to eliminate, in this case b. 5 × [1]: 20a + 15b = 1295 [3]
3 × [2]: 18a + 15b = 1233 [4]
4 Find [3] − [4] and solve for a. [3] − [4]: 2a = 62
a = 31 [5]
5 Solve for b. Substitute [5] into [1].
4 × 31 + 3b = 259
124 + 3b = 259
3b = 135
b = 45 [6]
6 State the answer using [5] and [6] as a guide. The cost of an apple is 31 cents, and
the cost of a banana is 45 cents.
Exercise 1E Simultaneous equations

1 WE13 Use a CAS calculator to solve the following simultaneous equations.
DIGITAL DOCS
a y = −2x, y = −4x − 6 b y = 3x − 5, y = 20 doc-9702
−3x
c y = 3x + 5, y = 7x − 4 d + y = −4, y = 6x + 5 Simultaneous linear
equations —
e y = 10x + 1, 2x + y = −6 f 9x + y = 17, x + y = 14 graphical method

2 WE14 Use the substitution method to solve the following simultaneously.
a y = 3x + 1, y = 2x + 2 b y = 5x + 5, y = −x − 19
c y = x + 2, 3x − 4y = −1 d y = −2x + 3, −5x + 2y = 1
−4x
e − 3y = 2, y = −6x + 7 f y = 10 − x, 2x + 7y = 5
3 WE15 Use the elimination method to solve these simultaneous equations.
a 9x + 10y = 153, 3x − y = 12 b 7x − 11y = −13, x + y = 11
−
c 6x − 2y = 10, 2x + 5y = 8 d −3x + y = 8, 4x + 2y = 21
e 7y − x = 11, x + y = 10 f x − 11y = −15, y + 6x = 9
4 WE16 At the conclusion of a tour of Wonky Willy’s confectionery factory, Nutrina buys 10 choc
balls and 8 fizz wizzers for $4.30, and her friend purchases 6 choc balls and 9 fizz wizzers for $4.05.
Determine the cost of each type of lolly.
5 The sum of two whole numbers, x and y, is 41. The difference between them is 3. Write two equations
involving x and y and solve them to find the numbers.
6 A farmer counts emus and sheep in a paddock, and notes there are 57 animals and 196 feet. Assuming
no animal amputees, how many of each animal are there?
7 A sports store supplies 24 basketballs and 16 cricket balls to one school for $275.60, and delivers
12 basketballs and 32 cricket balls to another school for $211. If delivery is free, how much did the
supplier charge for each type of ball?
8 A businessperson hires a stretch limousine for 2 days and a sedan for 3 days while on an interstate trip.
If the total car hire cost of the trip was $675, and the limousine cost triple the price of the sedan, find
the cost per day of the limousine.
9 MC A manufacturing plant produces square and circular metal panels in fixed sizes. If the mass of a
square panel is 13 kg and that of a circular panel is 22 kg, how many of each panel are there in a truck
loaded with 65 panels of total mass 1205 kg?
The equations to solve are:
A 13s + 22c = 1205, s + c = 65 B 22s + 13c = 1205, s + c = 65
C 13s + 22c = 65, s + c = 1205 D 22s + 13c = 65, s + c = 1205
E 13s + 22c = 1205, s + c = 35
10 MC Which of the following is a solution of 11x + 2y = −121 and 10x + 12y = −222?
A (11, 2) B (−121, −222) C (10, 12) D (−9, −11) E (6, 10)
1F Finding the equation of a straight line

Consider a general linear graph containing the particular points (x1, y1), y (x2, y2)
(x2, y2) and the general point (x, y) (which could be any point). (x, y)
Using the first two of these points in the formula for gradient, we have
y2 − y1 (x1, y1)
m= x −x [1]
2 1
Using the first point and the general point in the same formula yields x
y − y1
m= [2]
x − x1
y − y1 y2 − y1
Putting [2] = [1] gives = , which may be rearranged to
x − x1 x 2 − x1
⎛y −y ⎞
y − y1 = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ ( x − x1 )
⎝ x 2 − x1 ⎠ [3]
y2 − y1
Since m = , equation [3] may be written
x 2 − x1
y − y1 = m(x − x1) [4]
This last formula may be used to find the equation of a straight line when two points are given or
when the gradient and only one point are given. When two points are given, the gradient m may be found
y2 − y1
first using m = x − x and substituted into the formula y − y1 = m(x − x1) along with one of the points.
2 1

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Find the equation of the line having gradient 34 that passes through (7, 11).
Express your answer in the forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
THINK WRITE
1 As one point and the gradient are known, use the y − y1 = m(x − x1)
formula y − y1 = m(x − x1).
3
2 List the given information. m= 4
(x1, y1)
(7, 11)
3
3 Substitute for all variables except x and y. y − 11 = 4
(x − 7)
4 Simplify, expressing in the form i 4y − 44 = 3(x − 7)
ax + by + c = 0. 4y − 44 = 3x − 21
3x − 4y + 23 = 0
5 Express your answer in the form ii 3x + 23 = 4y
y = mx + c. 3 23
y= 4x+ 4
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Find the equation of the straight line containing the points (2, −5) and (−3, 1).
Express your answer in the forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the points so they match the (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
variables in the formula. (2, −5) (−3, 1)
y2 − y1
2 As two points are known, first use the m=
y2 − y1 x 2 − x1
formula m = to find m.
x 2 − x1 1− −5
= −
3− 2
6
= −
5
−6
= 5
3 Write the formula y − y1 = m(x − x1). y − y1 = m(x − x1)

−6 −6
4 Substitute the calculated gradient m = 5 and y − −5 = 5
( x − 2)
the first point (x1, y1) = (2, −5). Leave x and y as they are.
6
5 Simplify and express in the two forms required. y + 5 = −5 ( x − 2)
−5y − 25 = 6(x − 2)
−5y − 25 = 6x − 12
−5y = 6x + 13
i So 6x + 5y + 13 = 0, or
−6 13
ii y= 5
x− 5
Perpendicular lines
Perpendicular lines are lines that meet at right angles. The gradients of two perpendicular lines, when
multiplied together, equal −1. Stated mathematically:
m1 × m2 = −1

−1
Another way to write this relationship is m1 = m . This type of relationship is known as a negative
2
2 −3
reciprocal. For example, the negative reciprocal of 3
is 2
. So, two lines are perpendicular if their
gradients are negative reciprocals.
Exercise 1F Finding the equation of a straight line

1 Copy and complete the table below.
Gradient of Gradient of
DIGITAL DOC Equation 1 equation 1 Equation 2 equation 2
doc-9703 f1(x) (m1) f2(x) (m2) m1 × m2
SkillSHEET 1.2
Reciprocals and −1
negative reciprocals
a y = 2x + 1 y= x
2
−1
b y = 3x − 4 y= x+2
3
1
c y = 4x + 6 y = −4x − 9
2 −5
d y = 5x − 3 y= 2
x+4
−9 7
e y= 7
x y = 9x + 1
2 Sketch f1(x) and f2(x) for part a above using a calculator or using graph paper with identical scales on
each axis to produce accurate graphs. What do you notice about the graphs?
3 Repeat question 2 for graphs b to e. Do you notice anything special about each pair of graphs?
4 Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to another line that has a gradient of:
−9 1 −8 7
a 4 b c d e f 1.
7 9 2
5 Find the gradient of a line that is perpendicular to the line with equation:
2
a y = −5x + 2 b y=x−1 c y= 3
x+1
−7
d y= x−2 e 2x + y = 5 f 3x − 4y = 7.
6
6 WE17 Find the equation of a straight line having the gradient given and passing through the point
listed. Express your answer in the forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
DIGITAL DOC
a (1, 2) gradient 3 b (4, 1) gradient 5
doc-9704 c (3, −2) gradient −1 d (−3, 2) gradient 1
Equation of a 2
straight line 7 WE18 Find the equation of the line containing each pair of points. Express your answers in the
forms i ax + by + c = 0 and ii y = mx + c.
a (5, 2) (3, 1) b (1, 1) (5, 5) c (6, 3) (8, 2) d (2, −2) (0, 1)
−
8 Find the equation of the line passing through (3, 3) that makes an angle of 45° with the positive x-axis.
9 Find the equation of the line containing (7, −2) that makes an angle of 71.565° with the positive x-axis.
10 Find the equation of the line (in y = mx + c form) that:
a is perpendicular to the line with equation y = 3x + 1, passing through (−3, 6)
2
b is parallel to the line with equation y = x − 9, passing through (4, −7)
5
c is parallel to the line with equation 3x + 6y = 8, passing through (2, 2)
d is perpendicular to the line with equation −6x + 7y − 2 = 0, passing through (4, 0)
e has gradient 2, passing through the intersection of the lines with equations y = 3x − 5 and y = −2x + 5
−3
f has gradient 4 , passing through the intersection of the lines with equations x + 4y = −14 and
−5x + 2y = 4.
11 Find the equation of the line that passes through the point of intersection of the lines whose equations
are 7x − 3y − 19 = 0 and 3x + 2y + 5 = 0, given that the required line is parallel to the line with equation
−5x − 2y = 3.
12 Find the equation of a line containing the intersection of the lines with equations y = −3x + 4 and
5x − 3y + 40 = 0 that:
6 2
a has a gradient of 7 b is perpendicular to the line with gradient 3
c passes through the point (−1, 9) d is parallel with the line joining (−8, 5) and (0, 4).

13 A line passes through the points ( 8, 5), (4, 3) and (a, 12). Find the value of a.
14 The points (2, 7) and (6, 9) lie on the same straight line. Does the point (4, 8) also lie on this line?
15 The height of a particular young pine tree is found to increase in a linear manner each month in the first
year after planting. Find an equation connecting height with time in months after planting, using the
information supplied in the diagram below.
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9705
WorkSHEET 1.2
52 cm
34 cm
After 2 months After 5 months
Distance between two points and

1G
midpoint of a segment y
y (x , y )
2
2 2
INTERACTIVITY
int-0260
The distance, d, between any two points on the Cartesian plane may be Distance between
two points
found using Pythagoras’ theorem applied to a right-angled triangle as d (y2 y1)
shown at right. (x1, y1)
Using Pythagoras’ theorem: c2 = a2 + b2 or c = a 2 + b 2 and y1 (x2 x1)
replacing c with d, a with (x2 x1) and b with (y2 y1),
we have d = ( x 2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2 .
x1 x2 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Find the distance between the points ( 3, 7) and (5, 2) correct to 3 decimal
places. TUTORIAL
THINK WRITE eles-1405
Worked example 19
1 Match up ( 3, 7) and (5, 2) with (x1, y1) (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
and (x2, y2). ( 3, 7) (5, 2)
2 Substitute into the formula for d and d = ( x 2 - x1 )2 + ( y2 - y1 )2

simplify.
= (5 - - 3)2 + ( - 2 - 7)2
= (8)2 + ( - 9)2
= 64 + 81
= 145
= 12.042, correct to 3 decimal places
CHAPTER 1 � Linear functions 21
5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_01.indd 21 8/05/13 2:27 PM

Midpoint of a segment
The middle or midpoint M (xm, ym) of a segment joining two general points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) is
shown on the Cartesian plane below.
y B (x2, y2)
y2 − ym
M (xm, ym)
x2 − xm E
ym − y1
A (x1, y1)
xm − x1 C D
Consider the triangles ACM and MEB.

∠MAC = ∠BME (since AM and BM have the same slope)
∠CMA = ∠EMB (since ∠ACM and ∠MEB are both 90°)
AM = BM (given, as M is the midpoint)
Therefore ΔACM ≡ ΔMEB.
Since the horizontal and vertical sides of the two triangles must be equal, we have:
xm − x1 = x2 − xm and ym − y1 = y2 − ym
Simplifying these,
2xm = x2 + x1 2ym = y2 + y1
x 2 − x1 y2 + y1
xm = ym =
2 2
x +x y +y
So the point M has coordinates ⎛ 1 2 , 1 2 ⎞ .
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Find the midpoint of the segment joining (5, 9) and (−3, 11).
THINK WRITE
1 Match (5, 9) and (−3, 11) with (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). (x1, y1) (x2, y2)
(5, 9) (−3, 11)
x1 + x 2 y1 + y2 ⎞
2 Substitute values into the formula for M and simplify. M=⎛ ,
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 5 + − 3 9 + 11 ⎞
=⎜ ,
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
2 20 ⎞
= ⎛⎜ , ⎟
⎝2 2 ⎠
= (1,10)
Distance between two points and

Exercise 1G
DIGITAL DOC
midpoint of a segment
doc-9706 1 WE19 Find the distance between each of the following pairs of points.
Distance between
two points a (4, 5) and (1, 1) b (7, 14) and (15, 8) c (2, 4) and (2, 3) d (12, 8) and (10, 8)
2 Calculate the distance between each of the pairs of points below, accurate to 3 decimal places.
a (−14, 10) and (−8, 14) b (6, −7) and (13, 6) c (−11, 1) and (2, 2)
3 Find the distance between each of the following pairs of points in terms of the given variable(s).
a (a, 1), (2, 3) b (5, b), (0, 6) c (c, 2), (4, c) d (d, 2d), (1, 5)

4 Two hikers are about to hike from A to B (shown on the map below). How far is it from A to B ‘as the
crow flies’, that is, in a straight line?
N
50 m
100 m
200 m
100 m
200 m B (E7, N4)
300 m
Lake Phillios
W E
A (W12, S5)
Grid spacing : 1 km S
5 Using the coordinates shown y (in metres)

on the aerial photo of the golf
course, calculate (to the nearest
metre):
a the horizontal distance travelled
by the golf ball for the shot down
the fairway
b the horizontal distance that needs A (320, 148)
to be covered in the next shot to (225, 96)
reach the point labelled A in the x (in metres)
bunker.
(80, –64)
6 WE20 Find the midpoint of the segment joining each of the following pairs of points.
a (1, 3) and (3, 5) b (6, 4) and (4, −2) c (2, 3) and (12, 1) d (6, 3) and (10, 15)
7 Find the midpoint of the segment joining each of the following pairs of points. DIGITAL DOC
doc-9707
a (7, −2) and (−4, 13) b (0, 22) and (−6, −29) c (−15, 8) and (−4, 11) d (−3, 40) and (0, −27)
Midpoint of a segment
8 Find the coordinates of the midpoint of each of the following pairs of points, in terms of a variable or
variables where appropriate.
a (2a, a) and (6a, 5a) b (5, 3c) and (11, 3c) c (3f, 5) and (g, −1)
9 Find the value of a in each question below so that the point M is the midpoint of the segment joining
points A and B.
3
a A (−2, a), B (−6, 5), M (−4, 5) b A (a, 0), B (7, 3), M (8, 2 )

10 A fun-run course is drawn (not to scale) at right. y
If drink stations D1, D2 and D3 are to be placed at (1.5, 3.5)
the middle of each straight section, give the map (−4.5, 5) D1
coordinates of each drink station. D2 Official tent

11 Find the equation of a line that has a gradient x
of 5 and passes through the midpoint of the segment (1.5, −2)
START/
joining (−1, − 7) and (3, 3). FINISH
12 Find the equation of a line parallel to the line with
equation 9x − 3y = 5 that passes through the midpoint (13, −8)
Coordinates (3, −7) D3
of the segment connecting (0, −4) and (−2, 10). are in kilometres.
1H Linear modelling
Many real-life applications, such as fees charged for services, cost of manufacturing or running a
business, patterns in nature, sporting records and so on, follow linear relationships. These relationships
may take the form of a linear equation; for example, F = 50 + 30t may be used by a tradesperson to
calculate her fee (in dollars) for t hours of work.
Here, F is the fee in dollars, and t the time in hours. The 50 represents an initial fee for simply turning
up, while the 30t is the amount charged for the time spent on the job.
For example, if t = 2 hours, 30t = 60, so the total charge for the work would be $(50 + 60) = $110.
Equations like F = 50 + 30t are sometimes referred to as ‘linear models’, a common form of which is:
Total cost = Fixed cost + Cost per unit × Number of units.
This is, of course, equivalent to y = mx + c. y = c + mx.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
A generator company charges a $200 delivery fee, and a rental fee of $1500 per day.
a Find an expression relating total charge to the number of days for which the generator is hired.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship.
c What would be the charge for 4 weeks of rental?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Define convenient variables. a Let T = total charge (in dollars) and

n = number of days the generator is hired.
2 The fixed cost is $200, and the cost per unit is T = 200 + 1500n
$1500. (c = 200, m = 1500)
b 1 Find the vertical intercept (when n = 0). b If n = 0, T = 200
2 The total cost rises $1500 each day, so the T ($)

graph must show this. 3200
1700
200
1 2 n (Days)
c 1 After 4 weeks, n = 28. Substitute this c If n = 28

in the equation from part a. T = 200 + 1500 × 28
= 200 + 42 000
= 42 200
2 Write the answer in words. After 4 weeks, the total cost is $42 200.

WORKED EXAMPLE 22
‘Rent-a-Chef’ provides food cooked and served by a qualified chef at parties.

The company charges $120 as a booking fee, and an additional $30 per hour. TUTORIAL
Another company, ‘Greased Lightning’, provides fast food served by two eles-1406
Worked example 22
students at a cost of $65 per hour, with no booking fee. Under what conditions
would it be cheapest to hire ‘Greased Lightning’?
THINK WRITE
1 Define convenient variables. Let C = cost (total) in dollars and t = time in hours.
2 Write an equation for the cost of hiring both Rent-a-Chef C = 120 + 30t [1]
organisations. Greased Lightning C = 65t [2]
3 Use simultaneous equations to find when the Put [1] = [2]
cost is the same with each group. 120 + 30t = 65t
120 = 35t
120
t=
35
= 3.4 hours
4 At 3.4 hours, the cost is the same. Since Greased It is cheaper to hire Greased Lightning for food
Lightning has the higher per hour cost, after preparation and service of less than 3.4 hours
3.4 hours, they would be more expensive. (3 hours and 26 minutes) duration.
Notes
1. 0.4hours = 0.4 × 60 minutes = 24 minutes.
2. An alternative approach would be to use a CAS calculator and find the point at which the
two graphs crossed.
Exercise 1H Linear modelling

1 WE21 The cost of hiring a floodlit
DIGITAL DOC
tennis court consists of a booking fee and doc-9708
an hourly rate. Simultaneous linear
a Use the photo to write an equation equations
for the total hire cost in terms of the
hourly rate.
c What would be the charge for
3 hours?
2 A singing telegram service charges a $60
appearance fee, and $8 per minute sung.
a Write an equation for the total cost
of a singing telegram in terms of the
number of minutes sung.
c What would be the charge for a 5-minute singing telegram?
3 Colleen delivers junk mail and is paid $32 to traverse a particular route, and a further 10 cents per
leaflet delivered.
a Write an equation for the total payment she receives.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship expressed in a.
c What would be Colleen’s pay if she delivers 1650 leaflets along the route?
4 A pay-TV salesperson receives $300 per week plus $20 for every household he signs up to have pay-
TV connected. How much does the salesperson receive for a week in which he signs up 33 households?
5 WE22 A computer firm, SuperComputers Inc., offers a back-up plan covering the ongoing service and
troubleshooting of its systems after sale. The cost of signing up for the service plan is $215, and there is an

hourly rate of $65 for the serviceperson’s time. Purchasers not signing up for the plan are charged a flat rate
of $150 per hour for service. Would it be advisable to sign up for the service plan if you expected to need
3 hours of service assistance during the life of a computer purchased from SuperComputers Inc?
6 Two amusement parks show the following information for school-age tourists in a promotional
brochure. After how many rides does an excursion to Fun World become the cheaper option for the
same number of rides?
A qua Wor ld
$8.00 entry
$2.50 per ride
$12 entry
$1.50 per ride
7 A telephone company, Opus, offers calls to Biddelonia for a connection fee of $14, and thereafter
$1 per minute. Its rival, Elstra, offers calls for $2 per minute (no connection fee) to the same country.
a Compare the cost of a 10-minute call to Biddelonia using each company.
b At what point would it be cheaper to use Opus?
8 It costs you $6 to get into a taxi (the ‘flagfall’), and $1.50 per kilometre if you use PinkCabs, while
NoTop taxis charge $8 flagfall, and $1.20 per kilometre.
a How much would it cost with each company to travel 15 kilometres in one of its cabs?
b When would it cost the same to use both companies?
9 Medirank, a health insurance company, charges $860 per year (for a single person) and requires
customers to pay the first $100 of any hospital visit. HAB, on the other hand, charges an annual fee
of $560 and requires its members to pay the first $150 of any hospital visit. Determine the number of
hospital visits in a year for which the cost of health services is the same whichever company insures you.
10 Nifty is a car hire firm that charges insurance of $135 and $50 per day car hire. A competitor, Savus,
simply charges $65 per day and offers ‘free’ insurance. You are planning a holiday, and would prefer to
use Savus. Under what conditions (days hired) could you justify this choice?

Summary
Solving linear r Do the same to both sides and remember inverse operations + and −, × and ÷, √ and 2.
equations and r Aim to get a single variable by itself.
inequations r Solve inequations the same way as equations, keeping the original inequality sign at each step,
unless multiplying or dividing by a negative number.
Rearrangement and r ‘Make x the subject’ means manipulate into the form ‘x = …’.
substitution r ‘Substitute’ means to replace a variable with a value.
y2 − y1
Gradient of a straight r m = m = tan (θ )
line x 2 − x1
where θ is the angle the line makes with the positive direction of the x-axis.
Sketching linear r The general equation for a straight line of gradient m and y-intercept c is y = mx + c.
functions r Lines with the same gradient (m) are parallel.
r To find the y-intercept, let x = 0 and find y.
r To find the x-intercept, let y = 0 and find x.
r If y = 0 when x = 0, substitute another x-value (for example x = 1) to find another point
on the line.
r Join two points and/or intercepts with a straight line.
Simultaneous r Simultaneous equations can be solved with a calculator.

equations r For equations of the form y = ax + b, y = cx + d, consider using substitution.
r For equations of the form ax + by = c, dx + ey = f, consider using elimination.
Finding the equation r Formulas for finding the equation of a straight line:
of a straight line ⎛y −y ⎞
y = (mx + c) y − y1 = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ ( x − x1 ) y − y1 = m(x − x1)
⎝ x 2 − x1 ⎠
r For perpendicular lines, m1 × m2 = −1.
Distance between two r d = ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2

points and midpoint of
a segment ⎛ x1 + x 2 , y1 + y2 ⎞
r M = ⎝
2 2 ⎠
Linear modelling r Total cost (y) = fixed cost (c) + cost per unit (m) × number of units (x)
r y = c + mx

Chapter review
3(5 x − 4) 6(4 x + 3)
SHORT 1 Solve the equation = .
ANS WER 7 5
⎛ 7x + 8 ⎞
2 Find the value of x where 3 ⎜ = 4 x − 9.
⎝ 10 ⎟⎠
− 3( x + 4)
1− x
3 Solve the inequality . ≤
4 2
4 The following formula may be used to study planetary motion.
GmM m 4π 2 R
=
R2 T2
Make T the subject of the equation. c
6
5 Using Pythagoras’ theorem, find the length of the hypotenuse of the
triangle shown. Express your answer:
a in surd form
b to 3 decimal places.
9
6 Calculate the gradient of each of the following lines.
a y b y
6
6 5
4
3
2
1
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6x
−1
−8 x −2
−3
c y d y
1 grid
square = 1 unit x
(−12, −3)
x
(−4, −10)
7 Find the gradient of the line joining (−7, 15) and (2, −6).
8 Find the gradient of the line shown.
y
77°
x
9 State the gradient of the line below.

y
5 x

10 State the gradient and y-intercept (in that order) for each of the following.
a y = 3x − 7 b 5x + 3y = 30 c 2x − 4y − 8 = 0
11 Find the equation for a linear graph having gradient 2

and y-intercept −3.
5
12 Sketch graphs of the following, showing intercepts.
a y = −3x + 24 b −x + 8y = 40 c 9x − 7y − 63 = 0 d y + 6x = 0
−2x
13 Solve y = 3x + 10 and y = − 15 graphically.
a Sketch the solution on a set of axes. b State the solution (point of intersection).
14 Solve y = −3x, y = 6x − 15 using substitution.
15 Use the method of elimination to solve 4x − 7y = 21, −2x + y = 6.
16 A piggybank contains 67 coins. If there are only one- and two-dollar coins in the piggybank,
and there are 25 more one-dollar coins than two-dollar coins, how many of each type are there?
17 Find the gradient of a line perpendicular to 3x − 9y = 7.
18 Find the equation of the line containing (−4, 8) and (3, 1).
−6
19 Find the equation of the line having gradient that passes through (1, 4).
7
1
20 Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y = x − 5 that passes through (−8, 6).
4
21 The distance between (2, −7) and (a, −2) is 41 units. Find the value of a if it is positive.
22 Show that the triangle with vertices (3, 7), (3, 3) and (6, 3) is a right-angled triangle.
23 The midpoint of the line joining (k, 2h) and (9k, 6h + 2) is (20, −11). Find k and h.
24 The washing machine repair company ‘Washed out’ charges $75 to come to your house, as well as an
hourly charge of $65, calculated to the nearest half hour.
a Write an equation that may be used to calculate the cost of any service call if the
time taken by the repairer is known.
b Sketch a graph of the relationship between repair cost and time taken to do a repair.
1
c How much would it cost to have a repair done that takes 3 2 hours?
7 x − 23 M U LTIP L E
1 The first step in solving = 99 would be to: C HO IC E
A add 23 to both sides 3 B divide both sides by 3
C divide both sides by 7 D multiply both sides by 3
E multiply both sides by 7
2 x = −5 is a solution to the equation:
x + 25
A 3x + 7 = −8 B 2x − 7 = −5 C =5
6
− 5x
D 2(x + 3) = 10 E = 45
9
x + 14
3 The solution to ≥ 2( x + 2) is:
3
2 2 −2 −6
A x ≤ 10 B x≥5 C x≤5 D x≤
5 E x≤ 5
4 When c2 = a2 + b2 is rearranged to make a the subject, the equation becomes:

A c= a2 + b2 B a2 = b2 + c2 C a2 = c2 − b2
D a= c2 − b2 E a=b+c
1
5 Which values, when substituted into K = 2 mv 2, give a value for K of 4?
1
A m = 2, v = 4 B m = 4, v = 2 C m = 8, v = 2
D m = 8, v = 1 E m = 1, v = 16
6 Using the equation P = m1v1 + m2v2, if P = 10, m1 = 2, m2 = 6 and v1 = 4, v2 would equal:

1 1
A B C 1 D 2 E 3
3 2

7 The line shown has a gradient of: y
−6
A
B −3 6
−2
C
D 2
6
E
3
3 x
8 The gradient of the line shown at right is 3. The value of a must be: y
A −2 B −1 C 5 (6, a)
D 7 E 11
9 The gradient of the line joining (−1, 0) and (4, −10) is: x
−4 −2 C 2
A B
D 4 E 5
(2, −5)
6
10 Which of the graphs below has a gradient of 7
?
y y C y
A B
7 6
6
7 x
−7 x
−6 x
D y E y
x x
−7 6
−6
−7
6
11 The gradient of the line with equation y = 7
x − 1 is:
6 7
A −1 B 7
C 6 D 6 E 7
2
12 The y-intercept of the line with equation y = 12 x + 3
is:
2 3
A 3
B 2
C 2 D 3 E 12
13 The gradient and y-intercept (in that order) of the line with equation 2x − 3y = 7 are:
−2
A 2 and −3 B 2 and 7 C and 7
3
2 −7 −3 7
D 3
and 3
E and 2
14 Which of the following could be the graph of y = 2x + c?
A y B y C y
c
x c x
−c x

D y E y
c
−c x
y
15 The equation of the line shown at right is:
A 2x − 5y = 1 B 2x − y = 4
2 x
C 15x + 6y = −30 D 10y − x = −2
x y
E − =1
2 5 −5
16 To solve the equations 2x + y = 5 and 3x − 6y = 12 graphically on a calculator, you would enter the
equations in the function entry line as:
A f 1(x) = 2x + y and f 2(x) = 3x − 6y
B f 1(x) = 5 and f 2(x) = 12
C f 1(x) = 5 − 2x and f 2(x) = 12 + 6y
D f 1(x) = 2x + 5 and f 2(x) = 3x + 12
x
E f 1(x) = −2x + 5 and f 2(x) = 2 − 2
17 Which of the following would be the most effective way to solve the following equations
simultaneously?
y = 2x − 13 [1]
y = 7x + 2 [2]
A Multiply [1] by 2 and [2] by 13 and add the newly formed equations.
B Multiply [1] by 7 and put it equal to [2].
C Multiply [2] by 2 and put it equal to [1].
D Multiply [1] by 2 and [2] by 7 and subtract the newly formed equations.
E Put [1] equal to [2].
18 The gradient of a line perpendicular to a line with a gradient of 7 is:
−7
A −1 B −7 C
7 1
7
D 7 E
1
− 7x +5
19 The gradient of a line perpendicular to y = is:
−1 1
16 16
A 7
B 7 C 7
5 −7
D 16 E 16
−2)
20 The equation of the line containing (1, and (2, −3) could be expressed as:
A y−2=x−1 B y+2=1−x C y+3=x−1
D x − 2y = −3 E 3x − 5y = 1
21 A line with equation y − 7 = 5(x − 1) has:
A gradient 5 and contains the point (7, 1) B gradient −7 and contains the point (−1, −7)
C gradient 5 and contains the point (1, 7) D gradient −5 and contains the point (1, −7)
E gradient −1 and contains the point (5, 7)
22 The distance between (4, 3) and (−2, 1) is equal to:
A (−2 − 4)2 + (1 − 3)2 B (4 − 3)2 + ( − 2 − 1)2 C (4 2 + 32 ) − ( − 22 − 12 )

D (4 + 2)2 + (3 − 1)2 E (− 2 − 4)2 − (1 − 3)2

23 The midpoint of the segment joining (11, −3) and (−5, 17) is:
1 1
A ( − 5 , −1 ) B (3, 7) C (6, 14)
2 2
1 1
D ( − 2 2 ,8 2 ) E (4, 6)
24 Bote lives 5 kilometres from the nearest post office. At noon one day he begins cycling (from home) at
20 kilometres per hour in a constant direction away from the post office. At t hours after Bote begins
cycling, the distance, D km, that he is from the post office is given by:
A D = 5t B D = 20t C D = 5t + 20
D D = 20t + 5 E D = 20t − 5
25 The linear function f : D → R, f ( x ) = 6 − 2 x has range [−4, 12]. The domain D is:
A [−3, 5] B [−5, 3] C R
D [−14, 18] E [−18, 14]
E X TENDED 1 The graph at right is a rough sketch of three points on a section of y

R E S P ONS E
sheet metal that are to be drilled by a programmed robotic drilling
arm. Any deviation from a straight path, no matter how slight, C
means the arm must be programmed for more than one direction. 16
B
The coordinates marked are correct. Will the robotic arm be able to 12
move in one direction only to drill all three holes?
6 A
2 Points A, B and C have the coordinates (1, 6), (0, 0) and (−2, 2).
Find the coordinates for a point D so that the four points form a
parallelogram. 8 14 20 x
3 Consider the points (−4, −2),
(6, 2), (4, −1)
and (0, −7).
a Find the coordinates of the midpoints of each side of the quadrilateral formed by the points.
b Show that the shape formed by the midpoints is a parallelogram.
c Repeat parts a and b for a different set of starting points.
d What can you conjecture based on your answers?
4 The cost of a parachuting course consists of a charge of $250, which covers equipment hire and tuition,
and a further expense of $55 per jump.
a Express the total cost, C, as a function of j, the number of jumps.
b How many jumps could a person doing the course afford if she was prepared to spend up to
$1000?
5 A physics student conducts an experiment to find out how much a spring stretches when various
weights are hung from it. Her results are shown in the table below.
Length of spring (cm) Force applied (N)

4 0
7 10
12 20
16.5 30
20.5 40
25 50
a What is the natural or ‘unstretched’ length of the spring?

b Plot a graph of the student’s results.
c Draw a straight line through the points that best describes the data.
d Select two points on the line and use them to fit a linear equation to the line.

A second student conducts the same experiment on a similar
spring. His results are shown below.
Length of spring (cm) Force applied (N)

5 0
10 10
16 20
21 30
24 40
28 50
e On the same set of axes you used in part b, plot the results of
the second experiment and join the points with a line of best fit.
f Write an equation that describes the relationship between the
force applied and the length of the second spring.
The gradients of graphs such as the ones you have drawn give an
indication of the stiffness of a spring. The greater the gradient, the
harder it is to stretch the spring. The lower the gradient, the easier
it is to stretch the spring.
g Comment on the stiffness of the two springs investigated by the
students.
h Is it likely that these two springs will ever be the same length at
a given force; that is, is it likely that the intersection of the two
graphs could ever really happen? Explain your answer.
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9709
Test Yourself
Chapter 1

ICT activities
Chapter opener 1F Finding the equation of a straight line
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5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_01.indd 34 8/05/13 2:48 PM

Answers CHAPTER 1
−5
LINEAR FUNCTIONS 3 a 1.192 b 3.078 c 0.176 8 a y = 4x + 2 b y=
2
x−5
− − f 0
Exercise 1ASolving linear equations d 0.577 e 0.577 4 −5
g 1 h 57.290 c y= x−2 d y = 6x + 5
and inequations 3
−7
4 a 0.93 b 2.61 e y = 2x − 1 f y = −5x
1 a 2 b −8 c c −
0.53 d −
3.73 y
3 9 a
d 7 e −1 f 9 5 a D b C
c A d B 18
−1 h 10 −12
g i
−13 6 a B b E
2 a 6 b 5 c 2 − 17
−5 7 8
d 112 e 12 f 17 300
x
9 9 a 4 b 31 −3
−9 76 −
g h 59 i 3 c 5 d 3 y
b
j −4 k −9 l −7 10 a No b Yes c 224 cm
13 − 31 7 x
3 a x≥ 6 b x≤ 3 c x>3 Exercise 1D Sketching linear functions
3 1 a–e y
d x < −3 e x ≥ 11 f x≥2 y = −2x y = 3x −21
y = 2x
Exercise 1B Rearrangement and y = −x y=x

c y
substitution
A − 3–2 x
1 a P=A−L b l= x
w
d C −3
c t= d r=
v 2π
E − αθ kQq d y
e β= f r= 2 The higher the number, the steeper the
θ2 F 10
graph. Positive values make the graph
2 Fd + mu 2 v2 slope up when moving (or tracing) to the
g v= hγ =
m rT right; negative values make the graph
slope down when moving to the right. 2 x
S − 2lh S − 2π r 2
i w= j H= y y=x+2
2(l + h) 2π r 3 a–d e y
y=x+1
2 a 0.267 b 350 c 7
d 13 100 e 2.498 y=x+3
30
3V 1
3 a l= A, 7.746 br=3 , 6.204 x
4π 4
v−u T ⎞2 y=x− 4
c a= , 4.167 d l = g ⎛⎜ , 3.972 x
⎝ 2π ⎟⎠
10
—
t −4 3
(1 − α ) K f y
e c= , 2622
α2 4 a–d y x
8
4 a 42 cm 6 y = 2x + 1
P P − 2l y = 3x − 5
b w = − l or w = c 40 mm
2 2 −16
5 a 240 m2
1 y = 2x − 7
2A 2 A − bh 10 a y
b a= − b or a = c 18 cm −1 01 x
h h
6 a $1123.60
y = −3x + 6 2
⎛ A ⎞ ⎛ A− D⎞ −5
b r = 100 ⎜ − 1 = 100 ⎜
⎝ D ⎟⎠ D ⎟⎠
3 x
⎝
−7
c 41.4% b y
5 The number is where the graph cuts the
uv fv 4
7 a f = b u= y-axis (hence the name ‘y-intercept’).
u+v v− f 6 a y = 2x + 7 b y = −3x + 1
2 1
c 150 cm c y = 5x − 2 d y= 3x+3
−3 1
8 b=2 e y= 4x− 2 f y = −2x + 12 5 x
9 h=
25
cm
7 a 4, 5 b 4, −8 c y
π c −3, 1 d −2, 4
6
Exercise 1C e −7, −9 f 2, 5
Gradient of a straight line −2 −8 2
−6
1 a 2
−1 g 11 , h ,
b 3 3
3
1 1 5 −5 − 7 −3 x
2 a 2 b5 c −4
d i , j , 2
2 6 2 2

d y b y Exercise 1F Finding the equation
x y = 20 of a straight line
5 −1 −1
20 ( 25 , 20 ) 1 a 2, 2 , −1 b 3, 3, −1
3
1 2 −5
−7 y = 3x − 5 c 4 , −4, −1 d 5 , 2 , −1
−9 7
11 a y e , , −1
7 9
2 They are perpendicular.
−7 x −5 5 x
3 They are perpendicular.
−5
−1 1
c y 4 a 4
b 9 c −7
−6 9 −2
d 8 e 7
f −1
b y
1 −3
10 5 a 5 b −1 c 2
( 94 , 47
4) 6 1 −4
d 7
e 2 f 3
y = 7x − 4 6 a i 3x − y − 1 = 0 ii y = 3x − 1
b i 5x − y − 19 = 0 ii y = 5x − 19
y = 3x + 5 x
c i x+y−1=0 ii y = −x + 1
−4 x
1 7
y d i x − 2y + 7 = 0 ii y = 2 x + 2
c y d
1 1
4 7 a i x − 2y − 1 = 0 ii y = 2 x − 2
b i x−y=0 ii y = x
5 −1
− 16
— y = 6x + 5 y = −4 + 3x c i x + 2y − 12 = 0 ii y = 2 x + 6
3
x 0 x −3
d i 3x + 2y − 2 = 0 ii y = 2 x + 1
d y
8 y=x−6 9 y = 3x − 23
2 x −1 2 43
(−3, −13) 10 a y = x+5 b y= 5x− 5
3
−1 −7 14
−6 e y c y= x+3 d y= 6x+ 3
2
−3 9
e y = 2x − 3 f y= 4x − 2
12 a y y = 10x + 1 −5 3
11 y = 2 x − 2
5
6 82 −3
x 12 a y = 7 x + 7 b y= 2 x +7
5 x
(1, −1) −5 −x 39
7 , − 29 c y = −x + 8 d y= 8 + 4
(− 12 6 ) y = −6 − 2x
13 94 14 Yes
b y 15 H = 22 + 6t
(1, 1) Exercise 1G Distance between two

f y
y = 17 − 9x points and midpoint of a segment
17
x 1 a 5 b 10
( 38 , 109 )
8 c 1 d 2
14
y = 14 − x
2 a 7.211 b 14.765
c y
c 13.038
17 x
x 9 3 a a2 − 4a + 8 b b 2 − 12b + 61
c 2(c 2 − 6c + 10) d 5d 2 − 22d + 26
(1, −2) 2 a (1, 4) b (−4, −15) 4 21.024 km
5 17
13 D 14 E 15 A c (−7, −5) d( , ) 5 a 216 b 108
9 9
Exercise 1E 23 − 20 −3) 6 a (2, 4) b (5, 1)
Simultaneous equations e (14 , 7 ) f (13,
c (7, 2) d (8, 9)
1 a y
3 a (7, 9) b (6, 5) 7 a (1 , 5 )
1 1 − − 1
2 2 b ( 3, 3 2 )
(−3, 6) −2) 1 19
c (1, d ( 2, 2 ) − 1 1 − 1 1
c ( 9 2 , 9 2) d ( 1 2 , 6 2)
59 21 84 99
y = −4x − 6 1 e (8, 8) f ( 67 , 67 ) 8 a (4a, 3a) b (8, 3c)
−1−1 1 x 4 15 cents and 35 cents 5 22 and 19 c ⎛ 3 f + g , 2⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
6 16 emus, 41 sheep 2
y = −2x
7 Basketballs $9.45, cricket balls $3.05 9 a 5 b 9
8 Limousine $225 (sedan $75) 10 D1 (−1.5, 4.25), D2 (−1.5, 1.5), D3 (8, −7.5)
9 A 10 D 11 y = 5x − 7 12 y = 3x + 6

Exercise 1H Linear modelling 9 Undefined 22 Teacher to check.
1 a C = 25 + 5t −
−5 23 k = 4, h = −3
10 a 3, 7 b 3, 10
b Cost ($) 24 a C = 75 + 65t
1 c $302.50
35 c 2
, −2 b C ($)
30 205
2
25 11 y = 5 x − 3
140
y 75
1 2 Time (h) 12 a
24
c $40 1 2 t (h)
2 a C = 60 + 8m
b Cost ($) MULTIPLE CHOICE
76 1 D 2 A 3 C 4 D
68
60 8 x 5 D 6 A 7 C 8 D
9 B 10 B 11 B 12 A
b y
13 D 14 B 15 E 16 E
17 E 18 A 19 C 20 B
1 2 Time (min) 21 C 22 D 23 B 24 D
5 25 A
c $100
−40 x
3 a P = 32 + 0.1n EXTENDED RESPONSE
b Payment ($) c $197 y 1 No, the points are not collinear. This may
c
34 be shown by calculating gradients or
33 7 x equations for lines joining different pairs
32
of points.
2 (−1, 8)
1 −9
−9 3 a Midpoints: (1, 0), (5, 2 ), (2, −4), (−2, 2 )
10 20 Number d The midpoints of any quadrilateral form
of leaflets d y
a parallelogram.
4 $960 4 a C = 250 + 55j
5 Yes ($410 compared to $450) b 13 jumps
6 After 4 rides x 5 a 4 cm
7 a Opus $24, Elstra $20 b, c, e
b After 14 minutes
60
Force applied to spring (N)
8 a PinkCabs $28.50, NoTop $26
2 50
b After 6.7 km (6 3 km)
(1, −6)
9 6 visits 40
10 Savus would be cheaper for up to 9 days 13 a y b (−5, −5) 30
hire. f(x) = 3x + 10 20 Student 1
5 10 Student 2
CHAPTER REVIEW
SHORT ANSWER −5 x 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
−2 (−5, −5) −5 Length of spring (cm)
1
2 6 d Answers will vary. One possible answer
f (x) = −2x − 15
3 x ≥ −14 30 95
is y = 13 x − 13 .
4π 2 R3 R f Answers will vary. One possible answer
4 T= or 2π R
GM GM 5 − 63 − 33 is y = 2x − 10.
14 ( , − 5) 15 ( 10 , 5 )
15 3 g The first spring is stiffer than the second,
5 a b 3.873
−7
16 21 two-dollar and 46 one-dollar coins as the gradient of its graph is greater
3 −3
6 a 4
b 11 17 than that of the second spring.
5 −7 18 y = −x + 4 h The graphs intersect at the point
c 11 d 8 −6 34 (−8.75, −27.5). It is not possible for the
19 y = 7 x + 7
−7 springs to have a negative length, so this
7 3 8 4.331 20 y = −4x − 26 21 6 point is not achievable.

CHAPTER 2
Quadratic functions
doc-9710
2A Polynomials 10 Quick Questions
2B Expanding quadratic expressions
2C Factorising quadratic expressions
2D Factorising by completing the square
2E Solving quadratic equations — Null Factor Law
2F Solving quadratic equations — completing the square
2G The quadratic formula
2H The discriminant
2I Graphs of quadratic functions as power functions (turning point form)
2J Graphs of quadratic functions (intercepts method)
2K Using technology to solve quadratic equations
2L Simultaneous quadratic and linear equations
2A Polynomials
A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted by P(x), is an expression containing only non-negative whole
number powers of x. The degree of the polynomial is given by the highest power of the variable x.
Examples of some polynomials are:
10 is a polynomial of degree 0 as 10 can be written as 10x0
3x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 1, or a linear polynomial
x2 + 4x + 7 is a polynomial of degree 2, or a quadratic polynomial
−5x3 + 0.5x2 is a polynomial of degree 3, or a cubic polynomial
2x4 − x3 + 2x2 + x + 5 is a polynomial of degree 4, or a quartic polynomial.
2 −
Expressions such as 3x2 − 4x + , −5x4 + x3 − 2 x and x 2 + sin (x) + 1 are not polynomials.
x
The general form of a degree n polynomial is given by
P(x) = an x n + an − 1xn − 1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0
where n is a positive whole number and an, an − 1, . . . a2, a1, a0 are called coefficients (or constants)
provided the leading coefficient an ≠ 0.
This chapter will deal with polynomials of degree 2, or quadratics. The general form of a quadratic
polynomial is P(x) = a2x2 + a1x + a0. It is also commonly written as y = ax2 + bx + c when graphing
applications are involved.
In the polynomial equation P(x) = 13x2 − x + 1:
x is the variable.
13 is the coefficient of x2 and 13x2 is the quadratic term.
−1 is the coefficient of x and −x is the linear term.
The constant term is 1.

The degree of the polynomial is 2.
The leading term is 13x2 as it is the term with the highest power of x.
CHAPTER 2 Quadratic functions 39

An example of where polynomials are useful is shown below.
The surface area, S, of a plant hothouse of length L

and height x can be approximated by the quadratic
polynomial S ( x ) = π x 2 + Lπ x − 4.
Value of a polynomial
A polynomial may be evaluated by substitution of a number for the variable. For example, for the
polynomial P(x) = 13x2 − x + 1, the value of P(x) when x = −3 is given symbolically as P(−3) and is
found by substitution:
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9711 P(− 3) = 13(− 3)2 − (− 3) + 1
History of mathematics = 13 × 9 + 3 + 1
Évariste Galois
= 121
This process can be completed on your CAS calculator. A CAS calculator is particularly useful for
performing multiple substitutions simultaneously.
1. Using a CAS calculator, define the polynomial 1. Define t(x) = 3x2 − 2x + 16.
t(x) = 3x2 − 2x + 16.
2. To evaluate t(x) for x-values of −3, 2 and 5, 2. t({− 3, 2, 5})
complete the entry line as: The result is (49, 24, 26.5279).
t({− 3,2, 5})
Exercise 2A Polynomials
1 State the degree of each of the following polynomials.
a x3 − 9x2 + 19x + 7 b 65 + 2t c 2x − 8 + 3x2
u4 1
d x6 − 3x5 + 2x4 + 6x + 1 e 2u − − 6 + u5
3 2
2 State the variable for each polynomial in question 1.
3 Which polynomial in question 1 is:
a linear? b quadratic? c cubic?
4 For each of the following expressions:
r JGJUJTBQPMZOPNJBM XSJUF1
r JGJUJTOPUBQPMZOPNJBM XSJUF/BOEDJSDMFUIFUFSN T
UIBUNBEFJUTP
5 x2
a 7x + 6x2 + b +x c 3x 4 − 2 x 3 − 3 x − 4
x 9
−
d k 2
+ k − 3k 3 + 7 e 2x − 8x + 1

5 Consider the polynomial P( x) = −2x3 − 3x + 4x2 + 5.
a What is the degree of the polynomial? b What is the variable?
c What is the coefficient of the linear term? d What is the value of the constant term?
e Describe the role of the ‘4’ using the terminology of polynomials.
6 For the polynomial T(m) = 5m − 2m2 − 1, evaluate the following.
a T(2) b T(−2) c T(x + 1)
7 A sports scientist determines the following equation for the action of a breaststroke swimmer during
one complete stroke:
v(t) = 63.876t 6 − 247.65t 5 + 360.39t 4 − 219.41t 3 + 53.816t 2 + 0.4746t
where t = time (sec) and v(t) = velocity (m/s).
a What is the degree of the polynomial?
b What is the variable?
c Evaluate v(0.2) and interpret the meaning of your answer.
d How much faster is she swimming at 0.7 seconds than she is at 0.5 seconds?
2B Expanding quadratic expressions

A quadratic expression is a polynomial of degree 2. It must contain a quadratic term; any others (a linear
term and a constant term) are optional. Examples of quadratic expressions include:
−5x
x2 − 3x − 1 − 10x2 3t 2 + 1
Quadratic expressions can be produced when two linear expressions are multiplied.
Consider the expansion (4x + 9)(2x − 3).
When expanding brackets, ‘multiply everything by everything else’ as shown 1
2
on the diagram at right. That is, (4x + 9)(2x − 3)

3 4
first term × everything in the second brackets, then
second term × everything in the second brackets.
The results of each part of the expansion are:
1 4x × 2x = 8x2 2 4x × −3 = −12x 3 9 × 2x = 18x 4 9 × −3 = −27
Parts 2 and 3 may be combined to give 6x, so we have:
(4x + 9)(2x − 3) = 8x2 + 6x − 27
This method can be easily extended to deal with brackets containing more than two terms.
The above method can be used on all types of binomial expansions, though a couple of shortcuts for
special cases are shown in worked examples 1, 2 and 3.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Expand the following.

a (3x + 5)(6x − 7) b (2x − 9)2 c (5x − 3)(5x + 3) d −2(x − 9)(4 − x)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression and mark the required a

multiplications. (3x + 5)(6x − 7)
2 First term × everything in the second brackets gives
18x2 − 21x.
3 Second term × everything in the second brackets gives = 18x2 − 21x + 30x − 35
30x − 35.
4 Combine the middle (x) terms. = 18x2 + 9x − 35
b 1 Write the expression. Recognise it as a ‘perfect square’. b (2x − 9)2
2 Remember the shortcut: Square the first term, double the

product of the two terms and square the last term.
3 Square the first term to get 4x2.
4 Double the product of the two terms to get
2 × (2x) × (−9) = −36x.
5 Square the last term to get 81. = 4x2 − 36x + 81
c 1 Write the expression. Recognise that the only difference c (5x − 3)(5x + 3)
between the two sets of brackets is the sign in the middle,
so the answer is a ‘difference of two squares’.
2 The shortcut for the expansion of this type is = (5x)2 − 32
(first term)2 − (second term)2. = 25x2 − 9
d 1 Write the expression. d −2(x − 9)(4 − x)
2 Rewrite the question so x is the first term in both = −2(x − 9)(−x + 4)

brackets. This is not essential as long as all combinations
of terms are multiplied in the next step.
3 Expand the brackets first. = −2(−x2 + 13x − 36)
4 Multiply the brackets’ contents by −2. = 2x2 − 26x + 72
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Expand (x − 7)(x + 2) − (2x − 1)(x + 4) and simplify.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. (x − 7)(x + 2) − (2x − 1)(x + 4)

2 Expand the first pair of brackets. (x − 7)(x + 2) = x2 − 5x − 14
3 Expand the second pair of brackets. (2x − 1)(x + 4) = 2x2 + 7x − 4
4 Subtract the two expanded groups in the order given. (x − 7)(x + 2) − (2x − 1)(x + 4)
Use new brackets for clarity as shown. = (x2 − 5x − 14) − (2x2 + 7x − 4)
5 Apply the negative sign to the contents of the second = x2 − 5x − 14 − 2x2 − 7x + 4
brackets.
6 Collect like terms and simplify. = −x2 − 12x − 10

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
If P(x) = (2x − 3)2 − (2x + 1)(3x + 9):

a evaluate P(1)
b expand and simplify P(x)
c use your result in b to confirm your answer in a.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Substitute x = 1 into the rule for P(x). a P(1) = (2 × 1 − 3)2 − (2 × 1 + 1)(3 × 1 + 9)
2 Simplify each bracketed term. P(1) = (−1)2 − (3)(12)
3 Simplify P(1). P(1) = 1 − 36

= −35
b 1 Expand the first bracketed term. b (2x − 3)2 = 4x2 − 12x + 9
2 Expand the second and third bracketed terms. (2x + 1)(3x + 9) = 6x2 + 21x + 9
3 Subtract the second result from the first result P(x) = 4x2 − 12x + 9 − (6x2 + 21x + 9)
to obtain P(x).
4 Simplify. P(x) = −2x2 − 33x
c 1 Evaluate P(1) using the formula from part b. c P(1) = −2(1)2 − 33 × 1

= −2 − 33
= −35
2 Compare with the result from part a. The answers are the same.
Exercise 2B Expanding quadratic expressions

Simplify your answers to questions in this exercise as fully as possible.
1 WE1a Expand the following.
a (2x + 6)(x + 5) b (3x + 1)(4x − 3)
c (5x − 7)(5x + 2) d (8x − 3)(6x − 1)
e (x + 4)(7x − 9) f (x + 6)(x + 15)
g (6x − 13)(2 − 3x) h (5 − x)(6 − x)
i (x − 9)(9x − 1) j (4x + 21)(x − 3)
2 WE1b Expand using the shortcut for perfect squares.
a (2x + 3)2 b (3x − 5)2 DIGITAL DOCS
c (6x + 1) 2 d (7x − 6)2 doc-9712
SkillSHEET 2.1
e (x − 8)2 f (x + 13)2
− Expanding perfect
g ( 2x + 9) 2 h (2x + 9)2 squares
i (4 − 3x) 2 j (6 − x)2 doc-9713
SkillSHEET 2.2
3 WE1c Expand (remember the shortcut for difference of squares). Expanding differences
a (2x − 6)(2x + 6) b (3x + 5)(3x − 5) of squares
c (6x + 1)(6x − 1) d (2x − 9)(2x + 9)
e (11x + 3)(11x − 3) f (x − 12)(x + 12)
g (x + 6)(x − 6) h (7 − 2x)(7 + 2x)
i (1 − x)(1 + x) j (5x + 1)(5x − 1)
4 WE1d Expand.
a 2(x + 6)(3x + 5) b 3(x − 4)(2x + 7)
c −4(x + 2)(2x − 5) d 3(4x − 9)(2x − 1)
e 8(3x − 1)(4x − 1) f −7(2x + 3)(5x − 10)
g 4(4 − x)(7 − x) h −5(7x − 4)(2 − x)
i a(2x + 9)(x − 6) j −b(8 − 2x)(x + 4)

5 Expand the following.
a (6x − 13)(6x + 13) b (5x + 2)(12x − 5)
c −3(7 + 2x)(x − 8) d (3x + 11)2
e (2x − 14)(2x + 14) f (6x − 5)2
−(x − 4)(x + 4)
g (x + 16)(x − 9) h
i −4(5x − 3)2 j 5(2x + 7)(2x − 7)
6 WE2 Expand and simplify.
a (x − 9)(x + 2) + (x + 4)(x − 4) b (3x + 7)(2x − 1) + (4x − 3)(3x − 4)
c 2(x + 5)2 + 5(2x + 7)(x − 3) d (x − 12)(x + 12) − 3(x + 1)(x + 5)
e 4(x − 3)(3x + 5) − 2(2x + 1)2 f 6(2x − 5)(2x + 5) − (x − 6)(x + 6)
g ( x + 3)( x − 3) h (3 x + 2)(4 x − 2)
i 12 (2x + 1)(4x + 7) j (5x + 13)(3x − 5)
7 WE3 Expand. Use a calculator to verify the answers.

a (2a + 4)(2a + b) b (x + 2y)(3x − 5y)
c (6 − 7c)(2 − 7c) d (u + 4v)2
e (6r − s)(2r + 5s) f (3u − 2t)(3u + 2t)
g 2(h − 8k)(h + 8k) h −3(m − 6n)2
2C Factorising quadratic expressions

Factorising is the reverse process to expanding. It involves writing an expression as a product of two or
more factors. Four methods of factorising will be considered.
Highest common factor (HCF)

Always look for a common factor first. Take out the highest common factor from every term in the
expression and place it in front of the expression. This makes the factorisation process simpler if further
factorisation is required. For example, 4x2 + 8x − 12 can be factorised to 4(x2 + 2x − 3). We would then
use inspection (see below) on the bracketed quadratic.
Factorisation by inspection
A quadratic polynomial of the form ax2 + bx + c is called a quadratic trinomial. It should first be checked
to see if it is a perfect square:
a2x2 − 2abx + b2 = (ax − b)2 or a2x2 + 2abx + b2 = (ax + b)2
If not, factorisation is carried out by inspection or ‘trial and error’. This method involves finding
factors of a × c that add up to b, i.e. the coefficient of the x term.
Perfect squares
a2x2 + 2abx + b2 = (ax + b)2
A test for a perfect square is as follows: For example:
1. Arrange the expression in order of decreasing powers of x.
4 x 2 + 20 x + 25
2. Does first term coefficient × last term × 2 = middle
term coefficient? Double
(Coefficients are numbers or variables in front of x2 and 10
x terms.) 2 5
3. If yes, you have a perfect square. Multiply
(2 × 5)
Difference of two squares (DOTS)

ax2 − b = ( ax + b )( )
a x − b where a and b may simplify to a rational number.
For example, 49x2 − 9 = (7x + 3)(7x − 3).

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Factorise the following.

a −6x2y + 15xy b x2 + 7x + 12 c 6x2 + 28x − 48
d 27x − 75
2 e 9x2 − 30x + 25
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a −6x2y + 15xy
2 Take out a common factor of −3xy. Make the common = −3xy(2x − 5)

factor negative so the leading term inside the brackets
will be positive.
b 1 Write the expression. b x2 + 7x + 12
2 Look for a common factor. (There isn’t one.)

3 Write (x )(x ) and look for factors of +12 that add to = (x + 4)(x + 3)
give +7. +4 and +3 achieve this.
c 1 Write the expression. c 6x2 + 28x − 48
2 Is there a common factor? Yes (2). = 2(3x2 + 14x − 24)

3 Attempt to factorise by inspection. Write 2(3x )(x )
and try factors of −24.
A few possibilities are:
(3x + 12)(x − 2) = 3x2 + 6x − 24 NO
(3x + 1)(x − 24) = 3x2 − 71x − 24 NO
(3x + 4)(x − 6) = 3x2 − 14x − 24 NO
(Nearly, just a wrong sign on the x term.)
(3x − 4)(x + 6) = 3x2 + 14x − 24 YES = 2(3x − 4)(x + 6)
d 1 Write the expression. d 27x2 − 75
2 Look for a common factor. There is one (3). = 3(9x2 − 25)

3 Recognise the difference of squares in the brackets. = 3(3x + 5)(3x − 5)
e 1 Write the expression. e 9x2 − 30x + 25
2 There are no common factors.

3 There seem to be a few square numbers in the = (3x − 5)2
expression, which looks suspiciously like a perfect
square. The square root of the first term is 3x, and the
square root of the last term is 5 or −5. Since we need a
negative middle term, take −5. Double the product of
these is 2 × 3 × −5 = −30, which is the middle term, so
we have a perfect square.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Factorise: a (x + 3)2 − 24 b (x − 6)2 + 5(x − 6) + 6.

THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression, and recognise a difference of a (x + 3)2 − 24

squares.
2 ( first term + second term × ) = ⎡⎣ ( x + 3) + 24 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ ( x + 3) − 24 ⎤⎦
( first term − second term ) ( )(

= x +3+2 6 x +3−2 6 )

b 1 Write the expression, and notice the linear expression b (x − 6)2 + 5(x − 6) + 6
(x − 6), which is in the usual position of the variable.
2 Let X = (x − 6) and rewrite the expression. Let X = (x − 6)

Note: This is often called a substitution method. X2 + 5X + 6
3 Factorise the new version of the expression. = [X + 2][X + 3]
4 Replace X with x − 6. = [(x − 6) + 2][(x − 6) + 3]
5 Simplify. = (x − 4)(x − 3)
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Factorise the following using an appropriate method.

a −6x2y + 15xy
b 50 − 2(x − 4)2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Remove the common factor of 3xy. a −6x2y + 15xy

= 3xy(−2x + 5)
2 Simplify. =3 xy(5 − 2x)

or −3xy(2x − 5)
b 1 Remove the common factor of 2. b 50 − 2(x − 4)2 = 2(25 − (x − 4)2)
2 Factorise the expression within the brackets = 2(52 − (x − 4)2)

using the difference of two squares method. = 2(5 − (x − 4))(5 + (x − 4))
3 Simplify. = 2(5 − x + 4)(5 + x − 4)
= 2(9 − x)(1 + x)
Exercise 2C Factorising quadratic expressions

1 WE4a Factorise the following.
a 5x2y3 + 20xy2 b −8ax2 + 14ax c 7p2q − 21p + 7
d 22r s + 11r s
4 3 2 e 5x2 + 10x + 75 f −3x2 − 18x + 6
2 WE4b, c Factorise the following.
a x2 + 16x + 63 b x2 − 17x + 66 c 2x2 + 22x + 48
−
d 3x − 6x + 24
2 e −x2 − 4x + 96 f 6x2 − 11x − 35
g 6x − 37x + 45
2 h −40x2 + 46x + 14
3 WE4d Factorise the following.
a 4x − 9
2 b 81x2 − 25 c 2x2 − 32
d 18x2 − 162 e (x + 1)2 − 4 f (3x − 4)2 − 1
g 98 − 2(x + 3)2 h −3(5x − 8)2 + 27
4 WE4e Factorise the following.
a x2 + 14x + 49 b 25x2 − 10x + 1 c 2x2 + 12x + 18
−72x2
d − 12x + 12
3x2 e + 24x − 2 f x2 + 2 3 x + 3
g 4x − 4 5 x + 5
2 h 4x − 12 2x + 18
2
5 WE5a Factorise the following.

a (x + 3)2 − 9 b (x − 3)2 − 16 c 36 − (2x + 7)2
d (3x − 2) − 81
2 e 2(x + 1)2 − 8 f −3(x − 4)2 + 48
g 50(3x + 2) − 98
2 h 1 − (6 − x)2 i 64 − (2 − 3x)2

6 WE5b Factorise the following.
a (x + 7)2 + 9(x + 7) + 20 b 6(x − 3)2 + 13(x − 3) + 5
c (2x + 7)2 − 9(2x + 7) + 8 d 12(3x − 11)2 − 19(3x − 11) − 18
7 WE6 Factorise the following, using an appropriate method.
a 3x2 − 24x − 27 b 25x2 + 10x + 1
c (x − 13) − 2(x − 13) + 1
2 d x2 − 28x + 196
e 18 x − 6 x
2 f 60x2 + 40x + 5
g 60x − 5x
2
h 9 − 9x2y2
i4(3x − 1)2 − (x + 2)2 j −12x2 + 70x + 98
8 MC a Which of the factors below could be multiplied by (x + 5) to get x2 + 14x + 45?
A (x − 19) B (x + 5) C (x + 9)
D (x + 14) E (x + 31)
b The factorised form of 6x2 − 67x − 60 is:
A 2(3x + 5)(x + 6) B 2(3x − 5)(x − 6) C (3x + 6)(2x + 10)
D (6x − 5)(x + 12) E (6x + 5)(x − 12)
c A factor of 6x2 − 54 is:
A (x − 3) B (x − 6) C (x − 9) D (6x − 9) E 6x
9 Quadratic polynomials are said to be identical if they have the same factorised forms and the same
expanded forms; the relevant coefficients must be equal. Suppose that P(x) = −5(x + 3)2 + 35(x + 3),
Q(x) = 60 − 5x2 + kx and R(x) = −5(x + 3)(x + m). Use written algebra to find the values of k and m, if
it is known that the three polynomials are identical. Use a mental arithmetic substitution technique to
verify your answers.
2D Factorising by completing the square

Factorising by inspection works best when whole numbers are involved — for example (2x + 3)(x − 7).
Sometimes it is clear that it is impossible to find whole numbers to complete a factorisation. For
example, with x2 + 6x − 1, there is no pair of factors of 6 that add to −1. In such cases, completing the
square may be used to factorise a quadratic.
The method of completing the square involves ‘manufacturing’ a perfect square so that an expression
may be factorised as a difference of squares.
Because this method often produces surds, factorising this way is sometimes referred to as ‘factorising
over R’, where R is the set of real numbers that includes surds.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Use the method of completing the square to factorise the following over R.
a x2 + 6x − 1
b x2 − 7x + 8
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x2 + 6x − 1
2 Halve and square the x-coefficient (6), and then x 2 + 6 x + ( 62 )2 − ( 62 )2 − 1

add and subtract it from the equation. Since the
same value has been added and subtracted, the
expression is equivalent to that in the question.
3 Evaluate the brackets. = x2 + 6x + 9 − 9 − 1
4 Combine the first three terms as a perfect square, = (x + 3)2 − 10
as x2 + 6x + 9 = (x + 3)2.
5 Recognise a difference of two squares. = ⎡⎣( x + 3) + 10 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣( x + 3) − 10 ⎤⎦
6 Simplify. ( )(
= x + 3 + 10 x + 3 − 10 )

b 1 Write the expression. b x2 − 7x + 8
x 2 − 7x + ( ) − ( −27 )2 + 8
−7 2
2 Halve and square the x-coefficient (−7), and then 2
add and subtract it from the equation.
3 Evaluate the brackets. = x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 − 4 +8
49
= ( x − 72 ) − 49
2
4 +1
8
4 Combine the first three terms as a perfect square,
4 = (x − 2 )
since x 2 − 7 x + 49 7 2.
= ( x − 72 ) − 49
2
4 + 4
32
5 Combine the last two terms.
= ( x − 72 ) − 17
2
4
= ⎡( x − 72 ) + ⎤ ⎡ ( x − 7 )2 − ⎤
2 17 17
6 Recognise a difference of squares.
⎣ 4 ⎦⎣ 2 4 ⎦
7 Simplify the surd part if possible. (

= x − 72 +
17
2 )( x − 7
2 −
17
2 )
8 Use a common denominator for the last two terms
if desired.
( )(
or x − 7 −2 17 x − 7 +2 17 )
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Consider the quadratic polynomials represented by P(x) = x2 + bx + 4, where b can be any real
number. Answer the following questions.
a Factorise P(x).
b Find the linear factors of P(x), if they exist for b = 3, 4, 5 and 6.
Discuss the differences in the formats of your answers.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x2 + bx + 4
b⎞2 ⎛ b⎞2
2 Complete the square: halve and square the = x 2 + bx + ⎛⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + 4
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
x-coefficient (b), and then add and subtract
it in the expression.
Recognise the first three terms as a perfect b ⎞ 2 b2
= ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − + 4
3
square. ⎝ 2⎠ 4
b ⎞ 2 ⎛ b 2 − 16 ⎞
4 Simplify. = ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞ ⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞
5 Recognise a difference of two squares. =⎜x+ + ⎟⎜x+ − ⎟
⎝ 2 4 ⎠⎝ 2 4 ⎠
⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞ ⎛ b b 2 − 16 ⎞
6 Simplify the surds. =⎜x+ + ⎟⎜x+ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ 2 x + b + b 2 − 16 ⎞ ⎛ 2 x + b − b 2 − 16 ⎞
7 Put all the terms over a common =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
denominator (2). ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
2 x + b ± b 2 − 16
8 State the factors. The factors of P(x) are or
2
± b 2 − 16 + b
x+ .
2

± 32 − 16 + 3
b 1 Evaluate the factors for b = 3. b x+
2
−7
2 Evaluate the surd. 32 − 16 =
3 Since the surd is the square root of a There are no linear factors for b = 3.
negative number, there are no possible
linear factors.
± 4 2 − 16 + 4
4 Evaluate the factors for b = 4. x+
2
± 0 +4
5 Simplify. = x+
2
=x+2
6 State the factors. When b = 4, x + 2 is a repeated factor, so P(x) is
a perfect square.
± 52 − 16 + 5
2
± 25 − 16 + 5
8 Simplify. = x+
2
± 9 +5
= x+
2
±3 + 5
= x+
2
8 2
= x + or x +
2 2
= x + 4 or x + 1
9 State the factors. The factors are x + 4 and x + 1.
± 62 − 16 + 6
2
± 36 − 16 + 6
11 Simplify. = x+
2
± 20 + 6
= x+
2
±2 5 + 6
= x+
2
= x ± 5+3
12 State the factors. The factors are x + 5 + 3 and x − 5 + 3.
13 Note the differences in the number and b = 3: There are no linear factors.
format of the linear factors; when b = 3, b = 4: x + 2 is a repeated linear factor so P(x) is a
there were no linear factors. Write your perfect square.
observations. b = 5: The linear factors are x + 1 and x + 4.
b = 6: The linear factors are x + 5 + 3 and
x − 5 + 3; they are found by completing
the square.

Exercise 2D Factorising by completing the square
1 WE7a Use the method of completing the square to factorise the following over R.
a x2 + 4x − 3 b x2 + 10x + 20
c x + 6x + 7
2 d x2 + 2x − 7
e x2 + 8x + 13 f x2 − 4x − 1
g x2 − 12x + 19 h x2 − 2x − 5
i x − 8x + 10
2 j x2 − 6x − 4
2 WE7b Use the method of completing the square to factorise the following over R.
a x2 + 3x + 1 b x2 + 5x − 3
c x − 7x + 2
2 d x2 − x − 1
e x + 9x + 4
2 f x2 + 11x − 6
g x − 3x + 5
2 h x2 + 5x + 2
i x − 13x − 1
2 j x2 + x − 3
3 MC Which of the following could be added to and subtracted from x2 + 36x + 1 to assist factorising
using completing the square?
A 6 B 18 C 72 D 144 E 324
4 MC Which of the following could be added to and subtracted from x2 − 17x − 8 to assist factorising
using completing the square?
A 4 B 17 C 16 D 17 E 289
4 2 4
5 MC The expression x2 + 6x − 2 factorises to:

A ( x − 3 + 2 )( x − 3 − 2 ) B (x + 3 + )(
11 x + 3 − 11 )
C ( x + 3 + 7 )( x + 3 − 7 ) D (x − 3 + 10 )( x − 3 − 10 )
E ( x + 3 + 6 )( x + 3 − 6 )
6 MC The expression x2 + 4x + 12:
A can be factorised using whole numbers
B can be factorised using the method of completing the square
C cannot be factorised using the methods covered in this topic so far
D is a linear expression, and so cannot be factorised
E is already factorised
7 Challenge: Factorise the following.
a 3x2 − 18x − 3 b 2x2 + 10x + 4
c −5x2 − 10x + 15 d −12x2 + 4x − 8
2E Solving quadratic equations —

Null Factor Law
As a quadratic equation is a degree 2 polynomial (highest x power of 2), it will have at most two
solutions.
To solve the quadratic equation x2 − 4x + 3 = 0, factorise by inspection.
x2 − 4x + 3 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 3) = 0
or A × B = 0
where A = (x − 1) and B = (x − 3).
For A × B to equal zero, either A or B or both must be zero.
This is known as the ‘Null Factor Law’.
That is, A=0 or B=0
So (x − 1) = 0 or (x − 3) = 0
Solving these two equations gives:
x−1=0 or x−3=0
x=1 or x=3

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Solve the following.

a (x + 5)(7x − 11) = 0 b 12x2 − 11x − 15 = 0
c 4x2 + 25 = 20x d 6x2 = 54
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a (x + 5)(7x − 11) = 0
2 Note that the equation is already factorised.

3 Apply the Null Factor Law and solve two x+5=0 or 7x − 11 = 0
equations. x = −5 or 7x = 11
x = 11
7
b 1 Write the equation. b 12x2 − 11x − 15 = 0
2 Factorise by inspection. This may take (4x + 3)(3x − 5) = 0

several attempts.
3 Solve two equations. 4x + 3 = 0 or 3x − 5 = 0
4x = −3 or 3x = 5
−
x = 43 or x = 53
c 1 Write the equation. c 4x2 + 25 = 20x
2 Rearrange (transpose) so all terms are on the 4x2 − 20x + 25 = 0
side on which the x2 term is positive. Write
terms in order of decreasing powers of x.
3 Factorise (in this case by recognising a (2x − 5)2 = 0
perfect square).
4 Solve (one equation here, or two identical 2x − 5 = 0
equations if you like). 2x = 5
x = 52
d 1 Write the equation. d 6x2 = 54
2 Rearrange. 6x2 − 54 = 0
3 Take out the common factor, 6. 6(x2 − 9) = 0
4 Notice a difference of squares. 6(x + 3)(x − 3) = 0
5 Solve. x+3=0 or x−3=0
x = −3 or x=3
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
The height of a triangle is 5 cm more than its base length. If the area of the
triangle is 18 cm2, find the base length and height. TUTORIAL
eles-1407
THINK WRITE
Worked example 10
1 Define the length and height in terms of a Let base length = x
variable. Here, x is used. Then height = x + 5
2 Draw a diagram. x+5

3 Use the given information about area to form Area = 12 bh
an equation involving the variable.
18 = 12 (x)(x + 5)
4 Rearrange and form a quadratic equation. 36 = x(x + 5)
36 = x2 + 5x
x2 + 5x − 36 = 0
5 Factorise. (x + 9)(x − 4) = 0
6 Solve. x = −9 or x = 4
7 Discard the negative answer, as length in this x=4 (as x > 0)
context must be positive.
8 Calculate the height (x + 5). h=x+5
=9
9 Write the answer in words. Base length = 4 cm, height = 9 cm.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Consider the quadratic equations below.

Equation 1: (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x Equation 2: (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x2
Use a calculator to determine which equation(s) has rational solutions.
THINK WRITE
Equation 1
1 Expand the brackets. (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x
2x2 − 5x − 3 = −4x
2 Put all the terms on the left-hand side 2x2 − x − 3 = 0
(add −4x to both sides).
3 Factorise. (2x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
4 Apply the Null Factor Law. 2x − 3 = 0 or x+1=0
3
x=2 or x = −1
5 Evaluate the solutions. Both solutions are rational.
Equation 2
1 Expand the brackets. (2x + 1)(x − 3) = −4x2
2x2 − 5x − 3 = −4x2
2 Put all the terms on the left-hand side 6x2 − 5x − 3 = 0
(add −4x2 to both sides).
3 Divide all the terms by 6. x2 − 56 x − 12 = 0
4 Complete the square. x2 − 5 x + 25 25

− 144 − 12 = 0
6 144
( x − ) − 25144
5 2
12
+ 72
=0
(x − ) − ( ) = 0
5 2 2
97
12 12
5 97 5 97
5 Apply the Null Factor Law. x − 12 + 12
= 0 or x − 12 − 12
=0
6 Evaluate the solutions. Both solutions are irrational.
Only equation 1 has rational solutions.

Fixed point iteration
Fixed point (or simple) iteration is a way of solving equations numerically rather than algebraically. To
use this method, the equation to be solved must be manipulated into the form x = g(x).
For example, if the equation to be solved is f (x) = x2 − 7x + 1 = 0, a possible manipulation is
x2 − 7x + 1 = 0
x2 + 1 = 7x
x2 + 1
=x
7
x2 + 1
In this case, we have x = g(x), where g( x ) = .
7
Fixed point iteration works as follows:
1. Make an initial guess, say x = 1.
x 2 + 1 12 + 1 2
2. Substitute the guess into g(x). g( x ) = = = 7 = 0.2857
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.28572 + 1
3. Substitute the improved guess, 0.2857. g( x ) = = = 0.1545
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.15452 + 1
4. Substitute the improved guess, 0.1545. g( x ) = = = 0.1463
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.14632 + 1
5. Substitute the improved guess, 0.1463. g(x) = = = 0.1459
7 7
x 2 + 1 0.14592 + 1
6. Repeat the process until successive values for g( x ) = = = 0.14589
g(x) are equal (within a tolerance of, say, 0.0001). 7 7
7. In this example, the equal successive values x = 0.1459 is a solution to x2 − 7x + 1 = 0.
of g(x) are 0.1459 and 0.14589, within the
tolerance of 0.0001.
Solving quadratic equations —

Exercise 2E
Null Factor Law
1 WE9a Solve the following.
a (x + 6)(2x + 3) = 0 b (x + 1)(6x − 1) = 0 c (x − 5)(x + 2) = 0
d (7x + 12)(9x + 2) = 0 e (16x + 8)(2x − 6) = 0 f (7 + x)(23 − x) = 0 DIGITAL DOC
−3x(x
g (6 − 7x)(x + 6) = 0 h − 1) = 0 doc-9714
Quadratic
2 WE9b Factorise and solve the following. expressions
a x2 + 6x − 72 = 0 b 2x2 − 7x − 4 = 0 c 4x2 + 13x + 10 = 0
d 2x2 + 12x − 110 = 0 e 3x2 − 27 = 0 f 32x2 − 16x + 2 = 0
g 12 − 75x2 =0 h 15x − 3x2 =0
3 WE9c, d Rearrange and solve the following.
a x2 + 45 = 14x b 6x2 + 7x = 49 c 1 + 8x = −16x2
−32x
d 36x2 =1 e = 6x2 + 10 f 27 + 12x2 = 36x
10 − x
g 32x2 = 162 h 5x2 = 8x i x2 =
2
6x 2+5
j =x
13
4 MC The solutions to the equation (x − 3)(x + 7) = 0 are:
A x = and x = −7
−3
B x = −3 and x = 7
C x = 3 and x = 7
D x = 3 and x = −7
E x = 4 and x = −21

5 MC Which of the following is a solution of 2x2 − 11x = 13?
−2 − 13
A 13 B 2
2
C 13 D 1 E 13
2
6 MC The solutions to a quadratic equation are x = −9 and x = 25 . The equation could be:
A (x − 9)(x − 25 ) = 0 B 5(x − 9)(x − 2) = 0
C 2(x + 9)(x − 5) = 0 D (x + 9)(5x − 2) = 0
E (x + 9)(2x − 5) = 0
7 WE10 The width of a rectangle is 3 cm less than its x
2
length. If the area of the rectangle is 40 cm , find the
length and width.
8 WE11 A rectangular piece of metal with length 6 cm and
width 4 cm is to be enlarged by increasing both of these 4 cm
dimensions by x cm as shown at right.
a If the value of x is 2, describe the change in area that
occurs.
b Find the exact dimensions of the enlarged rectangle if its
6 cm x
area is (20 2 + 32) cm2.
9 The temperature, T (°C), in an office follows the equation T = 85 t 2 − 5t + 30, where t is the time (in
hours) the office’s climate control system has been operating. How long does it take the temperature to
reach 20 °C?
10 A number pattern follows the rule n2 + 3n + 2; that is, the number pattern is 6, 12, 20, . . . (found by
substituting n = 1, n = 2, n = 3 into the rule).
a Find the next value by substituting n = 4 into the rule.
b What positive n value gives the number 210 when substituted into the rule?
11 The diagram at right demonstrates the idea
of ‘rectangular’ numbers.
The formula N = w(w + 1) gives the value
of a rectangular number based on a shape
with a width of w dots. w=1 w=2 w=3
a Which rectangular number has a
N=1 N=6 N = 12
width of 6?
b What is the width of the rectangular number 272?
12 The amount of bending, B mm, of a particular wooden beam under a load is given by
B = 0.2m2 + 0.5m + 2.5, where m kg is the mass (or load) on the end of the beam. What mass will
produce a bend of 8.8 mm?
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9715 13 A window washer drops a squeegee from a scaffold 100 m off the ground. The relationship between the
WorkSHEET 2.1 height of the squeegee (h), in metres, and the length of time it has been falling (t), in seconds, is given
by h = 100 − 5t 2.
a When does the squeegee pass a window 30 m off the ground?
b Exactly how long does it take for the squeegee to hit the ground?
14 The following equations are already in the form x = g(x). Find a solution using fixed point iteration with
an initial guess of x = 1.
x2 + 6 x2 − 2
a x= b x=
5 3
15 Find a solution to each of the following (correct to 3 decimal places) using fixed point iteration. First
manipulate each equation into the form x = g(x) in a similar way to that shown on page 53.
a x2 − 9x + 2 = 0 b x2 + 5x − 7 = 0
c x − 4x + 1 = 0
2 d 2x2 − 11x + 8 = 0
16 Show that an alternative manipulation of x2 − 7x + 1 = 0 into the form x = g(x) is x = 7 x − 1. Does this
form converge using fixed point iteration? If so, state the solution found.
17 Find a manipulation of 4x2 + x − 3 = 0 that converges using fixed point iteration. State the solution.
18 Investigate when equations of the form x2 − bx + 1 are likely to converge to a solution using
x2 + 1
fixed point iteration with a manipulation of the form x = .
b

2F
completing the square
Recall that when you cannot factorise quadratics by the method of sensibly guessing whole numbers,
the method of completing the square may be used. Completing the square may also be used to solve
quadratic equations that don’t appear to easily factorise.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Solve the following, giving answers in exact (surd) form.

a x2 + 10x + 2 = 0 b x2 − 7x + 1 = 0 c x2 − 8 = 0 TUTORIAL
Worked example 12
a 1 Write the equation. Notice that there are no a x2 + 10x + 2 = 0
factors of 2 that add to 10, so this equation is a
candidate for completing the square.
2 Halve and square the x-coefficient and then x 2 + 10 x + ( 102 )2 − ( 102 )2 + 2 = 0
add and subtract it.
3 Evaluate the terms in brackets. x2 + 10x + 25 − 25 + 2 = 0
4 Partially simplify (the last two values) as (x2 + 10x + 25) − 23 = 0
shown.
5 Form a perfect square with the first three (x + 5)2 − 23 = 0
terms.
6 Take the constant term (in this case the −23) to (x + 5)2 = 23
the other side of the equation, remembering to
change the sign.
7 Take the square root of both sides. x + 5 = ± 23
8 Solve for x. x = −5 ± 23
b 1 Write the equation. b x2 − 7x + 1 = 0
2 Decide that completing the square is

appropriate.
3 Halve and square the x-coefficient. Add and x 2 − 7 x + ( 72 )2 − ( 72 )2 + 1 = 0
subtract this term.
4 Evaluate the terms in the brackets. x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 − 4 +1 = 0
49
5 Partially simplify. x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 − 4 +4 =0
49 4
( x 2 − 7 x + 49
4 )− 4 = 0
45
6 Form a perfect square. ( x − 72 )2 − 45

4 =0
7 Solve for x. Note that the surd part has been ( x − 72 )2 = 45

4
simplified where possible.
x − 72 = ± 45
4
9×5
=± 4
= ± 3 25
x = 72 ± 3 2 5
7±3 5
= 2

c 1 The equation may be solved for x immediately, c x2 − 8 = 0
without completing the square.
2 Rearrange the equation. x2 = 8
3 Take the square root of both sides and simplify. x=± 8

= ± 4×2
= ±2 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Use the method of completing the square to solve the following equations, or to explain why there
are no solutions.
a 2(2x − 3)2 − 2(2x − 3) − 2 = 0
b 3x2 + 6x + 4 = 0.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. Notice the repeated appearance a 2(2x − 3)2 − 2(2x − 3) − 2 = 0
of the linear expression (2x − 3), suggesting a Let a = 2x − 3
substitution technique. Let a = 2x − 3. ∴ 2a2 − 2a − 2 = 0
2 Divide all terms (i.e. both sides) of the equation by a2 − a − 1 = 0

2, the coefficient of a2.
( ) − ( ) −1 = 0
2 2
1 1
3 Halve and square the coefficient of a and then add a2 − a +
2 2
and subtract it.
4 Solve for a by completing the square. (a 2 1

)
− a + 4 − 4 −1 = 0
1
(a − ) 1 2
2
5
−4=0
(a − ) 1 2
2
=
5
4
1 5
a− 2 = ±
4
1 5
a= 2± 2
1 5
5 Replace a with 2x − 3, and solve for x. 2x − 3 = 2 ± 2
1 5
2x = 3 + 2 ± 2
1 5
x = 32 + 4 ± 4
5
x = 47 ± 4
6 Write the answer. The solution to

2(2x − 3)2 − 2(2x − 3) − 2 = 0 is
7± 5
x= .
4

b 1 Write the equation. b 3x2 + 6x + 4 = 0
2 Divide all terms of the equation by 3, the coefficient x 2 + 2x + 4 = 0

3
of x2.
3 Apply the process of completing the square. x 2 + 2 x + ( 22 )2 − ( 22 )2 + 43 = 0
Notice here that the next step, finding the square x 2 + 2 x + 1 − 1 + 43 = 0

root of both sides of the equation, is not possible as
negative does not exist. Note: You will soon learn ( x + 1)2 + 13 = 0
−1
a way to predict when this will happen. ( x + 1)2 = 3
4 Write the answer. There are no solutions to
3x2 + 6x + 4 = 0.

Exercise 2F
completing the square DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9716
1 WE12a Solve, giving the solution in exact (surd) form. SkillSHEET 2.3
a x2 + 8x + 1 = 0 b x2 + 12x + 3 = 0 Solving equations
c x + 4x − 2 = 0
2 d x2 − 6x + 4 = 0 in the complete
square form
e x2 − 10x + 18 = 0 f x2 − 6x + 6 = 0
doc-9717
2 WE12b Solve, giving the solution in surd form. SkillSHEET 2.4
Simplifying surds
a x2 + 3x − 1 = 0 b x2 + 5x + 2 = 0
c x − 7x + 5 = 0
2 d x2 − 9x − 2 = 0
e x + 11x + 4 = 0
2 f x2 − x − 6 = 0
3 Rearrange and solve, giving the solution in exact form.
a x2 = 4x + 1 b x2 + 2 = 6x
c 9x − 2 = x2 d 4 − x2 = 7x
e 2(3x + 5) = x2 f x2 − 3(5x − 2) = 0
x 2 + 3x −
g 14x − x2 = −1 h = 2
4
4 WE12c Solve.
a x − 14 = 0
2 b 6 − x2 = 0
c 3x2 = 36 d −2x2 + 18 = 0
5 MC When completing the square to solve x2 + 16x + 1 = 0, the perfect square part of the
expression will be:
A 8 B 16 C 64
D (x + 8) E (x + 8)2
6 MC When completing the square to solve x2 − 20 x − 4 = 0, the value to be simultaneously
added and subtracted is:
A 4 B 10 C 5
D 100 E 20
7 MC An equation that is being solved using completing the square is at the stage shown below.
(x − 9)2 − 15 = 0
The solution is:
A (x − 9)2 = 15 B x = ± 24 C x = − 9 ± 15
D x = 9 ± 15 E x = 3 ± 15
8 WE13 For each of the following, find exact solutions (if they exist) or prove there are no solutions.
a 5x2 − 2x + 3 = 0
b 3(2x − 5)2 + 6(2x − 5) − 4 = 0
c 4x2 − 2x = 6
d 5(4x + 3) = (4x + 3)2 + 9

2G The quadratic formula
An alternative to the methods of factorising by inspection or completing the square is to use the
quadratic formula. The derivation of the formula follows, and is based on the method of completing the
square, but all you have to remember is the formula in the last step.
Consider the general quadratic equation. ax2 + bx + c = 0 (where a ≠ 0)
b c
Divide every term by a. x2 + x + = 0
a a
Use the completing-the-square method.
b 2 2 b b2 b2 c
Halve and square to get ⎛⎜ b ⎞⎟ = b x2 + x + 2 − 2 + = 0
a ⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a2 a 4a 4a a
and add and subtract it to the equation.
b b2 b2 c
Rearrange. x2 + x + 2 = 2 −
a 4a 4a a
The left side is now a perfect square. Get 2 2−
⎛ x + b ⎞ = b 4 ac
a common denominator on the right side. ⎜⎝ ⎟
2a ⎠ 4a2
Take the square root of both sides. Remember
b b 2 − 4 ac
to take both positive and negative square roots. x+ =±
2a 4a2
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Simplify the RHS denominator. x+ =
2a 2a
−b
b b 2 − 4 ac
Subtract from both sides. x= ±
2a 2a 2a
−
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Write using the one denominator (2a). x=
2a
The following examples show how the quadratic formula may be used.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Use the quadratic formula to solve the following without a calculator.

a 3x2 − 8x − 9 = 0 b x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
Give answers in exact (surd) form and comment on the usefulness of this formula for each example.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation and match up a, b and c. aa b c

3x2 − 8x − 9 = 0
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
− ( − 8) ± (− 8)2 − (4 × 3 × − 9)
3 Substitute the matched values for a, b and c. x=
2×3
+8 ± 64 + 108
4 Simplify. x=
6
8 ± 172
5 At this stage, it is tempting to cancel 2 out of x=
the 8 and 6, but both terms of the numerator 6
must possess this factor, and initially they 8 ± 4 × 43
x=
don’t. However, in simplifying 172 into 6
4 × 43 , the factor of 2 emerges; then the 8 ± 2 43
cancelling is possible in step 6. x=
6
4 ± 43
6 Cancel down a common factor of 2 from x=
the numerator and denominator. 3

4 + 43 4 − 43
7 Write the two solutions separately. x= or x =
3 3
8 In the original equation, the coefficient of Using the quadratic formula was the most
x2 was 3; also, there are surds in the answer. appropriate method for solving this equation.
These facts suggest that neither completing the
square nor standard factorisation would have
been straightforward methods.
b 1 Write the equation and match up a, b and c. ba b c

1x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
2 Write the quadratic formula. x=
2a
−5 ± 52 − (4 × 1 × 6)
3 Substitute the matched values for a, b and c. x=
2 ×1
−
5 ± 25 − 24
4 Simplify. x=
2
−5± 1
x=
2
−5±1
x=
2
−5+1 −5−1
x= or x =
2 2
− −
4 6
x = or x =
2 2
x = − 2 or x = − 3
5 In the original equation, the coefficient of x2 Using the quadratic formula is not the most
was 1; also, there are no surds in the answer. suitable method for solving this equation.
This suggests that an easier factorisation Factorisation of the left side in the format
method (i.e. inspection) would be more (x + a)(x + b) would be more efficient.
suitable. Note: This applies only if the
question does not specify a particular method.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Use the quadratic formula to solve 2x2 − 2kx + 4k = 0, and use your solution to
solve 2x2 + 6x − 12 = 0.
THINK WRITE
1 Recognise a common factor of 2 (divide each 2x2 − 2kx + 4k = 0

term by 2). x2 − kx + 2k = 0
2 Identify a, b and c for the quadratic formula. a = 1, b = −k, c = 2k

k ± ( − k )2 − 4 × 1 × 2 k
3 Substitute the values for a, b and c into the x=
quadratic formula. 2 ×1
k ± k 2 − 8k
4 Simplify. x=
2

−2k
5 Compare 2x2 − 2kx + 4k = 0 to = 7 and 4k = −12, so k = −3.
2x2 + 6x − 12 = 0.
−3 ±
( − 3)2 − 8 × − 3
6 Substitute k = −3 into the solution found in x=
step 4 and simplify. 2
−3
± 9 + 24
x=
2
−3
± 33
x=
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Consider the set of quadratic equations in the form 4x2 + bx + 9 = 0, where b is 11, 12 or 13. Use
the quadratic formula to explain the solutions that occur with each b-value.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation and match up a, b and c. a b c

4x2 + bx + 9 = 0
−b ± b2 − 4 × 4 × 9
2 Substitute the values for a, b and c into the x=
quadratic formula. 2×4
−b ± b 2 − 144
3 Simplify. x=
8
− 11 ± 112 − 144
4 Substitute b = 11 and simplify. x=
8
− 11 ± 121 − 144
x=
8
− 11 − 23
±
x=
8
Evaluate the result. − 23
5 There is no solution, as we cannot evaluate .
− 12 ± 122 − 144
8
− 12 ±
144 − 144
x=
8
− 12
± 0
x=
8
−3
x=
2
−3
7 Evaluate the result. There is one solution, x = 2
.
− 13 ± 132 − 144
8
− 13 ± 169 − 144
x=
8
− 13
± 25
x=
8
− 13 ± 5
x=
8

−9
9 Evaluate the result. There are two solutions, x = 4
and x = −1.
10 The b2 values have had a clear impact on the The structure of the quadratic formula means the
solutions; recall that ± 0 = 0 and ± 25 = ±5. changing value of the expression under the square
root sign, b2 − 144, is critical.
b = 11: There was no solution (as negative cannot
be resolved).
b = 12: There was one solution (as ± 0 = 0).
b = 13: There are 2 solutions (as ± 25 = ±5).
Exercise 2G The quadratic formula

1 Identify a, b and c (the coefficients of x2, x and the constant respectively) in each of the following
quadratic equations.
a x2 + 4x − 3 = 0 b x2 − 7x + 9 = 0
c 9 − 4x + x = 0
2 d 7 − 3x − 6x2 = 0
e 2 x − 7x + 5 = 0
1 2 f (x + 1)2 = 0
g (2x − 3)2 = 0 h 5 − 2(x2 + 2) = 0
− 6x 2 + 4
i 3x2 − 10x + 4 + 4x2 − 11x = 0 j =0
2
2 WE14 Use the quadratic formula to solve the following (even though the equations may be
factorised by inspection).
a x2 + 9x + 20 = 0
b x2 − 10x + 16 = 0
c 2x2 − 13x − 24 = 0
d −4x2 + 13x − 3 = 0
3 WE15 Find exact (surd) solutions to each of the following.
a x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 b x2 + 8x + 5 = 0
c x + 3x + 1 = 0
2 d x2 + 10x + 12 = 0
e x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 f x2 − 7x + 6 = 0
g x2 − 4x − 2 = 0 h x2 − 9x − 8 = 0
−
i 2x + 3x + 1 = 0
2 j −4x2 + 12x − 1 = 0
−
k 2kx + 4x + 6k = 0
2 l 2kx2 − (k + 1)x + 4 = 0
4 a Use a CAS calculator and your answer for question 3k above to solve x2 + 4x − 3 = 0, and write the
value of k you used to do this.
b Use a CAS calculator and your answer for question 3l above to solve 62x2 − 32x + 4 = 0, and write
the value of k you used to do this.
5 Use a CAS calculator to find approximate solutions (3 decimal places) to each of the following.
a x2 − 6x − 2 = 0 b x2 + 3x − 9 = 0
c −2x2 + 7x + 1 = 0 d −9x2 − 2x − 2 = 0
e −x2 − 8x + 1 = 0 f 3x2 + x + 9 = 0
6 Use a CAS calculator to find approximate solutions to the following.
a x2 + 6x = 11 b 2x2 = 7 − 4x
−
c 10x + 2 = 5x 2 d x2 = 8x − 6
e 5 = 9x − 2x 2 f x2 − 2 = 7x + 4
g 5x + 6x + 2 = 0
2 h −x2 + 4x = 8
7 The population of a colony of rare African ants is given by the equation N = x2 + 2x + 300, where N is
the number of ants, and x is the height of the anthill in centimetres. How high could the anthill be when
there are 850 ants in the colony?
8 The profit, $P, made when a particular make of car is manufactured in t hours is given by the equation
P = 40t2 − 7t − 5000. In order to just ‘break even’, how long must the manufacturing process take?
9 The position of an item x metres from the start of an assembly line is given by x = −4t2 + 20t + 5 where t
is the time in minutes elapsed since the item started on the line. When is the item at position
x = 0 metres on the assembly line?

10 A golf ball is hit from the bottom of a bunker as shown
at right. The height, h metres, of the ball above the ground
is given by h = 5.2t − 1.5t2 − 1, where t seconds is the
time the ball has been in flight.
a How deep is the bunker? h
b When is the ball first level with the top of the bunker?
c At which times is the ball at a height of 3 metres?
11 Debbi plans to pave sections of her backyard, as shown xm
at right. She has a total of 12 square metres of pavers.
a Find the value of x if she wishes to use her entire
supply of 5 pavers.
She then finds that the value of x (found above) will 4m
need to be rounded either up or down to a multiple of
0.5 m. Calculate the effect this will have on her existing
supply of pavers if she rounds: xm
b up
c down.
12 The surface area (in m2) of cement transport
containers made by a certain company is given Sloppo r
by 4π r2 + 24π r, where r is the radius of the Cement Co.
container. If the surface area of a particular
container is 60 m2, determine its radius.
13 The Gateway Arch in St Louis, Missouri, was
designed by Eero Saarinen in 1948 but not
completed until 1964. The line of the arch can
be represented by the quadratic function
y = − 95
2 (x − 95)2 + 190 where y is the height
of the arch at a horizontal distance x along the

base (ground level) from one side of the arch.
Both x and y are in metres.
a Re-express this function in an expanded form.
b How wide is the arch at its base?
c This is the tallest arch in the world. How high
is the Gateway Arch?
2H The discriminant
You may have found on occasions that no solutions (or ‘roots’) can be found for a quadratic equation.
If you were using the quadratic formula at the time, you would have found the trouble started when you
tried to evaluate the square root part of the formula. The expression under the square root sign is called
‘the discriminant’.
The discriminant is used to determine how many roots of an equation exist and is denoted by the
upper case Greek letter ‘delta’ (Δ).
−
b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x= Δ = b2 − 4ac
2a
The quadratic formula The discriminant
If Δ < 0 (that is, negative), then no real solutions exist, as we cannot yet evaluate the square root of
a negative value. The word ‘real’ is used to describe numbers we can deal with at present. The set of
real numbers includes positives, negatives, fractions, decimals, surds, rationals (numbers that may be
expressed as a ratio — for example 49 ) and irrationals.
(In further studies of maths, you will learn about a way of dealing with square roots of negative
numbers using what are known as ‘imaginary numbers’.)
If Δ > 0, then the discriminant can be evaluated, and its square root can be added and subtracted in the
quadratic formula (see above) to produce two real solutions.
If Δ = 0, then there is nothing to add or subtract in the quadratic formula, and so there is only one real
solution to evaluate.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Find the value of the discriminant for the equation 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the expression. 3x2 − 5x + 2 = 0

Note the value of a, b and c. a = 3, b = −5, c = 2
2 Write the formula for Δ. Δ = b2 − 4ac
3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (−5)2 − 4(3)(2)
4 Evaluate. Δ = 25 − 24
Δ=1
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
How many real solutions are there to the equation −7x2 + 3x − 1 = 0?

THINK WRITE
−7x2
1 Write the expression. + 3x − 1 = 0
Note the value of a, b and c. a = −7, b = 3, c = −1
3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (3)2 − 4(−7)(−1)
4 Simplify. Δ = 9 − 28
= −19
5 Comment on the number of solutions. Since Δ < 0, there are no real solutions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
For what values of k does −x2 + 2kx − 9 = 0 have:

i two distinct solutions? TUTORIAL
ii one solution? eles-1409
iii no solutions? Worked example 19
THINK WRITE
−x2
1 Write the expression. + 2kx − 9 = 0
Note the value of a, b and c. a = −1, b = 2k, c = −9
3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (2k)2 − 4(−1)(−9)
4 Simplify. Δ = 4k2 − 36
5 Consider case i, two distinct solutions. iii Two distinct solutions, require Δ > 0.
Note: |k| means the ‘size’ or ‘absolute value’ So 4k2 − 36 > 0
of k without regard to + or −. Since k2 is 4k2 > 36
always positive, we require k > 3 (values k2 > 9
such as 3.1, 4, 5 etc.) or k < −3 (values such |k| > 3
as −3.1, −4, −5 etc.) if k2 is to be > 9. k > 3 or k < −3

6 Consider case ii, one solution. iii One solution, require Δ = 0.
The ‘size’ of k must be = 3. So 4k2 − 36 = 0
(That is, 3 or −3 are our only choices.) 4k2 = 36
k2 = 9
|k| = 3
k = 3 or k = −3
k = ±3
7 Consider case iii, no solutions. iii No solutions, require Δ < 0.

The ‘size’ of k must be < 3 (values such as So 4k2 − 36 < 0
−2.9, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 2.9 etc.).
4k2 < 36
An alternative method is shown in the next k2 < 9
example. |k| < 3
−3 < k < 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
For which values of k does 2x2 + 2kx + (k + 4) = 0 have:

i two solutions?
ii one solution?
iii no solutions?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the expression. 2x2 + 2kx + (k + 4) = 0

Note the value of a, b and c. a = 2, b = 2k, c = k + 4
3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (2k)2 − 4(2)(k + 4)
4 Simplify and factorise. Δ = 4k2 − 8(k + 4)

= 4k2 − 8k − 32
= 4(k2 − 2k − 8)
= 4(k + 2)(k − 4)
5 Since Δ is a more complicated expression Δ

Δ> 0 Δ>0
than those in the previous example, a graph
Δ=0
of Δ versus k (Δ on the vertical axis, k on the
horizontal axis) is useful. (Recall how you −2 4 k
sketched quadratic graphs in previous work, or
see the next section.)
−32 Δ< 0
6 For case i, we require Δ > 0 (quadrants iii Two solutions, Δ > 0.

1 and 2) From the graph, Δ > 0 when k < −2 or So k < −2 or k > 4.
k > 4.
7 For case ii, we require Δ = 0 (k-intercepts) iii One solution, Δ = 0.

From the graph, Δ > 0 when k = −2 or k = 4. So k = −2 or k = 4.
8 For case iii, we require Δ < 0 (quadrants 3 and 4) iii No solutions, Δ < 0.
From the graph, Δ < 0 when −2 < k < 4. So −2 < k < 4.
Note: This method involving sketching a
graph of Δ may be used as an alternative
to the method shown in the previous example.

WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Find an expression for the discriminant of the equation x2 + (2k +1)x + 4k = 0. Use this
result to:
a find exact and approximate values of k for which the equation has no solution
b explain the result obtained in part a through substitution of appropriate k-values into the
equation.
THINK WRITE
1 Identify the coefficients required. x2 + (2k + 1)x + 4k = 0

a = 1, b = 2k + 1, c = 4k
3 Substitute for a, b and c. Δ = (2k + 1)2 − 4 × 1 × 4k
4 Simplify. Δ = 4k2 + 4k + 1 − 16k
= 4k2 − 12k + 1
a 1 For the original equation to have no solution, a 4k2 − 12k + 1 < 0

we require Δ < 0.
12 ± ( − 12)2 − 4 × 4 × 1
2 Solve the left-hand side using the quadratic k=
formula. 2×4
12 ± 144 − 16
=
8
12 ± 128
=
8
12 ± 8 2
3 Simplify. k=
8
k = 32 ± 2
4 Interpret the result for k. If 32 − 2 < k < 32 + 2 , then Δ < 0 and the
equation has no solutions.
5 Evaluate approximate values for k. If 0.086 < k < 2.914, then Δ < 0 and the
equation has no solutions.
b 1 A selection of values for k will produce Δ < 0, b Δ = 4k2 − 12k + 1

Δ = 0 and Δ > 0. Find a k-value that gives Let k = −2
Δ > 0. Δ = 4(−2)2 − 12 × −2 + 1
Δ = 16 + 24 + 1
Δ = 41
Δ > 0, so there are two solutions.
2 Find a k-value that gives Δ < 0. (Pick a value Let k = 1
in the range from step 4 of part a.) Δ = 4(1)2 − 12 × 1 + 1
Δ = 16 + 24 + 1
Δ = −7
Δ < 0, so there are no solutions.
3
3 From step 3 of part a, we know the k-values If k = 2 ± 2 , Δ = 0, so there is one solution.
for which Δ = 0.
4 Evaluate the result. If 3 − 2 < k < 3 + 2 , there are no solutions
2 2
to the original equation.

Exercise 2H The discriminant
1 WE17 Find the value of the discriminant in each case.
a x2 + 9x + 2 = 0 b x2 − 4x − 1 = 0 c 5x2 + 6x − 7 = 0
d 2x − 3x + 10 = 0
2 e −3x2 + x + 3 = 0 f −x2 − 2x − 6 = 0
g x + 15x = 1
2 h 9 − 7x = 4x2 i −3x2 = 5
2 WE18 How many real solutions are there to the following equations?
Do not actually work out any solutions.
DIGITAL DOC a 5x2 + x + 2 = 0 b −x2 + 4x + 4 = 0 c 3x2 − 3x + 1 = 0
doc-9718 d 3x2 + 6x + 3 = 0 e −2x2 − 8x − 8 = 0 f 9 − x2 + x = 0
Calculating the g 5x2 = 2 − x h 6 − 6x = x2 i 12x = 9x2 + 4
discriminant
3 WE19 Find an expression for the discriminant of each of the following.
a x2 + ax + 1 = 0 b ax2 + 2x + 3 = 0 c x2 + 6x + a = 0
d ax2 + bx + 1 = 0 e mx2 + 2mx + 1 = 0 f x2 + (m + 1)x + 3 = 0
g x − mx − (m + 4) = 0
2 h (k − 1)x − kx + 2 = 0
2
4 MC Which values of m below both result in the expression x2 − mx + 5 = 0 having two

distinct solutions?
A −20 and 3 B 0 and 20 C 4 and 5 D −6 and −5 E 0 and 5
5 WE19, 20 For what values of k does each equation have:
i two distinct solutions? ii one solution? iii no solutions?
a x2 + kx + 4 = 0 b x2 − 4x + k = 0 c x2 + 4kx + 4 = 0
d kx − 18x + 20 = 0
2 e x2 − 4x + (k + 1) = 0 f 6x2 + 4kx + (k + 3) = 0
g 4kx + 12kx + 9k = 0
2 h (k + 4)x2 + 10x + 5 = 0 i (k − 1)x2 − (k + 1)x + 2 = 0
6 WE21 Assume k = −1 in each of questions 5 a–i. Use substitution and your previous answers to
question 5 to complete the following table. (There is no need to actually solve the equations.)
Equation after
Question substitution k = −1 Number of solutions Reasoning
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Graphs of quadratic functions as

2I
power functions (turning point form)
Quadratic functions are also power functions. Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = xn, n ∈ R.
The value of the power, n, determines the type of function. When n = 1, f (x) = x, the function is linear.
When n = 2, f (x) = x2, the function is quadratic.
Other power functions will be discussed later.
Under a sequence of transformations of f (x) = xn, n ∈ R, the general form of a power function is
f (x) = a(x − b)n + c (where a, b, c, and n ∈R).
All linear and quadratic polynomials are also linear and quadratic power functions, because all linear
and quadratic functions are transformations of f (x) = x and f (x) = x2 respectively.
When a quadratic function is written in turning point form, it is written in power form. For example,
the quadratic function y = x2 + 4x + 6 can also be represented as the power function y = (x + 2)2 + 2.

In previous years’ work, you will have discovered the following connections between a quadratic
function in turning point (TP) form, and its graph.
Summary of the sequence of
transformations
y = a(x − b)2 + c
a is the dilation factor from the x-axis. x-coordinate of turning y-coordinate of turning
If a > 1, the graph gets thinner or point (horizontal shift) point (vertical shift)
narrower. Minimum value of y
If 0 < a < 1, the graph gets wider. for ∪ shape graphs
If a < 0, the graph is turned upside down Maximum value of y
(or, reflected in the x-axis). for ∩ shape graphs
y a positive, increasing
y
Turning point (b, c)

a negative, increasingly negative
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
For the graph of y = −3(x + 2)2 − 1:

i state the turning point coordinates
ii describe the width of the graph as ‘same’, ‘thinner’ or ‘wider’ compared to the width of y = x2
iii state whether the graph is a minimum (∪) or maximum (∩) type, and state the maximum or
minimum value of y
iv find the y-intercept
v sketch the graph (x-intercepts are not required).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation. Compare y = −3(x + 2)2 − 1

y = −3(x + 2)2 − 1 with y = a(x − b)2 + c
a = −3, b = −2, c = −1.
2 TP x-coordinate: b = −2. TP y-coordinate: c = −1 i TP (−2, −1)
3 y dilation factor = −3 (magnitude greater than ii Thinner

1 means it is thinner than y = x2)
4 a is negative, so the graph is ‘upside down’ or a iii The graph is a maximum (∩) type.
maximum shape.
5 Maximum y-value is c, which equals −1. The maximum value of y is −1.
6 The y-intercept can be found by substituting iv y-intercept: y = −3(0 + 2)2 − 1
x = 0 into the original expression and = −3(2)2 − 1
simplifying. = −13
7 Use the information above to sketch the graph. v y
(−2, −1) x
−13

If a quadratic function is not in power form or turning point form, it must be manipulated in order to
answer questions like those posed in the previous example. To do this, we use the method of completing
the square as demonstrated in the following example.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Convert the function y = x2 − 6x + 1 to power form. State the coordinates of the turning point and
the maximum or minimum value of y.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. Ensure the x2 coefficient is 1. It is. y = x2 − 6x + 1

(If not, divide the equation by whatever will change the
x2 coefficient to 1.)
2 Halve the x-coefficient and square it. Add and subtract y = x2 − 6x + 9 − 9 + 1
this value after the x term.
3 Group terms to make a perfect square. y = (x2 − 6x + 9) − 8
4 Factorise the perfect square part. y = (x − 3)2 − 8
5 Compare with y = a(x − b)2 + c. a = 1, b = 3, c = −8
6 The turning point is (b, c). The turning point is (3, −8).
7 a is positive, so there is a minimum The minimum value of y is −8.
value of y = −8 when x = 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Identify the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of y = 2x2 + x − 4 using
algebraic methods.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the rule for the function. Begin the process y = 2x2 + x − 4
of completing the square by first taking out 2 as the 1
= 2[ x 2 + 2 x − 2]
common factor.
2 Half of 1
2
is 14 , and ( 14 )2 = 16
1 , so add and subtract this as = 2[( x 2 + 12 x + 16
1
) − 2 − 16
1
]
shown.
3 Continue on with completing the square, within the = 2[( x + 14 )2 − 16
32
− 16
1
]
square [ ] brackets.
= 2[( x + 14 )2 − 16
33
]
4 Multiply the 2 through the square brackets, leaving it = 2( x + 14 )2 − 33
8
as a factor of the curved brackets.
5 Read the coordinates of the turning point from this The turning point has coordinates
− −
form. Write your answer. ( 14 , 33
8 ).
Graphs of quadratic functions as power

Exercise 2I
functions (turning point form)
1 WE22 State the turning point coordinates for each of the following.
a y = (x − 5)2 b y = (x + 7)2 + 3
c y = (x − 2) − 7
2 d y = (x − 1)2 + 8
e y = 2(x + 3)2 − 4 f y = −6(x − 2)2 + 2

2 WE22 For each of the following:
i state the turning point coordinates
ii describe the width of the graph as same width, thinner or wider than y = x2
iii state whether the graph is a minimum (∪) or maximum (∩) type, and state the maximum or
minimum value of y
iv find the y-intercept
v sketch the graph (x-intercepts are not required).
a y = (x − 4)2 + 2 b y = (x − 2)2 − 3
c y = (x + 5)2 − 8 d y = (x − 1)2 − 1
e y = 2(x + 5)2 − 9 f y = 13 (x − 4)2 + 4
g y = 65 (x + 1)2 − 12 h y = −7(x − 3)2 + 3
i y = −(x − 8)2 − 9 j y = (1 − x)2 + 20
3 Sketch graphs having the following properties, but do not show intercepts.
a Turning point (2, 5), dilation factor of 3 from the x-axis
b Turning point (−1, 3), dilation factor of 1 from the x-axis
c Turning point (0, −4), dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis
d Turning point (6, 0), dilation factor of −1 from the x-axis
e Turning point (7, −7), dilation factor of −4 from the x-axis
f Turning point (0, 2), dilation factor of 12 from the x-axis
4 Determine the function rules of the following graphs, given that they are all of the power function form
y = (x − b)2 + c (that is, dilation factors all equal to 1).
a y b (−1, 5) y c y
4
8
(2, 4)
x x
x −1
(2, −5)
d y e y f y
(−3, 1) (6, 6)
7
x
x
−8 x
−30
(−3, −2)
5 Find the y-intercepts of graphs with the following properties.

a Turning point (1, 4), dilation factor of 2 from the x-axis
b Turning point (−2, −3), dilation factor of −1 from the x-axis
6 WE23 Convert each of the following to power form, and state the coordinates of the turning point and
the maximum or minimum value of y.
a y = x2 − 4x + 9 b y = x2 − 6x + 17
c y = x2 − 12x + 37 d y = x2 + 8x + 13
e y = x2 − 4x − 5 f y = x2 + 7
g y = x2 + 18x + 0 h y = 2x2 − 12x + 22
i y = 3x2 + 12x + 15
7 WE24 For each of the following quadratic functions:

i use by-hand algebraic methods to find the exact coordinates of the turning point
ii use a CAS calculator to verify this algebra and find decimal equivalents for these coordinates.
a y = 3x2 − 2x + 1
b y = −2x2 − 5x − 4
c y = 6x2 − 3x − 4

8 A section of perspex for a parabolic window is drawn on a
coordinate grid as shown at right. What equation should be 8
programmed into the automatic glass cutting machine, using 6
the grid system on the diagram?
4
2
0 2 4 6 8
9 MC What is the effect on the graph of increasing k in the equation y = k(x − 2)2 + 1?
The graph is:
A raised B lowered
C thinned D widened
E translated left F translated right
10 MC What is the effect on the graph of increasing k in the equation y = (x + k)2?
The graph is:
A raised B lowered
C thinned D widened
11 MC What is the effect on the graph of increasing k in the equation y = (x + 1)2 − k?
The graph is:
A raised B lowered
C thinned D widened
12 For the graph y = M(x + h)2 + n, state:
a the x-coordinate of the turning point
b the y-coordinate of the turning point
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9719 c the dilation factor from the x-axis
WorkSHEET 2.2 d the coefficient of x2 in the expanded version
e the coefficient of x in the expanded version
f the constant term in the expanded version.
2J Graphs of quadratic functions

(intercepts method)
In this section we will consider graphs of quadratic functions of the form y = ax2 + bx + c.
When we talk about sketching a graph, we mean drawing a diagram showing the main features — not
a true scale graph showing every point plotted accurately using a computer package or other means.
To sketch a quadratic graph, the following features should generally be apparent or labelled.
1 The y-intercept y
The y-intercept is found by substituting x = 0 into the rule and
solving the equation for the corresponding y-value. That is, it
is the c in the general form y = ax2 + bx + c. y-intercept c
All quadratics have a y-intercept. x
2 Any x-intercepts if they exist

Any x-intercepts are found by substituting y = 0 into the rule y
and solving the equation for the corresponding x-value. Let’s x-intercepts
say the rule factorises to y = (x − d)(x − e). Then substituting
y = 0 into the rule gives the equation 0 = (x − d)(x − e). c
For this to be true, we must have x = d or x = e. x
d e

3 The turning point coordinates
Consider the general quadratic function, and complete y
Axis of symmetry
the square as follows:
y = ax 2 + bx + c x-intercepts
y-intercept
b c
= a ⎡⎢ x 2 + x + ⎤⎥ x Turning point
⎣ a a⎦ b b2
(− 2a
— , c − 4a
— )
⎡⎛ b b ⎞ 2⎞ ⎛ b ⎞ 2 c ⎤
= a ⎢⎜ x 2 + x + ⎛⎜ ⎟ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ a ⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ 2a ⎠ a ⎥⎦
⎡ b ⎞ 2 b2 c ⎤
= a ⎢⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − 2 + ⎥
⎣⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a a⎦
b ⎞ 2 b2
= a ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ − +c
⎝ 2a ⎠ 4a
b ⎞2 ⎛ b2 ⎞
= a ⎛⎜ x + ⎟ + ⎜ c − ⎟
⎝ 2a ⎠ ⎝ 4a ⎠
You may recognise this form as turning point form. In this case, the coordinates of the turning
point are
⎛ −b b2 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2a , c − 4 a ⎟⎠
Using xt and yt for the coordinates of the turning point, we have

−
b b2
xt = and yt = c −
2a 4a
If a quadratic function has two x-intercepts, the x-coordinate of the turning point may be found by
averaging them.
y
d+e
——
2
d e
x
If there is only one x-intercept, then it is the x-coordinate of the turning point.
y
d x
The y-coordinate of the turning point may be found using the general turning point form above, by
completing the square from scratch or by substituting the x-coordinate into the original equation.
Recall also the two main types of parabolas:
y y
x x
Minimum parabola Maximum parabola
y = ax2 . . . (a > 0) y = ax2 . . . (a < 0)

WORKED EXAMPLE 25
Sketch the graphs of the following, showing all intercepts and the turning point in each case.
a y = x2 − 4x − 32 b y = x2 + 10x + 25 c y = −2x2 + 11x − 15
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the rule. a y = x2 − 4x − 32
2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −32

3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. y = (x + 4)(x − 8)
4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = (x + 4)(x − 8)
x = −4 or x = 8
−b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning TP xt = , b = −4, a = 1
2a
point (TP). − ( − 4)
= 2(1)
=2
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = 22 − 4(2) − 32
y-coordinate of the TP. Alternatively, use = 4 − 8 − 32
b2 = −36
yt = c − .
4a
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP (2, −36)
8 Combine the above information and sketch y
the graph.
−4 8 x
(2, −36)
b 1 Write the rule. b y = x2 + 10x + 25
2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = 25

3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. y = (x + 5)(x + 5)
= (x + 5)2
4 Find the x-intercept (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = (x + 5)2
x = −5
−b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. TP xt = , b = 10, a = 1
Alternatively, since there is only one 2a
−
x-intercept (−5), it must be the turning point 10
x-coordinate. =
2(1)
= −5
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = (−5)2 + 10(−5) + 25
y-coordinate of the turning point. = 25 − 50 + 25
=0
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP (−5, 0)
8 Combine the information and sketch the y
graph. 25
(−5, 0)
x

c 1 Write the rule. c y = −2x2 + 11x − 15
3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. y = −(2x2 − 11x + 15)

= −(2x − 5)(x − 3)
4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = −(2x − 5)(x − 3)
2x − 5 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
2x = 5 or x = 3
5
x = 2 or x = 3
−b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. TP xt = , b = 11, a = −2
2a
− 11
=
2(− 2)
11
= 4
(or 2.75)
( ) + 11( ) − 15
2
11 11
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = − 2
4 4
y-coordinate of the turning point. − 242 121
= 16
+ 4
− 15
− 242 484 240
= 16 + 16
− 16
2
= 16
1
= 8 (or 0.125)
11 1
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP ( 4 , 8 )
8 Sketch the graph, showing all important y (11
—, 1– )
4 8
features. 5–
2 3
x
−15
Don’t be put off if asked to sketch a quadratic graph whose equation doesn’t have 3 terms. Such cases
are easier to sketch, as the following example shows.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
Sketch the graphs of the following equations.

a y = x2 − 16 b y = −2x2 + 14x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the rule. a y = x2 − 16
2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = 02 − 16

= −16
3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. In this y = (x + 4)(x − 4)
case, recognise a difference of squares.
4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = (x + 4)(x − 4)
So x = −4 or x = 4

−b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt = , b = 0, a = 1
2a
0
xt =
2(1)
=0
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = 02 − 16

y-coordinate of the turning point. = −16
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP (0, −16)
8 Sketch the graph, showing all important y

features.
−4 4 x
(0, −16)
b 1 Write the rule. b y = −2x2 + 14x
2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −2(0)2 + 14(0)

=0
3 Factorise before finding x-intercepts. In this y = −2x(x − 7)

case, use a common factor of −2x.
4 Find the x-intercepts (when y = 0). If y = 0, 0 = −2x(x − 7)

So x = 0 or x = 7
−
b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt = , b = 14, a = − 2
2a
− 14
xt = −
2( 2)
14
= 4
7
= 2
(or 3.5)
( ) + 14 ( )
2
7 7
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = − 2
2 2
y-coordinate of the turning point.
b2 = −
2 ( ) + 49
49
4
We could also use yt = c − .
4a − 49 98
= 2
+ 2
49
= 2
(or 24.5)
7 Write the turning point coordinates. TP ( 7 49

,
2 2 )
8 Sketch the graph. y
7– 49
,—
2 2
0 7 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 27
Sketch the graphs of the following equations.

a y = 3x2 + 6x − 1
b y = −2x2 + x − 7
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the rule. a y = 3x2 + 6x − 1
3 Factorising before finding x-intercepts (when If y = 0, 0 = 3x2 + 6x − 1

y = 0) is not easily done, so use the quadratic −b ± b 2 − 4 ac
formula. x=
2a
a = 3, b = 6, c = −1
−6 ± 62 − 4(3)(− 1)
x=
2(3)
−6 ± 36 + 12
=
6
−
6 ± 48
=
6
−
6 ± 16 × 3
=
6
−
6±4 3
=
6
−
3±2 3
=
3
x = 0.155 or x = −2.155
−b
4 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt = , b = 6, a = 3
2a
−
6
xt =
2(3)
= −1
5 Substitute into the original rule to find the yt = 3(−1)2 + 6(−1) − 1

y-coordinate of the turning point. =3−6−1
= −4
6 Sketch the graph, showing all important TP (−1, −4)

features. y
−2.155 0.155 x
−1
(−1, −4)
b 1 Write the rule. b y = −2x2 + x − 7
2 Find the y-intercept (when x = 0). If x = 0, y = −2(0) + (0) − 7

= −7

3 Factorising before finding x-intercepts (when If y = 0, 0 = −2x2 + x − 7
y = 0) is not easily done, so try the quadratic −b ±
b 2 − 4 ac
formula. x=
2a
a = −2, b = 1, c = −7
−1 ± 12 − 4(− 2)(− 7)
x=
2(− 2)
−1 ± 12 − 56
= −4
−1 ± − 55
= −4
− 55 No x-intercepts
4 cannot be evaluated so there are no
x-intercepts.
−
b
5 Find the x-coordinate of the turning point. xt =
2a
−
1
= −
2( 2)
−1
= −4
= 1
4 (or 0.25)
yt = − 2 ( 14 ) + 14 − 7
2
6 Substitute into the original rule to find the
y-coordinate of the turning point.
= − 2 ( 16
1
) + 14 − 7
−1
= 8+
1
4 −7
−1
= 8 + 2
8 − 56
8
− 55
= 8 (or − 6.875)
7 Sketch the graph, showing all important y

features.
( 1–4 , − 55
—)
x
8
−7
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
Consider the graph of y = x2 − 5x + 9. Use written algebra to:

a show that the parabola has no x-intercepts
b find how many units the parabola needs to be translated down, or ‘lowered’, so that
it has exactly one x-intercept
c find how many units the original parabola needs to be lowered so that its x-intercepts are
13 units apart.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the rule for the function. Any potential a y = x2 − 5x + 9

x-intercepts depend on the solutions of the
equation 0 = x2 − 5x + 9.

2 Calculate the discriminant, given a = 1, b = −5 and c = 9
a = 1, b = −5 and c = 9. Δ = (−5)2 − 4 × 1 × 9
= 25 − 36
= −11
3 The discriminant is negative. Interpret the The discriminant is negative, so there

meaning of this. are no solutions to the quadratic equation
0 = x2 − 5x + 9; that is, the parabola has no
x-intercepts.
b 1 Replace the original equation with a ‘lowered’ b y = x2 − 5x + c

one. Change 9 to a variable, c.
2 For this equation to have one x-intercept, the a = 1, b = −5

discriminant, Δ, must equal 0. Calculate Δ. Δ = (−5)2 − 4 × 1 × c
= 25 − 4c
3 Set Δ = 0 and solve for c. 25 − 4c = 0

c = 6.25
4 Write the new equation. y = x2 − 5x + 6.25
5 Compare the new equation with the original The graph is lowered by 9 − 6.25 = 2.75 units.
equation.
−b
c 1 Calculate the axis of symmetry of c Axis of symmetry =
y = x2 − 5x + 9. 2a
b = −5, a = 1
− ( − 5)
Axis of symmetry =
2 ×1
5
=
2
= 2.5
The turning point is at x = 2.5.
2 The x-coordinate of the turning point 13 ÷ 2 = 6.5

(here, 2.5) is always halfway between any 2.5 + 6.5 = 9 and 2.5 − 6.5 = −4
x-intercepts; the required distance between the The x-intercepts must be 9 and −4.
intercepts is 13 units.
3 The x-intercepts of a function y = (x − d)(x − e) The rule of the function is y = (x + 4)(x − 9).
are d and e given a dilation factor parallel to
the x-axis of 1.
4 Expand to find the y-intercept. y = (x + 4)(x − 9)

y = x2 − 5x − 36
The y-intercept is −36; the answer is correct
as the first two terms are identical to those in
the previous functions.
5 The amount of vertical translation will be 9 − (−36) = 45

the difference between the original and final
y-intercepts. The original parabola must be lowered by
Answer the question. 45 units.
Using the discriminant

Since finding x-intercepts for a quadratic graph involves solving a quadratic equation, we can use the
discriminant to decide the number of x-intercepts such a graph has.

y y y
x
Δ>0 Δ=0 Δ<0
2 x-intercepts 1 x-intercept No x-intercepts
Graphs of quadratic functions

Exercise 2J
DIGITAL DOCS (intercepts method)

doc-9720
Quadratic graphs —
1 Find the y-intercepts for each of the following.
general form a y = x2 + 9x + 2 b y = −3x2 + 6x − 4 c y = 4x2 + 2x
doc-9721 d y = 6 − x2 e y = 5x + 2 − 4x2 f y = 1 − x − x2
Quadratic graphs —
turning point form 2 State the x-intercepts for each of the following.
a y = (x − 1)(x − 6) b y = (x − 3)(x + 2) c y = (x + 5)(x + 1)
d y = (x − 4)(x − 5) e y = x(x − 2) f y = (3 − x)(4 − x)
g y = (x + 5)(5 − x) h y = −x(x + 8) i y = −(x + 9)2
−
j y = 3(2 − x)(x + 10)
3 State the x-intercepts for each of the following.
a y = (2x − 5)(x + 1) b y = (−3x + 1)(x + 2)
c y = (x − 9)(4x − 9) d y = −(x + 1)(6 − 5x)
e y = (2x + 3)(4x + 1) f y = 3x(x + 4)
g y = (Ax + a)(Bx + b)
4 Use the quadratic formula to find exact values (if possible) for the x-intercepts of:
a y = 4x2 − 2x + 3 b y = −x2 + 7x − 7
c y = −2x2 − 9x − 1 d y = 10 − 3x + 3x2.
5 WE25a, b Sketch graphs of the following, showing all intercepts and the turning point in each case.
(Hint : Factorise first.)
a y = x2 − 4x + 3 b y = x2 + 2x + 1
c y = x2 + 6x + 8 d y = x2 + 12x + 35
e y = x2 − 8x + 12 f y = x2 + 2x − 63
g y = x2 + 3x + 2 h y = x2 − 5x + 6
i y = x2 − 11x − 12 j y = x2 + 14x + 49
k y = x2 − 16x + 64 l y = x2 + 8x − 153
6 Sketch the following graphs, showing all intercepts and the turning point in each case.
a y = 3x2 + 2x − 8 b y = 5x2 + 18x − 8 c y = 3x2 − 4x − 15
d y = 4x2 − 8x + 3 e y = 8x2 − 10x + 3 f y = 7x2 + 18x − 9
g y = 15x + 48x + 9
2 h y = 9x − 2x − 7
2 i y = 2x2 + x − 28
j y = 3x + 5x + 2
2 k y = 2x − 3x − 9
2
7 WE25c Sketch the graphs of the following.

a y = −x2 − 8x + 33 b y = −x2 + 2x + 3 c y = −x2 − 18x − 45
−
d y = x + 18x − 81
2 e y = −4x2 + 12x − 5 f y = −8x2 − 6x + 5
8 WE26 Sketch the graphs of the following.
a y = x2 − 25 b y = x2 − 121 c y = −x2 + 1
d y=3−x 2 e y = 2x2 − 18 f y = −3x2 + 12
g y = x + 5x
2 h y = x2 − 8x i y = 5x2 − 10x
j y = −4x2 − 24x k y = 21x − 3x2
9 WE27 Sketch the graphs of the following.
a y = x2 + 2x − 7 b y = x2 + 4x + 1 c y = x2 + 8x + 3
d y = −4x2 + 2x + 3 e y = −x2 − 18x − 1 f y = x2 − 3x + 1
g y = x − 7x − 2
2 h y = 2x2 + 7x + 4 i y = 3x2 − 9x − 5
−
j y = 3x + 17
2 k y = 4x2 − 5x

10 MC If a and b are positive numbers, which of the following graphs could be that of
y = (ax + 1)(x + b)?
A y B y C y
x
x
x
D y E y
x
x
11 MC If k and p are positive numbers, which of the following could be the graph of
y = x2 − 2kx + p?
A y B y C y
x x
x
D y E y
x x
12 Without sketching, determine how many x-intercepts each of the following graphs have.
a y = x2 + 37x + 208 b y = −3x2 − 4x + 8
c y = −9x2 + 78x − 169 d y = 4x2 + x + 9
e y = −x2 − 12x − 35 f y = 4x2 + 72x + 324
13 Consider the value of the discriminant in deciding which graph matches which equation below.
a y = 5x2 + x + 1
b y = 6x2 − 2x − 1
c y = −7x2 − x + 2
d y = −4x2 + 8x − 4
A y B y
x
C y D y
14 WE28b Use a CAS calculator and written algebra to find how many units and in which direction the
graph of y = 2x2 − 3x − 2 should be translated vertically so that it has exactly one x-intercept. Also, state
the function rule for this new parabola in both expanded and turning point forms.
15 WE28c Use a CAS calculator and written algebra to find how many units and in which direction the
graph of y = −3 (x + 2)2 − 4 should be translated vertically so that its x-intercepts are exactly 4 units
apart. Also, state the function rule for this new parabola in both expanded and turning point forms.

2KUsing technology to solve
quadratic equations
Quadratic expressions, equations and functions are linked closely, as you have previously seen. Study
the following table carefully.
Classification Characteristics Examples

Quadratic expression Degree 2 polynomial, no equals sign 4x2 − 3.4x + 2
Can be written in expanded and/or factorised form (x − 7)(x + 3)
x2 + 5x − 6
Quadratic equation One variable, one equals sign 4x2 − 3.4x + 2 = 19
0, 1 or 2 solutions exist (x − 7)(x + 3) = 0
x2 + 5x − 6 = −4
Quadratic function Two variables, one equals sign in the rule y = 4x2 − 3.4x + 2
Can be sketched, as it is a set of ordered pairs y = (x − 7)(x + 3)
Sketch is a parabola, with 0, 1 or 2 x-intercepts y = x2 + 5x − 6
Note: The solutions (also known as the roots) of a quadratic equation (say, 3x2 − 4.3x − 1.68 = 0) are
identical to the x-intercepts of its related parabola (here, the sketch of y = 3x2 − 4.3x − 1.68). They are
also known as the zeros of the related expression (here, 3x2 − 4.3x − 1.68).
Can you see why the solutions of x2 + 5x − 6 = −4 become the x-intercepts of the parabola given by
y = x2 + 5x − 2?
WORKED EXAMPLE 29
Consider the expressions x2 − 8x + 12, x2 − 10x + 21, and x2 − 12x + 32. Use written algebra
and/or a CAS calculator to:
a find the zeros and factors of the expressions
b find the turning points of their related parabolas
c use the patterns seen in these answers to predict the next three and previous two quadratic
expressions, along with the features of their related parabolas.
Now consider a general quadratic function (variable x) whose graph is an upright parabola with a
dilation factor from the x-axis of 1. Its x-intercepts are j and k.
d Find the rule for this quadratic function.
e Find the function rule for a second parabola that has been translated 3 units to the left
of the original parabola.
f Verify your results for d and e (algebraically and graphically) by letting j = −5 and k = 2.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Factorise x2 − 8x + 12. a x2 − 8x + 12 = (x − 2)(x − 6)
2 Set the factorised expression equal to 0 and (x − 2)(x − 6) = 0

solve. x−2=0 or x−6=0
x=2 or x=6
3 Factorise x2 − 10x + 21. x2 − 10x + 21 = (x − 3)(x − 6)
x=3 or x=7
5 Factorise x2 − 12x + 32. x2 − 12x + 32 = (x − 4)(x − 8)
x=4 or x=8

b 1 The x-value of the turning point is halfway b For x2 − 8x + 12,
between the roots (zeros) of the associated 2+6
parabola. TP x-value = =4
2
For x2 − 10x + 21,
3+ 7
TP x-value = =5
2
For x2 − 12x + 32,
4+8
TP x-value = =6
2
2 Find the y-values of each turning point For x2 − 8x + 12,
by substituting the x-values in the 42 − 8 × 4 + 12 = −4
corresponding functions. For x2 − 10x + 21,
52 − 10 × 5 + 21 = −4
For x2 − 12x + 32,
62 − 12 × 6 + 32 = −4
3 State the turning points of each parabola. The turning points of these three parabolas are
(4, −4), (5, −4) and (6, −4).
c 1 Predict the next three expressions based c (x − 5)(x − 9)
upon the patterns from parts a and b. (x − 6)(x − 10)
(x − 7)(x − 11)
2 Predict the previous two expressions. (x − 1)(x − 5)
(x − 0)(x − 4)
3 The intercepts and turning points are
Expression Zeros TP Factors
moving to the right (horizontally) by 1 unit
for each step in the progression. This means x2 − 4x 0, 4 (2, −4) (x)(x − 4)
that only the x-coordinates change. Also,
the coefficient of the x term in the expanded x2 − 6x + 5 1, 5 (3, −4) (x − 1)(x − 5)
expression is the negative sum of the zeros, x − 8x + 12
2 2, 6 (4, −4) (x − 2)(x − 6)
and the constant term is the product of the
zeros. x2 − 10x + 21 3, 7 (5, −4) (x − 3)(x − 7)
x2 − 12x + 32 4, 8 (6, −4) (x − 4)(x − 8)
x2 − 14x + 45 5, 9 (7, −4) (x − 5)(x − 9)
x2 − 16x + 60 6, 10 (8, −4) (x − 6)(x − 10)
x2 − 18x + 77 7, 11 (9, −4) (x − 7)(x − 11)
d 1 Assign variables to the x-values of the zeros d Let j and k be the x-values of the zeros
of each quadratic function. (x-intercepts) of the quadratic function.
2 State the general function. y = (x − j)(x − k)
3 Expand. y = x2 − ( j + k)x + jk
e 1 When the parabola moves 3 units to the left, e The zeros are now j − 3 and k − 3.
3 is subtracted from both zeros (j and k).
2 State the new function. y = (x − ( j − 3))(x − (k − 3))
3 Expand. y = x2 − ( j + k − 6)x + ( j − 3)(k − 3)
f 1 Given j = −5 and k = 2, state the quadratic f y = (x + 5)(x − 2)
function. y = x2 + 3x − 10
2 Translate this function 3 units to the left by j − 3 = −5 − 3 = −8
subtracting 3 from j and k. k − 3 = 2 − 3 = −1

3 State the new function. y = (x + 8)(x + 1)
y = x2 + 9x + 8
4 Sketch the graphs of y = x2 + 3x − 10 and y y = x2 + 9x + 8

y = x2 + 9x + 8 on the same set of axes. y = x2 + 3x − 10
−8 −5 −1 2
x
(TP) (TP)
5 Observe the features of the two parabolas. The turning points and zeros have been translated
3 units to the left. The second parabola has
been translated 3 units to the left from the first
parabola. The answers are verified.
Using technology to solve

Exercise 2K
quadratic equations
1 Use a CAS calculator to find all solutions of each of the following.
a x2 + 4x + 1 = 0 b x2 = 11x + 2
−
c x + 4x = 2
2 d x2 = 8x − 8
e x + 12x + 9 = 0
2 f −3x2 + 5x − 1 = 0
2 Find all roots of the quadratics below using a CAS calculator.
a 2.3x2 + 0.7x − 0.59 = 0
DIGITAL DOC b −0.811x2 − 5.2x − 3.1 = 0
doc-9722 c −3.97x2 + 17x + 8.05 = 0
Simultaneous,
quadratic and linear
d 5.18x2 = 2.66x + 9
equations e 0.006x2 + 0.923x + 0.361 = 0
f x2 + 500x = 47
3 The distance, d, of a comet from one of the moons of Jupiter is given by the equation
d = 47.9t2 + 0.03t − 908.7, where t is the number of hours since the comet was first discovered
on 28 June 2001. At what value of t will the comet reach this moon?
4 The number of marine organisms, N, in a marine research organisation’s testing tank is found to follow
the equation (or model) N = −0.0751h2 + 0.69h + 200, where h is the number of hours since the tank
was supplied with nutrient and stocked with 200 organisms. How long after being fed could the colony
survive without further food before none were left?

5 A diver follows a parabolic path from the diving board to the water, given by the function below. What
is the horizontal distance travelled by the diver from leaving the diving board to entering the water?
(h represents the height of the diver above the water for a distance, d, from the diving board in the
equation shown. Both h and d are in metres.)
h = −0.5d2 + 2d + 5
6 WE29 As part of a Year 11 Maths extension activity, Harry and Christine were each asked by their
teacher to come up with a quadratic expression whose zeros had a sum of 10.25 (or as close to that
as possible). The coefficient of the linear term had to be −5. When they returned to class the next day,
Harry announced his expression was 0.48x2 − 5x − 2.3, and Christine said hers was 0.49x2 − 5x + 1.9.
Who was closest, and by how much?
7 One of the solutions of the equation 10x2 + 11x = k (where k is a constant) is −1.6.
a Find the value of k.
b Find the other solution to the original quadratic equation.
2L Simultaneous quadratic and

linear equations
In previous studies you have dealt with pairs of simultaneous linear equations and solved these using
algebra. The solution could also be represented graphically. The same is true when we have one linear
and one quadratic equation as a pair of simultaneous equations.
INTERACTIVITY
Consider the following pair of simultaneous equations: int-0261
y = x2 + x − 2 and y = 3x + 1 Simultaneous
quadratic and
If x = 3 is substituted into the first equation, y = 32 + 3 − 2 = 10 is obtained. linear equations
If x = 3 is substituted into the second equation, y = 3 × 3 + 1 = 10 is obtained. That is, the coordinate
pair (3, 10) ‘fits’ both equations, so it is a solution.
If x = −1 is substituted into the first equation, y = (−1)2 + (−1) − 2 = −2 is obtained.
If x = −1 is substituted into the second equation, y = 3(−1) + 1 = −2 is obtained. That is, the coordinate
pair (−1, −2) is also a solution.
To illustrate the situation graphically, the related linear and quadratic functions must be sketched on
the same set of axes. As shown below, there are three possible relationships:
r no points in common (hence, no solutions)
r one point in common (hence, one solution)
r two points in common (hence, two solutions).

y y y
One
solution
x x
No solution
x
Two
solutions
When a linear equation and a quadratic equation are solved simultaneously, a new quadratic equation
is formed, as you will see in the following examples.
The number of solutions relates to the discriminant (positive = 2 solutions; negative = no solutions;
zero = one solution) of the ‘new’ quadratic.
WORKED EXAMPLE 30
a Solve the system of equations y = x2 + x − 2 and y = 3x + 1.

b Illustrate the solution using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic graph is not
required.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the original equations and label them. a y = x2 + x − 2 [1]

y = 3x + 1 [2]
2 Equate [1] and [2]. Put RHS [1] = RHS [2]. x2 + x − 2 = 3x + 1
3 Collect terms on the side that makes the x2 + x − 2 − 3x − 1 = 0
x2 term positive.
4 Combine like terms. x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
5 Factorise if possible. (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
6 Solve for x. x = 3 or x = −1
7 Substitute x-values into the linear equation [2] If x = 3, y = 3(3) + 1 = 10
to find the corresponding y-values. If x = −1, y = 3(−1) + 1 = −2
8 Write the solution coordinates. Solutions: (3, 10) and (−1, −2)
b 1 Find intercepts for a sketch of the linear graph. b For y = 3x + 1,
if x = 0, y=1
if y = 0, 0 = 3x + 1
−1 = 3x
−1
x= 3
2 Find intercepts for a sketch of the quadratic For y = x2 + x − 2,

graph. (The turning point is not required here.) if x = 0, y = −2
if y = 0, 0 = x2 + x − 2
so 0 = (x + 2)(x − 1)
and x = −2 or x = 1
3 Sketch the linear and quadratic graphs on y (3, 10)
the same axes, and include the points of
intersection found in part a.
− 1–3
1
−2 1 x
(−1, −2) −2

WORKED EXAMPLE 31
Solve the equations y = −0.5x2 − 4x + 2 and 11x + 2y = 6.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the two equations and label them. y = −0.5x2 − 4x + 2 [1]

11x + 2y = 6 [2]
2 Solve [2] for y. 2y = −11x + 6
y = −5.5x + 3 [3]
−0.5x2
3 Set [1] = [3]. − 4x + 2 = −5.5x + 3
−0.5x2
4 Simplify. + 1.5x − 1 = 0
5 Multiply by −2. x2 − 3x + 2 = 0
6 Factorise and state the solutions. (x − 2)(x − 1) = 0
x = 2 or x = 1
7 Find the corresponding y-values and substitute in [3]. When x = 2,
y = −5.5(2) + 3
= −8
When x = 1,
y = −5.5 + 3
= −2.5
8 Write the coordinates of the two points of intersection. The solutions are (2, −8) and (1, −2.5).
WORKED EXAMPLE 32
a Solve the system of equations y = x2 − 8x + 12 and y = −6x + 11.

b Illustrate the solution using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic graph
is not required.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the original equations and label them. a y = x2 − 8x + 12 [1]

y = −6x + 11 [2]
2 Put RHS [1] = RHS [2]. x2 − 8x + 12 = −6x + 11
3 Collect terms on the side that makes the x2 − 8x + 12 + 6x − 11 = 0
x2 term positive.
4 Combine like terms. x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
5 Factorise if possible. (x − 1)(x − 1) = 0
6 Solve for x. x = 1 only
7 Substitute x-values into the linear equation [2] If x = 1, y = −6x + 11
to find the corresponding y-value. y = −6(1) + 11
y = −6 + 11
y=5
8 Write the solution coordinates. Solution: (1, 5) only
b 1 Find intercepts for a sketch of the linear graph. b For y = −6x + 11,
if x = 0, y = 11
if y = 0, 0 = −6x + 11
6x = 11
x = 11 5
6 or 1 6

2 Find intercepts for a sketch of the quadratic For y = x2 − 8x + 12,
graph. (The turning point is not required here.) if x = 0, y = 12
if y = 0, 0 = x2 − 8x + 12
so 0 = (x − 6)(x − 2)
and x = 6 or x = 2
3 Sketch the linear and quadratic graphs on y

the same axes, and include the points of
12
intersection found in part a. 11 Tangent
point
(1, 5)
11
— 2 6 x
6
WORKED EXAMPLE 33
a Solve the system of equations y = −x2 + 3x + 18 and y = 4x + 22.

b Illustrate the solution using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic graph is not
required.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the original equations and label them. a y = −x2 + 3x + 18 [1]

y = 4x + 22 [2]
−x2
2 Put RHS [1] = RHS [2]. + 3x + 18 = 4x + 22
3 Collect terms on the side that makes the 0 = x2 − 3x − 18 + 4x + 22

x2 term positive.
4 Combine like terms. x2 + x + 4 = 0
5 Try to factorise. No solution using the Null (x )(x ) = 0?

Factor Law is apparent. Check the value of the Δ = b2 − 4ac
discriminant Δ of the quadratic in step 4. = (1)2 − 4(1)(4)
= 1 − 16
= −15
6 Since Δ < 0, there is no solution. Δ < 0, ∴ no solution; the graphs don’t meet.
b 1 Find intercepts for a sketch of the linear graph. b For y = 4x + 22,

if x = 0, y = 22
if y = 0, 0 = 4x + 22
−22 = 4x
− 22
x= 4
− 11 1
x= 2
or −5 2
2 Find intercepts for a sketch of the quadratic For y = −x2 + 3x + 18,

graph. (The turning point is not required here.) if x = 0, y = 18
if y = 0, 0 = −x2 + 3x + 18
x2 − 3x − 18 = 0
so (x − 6)(x + 3) = 0
and x = 6 or x = −3

3 Sketch the linear and quadratic graphs on y
the same axes. Note that the graphs do not 22
intersect, indicating no solution.
18
− 11
—
2
−3 6 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 34
The graphs with equations y = x2 + 4 x + 33 and y = mx + 24 intersect once only. Find the possible
values of m.
THINK WRITE
1 Write and label the equations. y = x2 + 4x + 33 [1]

y = mx + 24 [2]
2 Put equation [1] = equation [2] and form a x2 + 4x + 33 = mx + 24
new quadratic equation [3]. x2+ 4x − mx + 9 = 0
x2 + (4 − m)x + 9 = 0 [3]
3 For one solution only, we require Δ = 0. Δ = (4 − m)2 − 4(1)(9)
= 16 − 8m + m2 − 36
= m2 − 8m − 20
= 0 for one solution only.
4 Factorise and solve for m. (m − 10)(m + 2) = 0
m = 10 or m = −2
5 State the rules for the two straight lines. The two lines are y = 10x + 24 and y = −2x + 24.
Simultaneous quadratic and

Exercise 2L
linear equations
1 WE30, 31, 32, 33 For each of the following systems of equations:
i solve to find any solution coordinates
ii illustrate the solution (or lack of solution) using a sketch graph. The turning point of the quadratic
graph is not required.
You may use a CAS calculator to verify solutions.
a y = x2 + 6x + 5 and y = 11x − 1 b y = x2 + 5x − 6 and y = 8x − 8
c y = x2 + 9x + 14 and y = 3x + 5 d y = x2 − 7x + 10 and y = −11x + 6
e y = x2 − 2x − 3 and y = x − 6 f y = x2 + 11x + 28 and y = 10x + 40
g y = x2 + 5x − 36 and y = 15x − 61 h y = x2 − 6x − 16 and y = −4x − 17
i y = x2 − 2x − 24 and y = 4x + 3 j y = x2 − 7x + 10 and y = −4x + 6
k y = −x2 + 4x + 21 and y = x + 11 l y = −x2 + 14x − 48 and y = 13x − 54
m y = −x2 + 4x + 12 and y = 9x + 16 n y = x2 + 7x + 12 and y = 20
o y = −x2 − 4x + 5 and y = −4x + 9 p y = x2 − 4x + 4 and y = 8x − 32
2 State how many points of intersection exist with each of the following pairs of simultaneous equations.
a y = x2 + x − 6 and y = −9x − 31
b y = x2 − 16 and y = 6x + 11
c y = −x2 + 3x + 4 and y = −7x + 25
d y = x2 − 6x + 5 and y = 2x − 12

3 WE34 The graphs of equations y = x2 − 14x + 49 and y = mx + 48 intersect once only, at x = 1. Find
the value of m.
4 The system of equations y = x2 − 4x + c and y = −7x + 8 has two solutions, one at x = 1 and another at
x = −4. Find the value of c.
5 The graphs of y = x2 + bx − 14 and y = −9x + c intersect at (−1, −8) and (−3, 10). Find the values
of b and c.
6 Using a CAS calculator, find the points of intersection, in exact form, for each of the following systems
of equations.
a y = x2 + 5x − 3 and y = 2x − 2
b y = 2x2 + 7x − 8 and y = 3x + 4
c y = −3x2 − 2x + 12 and y = −4x + 8
d y = −5x2 − 2x − 5 and y = 43 x − 5
7 An engineer’s plans for a proposed road through a y

mountain are shown at right. At what heights above y=− x–2
+5
2
sea level will the entrance and exit to the tunnel be, y = x–4 +2
given the equations of the mountain profile and road
path as shown on the plan? Entrance Proposed road
of tunnel
Sea level
x
8 A graphic designer draws a logo involving a parabola ‘sitting’ in a y

y = kx 2
V shape on a set of axes as shown at right.
Find the equation of the parabola, given it is of the form y = kx2,
and find the points of intersection of the V with the parabola.
−1 1 x
−2
ax
9 Use a CAS calculator to find the values of a in exact form such that the linear equation y = +a
−3 2
and the quadratic equation y = 8
x 2 + 3 x − 5 do not intersect.

10 Use a CAS calculator to help answer the following questions.
A pole 11 metres high is firmly secured to the ground. A parabolic arch is to be attached to the
pole 3 metres above the ground as shown in the diagram below. A metal rod will run directly from
the top of the pole straight to the ground so that it just touches the arch in one position only. Let
y be the height above the ground in metres and x be the distance along the ground from the foot of
the pole in metres.
y
(0, 11)
(0, 3)
0 x
A B
Give all answers in exact form unless told otherwise. −1 a

a The arch is to be modelled by the quadratic equation y = 8 x 2 + 4 x + 3, where a is a non-zero
positive constant. Find where the arch meets the ground in terms of a, that is, find the x-intercept.
b If it is decided that the distance from the foot of the pole to the point A is 12 metres, find the value
of the constant a.
c If the equation of the metal rod is modelled by the linear function y = 11 + bx, find the value of b.
(Hint: Consider the discriminant.)
d Find the coordinates of the point where the arch touches the metal rod.
e Find the maximum height of the arch correct to 2 decimal places.
f Find the distance from point A to point B both in exact form and correct to 2 decimal places.

Summary
Polynomials 1. A polynomial in x, sometimes denoted by P(x), is an expression containing only non-negative
whole powers of x.
2. The degree of the polynomial is given by the highest power of the variable x.
3. The general form of a degree n polynomial is:
P(x) = an x n + an − 1xn − 1 + . . . + a2 x 2 + a1x + a0
where n is a positive whole number and an, an − 1, . . ., a2, a1 and a0 are coefficients.
Expanding quadratic r To expand:

expressions 1. First term × everything in the second brackets, then 1
2
2. Second term × everything in the second brackets. (4x + 9)(2x − 3)
r Perfect squares (ax + b)2 = a2x2 + 2abx + b2 3 4
r Difference of squares (ax + b)(ax − b) = a2x2 − b2
r Expand brackets first, then multiply if there is an ‘external’ factor in expressions like
k(ax + b)(cx + d).
Factorising quadratic r Look for a common factor first.

expressions r General quadratics: Write down (_x )(_x ) and try factors of the constant term.
r Perfect squares: (ax + b)2 = a2x2 + 2abx + b2
r Difference of squares: ( a x + b )( a x − b ) = ax 2 − b
Factorising by r Use when whole number factors are not apparent.

completing the square r Halve and square the x-coefficient, then add and subtract this new term.
r Form a perfect square from three of the terms.
r Continue to factorise using a difference of squares.
Solving quadratic r Factorise.

equations — Null Factor r Set each factor equal to zero.
Law r Solve two mini-equations.
Solving quadratic r Halve and square the x-coefficient.

equations — completing r Add and subtract the new term.
the square r Form a perfect square and solve for x.
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
The quadratic formula r If ax2 + bx + c = 0, then solutions may be found using x = .
2a
The discriminant r If ax2 + bx + c = 0, then the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac.

r If Δ < 0, no real solutions exist.
r If Δ > 0, there are two real solutions.
r If Δ = 0, there is only one real solution.
Graphs of quadratic r Turning point form: y = a(x − b)2 + c. y

functions as power r The turning point is at (b, c) and the dilation factor is a.
functions (turning point r If a > 0, the graph is a positive (∪) shape.
form) r If a < 0, the graph is a negative (∩) shape.
(b, c)
r To convert to turning point form, complete the square.
x

Graphs of quadratic r To sketch a quadratic graph of the form y = ax2 + bx + c:
functions (intercepts 1. Find the y-intercept (when x = 0)
method) 2. Factorise if possible, and find the x-intercepts (when y = 0)
It may be easier to use the quadratic y
formula in some cases. Axis of symmetry
If Δ < 0, there are no x-intercepts.
If Δ = 0, one intercept only. y-intercept x-intercepts
If Δ > 0, two intercepts.
x Turning point
3. Find the x-coordinate of the turning point b b2
−b (− 2a
— , c − 4a
— )
using xt = or by completing the
square. 2a
4. Find the y-coordinate of the turning point by substituting xt into the equation for y, or by
using
b2
yt = c − or by completing the square.
4a
5. Combine all the information and sketch it. Functions with a positive x2 coefficient are
∪ shaped, and those with negative x2 coefficients are ∩ shaped. If the information you have
gathered doesn’t seem to fit, check for calculation errors.
Simultaneous quadratic r If given equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c and y = mx + k:

and linear equations 1. Set ax2 + bx + c = mx + k.
2. Rearrange to form a new quadratic equation Ax2 + Bx + C = 0.
3. Solve to find any x-coordinates of intersection.
4. Substitute any x-coordinates into the linear equation to find the corresponding y-coordinates.
5. State the solutions (or state that there are none).

Chapter review
1 Expand:
SHORT
ANS WER a (7x + 8)(7x − 8) b (2x − 9)2 c (5 x − 3)(5 x + 3) d (4x − 9)(2x − 13)
2 Factorise:
a 25x2 + 110x + 121 b 6x2 + 37x + 6 c 12x2 − 37x + 21 d 36x2 − 49
3 Factorise x2 − 6x − 14.
4 Solve the following.
a (4x + 1)(3x − 9) = 0 b 3x2 − 40x − 75 = 0
5 Solve:
a 4x2 − 5 = 0 b x2 − 14x + 42 = 0
6 Solve x2 + 6x − 2 = 0.
7 Use the quadratic formula to solve 5x2 − 7x + 1 = 0.
8 Evaluate the discriminant for 4x2 − 3x + 9 = 0.
9 Find the value(s) of k for which the equation 2x2 + 3kx + 6 = 0 has:
a no solution b one solution c two solutions.
10 Sketch the following, showing the turning point and y-intercept in each case (x-intercepts not required).
a y = −4(x + 1)2 + 2
b y = 6x2 − 1
11 Convert y = x2 + 8x + 3 to turning point form.
12 Sketch the following.
a y = (x − 6)(x − 14) b y = x2 + 2x − 80 c y = 3x2 − 26x + 48 d y = −2x2 − 5x − 3
13 Find any points of intersection of the line y = −2x − 6 and the parabola y = x2 + 7x + 12.
14 Solve 4kx2 − 5x + 3k = 0 for x.
M U LT IP L E 1 Which of the following is the expansion of (3x − 7)(x + 5)?

C H OICE A 3x2 + 8x − 35 B 3x2 − 7x − 35 C 3x2 − 2x − 35
D 4x2 − 2x − 2 E 4x − 2
2 Which of the following is a perfect square quadratic expression?
A x2 + 10x + 16 B x2 − 8x + 16 C x2 − 25
D (x + 6)(x − 6) E (x2 + 7)2
3 The expression 9x2 − 64 is an example of:
A a perfect square B a difference of squares C a negative quadratic
D a quadratic term E a factorised expression
4 Which of the following is equivalent to 36x2 − 49?
A (6x + 7)2 B (6x − 7)2 C (6x + 7)(6x − 7)
D (36x + 1)(x − 49) E (9x + 7)(4x − 7)
5 The expression (x − 2)2 + 8 can be factorised to:
A (x + 6)2 B (x + 6)(x − 10) C (x − 2 + 4)(x − 2 − 4)
D ( x − 2 + 2 2)( x − 2 + 2 2) E The expression cannot be factorised using real numbers.
6 Which of the following gives all solutions of the equation (2x − 7)(x + 4) = 0?
A x = 7, −4 B x = −2, −1 C x = 2, 1
−7 7 −
D x= ,4 E x= , 4
2 2
7 Which of the following represent the full solution to x2 − 6x + 9 = 0?

A x = −3 B x = −3, +3 C x=3
D x = −3, −6 E No real solution
8 A solution to (x − 5)2 − 7 = 0 is:
A x = −5− 7 B x = 5+ 7 C x = 7+ 5
−7+ −5+
D x= 5 E x= 7

9 If the equation 3x2 = 9 + x is to be solved using the quadratic formula, which set of values should be
substituted into the formula?
A a = 3, b = −1 and c = 0 B a = 3, b = −1 and c = −9 C a = 3, b = 9 and c = 1
1 −3
D a = 1, b = 3 and c = E a = 9, b = 1 and c =
9
10 The quadratic formula, which can be used to solve equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0, is given by:
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac b ± b 2 − 4 ac b 2 − 4 ac
A x= B x= C x = −b ±
2a 2a 2a
− b2 −b
± b − 4 ac ± b − 4 ac
D x= E x=
2a 2a
11 The value of the discriminant in 2x2 + 3x + 4 = 0 is:
A −23 B −7 C 25
D 32 E 41
12 For a quadratic equation to have at least one real solution, the discriminant could be:
A negative B zero C positive
D either positive or negative E a perfect square
13 The turning point of the graph of y = 5(x + 2)2 − 1 is at:
A (1, 2) B (1, −2) C (2, −1)
D (−2, 1) E (−2, −1)
14 If y = −3(x − 2)2 + 8, the maximum value of y is:
A −3 B −4
C 2 D 8
E 20
15 The graph shown could be for the rule: y
A y = + 5x − 30
x2
B y = x2 − 11x + 30 30
C y = x2 + 11x + 30
D y = −x2 + 11x + 30 −6 −5
E y = −x2 + 11x − 30 x
16 The turning point of y = x2 + bx + 40 is at x = −7. The value of b is:
A −14 B −7
7
C D 7
2
E 14
17 Using a CAS calculator, the approximate solutions to y = −x2 + x + 4 are:
A x = 0.5 and y = 4.25
B x = 0 and y = 4
C x = 2.56 and x = 0
D x = −1.56 and x = 2.56
E x = 1.56 and x = 0
18 The system of 2 simultaneous equations represented by the graphs y
at right has:
A no solutions for x
B one solution for x x
C one positive and one negative solution for x
D two negative solutions for x
E insufficient information for us to find a solution
19 A solution to the system of equations y = 2x − 1 and y = x2 + 8x + 8 is:
A (−3, −7) B (0, −1)
C (0, 8) D (3, 5)
E (2, 28)

1 A 100 m length of steel cable is threaded through a series of posts in order to construct w
E X TENDED
R E SP ONS E a fence around a paddock with four straight sides as shown at right.
a Write an equation that links l and w.
b Rearrange the equation in part a to write an expression for l in terms of w.
l
c Write an expression for the area of the paddock in terms of w.
d Plot a graph of area against w. Plot area on the vertical axis and w on the
horizontal axis. On the graph, label all intercepts and the turning point.
e What is the maximum area of the paddock?
f What values of l and w give the maximum area of the paddock?
g Comment on the relationship between l and w, and state what type of shape the paddock is.
2 MacBurger’s restaurants have employed a mathematician to y
design a new logo based on an ‘M’ made up of two parabolas
as shown in the sketch at right. Parabola 1 Parabola 2
The parabolas both have the form y = −2x2 + bx + c.
a Give the coordinates of two points on each parabola. h
b Find the equation of each parabola.
c Find the height, h, of the sign. (−2, 0) (2, 0) x
d Which domain of x-values should each graph be restricted
to so that the parabolas form the logo shown above?
e Determine the equations of two parabolas that may be used to form the ‘W’ shape below, given
they are both of the form y = x2 + bx + c.
y
(−3, 0) (3, 0) x
3 Find the equation of a parabola that goes through the points listed in each case.
(Hint: Assume equations of the form y = ax2 + bx + c and form simultaneous equations by substituting
coordinate values.)
a (0, 1), (1, 0) and (2, 3)
b (0, −1), (1, 4) and (2, 15)
c (0, 5), (−1, 11) and (1, −3)
d Find the equations of two parabolas that form a path similar to the one below depicting a proposed
water slide, given the x2 coefficient of each curve is 1 or −1.
y
(8, 8)
(4, 4)
4 a Using written algebra, sketch the graphs of the quadratic equations y = x2 − 6x + 8 and
y = 3x2 + 5x − 28, showing intercepts and turning points.
DIGITAL DOC b Why was one equation easier to sketch than the other?
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Answers CHAPTER 2
QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS e 12r2 + 28rs − 5s2 ⎛ 9 65 ⎞ ⎛ 9 65 ⎞
Exercise 2A Polynomials
f 9u2 − 4t2 e ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
g 2h2 − 128k2
1 a 3 b1 c 2 −3m2 + 36mn − 108n2
h ⎛ 11 145 ⎞ ⎛ 11 145 ⎞
d 6 e5
2 a x bt c x Exercise 2C Factorising quadratic
f ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
d x eu expressions
g No real factors
3 a Polynomial 1b 1 a 5xy2(xy + 4) b −2ax(4x − 7) ⎛ 5 17 ⎞ ⎛ 5 17 ⎞
b Polynomial 1c c 7(p q − 3p + 1)
2 d 11r2s(2r2s2 + 1) h ⎜x+ + x+ −
c Polynomial 1a e 5(x2 + 2x + 15) f −3(x2 + 6x − 2) ⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
5 2 a (x + 9)(x + 7) b (x − 11)(x − 6)
4 a N; bP c N; −3 x ⎛ 13 173 ⎞ ⎛ 13 173 ⎞
c 2(x + 3)(x + 8) d −3(x − 2)(x + 4)
x i ⎜⎝ x − 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x − 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
− e (8 − x)(x + 12) f (3x + 5)(2x − 7)
d N; k 2 e N; 2x g (2x − 9)(3x − 5) h −2(4x + 1)(5x − 7)
5 a 3 bx ⎛ 1 13 ⎞ ⎛ 1 13 ⎞
3 a (2x + 3)(2x − 3) b (9x + 5)(9x − 5)
c −3 d5 ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
j
c 2(x + 4)(x − 4) d 18(x + 3)(x − 3)
e Coefficient of the quadratic term e (x + 3)(x − 1) f 3(x − 1)(3x − 5) 3 E 4 E 5 B 6 C
6 a 1 g 2(x + 10)(4 − x)
− 7 a 3( x − 3 + 10)( x − 3 − 10)
b 19 h −15(x − 1)(5x − 11)
c −2x2 + x + 2
4 a (x + 7)2 b (5x − 1)2 ⎛ 5 17 ⎞ ⎛ 5 17 ⎞
b 2⎜ x + + x+ −
7 a 6 c 2(x + 3)2 d 3(x − 2)2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
b t e −2(6x − 1)2 f (x + 3)2 −5(x
c − 1)(x + 3) or 5(1 − x)(x + 3)
c 0.9937; she is swimming 0.9937 m/s g (2x − 5) 2 h (2x − 3 2)2 −4(3x2
d − x + 2)
at 0.2 s. 5 a x(x + 6) b (x + 1)(x − 7)
d 1.818 m/s c −(2x + 1)(2x + 13) d (3x + 7)(3x − 11) Exercise 2E Solving quadratic
Exercise 2B Expanding quadratic e 2(x − 1)(x + 3) f 3x(8 − x) equations — Null Factor Law
−3
g 6(5x + 1)(15x + 17) −6,
b −1,
1
c 5, −2
expressions 1 a
h −(x − 5)(x − 7) i 3(x + 2)(10 − 3x) 2 6
1 a 2x2 + 16x + 30 b 12x2 − 5x − 3 −12 − 2 −1
6 a (x + 11)(x + 12) b (3x − 4)(2x − 5) d , e ,3 f −7, 23
c 25x − 25x − 14
2 d 48x2 − 26x + 3
c 2(2x − 1)(x + 3) d (9x − 31)(12x − 53) 7 9 2
e 7x2 + 19x − 36 f x2 + 21x + 90 7 a 3(x − 9)(x + 1) b (5x + 1)2 6 −
g , 6 h 0, 1
g −18x2 + 51x − 26 h x2 − 11x + 30 c (x − 14)2 d (x − 14)2 7
−1 −5
i 9x2 − 82x + 9 j 4x2 + 9x − 63 6, −12 c −2,
e 3 x ( 2 x − 2) f 5(2x + 1)(6x + 1) 2 a b 4,
2 a 4x2 + 12x + 9 b 9x2 − 30x + 25 2 4
g 5x(12x − 1) h 9(1 − xy)(1 + xy) 1
c 36x2 + 12x + 1 d 49x2 − 84x + 36 d 5, −11 e 3, −3 f
i 7x(5x − 4) j −2(6x + 7)(x − 7) 4
e x − 16x + 64
2
f x2 + 26x + 169
8 a C b E 2 −2
g 4x2 − 36x + 81 h 4x2 + 36x + 81 g , h 0, 5
c A 5 5
i 16 − 24x + 9x 2
j 36 − 12x + x2
9 k = 5, m = −4 −7 7 −1
3 a 4x − 36
2
b 9x2 − 25 3 a 5, 9 b , c
Exercise 2D 2 3 4
c 36x2 − 1 d 4x2 − 81 Factorising by completing −
1 −1 −5, 1 3
e 121x − 9 2
f x2 − 144 the square d
6
, 6 e
3
f
2
1 a ( x + 2 + 7)( x + 2 − 7)
g x2 − 36 h 49 − 4x2 9 −9 8 −5
g , h 0, i 2,
i 1 − x2 j 25x2 − 1 b ( x + 5 + 5)( x + 5 − 5) 4 4 5 2
4 a 6x + 46x + 60
2
b 6x2 − 3x − 84 c ( x + 3 + 2)( x + 3 − 2) j
5 1
,
3 2
c −8x2 + 4x + 40 d 24x2 − 66x + 27
e 96x2 − 56x + 8 f −70x2 + 35x + 210
d ( x + 1 + 2 2)( x + 1 − 2 2) 4 D 5 E 6 D
( x + 4 + 3)( x + 4 − 3) 7 Length = 8 cm, width = 5 cm
g 4x − 44x + 112
2
h 35x2 − 90x + 40 e
8 a The area is doubled.
i 2ax2 − 3ax − 54a j 2bx2 − 32b f ( x − 2 + 5)( x − 2 − 5)
5 a 36x2 − 169 b 60x2 − x − 10 b Length = 20 2 + 33 + 1 cm
c −6x2 + 27x + 168 d 9x2 + 66x + 121
g ( x − 6 + 17)( x − 6 − 17)
Width = 20 2 + 33 − 1 cm
e 4x2 − 196 f 36x2 − 60x + 25 h ( x − 1 + 6)( x − 1 − 6) 9 4 hours
g x + 7x − 144
2
h −x2 + 16 i ( x − 4 + 6)( x − 4 − 6) 10 a 30 b 13
i −100x2 + 120x − 36 11 a 42
j ( x − 3 + 13)( x − 3 − 13)
j 20x2 − 245 b 16
⎛ 3 5⎞⎛ 3 5⎞ 9
or 4.5 kg
2x2 − 7x − 34 18x2 − 14x + 5 ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠
6 a b 2 a 12
2
−2x2 − 18x − 159
c 12x2 + 25x − 55 d 13 a 3.7 s b 2 5
e 4x2 − 24x − 62 f 23x2 − 114 ⎛ 5 37 ⎞ ⎛ 5 37 ⎞ 14 a x = 1.998 using fixed point iteration.
g x2 − 3 h 12x2 + 2 x − 2
b ⎜⎝ x + 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x + 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ (The correct answer is x = 2.)
7 5 b x = −0.562
i 4x2 + 9x + j 15x2 − 24x −
2 3 ⎛ 7 41 ⎞ ⎛ 7 41 ⎞ 15 a 0.228 b 1.140
7 a 4a2 + 8a + 2ab + 4b c ⎜⎝ x − 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x − 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ c 0.268 d 0.863
b 3x2 − 10y2 + xy 16 Answers will vary.
c 49c2 − 56c + 12 ⎛ 1 5⎞⎛ 1 5⎞ 17 Answers will vary.
d u2 + 8uv + 16v2 d ⎜⎝ x − 2 + 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ x − 2 − 2 ⎟⎠ 18 Answers will vary.

Exercise 2F Solving quadratic equations 5 a 6.317, −0.317 b 1.854, −4.854 d ik < 4.05 ii k = 4.05
— completing the square c 3.637, −0.137 d No real solutions iiik > 4.05
1 a −4
± 15 b −6 ± 33 e 0.123, −8.123 f No real solutions e ik<3 ii k=3
6 a 1.472, −7.472 b 1.121, −3.121 iiik>3
−2 ±
c 6 d 3± 5 c −
0.225, −1.775 d 7.162, 0.838
f ik > 3 or ii k = −1.5 or k = 3
e 5± 7 f 3± 3 e 3.851, 0.649 f 7.772, −0.772 k < −1.5
g No real solutions h No real solutions
−3 ± 13 −5 ± 17 iii −1.5 < k < 3
2 a b 7 22.5 cm g i No values of k ii All values of k
2 2 8 11.3 hours iii No values of k
7 ± 29 9 ± 89 9 5.2 minutes h i k<1 ii k=1
c d 10 a 1 metre
2 2 iii k > 1
b At t = 0.2 seconds
− 11 ± i i k < 3 or k > 3 ii k=3
105 c At t = 1.2 and 2.3 seconds
e f −2, 3 iii No values of k
2 11 a 1.2 m
6 (See table bottom of page)
b She will need to buy an extra 5.25 m2
3 a 2± 5 b 3± 7 Exercise 2I Graphs of quadratic
of pavers.
9 ± 73 −7 ± 65 c She will have 3 m2 of pavers left over. functions as power functions (turning
c d point form)
2 2 12 0.711 m
15 ± 201 −2 2 1 a (5, 0) b (−7, 3)
e 3 ± 19 f 13 a y= x + 4x
95 − d (1, 8)
2 c (2, 7)
b 190 m
g 7±5 2 h No solutions
c 190 m e (−3, −4) f (2, 2)
4 a ± 14 b± 6 2 a i (4, 2)
Exercise 2H The discriminant ii Same
c ±2 3 d ±3 1 a 73 b 20 c 176 iii Minimum y = 2
5 E d −71 e 37 f −20 iv 18
6 C v y
g 229 h 193 i −
60
7 D
2 a 0 b 2 c 0
8 a Solutions do not exist.
d 1 e 1 f 2 (0, 18)
21 g 2 h 2 i 1
b x =2±
6 3 a a2 − 4
3 −
c , 1
2
b 4 − 12a
d Solutions do not exist. c 36 − 4a
(4, 2)
Exercise 2G
d b2 − 4a
The quadratic formula x
e 4m2 − 4m
1 a 1, 4, −3 b 1, −7, 9 f m2 + 2m − 11 b i (2, −3) ii Same
−
c 1, 4, 9 d −6, −3, 7 iii Minimum y = −3
g m2 + 4m + 16 iv 1
1 −
e , 7, 5 f 1, 2, 1 h k2 − 8k + 8 v y
2
g 4, −12, 9 h −2,
0, 1 4 D
i 7, −21, 4 j −
3, 0, 2 5 a i k > 4 or k < −4 ii k = ±4
− 1
2 a −4, −5 b 2, 8 iii 4<k<4
c 8,
−3
d 3,
1 b i k<4 ii k=4 x
2 4 iii k>4
−5 13
b − 4 ± 11
c i k > 1 or k < −1 ii k = ±1
3 a ± −1 < k < 1 (2, −3)
2 2 iii
−3 5
c ± d − 5 ± 13 6
Equation after
2 2 substitution Number of
e 3± 7 f 6, 1 Question k = −1 solutions Reasoning
9 113 a x2 −x+4=0 0 Δ = k2 − 16 = −15
g 2± 6 h ±
2 2 b x2 − 4x − 1 = 0 2 Δ = 16 − 4k = 20
3 17 3 c x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 1 Δ = 16k2 − 16 = 0
i ± j ± 2
4 4 2 −x2
d − 18x + 20 = 0 2 Δ = 324 − 80k = 404
± 3k 2 +1 +1 e x2 − 4x = 0 2 Δ = 12 − 4k = 16
k x=
k f 6x2 − 4x + 2 = 0 0 Δ = 16k2 − 24k − 72
k + 1 ± k 2 − 30 k + 1 = −32
l x=
4k −4x2
g − 12x − 9 = 0 1 Δ = 144k2 − 144k2
4 a −2 ±
7; k =
−1 =0
2
h 3x2 + 10x + 5 = 0 2 Δ = 20 − 20k = 40
8± 2
b ; k = 31 i −2x2
+2=0 2 Δ = k2 − 6k + 9 = 16
31

c i (−5, −8) h i (3, 3) ii Thinner 4 a y = (x − 2)2 + 4
ii Same iii Maximum y = 3 iv −60 b y = −(x + 1)2 + 5
iii Minimum y = −8 v y c y = (x − 2)2 − 5
(3, 3)
iv 17 d y = −(x + 3)2 + 1
v y x e y = −(x − 6)2 + 6
f y = (x + 3)2 − 2
17 5 a 6
b −7
−60 6 a (2, 5) minimum y = 5
b (3, 8) minimum y = 8
c (6, 1) minimum y = 1
i i (8, −9) ii Same d (−4, −3) minimum y = −3
x
iii Maximum y = −9 iv −73 e (2, −9) minimum y = −9
v y f (0, 7) minimum y = 7
(−5, −8)
g (−9, −81) minimum y = −81
d i (1, −1) (8, −9) x
h (3, 4) minimum y = 4
ii Same i (−2, 3) minimum y = 3
iii Minimum y = −1 1 2
7 a i( , ) ii (0.33, 0.67)
iv 0 3 3
v y −73 − −
b i ( 5 , 7) ii (−1.25, −0.875)
4 8
−
c i ( 1 , 35 ) ii (0.25, −4.375)
4 8
8 y = −(x − 5)2 + 9
x j i (1, 20) 9 C
ii Same 10 E
(1, −1) iii Minimum y = 20 11 B
e i (−5, −9) iv 21 12 a −h b n c M
ii Thinner v y d M e 2Mh f Mh2 + n
iii Minimum y = −9 Exercise 2J Graphs of quadratic
iv 41
y
functions (intercepts method)
v 21 1 a 2 b −4 c 0
(1, 20)
d 6 e 2 f 1
2 a 1, 6 b 3, −2 c −5, −1
41 x d 4, 5 e 0, 2 f 3, 4
g −5, 5 h 0, −8 i −9
3 a y b y j 2, −10
5 − 1 9
3 a , 1 b , −2 c 9,
2 3 4
− 3 −1
d −1, 6 e , f 0, −4
5 2 4
x −a −b
(−5, −9) g ,
(2, 5) A B
f i (4, 4) ii Wider (−1, 3) 4 a No x-intercepts
28
iii Minimum y = 4 iv x x
b
7
± 21
3
v y 2 2
c y d y −9 73
c ±
(6, 0) 4 4
28 x d No x-intercepts
—
3
5 a y
(4, 4)
x
x 3
(0, −4)
g i (−1, −12) ii Thinner
− 54
iii Minimum y = −12 iv e y f y 1 3 x
5 (2, −1)
v y
x b y
(7, −7)
x
− 54
— 1
5
(0, 2) x
(−1, 0)
(−1, −12) x

c y i y d y
8 3
−1 12 x
−12
1– 3– x
−4 −2 x 2 2
(1, −1)
(−3, −1) (11
— , − 169
—– )
2 4
j y e y
d y
35 49
1– 3– x
2 4
(−7, 0) x ( 5– , − 1– )
8 8
k y
−7 −5 f y
x 3–
(−6, −1) 7
64 −3 x
−9
e y
(8, 0) x
12 (− 9– , − 144
–— )
l y 7 7
−17 9 x y
g
2 6 x
(4, −4)
9
f y
(−4, −169) −153
−9 7 x y
6 a − 1–
5
−3 x
(− 8– , − 147
–— )
5 5
−63 −2 4– x
(−1, −64) 3 y
h
(− 1– , − 25
—)
3 3 −8
− 7– 1 x
y y 9
g b
−4 2– x −7
2 5 ( 1– , − 64
—)
9 9
−2 −1 x −8
(− 3– , − 1– ) i y
2 4
(− 9– , − 121
—– )
5 5
c y −4 7– x
y
h 2
6 − 5– 3 x
3
−15
−28
2 3 x
( 5– , − 1– ) (− 1– , − 225
–—)
2 4 ( 2– , − 49
—) 4 8
3 3

j y e y f y
( 3– , 4) 12
2
2
1– 5– x
2 2
−5
− 2–
3
−1 x −2 2 x
(− 5– , − —1 ) f y
6 12 (− 3– , 49
—)
8 8 y
g
5
k y
− 5– 1– x −5 0 x
− 3– 3 x 4 2
2
(− 5– , − 25
—)
2 4
8 a y
−5 5 x h y
−9
( 3– , − 81
—)
4 8
0 8 x
y
7 a (−4, 49)
(4, −16)
−25
33 y
y i
b
−11 11 x
−11 3 x 0 2 x
(1, −5)
y
b
(1, 4) y
−121 j (−3, 36)
3
c y
−1 3 x
1
−6 0 x
−1 1 x
y
c
(−9, 36) k y
( 7– , 147
–—)
2 4
d y
−15 −3 x
3
−45
− 3 3 x
0 7 x
y y
d (9, 0) e y 9 a
x
−3 3 x
−3.828 1.828 x
−81 −7
−18 (−1, −8)

b y i y Exercise 2L Simultaneous quadratic
and linear equations
1 −0.479 3.479 x 1 a y
−0.268 −5 (3, 32)
−3.732 x
(2, 21)
(−2, −3) ( 3– , − 47
—)
2 4
y 5 1
c —
11
j y
−3 −2 −1 x
3 (0, 17)
−0.395
−7.606 x b y
(2, 8)
−2.380 2.380 x
−6 (1, 0) x
k y
(−4, −13)
−6
d y −8
( 1– , 13
—)
4 4 5–
4
0 x
3
( 5– , − 25
—) c y
8 16
10 D 11 B
14
−0.651 1.151 x 12 a 2
b 2 −2 5
y c 1 −7 x
e (−9, 80)
d 0
(−3, −4)
e 2
f 1
13 a C d y
b A
−0.056 c D
−17.944 −1 x d B
(−2, 28)
25 3
14 units; up; y = 2x2 − 3x + 9 ; y = 2( x − 4 )2
8 8
15 16 units; up; y = −3x2 − 12x;
f y y = −3(x + 2)2 + 12 10
Exercise 2K Using technology to solve 6 6
—
11
quadratic equations
2 5 x
1 1 a −3.732, −0.268
0.382 2.618 b −0.179, 11.179
x c 3.414, 0.586 e y
( 3– , − 5– )
2 4 d −8.899, 0.899
y e −11.196, −0.804
g 3
f 0.232, 1.434 x
−1 6
2 a 0.377, −0.681 −6
−0.275 7.275 x
b −5.747, −0.665
−2 c 4.712, −0.430
d −1.086, 1.600 f y
( 7– , −57
—) e −153.441, −0.392 (3, 70)
2 4
f 0.094, −500.094
y
h 3 4.355 h
4 56.4 h
5 5.7 m 40
4
6 Christine; her sum was 0.046 less than 28
−0.719 10.25, whereas Harry’s was 0.167 more
−2.781 x than 10.25.
(−4, 0)
7 a k=8
(− 7– , − 17
—) −7 −4 x
4 8 b x = 0.5

g y m y
9 3 − 3 < a <3 3 + 9
16
10 a x = a + a 2 + 24 b a=5
(5, 14) (−1, 7) −3
c b= d (8, 5)
−2 4
6 x e 6.13 metres
− 16
—
9
−9 4 x
f |AB| = 2.67 metres (approx)
−36 = 2 2 m (exact)
(−4, −20) 3
CHAPTER REVIEW
−61 n y
SHORT ANSWER
1 a 49x2 − 64 b 4x2 − 36x + 81
(−8, 20) (1, 20)
c 25x2 − 3 d 8x2 − 70x + 117
h y 2 a (5x + 11)2 b (x + 6)(6x + 1)
12 c (3x − 7)(4x − 3) d (6x + 7)(6x − 7)
−2 3 (x − 3 + 23)(x − 3 − 23)
−17
– 8 x −1 −5
4 4 a 3, b 15,
−4 −3 x 4 3
−16
−17 y 5 a ± 5
b 7± 7
(1, −21) o 2
6 − 3 ± 11
9
7 29
7
10
± 10
y −135
i 8
(9, 39) 9– −4 3 4 3
4
x
9 a
3
<k< 3
−5 1
4 3
b k=±
p y 3
−4 3
− 3–4 3 c k>
4 3
or k <
−4 3 3
6 x (6, 16)
(−3, −9) 10 a y
(−1, 2)
−24
x
4
2 4 x −2
j y (2, 0)
2 a 1 b 2 c 2 d 0 b y
10 3 −12
6 4 4
x
2 5 5 b = −5, c = −17
3– x
2
⎛ − 3 − 13 − ⎞
6 a
⎜⎝ , 5 − 13 ⎟ and (0, −1)
2 ⎠
⎛ − 3 + 13 − ⎞ 11 y = (x + 4)2 − 13
k
y
⎜⎝ , 5 + 13 ⎟ 12 a y
2 ⎠
21
b (− 1 − 7, 1 − 3 7) and 84
11 (5, 16)
(−2, 9) (− 1 + 7, 1 + 3 7)
⎛ 1 − 13 4(5 + 13) ⎞
c
−3 7 x ⎜⎝ 3 , 3 ⎟⎠ and 6 14 x
(10, −16)
⎛ 1 + 13 4(5 − 13) ⎞
l
y 54 ⎜⎝ 3 , 3 ⎟⎠ b y
—
13
6 8 x − 11 − 433
d ⎛ , ⎞ and (0, −5)
(3, −15) ⎜⎝ ⎟
20 80 ⎠ −10 8 x
−48
−54 7 1.322 km and 2.553 km
x2 −80
(−2, −80) 8 y= , (2, 2) and (−2, 2) (−1, −81)
2

c y d −2 ≤ x ≤ 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
7 C 8 B 9 B
10 A 11 A 12 C e y = x2 + 6x + 9, y = x2 − 6x + 9
48 13 E 14 D 15 C 3 a y = 2x2 − 3x + 1
16 E 17 D 18 D b y = 3x2 + 2x − 1
19 A c y = −x2 − 7x + 5
8–
3 d y = −x2 + 5x, y = x2 − 11x + 32
x EXTENDED RESPONSE y
6 4 a
( 13
—,
3 − 25
—)
3
1 a 100 = 2l + 2w
b l = 50 − w
d y
( − 5– , 1– ) c A = −w2 + 50w 8
4 8
d Area
− 3–2 (25, 625)
−1 x
2 4 x
(3, −1)
−3
(0, 0) (50, 0) w b The turning point of the first graph has

whole number (integer) coordinates.
13 (−3, 0) and (−6, 6) e Area = 625 m2 c The x-coordinate of the turning point
5± 25 − 48 k 2 f l = 25 m, w = 25 m −
b
14 x = g l = w: the paddock is a square. is , so is a whole number if b is a
8k 2a
2 a Parabola 1: (−2, 0) and (0, 0), multiple of 2a.
MULTIPLE CHOICE parabola 2: (2, 0) and (0, 0)
1 A 2B 3 B b y = −2x2 − 4x, y = −2x2 + 4x
4 C 5E 6 E c h = 2 units

CHAPTER 3
Cubic and quartic functions
doc-9724
3A Expanding 10 Quick Questions
3B Long division of polynomials
3C Polynomial values
3D The remainder and factor theorems
3E Factorising polynomials
3F Sum and difference of two cubes
3G Solving polynomial equations
3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method
3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method
3J Graphs of cubic functions in power function form
3K Domain, range, maximums and minimums
3L Modelling using technology
3M Finite differences
Polynomials of degree 3 and 4

This chapter will deal mainly with polynomials of degree 3 (cubics). The general equation of a cubic
polynomial is P(x) = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0, more commonly written as y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.
Degree 4 polynomials (quartics) will also be considered. The general equation of a quartic polynomial
is P(x) = a4 x4 + a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0, more commonly written as y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e.
3A Expanding
If we expand three linear factors, for example, (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 7), we get a cubic polynomial
(a polynomial of degree 3) as the following worked example shows.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Expand:
a x(x + 2)(x − 3) b (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a x(x + 2)(x − 3)

= x(x2 − 3x + 2x − 6)
2 Expand two linear factors and simplify.
= x(x2 − x − 6)
3 Multiply by the remaining factor. = x3 − x2 − 6x
b 1 Write the expression. b (x − 1)(x + 5)(x + 2)
= (x − 1)(x2 + 2x + 5x + 10)
2 Expand two linear factors and simplify.
= (x − 1)(x2 + 7x + 10)
3 Multiply by the remaining factor and simplify. = x3 + 7x2 + 10x − x2 − 7x − 10
= x3 + 6x2 + 3x − 10
CHAPTER 3 Cubic and quartic functions 105

Note: Just as there is a shortcut for expanding perfect squares, there is also a shortcut for expanding
cubes. We can find the shortcut by expanding (a + b)3 as usual.
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)(a + b) = (a + b)(a2 + 2ab + b2)
= a3 + 2a2b + ab2 + a2b + 2ab2 + b3 (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3
Similarly, (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Expand the perfect cube (x − 4)3 using the appropriate rule.

THINK WRITE
1 Use the rule (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3. (x − 4)3

In this case a is x and b is 4. = x3 − 3 × x2 × 4 + 3 × x × 42 − 43
2 Simplify. (x − 4)3
= x3 − 12x2 + 48x − 64
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Expand −2x(x + 5)(x − 12).

THINK WRITE
−2x(x
1 Write the expression. + 5)(x – 12)
2 Expand the two linear factors and simplify. = −2x(x2 − 12x + 5x − 60)
= −2x(x2 − 7x − 60)
3 Multiply the remaining factor. No = −2x3 + 14x2 + 120
simplification is needed.
Exercise 3A Expanding
1 WE1a Expand each of the following.
a x(x + 6)(x + 1) b x(x − 9)(x + 2) c x(x − 3)(x + 11) d 2x(x + 2)(x + 3)
e −3x(x − 4)(x + 4) f 5x(x + 8)(x + 2) g x2(x + 4) h −2x2(7 − x)
i (5x)(−6x)(x + 9) j −7x(x + 4)2
2 WE1b Expand each of the following.

a (x + 7)(x + 2)(x + 3) b (x − 2)(x + 4)(x − 5) c (x − 1)(x − 4)(x + 8)
d (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) e (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 1) f (x − 7)(x + 7)(x + 5)
g (x + 11)(x + 5)(x − 12) h (x + 5)(x − 1)2 i (x + 2)(x − 7)2
j (x + 1)(x − 1)(x + 1)
3 Expand each of the following.
a (x − 2)(x + 7)(x + 8) b (x + 5)(3x − 1)(x + 4) c (4x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 3)
d (5x + 3)(2x − 3)(x − 4) e (1 − 6x)(x + 7)(x + 5) f 3x(7x − 4)(x − 4)
g −9x(1 − 2x)(3x + 8) h (6x + 5)(2x − 7)2 i (3 − 4x)(2 − x)(5x + 9)
j 2(7 + 2x)(x + 3)(x + 4)
4 WE2 Expand the following using the appropriate rule for expanding cubes.
a (x + 2)3 b (x + 5)3 c (x − 1)3
d (x − 3)3 e (2x − 6) 3 f (3x + 4)3
5 WE3 Expand each of the following.
a (x + 5)(x − 11)(x + 2) b 3x(x + 6)(x − 1) c 6(x − 5)(−x + 15)(x + 8)
d (−x + 5)(x − 12)2 e −x(x + 10)2 f −(x+ 13)3

3B Long division of polynomials
The reverse of expanding is factorising (expressing a polynomial as a product of its linear factors).
Before learning how to factorise cubics, you must be familiar with long division of polynomials. You
may remember in earlier levels doing long division questions.
Consider 745 ÷ 3, or 3 745
The process used is as follows.
3 into 7 goes 2 times. Write 2 at the top. 2

2 × 3 = 6. Write down the 6. 3 745
Subtract to get 1. −6
Bring down the 4 to form 14. 14
3 into 14 goes 4 times. Write 4 at the top. 248 Quotient

4 × 3 = 12. Write down the 12. Divisor 3 745 Dividend
Subtract to get 2. −6
Bring down the 5 to form 25. 14
− 12
25
3 into 25 goes 8 times. Write 8 at the top. − 24
8 × 3 = 24. Write down the 24. 1 Remainder
Subtract to get 1.
Answer: 745 ÷ 3 = 248 remainder 1
The same process can be used to divide polynomials by polynomial factors.

Consider (x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10) ÷ (x − 3) or x − 3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
x into x3 goes x2 times x2

(consider only the leading terms). x−3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10
Write x2 at the top. − (x3 − 3x2)
x2 × (x − 3) = x3 − 3x2 5x2 − 13x
Write down the x3 − 3x2.
Subtract.
(x3 − x3 = 0, 2x2 − −3x2 = 5x2)
Bring down the −13x.
x into 5x2 goes 5x times. Write + 5x at the top. x2 + 5x + 2 Quotient

5x × (x − 3) = 5x2 − 15x Divisor x−3 x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10 Dividend
Write down the 5x2 − 15x. − (x3 − 3x2)
5x2 − 13x
Subtract.
− (5x2 − 15x)
Note: 5x2 − 5x2 = 0, −13x − −15x = +2x
2x + 10
Bring down the 10. − (2x − 6)
16 Remainder
x into 2x goes 2 times. Write + 2 at the top.
2 × (x − 3) = 2x − 6
Write down the 2x − 6.
Subtract to get 16.
Answer: (x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10) ÷ (x − 3) = x2 + 5x + 2 remainder 16

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Perform the following long divisions and state the quotient and remainder.
a (2x3 + 6x2 − 3x + 2) ÷ (x − 6) b (x3 − 7x + 1) ÷ (x + 5)
TUTORIAL
Worked example 4
a 1 Write the question in long division format. a 2 2 + 18xx + 105 Q
2x
2 Perform the long division process. x −6 2 3
2x + 6x2 − 3x + 2
− (2
(2x − 12x
3 12 2)
18x2 − 3x
− (18x2 − 108x)
105x + 2
− (105x − 630)
632 R
3 Write down the quotient and remainder. The quotient is 2x2 + 18x + 105; the remainder is 632.
b 1 Write the question in long division b x2 − 5x + 18 Q
x2
format. Note that there is no term in x + 5 + 0x2 − 7x + 1
x3
this equation. Include 0x2 as a ‘place − (x3 + 5x2)
holder’. −5x2 − 7x
−
2 Perform the long division process. − ( 5x2 − 25x)
18x + 1
− (18x + 90)
−89
R
3 Write down the quotient and remainder. The quotient is x2 − 5x + 18; the remainder is −89.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Find the quotient and remainder when x4 − 3x3 + 2x2 − 8 is divided by x + 2.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the question in long division format. Include x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24

0x as a ‘place holder’. x + 2 − 3x3 + 2x2 + 0x − 8
x4
2 Divide x into x4 and write the result above. − (x4 + 2x3)
−5x3 + 2x2
Multiply x3 by x + 2 and write the result underneath. −

3 − ( 5x3 − 10x2)
12x2 + 0x
4 Subtract and then bring down the next term.
− (12x2 + 24x)
−24x − 8
5 Continue to perform the long division process
(as you did for cubic polynomials). − (−24x − 48)
40
6 Write down the quotient and remainder. The quotient is x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 24.
The remainder is 40.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the quotient and remainder when x3 − 4x2 − 7x − 5 is divided by x − 1.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the question in long division format. x2 − 3x − 10

x − 1 − 4x2 − 7x − 5
x3
2 Perform the long division process.
− (x3 − x2)
−3x2 − 7x
− (−3x2 + 3x)
−10x − 5
− (−10x + 10)
−15

3 Write the quotient and the remainder. The quotient is x2 – 3x – 10.
The remainder is –15.
Exercise 3B Long division of polynomials

1 WE4a Perform the following long divisions, and state the quotient and remainder.
a (x + 6x + 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 3)
3 2 b (x3 + 4x2 + 3x + 4) ÷ (x + 2) c (x3 + x2 + x + 3) ÷ (x + 1)
d (x + x + 4x + 1) ÷ (x + 2)
3 2 e (x + 2x − 5x − 9) ÷ (x − 2)
3 2 f (x3 + x2 − 9x − 5) ÷ (x − 2)
g (x − 5x + 3x − 8) ÷ (x − 3)
3 2 h (x − 9x + 2x − 1) ÷ (x − 5)
3 2 i 3x3 − x2 + 6x + 5, x + 2
j 4x − 4x + 10x − 4, x + 1
3 2 k 2x − 7x + 9x + 1, x − 2
3 2 l 2x3 + 8x2 − 9x − 1, x + 4
2 Divide the first polynomial by the second, and state the quotient and remainder.
a 6x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 4, 2x − 1 b 6x3 + 23x2 + 2x − 31, 3x + 4 c 8x3 + 6x2 − 39x − 13, 2x + 5
d 2x3 − 15x2 + 34x − 13, 2x − 7 e 3x + 5x − 16x − 23, 3x + 2
3 2 f 9x3 − 6x2 − 5x + 9, 3x − 4
3 State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
− x3 − 3x 3
− 6 x 2 − 7 x − 16 + 7 x 2 + 10 x − 15
a b
x +1 x−3
− 2x3 + 9 x 2 + 17 x + 15 d
4 x 3 − 20 x 2 + 23 x − 2
c
−2
2x + 1 x+3
4 WE4b State the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x3 − 3x + 1) ÷ (x + 1) b (x3 + 2x2 − 7) ÷ (x + 2) c (x3 − 5x2 + 2x) ÷ (x − 4)
−
d ( x − 7x + 8) ÷ (x − 1)
3 e (5x2 + 13x + 1) ÷ (x + 3) f (2x3 + 8x2 − 4) ÷ (x + 5)
−
g ( 2x − x + 2) ÷ (x − 2)
3 h (−4x3 + 6x2 + 2x) ÷ (2x + 1)
5 WE5 Find the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x4 + x3 + 3x2 – 7x) ÷ (x – 1) b (x4 – 13x2 + 36) ÷ (x – 2)
c (6x4 – x3 + 2x2 – 4x) ÷ (x – 3)
6 WE6 Calculate the quotient and remainder for each of the following.
a (x3 + 9x2 + 11x + 25) ÷ (x + 15) b (2x3 − 18x2 + 5x − 9) ÷ (x − 31)
c (12x + 32x − 9) ÷ (3x + 4)
3 d (18x4 + 3x3 + 45) ÷ (2x + 7)
3C Polynomial values
Consider the polynomial P(x) = x3 − 5x2 + x + 1.
The value of the polynomial when x = 3 is denoted by P(3) and is found by substituting x = 3 into the
equation in place of x. That is,
P(3) = (3)3 − 5(3)2 + (3) + 1
= 27 − 5(9) + 3 + 1
= 27 − 45 + 4
= −14.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
If P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4, determine:

a P(1) b P(−2) c P(a) d P(x + 1).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace x with 1. P(1) = 2(1)3 + (1)2 − 3(1) − 4

=2+1−3−4
3 Simplify. = −4

b 1 Write the expression. b P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace x with −2. P(−2) = 2(−2)3 + (−2)2 − 3(−2) − 4
3 Simplify. = 2(−8) + (4) + 6 − 4
= −16 + 4 + 6 − 4
= −10
c 1 Write the expression. c P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace x with a. P(a) = 2a3 + a2 − 3a − 4

No further simplification is possible.
d 1 Write the expression. d P(x) = 2x3 + x2 − 3x − 4
2 Replace x with (x + 1). P(x + 1) = 2(x + 1)3 + (x + 1)2 − 3(x + 1) − 4
3 Expand the right-hand side and = 2(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1) + x2 + 2x + 1 − 3x − 3 − 4
collect like terms. Use the rules for = 2x3 + 6x2 + 6x + 2 + x2 − x − 6
expanding cubics and quadratics. = 2x3 + 7x2 + 5x − 4
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Determine the following, considering P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 − 22x + 17.

a P(−14)
b P(y + 7)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 – 22x + 17

2 Replace x with −14. P(−14) = 16(–14)4 + 3(−14)3 – 22(−14) + 17
3 Simplify. P(−14) = 614 656 – 8232 + 308 + 17
= 606 749
b 1 Write the expression. b P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 – 22x + 17
2 Replace x with y + 7. P(y + 7) = 16(y + 7)4 + 3(y + 7)3 − 22(y + 7) + 17
3 Expand each term. 16(y + 7)4 = 16y4 + 448y3 + 4704y2 + 21 952y + 38 416
3(y + 7)3 = 3y3 + 63y2 + 441y + 1029
−22(y + 7) = −22y − 154
17 = 17
4 Collect like terms. P(y + 7) = 16y4 + 451y3 + 4767y2 + 22 371y + 3 9 308
Exercise 3C Polynomial values

1 WE7 If P(x) = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x + 10, determine the following.
a P(0) b P(1) c P(2)
d P(3) e P(−1) f P(−2)
− h P(a) i P(2b)
g P( 3)
j P(x + 2) k P(x − 3) l P(−4y)
2 WE8 Determine the following considering P(x) = 16x4 + 3x3 − 22x + 17.
a P(−11) b P(102)
c P(2x + 9) d P(x3 + 2)

3 Copy the following table.
Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Rem. Rem. Rem. Rem.
when when when when
divided divided divided divided
by by by by
P(x) P(1) P(2) P(−1) P(−2) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
a
b
c
d
Complete columns 2 to 5 of the table for each of the following polynomials.
a P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 b P(x) = x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 2
c P(x) = x − x + 4x − 1
3 2 d P(x) = x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 3
4 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x − 1) and complete column 6 of DIGITAL DOC
the table. doc-9725
Cubic valuer
5 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x − 2) and complete column 7 of
the table.
6 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 1) and complete column 8 of
the table.
7 Find the remainder when each polynomial in question 2 is divided by (x + 2) and complete column 9 of
the table.
8 Copy and complete the following sentences, using your answers to questions 3 to 7 to find the
pattern.
a A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x + 8) is to calculate .
DIGITAL DOC
b A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 7) is to calculate . doc-9726
c A quick way of finding the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is to calculate . WorkSHEET 3.1
3D The remainder and factor theorems

The remainder theorem
In the previous exercise, you may have noticed that:
The remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is equal to P(a).
That is, R = P(a).
This is called the remainder theorem.
We could have derived this result as follows.
If 13 is divided by 4, the quotient is 3, and the remainder is 1. That is,
13 ÷ 4 = 3 + 1 and
4
13 = 4 × 3 + 1.
Similarly, if P(x) = x3 + x2 + x + 1 is divided by (x − 2), the quotient is x2 + 3x + 7 and the remainder
is 15. That is,
15
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) ÷ (x − 2) = x2 + 3x + 7 + and
x−2
(x3 + x2 + x + 1) = (x2 + 3x + 7)(x − 2) + 15.
In general, if P(x) is divided by (x − a), the quotient is Q(x), and the remainder is R, we can write
R
P(x) ÷ (x − a) = Q(x) + and
( x − a)
P(x) = (x − a)Q(x) + R.

Substituting x = a into this last expression yields
P(a) = (a − a)Q(x) + R
= 0 × Q(x) + R
=R as before.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4 is divided by:
a x−3 b x + 6.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x3 − 7x2 − 2x + 4
2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by R = P(3)

(x − 3) is equal to P(3). = 33 − 7(3)2 − 2(3) + 4
= 27 − 7(9) − 6 + 4
= 27 − 63 − 6 + 4
= −38
b The remainder when P(x) is divided by b R = P(−6)
(x + 6) is equal to P(−6). = (−6)3 − 7(−6)2 − 2(−6) + 4
= −216 − 7(36) + 12 + 4
= −216 − 252 + 12 + 4
= −452
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
The remainder when x3 + kx2 + x − 2 is divided by (x − 2) is equal to 20. Find the value of k.
THINK WRITE
1 Name the polynomial. Let P(x) = x3 + kx2 + x − 2.

2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by R = P(2)
(x − 2) is equal to P(2). = 23 + k(2)2 + 2 − 2
= 8 + 4k
3 We are given R = 20. Since R = 20.
Put 8 + 4k = 20. 8 + 4k = 20
4k = 12
4 Solve for k.
k=3
The factor theorem

The remainder when 12 is divided by 4 is zero, since 4 is a factor of 12.
Similarly, if the remainder (R) when P(x) is divided by (x − a) is zero, then (x − a) must be a factor
of P(x).
Since R = P(a), all we need to do is to find a value of a that makes P(a) = 0, and we can say that
(x − a) is a factor.
If P(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of P(x).
This is called the factor theorem.
Imagine P(x) could be factorised as follows:
P(x) = (x − a)Q(x), where Q(x) is ‘the other’ factor of P(x).
Then we have P(a) = (a − a)Q(a)
= 0 × Q(a)
= 0.
So if P(a) = 0, (x − a) is a factor.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Apply the factor theorem to determine which of the following is a factor of x4 − 4x3 − 43x2 + 58x + 240.
a (x + 2) b (x − 1)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x4 − 4x3 − 43x2 + 58x + 240
2 To find the remainder when P(x) is P(−2) = (−2)4 − 4(−2)3 − 43(−2)2 + 58(−2) + 240
divided by (x − a), find P(a). = 16 − 4(−8) − 43(4) − 116 + 240
= 16 + 32 − 172 − 116 + 240
=0
3 State the answer. As P(−2) = 0, the remainder when P(x) is divided by
(x + 2) is zero; therefore, (x + 2) is a factor.
b 1 To find the remainder when P(x) is b P(1) = (1)4 − 4(1)3 − 43(1)2 + 58(1) + 240
divided by (x − a), find P(a). = 1 − 4 − 43 + 58 + 240
= 252
2 State the answer. As P(1) = 252, the remainder when P(x) is divided by
(x − 1) is 252; therefore, (x − 1) is not a factor.
Exercise 3D The remainder and factor theorems

1 WE9 Without actually dividing, find the remainder when x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 24 is divided by: DIGITAL DOC
a x−1 b x+2 c x−3 d x+5 doc-9725
e x−0 f x−k g x+n h x + 3c. Cubic valuer
2 Find the remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second without performing
long division.
a x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4, x − 3 b x3 − 4x2 + 2x − 1, x + 1
c x3 + 3x2 − 3x + 1, x + 2 d x3 − x2 − 4x − 5, x − 1
−3x3 − 2x2 + x + 6, x + 1
e 2x3 + 3x2 + 6x + 3, x + 5 f
g x3 + x2 + 8, x − 5 h x3 − 3x2 − 2, x − 2
i −x3 + 8, x + 3 j x3 + 2x2, x − 7
3a WE10The remainder when x3 + kx + 1 is divided by (x + 2) is −19. Find the value of k.
b The remainder when x3 + 2x2 + mx + 5 is divided by (x − 2) is 27. Find the value of m.
c The remainder when x3 − 3x2 + 2x + n is divided by (x − 1) is 1. Find the value of n.
d The remainder when ax3 + 4x2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x − 3) is −23. Find the value of a.
e The remainder when x3 − bx2 − 2x + 1 is divided by (x + 1) is 0. Find the value of b.
f The remainder when −4x2 + 2x + 7 is divided by (x − c) is −5. Find a possible whole number
value of c.
g The remainder when x2 − 3x + 1 is divided by (x + d) is 11. Find the possible values of d.
h The remainder when x3 + ax2 + bx + 1 is divided by (x − 5) is −14. When the cubic polynomial is
divided by (x + 1), the remainder is −2. Find a and b.
4 WE11 Apply the factor theorem to determine which of the following are factors of x3 + 2x2 − 11x − 12.
a (x − 1) b (x − 3) c (x + 1) d (x + 2)
5 Prove that each of the following are linear factors of x3 + 4x2 − 11x − 30 by substituting values
into the cubic function: (x + 2), (x − 3), (x + 5).
6 Use the factor theorem to show that the first polynomial is exactly divisible by the second (that is, the
second polynomial is a factor of the first).
a x3 + 5x2 + 2x − 8, x − 1 b x3 − 7x2 − x + 7, x − 7
c x3 − 7x2 + 4x + 12, x − 2 d x3 + 2x2 − 9x − 18, x + 2
e x3 + 3x2 − 9x − 27, x + 3 f −x3 + x2 + 9x − 9, x − 1
g −2x3 + 9x2 − x − 12, x − 4 h 3x3 + 22x2 + 37x + 10, x + 5

7 MC a When x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 5 is divided by (x + 2), the remainder is:
A −5 B −2 C 0 D 2 E 5
b Which of the following is a factor of 2x3 + 15x2 + 22x − 15?
A (x − 1) B (x − 2) C (x + 3) D (x − 5) E (x + 4)
c When x3 − 13x2 + 48x − 36 is divided by (x − 1), the remainder is:
A −3 B −2 C −1 D 0 E 1
d Which of the following is a factor of x3 − 5x2 − 22x + 56?
A (x − 2) B (x + 2) C (x − 5) D (x + 5) E (x + 7)
8 Find one factor of each of the following cubic polynomials.
a x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 b x3 − 7x2 + 16x − 12
DIGITAL DOC
c x + x − 8x − 12
3 2 d x3 + 3x2 − 34x − 120
doc-9727 9 Consider the polynomial P(x) = 6x3 + 7x2 − x − 2.
SkillSHEET 3.1
Reviewing the
discriminant
a Determine: i P(−1) ii P ( 12 ) iii P ( )
−2
3
b i Factorise P(x) as the product of (x + 1) and a quadratic factor.
ii Further factorise so P(x) is written as the product of three linear factors.
c Explain how the other two linear factors relate to what you found in parts b and c.
d Copy and complete the following: In general if (ax + b) is a factor, then P(…) = 0.
3E Factorising polynomials
Using long division
Once one factor of a polynomial has been found (using the factor theorem as in the previous section),
long division may be used to find other factors.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Use long division to factorise x3 − 19 x + 30.

THINK WRITE TUTORIAL
eles-1413
1 Name the polynomial. P(x) = x3 − 19x + 30 Worked example 12
Note: There is no x2 term, so include 0x2. P(x) = x3 + 0x2 − 19x + 30
2 Look at the last term in P(x), which is 30. This P(−5) = (−5)3 − 19 × (−5) + 30
suggests it is worth trying P(5) or P(−5). Try = −125 + 95 + 30
P(−5). P(−5) = 0, so (x + 5) is a factor. =0
Therefore (x + 5) is a factor.
3 Divide (x + 5) into P(x) using long division to x2 − 5x + 6
find a quadratic factor. x +5 x3 + 0x2 − 19x + 30
− (x + 5x2)
3
−5x2 − 19x
−(−5x2 − 25x)
6x + 30
−(6x + 30)
0
4 Write P(x) as a product of the two factors P(x) = (x + 5)(x2 − 5x + 6)
found so far.
5 Factorise the second bracket if possible. P(x) = (x + 5)(x − 2)(x − 3)
Note: In this example, P(x) may have been factorised without long division by finding all three values of
x that make P(x) = 0, and hence three factors, then checking that the three factors multiply to give P(x).
Using short division

The process of long division can take a lot of time (and space). One short division method is shown here;
it may take a little longer to understand, but it is quicker than long division once mastered.

Consider P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10. Using the factor theorem, we can find that (x − 1) is a factor of P(x).
So, P(x) = (x − 1)(ax2 + bx + c).
Actually, we know more than this: as P(x) begins with x3 and ends with +10, we could write:
P(x) = (x − 1)(x2 + bx − 10)
Imagine expanding this version of P(x). Our x2 terms give −1x2 + bx2.
Since P(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 13x + 10, we need +2x2. That is, we need −1x2 + 3x2. To get this, the bx must
be 3x, as when x in the first bracket is multiplied by 3x in the second bracket, +3x2 results. That is, we
have deduced
P(x) = (x − 1)(x2 + 3x − 10).
Factorising the second bracket gives
P(x) = (x − 1)(x + 5)(x − 2)
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Factorise the following, using short division where possible.

a x3 − 5x2 − 2 x + 24
b x4 + x3 − 13 x2 − 25 x − 12
THINK WRITE
a 1 Name the polynomial. a Let P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
2 Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. P(−2) = (−2)3 − 5 × (−2)2 − 2 × (−2) + 24
Try P(−2). = −8 − 20 + 4 + 24
= −28 + 28
=0
P(−2) does equal 0, so (x + 2) is a factor. So (x + 2) is a factor.
3 Write the original polynomial as the found P(x) = x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 24
factor multiplied by ax2 + bx + c. P(x) = (x + 2)(ax2 + bx + c)
The first term in the brackets must be x2, = (x + 2)(x2 + bx + 12)
and the last term must be 12.
4 Imagine the expansion of the expression in 2x2 + bx2 = −5x2
step 3. We have 2x2, and require −5x2. We b = −7
need an extra −7x2. So b = −7. P(x) = (x + 2)(x2 − 7x + 12)
5 Factorise the second bracket if possible. P(x) = (x + 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
b 1 Name the polynomial. b Let P(x) = x4 + x3 − 13x2 − 25x − 12
2 Look for a value of x such that P(x) = 0. P(−1) = 0

Try P(−1). So (x + 1) is a factor.
3 It is difficult to factorise a quartic using x3 + 0x2 − 13x − 12
short division, so we will use long division x + 1 + x3 − 13x2 − 25x − 12
x4
here. − (x4 + x3)
0 − 13x2 − 25x
− (−13x2 − 13x)
−12x − 12
−
− ( 12x − 12)
0
4 Name the cubic factor and try to find Let Q(x) = x3 − 13x − 12.
another factor using the factor theorem. Q(−3) = 0
So (x + 3) is a factor.
5 Factorise the cubic using short division. Q(x) = x3 − 13x − 12
= (x + 3)(x2 − 3x − 4)

6 Factorise the quadratic if possible. Q(x) = (x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 1)
7 Write the original polynomial in factorised P(x) = x4 + x3 − 13x2 − 25x − 12

form. = (x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4)(x + 1)
= (x + 1)2(x + 3)(x − 4)
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Factorise the expression 2 x3 − 9 x2 − 2 x + 24.

THINK WRITE
1 Name the polynomial. P(x) = 2x3 – 9x2 – 2x + 24
2 Look for values of x such that P(x) = 0. x = 1: P(1) = 2 – 9 – 2 + 24 ≠ 0

x = 2: P(2) = 16 – 36 – 8 + 24 = 0
So x – 2 is a factor.
3 Write P(x) as the product of x – 2 and an P(x) = (x – 2)(ax2 + bx + c)

unknown quadratic.
4 Consider the x3 term (2x3). This must (x)ax2 = ax3

equal ax3. = 2x3
Therefore a = 2.
5 Consider the constant term (24). This must (–2)c = –2c

equal –2c. = 2c
Therefore c = –12.
6 Rewrite P(x). P(x) = (x – 2)(2x2 + bx – 12)
7 Consider the x2 term from step 6. This must –4x2+ bx2 = –9x2
equal –9x2 from the original cubic. bx2 = –5x2
Therefore b = –5.
8 Consider the x term from step 6. This must –2bx – 12x = –22
equal –2x from the original cubic. This –2bx = 10x
confirms step 7. b = –5
9 Write P(x). P(x) = (x – 2)(2x2 – 5x – 12)
10 Factorise the quadratic term. P(x) = (x – 2)(2x + 3)(x – 4)
Exercise 3E Factorising polynomials

1 WE12 Use long division to factorise each dividend.
a x + 1 x3 + 10x2 + 27x + 18 b x + 2 x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10 c x + 9 x3 + 12x2 + 29x + 18
d x + 1 x3 + 8x2 + 19x + 12 e x + 3 x3 + 14x2 + 61x + 84 f x + 7 x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42
g x + 2 x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2 h x + 3 x3 + 7x2 + 16x + 12 i x + 5 x3 + 14x2 + 65x + 100
j x x3 + 13x2 + 40x k x x3 + 7x2 + 12x l x + 5 x3 + 10x2 + 25x
m x + 1 x3 + 6x2 + 5x n x + 6 x3 + 6x2

2 WE12,13 Factorise the following as fully as possible.
a x3 + x2 − x − 1 b x3 − 2x2 − x + 2 c x3 + 7x2 + 11x + 5
d x + x − 8x − 12
3 2 e x3 + 9x2 + 24x + 16 f x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 20 DIGITAL DOC
g x + 2x − x − 2
3 2 h x3 − 7x − 6 i x3 + 3x2 − 4 doc-9728
j x +x +x+6
3 2 k x3 + 8x2 + 17x + 10 l x3 + x2 − 9x − 9 Polynomials zero
search
m x − x − 8x + 12
3 2 n x3 + 9x2 − 12x − 160 o x4 + 4x3 + 3x2 − 4x − 4
p x + 3x − 6x − 28x − 24
4 3 2 q x4 + 6x3 + 8x2 − 6x − 9 r x4 − 5x3 − 17x2 + 21x
3 WE14 Use a CAS calculator to factorise the following as fully as possible.
a 3x3 − x2 − 10x b 4x3 + 2x2 − 2x c 3x3 − 6x2 − 24x
−
d 2x − 12x − 18x
3 2 e 6x − 6x
3 2 f −x3 − 7x2 − 12x
− −
g x − 3x + x + 3
3 2 h 2x + 10x − 12x
3 2 i −6x3 − 5x2 + 12x − 4
− −
j 5x + 24x − 36x + 16 k x − x + 21x + 49x − 8x − 60
3 2 5 4 3 2 l 24x4 − 53x3 − 71x2 + 152x + 20
4 Factorise the following as fully as possible.
a 2x3 + 5x2 − x − 6 b 3x3 + 14x2 + 7x − 4 c 3x3 + 2x2 − 12x − 8
d 4x + 35x + 84x + 45
3 2 e 5x3 + 9x2 + 3x − 1 f x3 + x2 + 4
g 4x + 16x + 21x + 9
3 2 h 6x3 − 23x2 + 26x − 8 i 10x3 + 19x2 − 94x − 40
j 7x + 12x − 60x + 16
3 2 k 2x4 − x3 − 11x2 − 11x − 3 l 6x4 + 11x3 − 22x2 − x + 6

Two special cases of cubic polynomials, called ‘sum of cubes’and ‘difference of cubes’, are discussed in
this section. There are shortcuts for factorising such cubic expressions. Examples of each are shown in
the table below.
Sum of cubes Difference of cubes
x + 3 23 x3 − 27
x3
125 + 64b3 − 81y3
1000
x3y3 + 1 w6 − 1
(2x + 1)3 + 8 216 − (uv)3
Consider the following expansions.

(a + b)(a2 − ab + b2) and (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2)
= a − a b + ab + ba − ab + b
3 2 2 2 2 3 = a3 + a2b + ab2 − ba2 − ab2 − b3
= a − a b + ab + a b − ab + b
3 2 2 2 2 3 = a3 + a2b + ab2 − a2b − ab2 − b3
=a +b
3 3 = a3 − b3
These expansions show that:
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2) and a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2).
That is, we have two formulas that may be used to factorise sums and differences of cubes.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Factorise the following using the sum or difference of cubes formula.

a x3 − 1000y3 b 2(x + 6)3 + 16 TUTORIAL
eles-1414
THINK WRITE Worked example 15
a 1 Write the expression. a x3 − 1000y3
2 Recognise a difference of cubes. = x3 − (10y)3

3 Identify a and b for use with the formula a = x, b = 10y
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2).
4 Use the formula to factorise. = (x − 10y)[x2 + x(10y) + (10y)2]
5 Simplify. = (x − 10y)(x2 + 10xy + 100y2)

b 1 Write the expression. b 2(x + 6)3 + 16
2 Take out a common factor of 2 to produce a sum = 2[(x + 6)3 + 8]

of cubes. = 2[(x + 6)3 + 23]
3 Identify a and b for use with the formula a = (x + 6), b = 2

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2).
4 Apply the sum of cubes formula. = 2[(x + 6) + 2][(x + 6)2 − (x + 6)(2) + 22]
5 Simplify. = 2(x + 8)(x2 + 12x + 36 − 2x − 12 + 4)
= 2(x + 8)(x2 + 10x + 28)
Exercise 3F Sum and difference of two cubes

1 Identify a and b (as used in the above sum and difference of cubes expressions) in each of the following
(do not factorise).
a x3 + 63 b 8y3 + z3 c (x + 5)3 + 27
1 3 u3
d 1 − 64h3 e 8c − e3g3 f t3 −
216
2 WE15a Factorise the following using the sum or difference of cubes formula.
a x3 − 125 b j3 + k3 c y3 − 8
d 27x3 + y3 e 64t3 − 216u3 f x3 − 1

x3
g + 8p3 h 27r3 − 1 i (3k)3 − 18
729
j s3t3 + g6
3 WE15b Factorise the following.
a (a − + a3
1)3 b (x + 2)3 − 8 c (2x + 3)3 + 1
d (w − 5) − w
3 3 e (2m + p) + (3m − p)
3 3 f 27x3 − (x + 3)3
g (2y + 7) + (y − 2)
3 3 h (3x + y) + (x − 4y)
3 3 i (2 − 4p)3 − (p + 1)3
j (5x − 9) − (7 − x)
3 3 k x +y
6 9 l 2x3 − 54
m 3a + 3
3 n 6(x + 1) + 162
2 3
4 When mx3 − ny3 is fully factorised it gives (3x − y)(9x2 + 3xy + y2). What are the values of m and n?
5 a Write 3x3 + my3 in the form a3 + b3.
b Identify the values of a and b.
c Factorise using the rule for sum of cubes.
3G Solving polynomial equations

Making x the subject of the equation
Cubic equations of the form a(x − b)3 + c = 0 may be solved by isolating x as follows.
a(x − b)3 = −c
−c
(x − b)3 =
a
− c
x−b= 3
a
3
− c
x=b+
a
Unlike a square root, a cube root can be only positive or negative, not both; for example,
3 −
8 += −2, 3 8 = 2.

WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Solve 3(x + 2)3 + 192 = 0 by making x the subject.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. 3(x + 2)3 + 192 = 0

2 Subtract 192 from both sides. 3(x + 2)3 = −192
3 Divide both sides by 3. (x + 2)3 = −64
4 Take the cube root of both sides. x + 2 = −4

5 Subtract 2 from both sides and simplify. x = −4 − 2
= −6
Factorising to solve polynomial equations

The Null Factor Law applies to cubic and quartic equations just as it does for quadratics.
If P(x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = 0, then the solutions are x = a, x = b and x = c.
If P(x) = k(lx − a)(mx − b)(nx − c) = 0, solutions are found by solving the following equations:
lx − a = 0, mx − b = 0 and nx − c = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Solve each of the following equations.

a x4 = 16x2 b 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9 = 0
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a x4 = 16x2

2 Rearrange so that all terms are on the left. x4 − 16x2 = 0
3 Take out a common factor of x. x2(x2 − 16) = 0
4 Factorise the brackets using a difference of squares. x2(x + 4)(x − 4) = 0
5 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x = 0, x + 4 = 0 or x − 4 = 0
so x = 0, x = −4 or x = 4
b 1 Name the polynomial. b Let P(x) = 2x3 − 11x2 + 18x − 9.
2 Use the factor theorem to find a factor (search for a P(1) = 2 − 11 + 18 − 9

value a such that P(a) = 0). Consider factors of the =0
constant term (that is, factors of 9 such as 1, 3). The So (x − 1) is a factor.
simplest value to try is 1.
3 Use long or short division to find the other factors 2 2 − 9x + 9
2x
of P(x). x − 1 2x
2 3 − 11x2 − 18x − 9
22x3 − 2x
2 2
−9x2 + 18x
−9x2 + 9x
9x − 9
9x − 9
0
4 Factorise the brackets. P(x) = (x − 1)(2x2 − 9x + 9)
P(x) = (x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3)
5 Consider the factorised equation to solve. For (x − 1)(2x − 3)(x − 3) = 0
6 Use the Null Factor Law to solve. x − 1 = 0, 2x − 3 = 0 or x − 3 = 0
3
so x = 1, x = 2 or x = 3

Polynomial equations can also be solved using a CAS calculator, which is useful when the solutions
are not rational. The solutions can be found by using the solve function on a calculator page, or by
constructing a graph.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Use a CAS calculator to solve x3 + 3 x2 − 8 x − 5 = 0.

THINK WRITE
1 Use the CAS calculator to solve the equation. Enter

solve (x3 + 3x2 − 8x − 5 = 0, x)
into the CAS calculator.
2 Read the results supplied by the calculator. x = −4.524 04 or
x = −0.536 396 or
x = 2.060 43
3 Write the answer. The solutions of x3 + 3x2 − 8x − 5 = 0 are
x = −4.52, −0.54 and 2.06, rounded to 2 decimal
places.
Exercise 3G Solving polynomial equations

1 WE16 Solve the following equations by making x the subject.
a 2(x − − 250 = 0
1)3 b 3(x + 2)3 + 81 = 0
c (x − 4)3 − 1000 = 0 d (x + 7)3 − 8 = 0
e −2(x − 5)3 − 2 = 0 f −(x + 3)3 + 1 = 0
g (2x + 3)3 − 27 = 0 h 4(3x − 1)3 + 500 = 0
2 1
i
3
(x + 1)3 + 18 = 0 j 2
(5 − x)3 − 32 = 0
4
k (x − 5)3 = 343 l 4− 5
(x + 8)3 = 104
2 Find all solutions of the following equations.
a (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 5) = 0 b (x + 3)(x + 4)(x + 7) = 0
c (x − 5)(x + 2)(x − 9) (x − 1) = 0 d (2x − 4)(x + 1)(x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
e (3x + 12)(x − 4)(x + 4) = 0 f (2 − x)(x + 2)(1 − x)(1 + x) = 0
g (x + 5)(x − 8)2 = 0 h (x − 1)3 = 0
−3x(x − 9)3 = 0
i x2(x + 1)(x − 1) = 0 j
k (6 − x)2 (2 + x) = 0 l x2(2x + 7) = 0
m x(5x − 6)(2x + 3) (6 − 7x) = 0 n (3 − 4x)2(5x − 1) = 0
3 WE17a Solve the following equations.
a x3 − 4x = 0 b x3 − 16x = 0 c 2x4 − 50x2 = 0
−3x4 + 81 = 0
d e x3 + 5x2 = 0 f x3 − 2x2 = 0
−4x3 + 8x = 0
g h 12x3 + 3x2 = 0 i 4x3 − 20x4 = 0
j x4 − 5x3 + 6x2 = 0 k x3 − 8x2 + 16x = 0 l x3 + 6x2 = 7x
m 9x2 = 20x + x3 n x3 + 6x = 4x2
4 WE17b Use the Null Factor Law to solve the following equations.
a x3 − x2 − 16x + 16 = 0 b x3 − 6x2 − x + 30 = 0
c x − x − 25x + 25 = 0
3 2 d x3 + 4x2 − 4x − 16 = 0
e x − 4x + x + 6 = 0
3 2 f x3 − 4x2 − 7x + 10 = 0
−
g x − 3x − 7x + 15x = 18
4 3 2 h x4 + 2x3 − 13x2 + 10x
i 2x + 15x + 19x + 6 = 0
3 2 j −4x3 + 16x2 − 9x − 9 = 0
−
k 2x − 9x − 7x + 6 = 0
3 2 l 2x3 + 4x2 − 2x − 4 = 0
5 WE18 Use a CAS calculator to find all solutions to the following equations.
a x3 − 17x2 − 56x + 1153 = 0 b x3 + 12x2 − 49x − 588 = 0
−
c x + 17x + 65x − 1521 = 0
3 2 d x3 – 48x2 + 768x − 4096 = 0

e x3 + 6x2 − 6x + 2 = 0 f x3 – 14x2 – 4x + 13 = 0
g 3x2 + 2x + 1 = x3 h −2x3 – 3x2 + 2x + 0.5 = 0
i x4 + 4x3 − 5x2 + 15 = 0 j 2x4 + 25x3 + 17x = 9
6 MC Which of the following is a solution to x3 − 7x2 + 2x + 40?
A −5 B −4 C −2
D 1 E 2
7 MC A solution of x3 − 9x2 + 15x + 25 = 0 is x = 5. How many other (distinct) solutions are there?
DIGITAL DOC
A 0 B 1 C 2 doc-9729
D 3 E 4 WorkSHEET 3.2
3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method

A good sketch graph of a function shows:
1. x- and y-intercepts
2. the behaviour of the function at extreme values of x, that is, as x approaches infinity (x → +∞) and as
x approaches negative infinity (x → −∞)
3. the general location of turning points.
The graphs below show the two main types of cubic graph.
y y
Turning
points
x x
A positive cubic A negative cubic
For positive cubic graphs, as positive values of x become larger and larger, y-values also become
larger.
For negative cubic graphs, as positive values of x become larger and y Point of inflection
larger, y-values become smaller.
Sometimes, instead of two turning points, there is a point of inflection,
where the graph changes from a decreasing gradient to zero to an
increasing gradient (or vice versa). When this occurs, there is only one
x-intercept.
Consider the general factorised cubic f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c).
The Null Factor Law tells us that f (x) = 0 when x = a or x = b or x = c. x
The y-intercept occurs when x = 0; that is, the y-intercept is
f (0) = (0 − a)(0 − b)(0 − c)
= −abc
Cubic with a point of inflection
y
c b a x
−abc

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Sketch graphs of the following, showing all intercepts.

a y = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5) b y = (x − 6)2 (4 − x) c y = (x − 2)3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Note that the function is already a y = (x − 2)(x − 3)(x + 5)

factorised and that the graph is
a positive cubic.
2 The y-intercept occurs where x = 0. y-intercept: if x = 0,
Substitute x = 0 into the equation. y = (−2)(−3)(5)
= 30
Point: (0, 30)
3 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts. x-intercepts: if y = 0,
(Make each bracket equal to 0 and solve a x − 2 = 0, x − 3 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
mini-equation.) x = 2, x = 3 or x = −5
Points: (2, 0), (3, 0), (−5, 0)
4 Combine information from the above y
steps to sketch the graph.
30
−5 2 3 x
b 1 The graph is a negative cubic b y = (x − 6)2(4 − x)

−x
(the in the last factor produces
a negative x3 coefficient if the
RHS is expanded).
2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,
y = (−6)2(4)
= 144
Point: (0, 144)
3 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts: if y = 0,
x-intercepts. (Make each bracket equal to 0 and x − 6 = 0 or 4 − x = 0
solve a mini-equation.) x = 6 or x=4
Points: (6, 0), (4, 0)
4 Combine all information and sketch the graph. y
Note the skimming of the x-axis indicative of a
repeated factor, in this case the (x − 6)2 part of the 144
expression.
4 6 x
c 1 Positive cubic. c y = (x − 2)3
2 Substitute x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,

y = (−2)3
= −8

3 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercept: if y = 0,
x-intercept. (Make each bracket equal to 0 and x−2=0
solve a mini-equation.) x=2
4 Combine all information and sketch the graph. The y
cubed factor, (x − 2), indicates a point of inflection
and only one x-intercept.
2 x
−8
If a cubic function is not in the form f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c), we may try to factorise to find the
x-intercepts. We can use the factor theorem and division of polynomials to achieve this.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Sketch the graph of y = 2x3 − 11x2 + 7x + 20, showing all intercepts.

TUTORIAL
THINK WRITE/DRAW
eles-1415
Worked example 20
1 Write the equation and name the y = P(x) = 2x3 − 11x2
polynomial P(x). + 7x + 20
2 Note the graph is a positive cubic.

3 Let x = 0 to find the y-intercept. y-intercept: if x = 0,
Note: All terms involving x are equal y = 20
to zero. Point: (0, 20)
4 Factorise P(x) to find x-intercepts. P(1) = 2 × 13 − 11 × 12 + 7 × 1 + 20
= 2 − 11 + 7 + 20
= 18
(x − 1) is not a factor. ≠0
P(−1) = 2 × (−1)3 − 11 × (−1)2 + 7 × (−1) + 20
= −2 − 11 − 7 + 20
=0
So (x + 1) is a factor.
5 Use long or short division to factorise P(x). Here, P(x) = (x + 1)(2x2 − 13x + 20)
short division has been used. = (x + 1)(2x − 5)(x − 4)
6 Write down the x-intercepts (determined by x-intercepts: if y = 0,
making each bracket equal to 0 and solving for x). x = −1, 52 , 4
Points: (−1, 0), ( 52 , 0), (4, 0)
7 Use all available information to sketch the graph. y
20
−1 5– 4 x
2

WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Sketch the graph of y = 3x3 + x2 − 2x + 5 using a CAS calculator. Find all intercepts and
stationary points.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Enter the rule for the function into the f1(x) = 3x3 + x2 − 2x + 5
CAS calculator.
2 Determine the y-intercept (when x = 0). f1(0) = 3(0)3 + (0)2 − 2(0) + 5

=5
The y-intercept is (0, 5).
3 Use the CAS calculator to help sketch the y

graph. A
(0, 5) B
(−1.51, 0) x
4 Analyse the function with the CAS calculator The x-intercept is (−1.51, 0).
to find zeros (x-intercepts). In this case there
is only one x-intercept.
5 Analyse the function with the CAS calculator The local maximum (A) is (−0.62, 5.9).
to find the local maximum, point A.
6 Analyse the function with the CAS calculator The local minimum (B) is (0.36, 4.6).
to find the local minimum, point B.
Exercise 3H Cubic graphs — intercepts method

1 WE19 Sketch the following, showing all intercepts.
a y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) b y = (x + 6)(x + 1)(x − 7)
c y = (x + 8)(x − 11)(x + 1) d y = (2x − 5)(x + 4)(x − 3)
e y = (4x − 3)(2x + 1)(x − 4) f y = (x − 3)2(x − 6)
2 Sketch the following.
a y = (2 − x)(x + 5)(x + 3) b y = (x + 8)(x − 8)(2x + 3)
c y = x(x + 1)(x − 2) d y = 3(x + 1)(x + 10)(x + 5)
e y = 4x2(x + 8) f y = (6x − 1)2(x + 7)
3 WE20 Sketch each of the following as fully as possible.
a y = + 2x2 − x − 2
x3 b y = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
c y = x3 + 7x2 + 14x + 8 d y = x3 − x2 − 14x + 24
e y = x3 − 3x2 − 25x − 21 f y = 3x3 + 17x2 + 28x + 12
g y = 6x3 − 17x2 + 6x + 8 h y = −2x3 − 18x2
4 WE21 Sketch the following using a CAS calculator. Find the intercepts and the coordinates
of all turning points, correct to 2 decimal places.
a y = −x3 − 8x2 − 5x + 14
b y = −x3 + 8x2 + 13x − 140
c y = 3x3 − 3x2 − 15x − 9
d y = 7x3 + 29x2 + 32x + 4

5 MC Which of the following is a reasonable sketch of y = (x + 2)(x − 3)(2x + 1)?
A y B y C y
3
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9730
Cubic graphs —
x general form
− 1–
2
−3 1
– 2 x −2 − 1– 3 x
2 2 −2
D y E y
−2 3 x
1– 2 3 x
− 1– 2
2
6 MC The graph shown on the right could be that of: y

A y= + 2)
x2(x B y = (x + 2)3
C y = (x − 2)(x + 2)2 D y = (x − 2)2(x + 2)
E y = (x − 2)3 −2 2 x
−8
7 MC The graph below has the equation:

y
−3 −1 2 x
−6
A y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) B y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 3) C y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)

D y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3) E y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
8 MC If a, b and c are positive numbers, the equation of the graph shown below is:
A y = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c) B y = (x + a)(x − b)(x + c) C y = (x + a)(x + b)(x − c)
D y = (x + a)(x + b)(x + c) E y = (x − a)(x + b)(x − c)
y
−b c a x
9 MC Which of the following has only two distinct x-intercepts when graphed?
A y = x(x + 1)(x + 2) B y = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) C y = x3
D y = (x + 1)(x + 2)2 E y = x(x + 1)(x − 1)
10 a Sketch the graph of y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 showing all intercepts.
b Factorise y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 expressing your answer in the form of y = (x + a)(x2 + bx + c).
c Hence, show that y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 has only one real solution. (Hint: Consider the discriminant.)
d If y = (x + a)(x2 + kbx + c) where k is a constant, find the values of k such that the cubic has:
i two real solutions
ii three real solutions.
Note: a, b and c are the same values from part b.

3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method
Quartic functions are polynomial functions of degree 4.
The graphs shown below are the main types of quartic graphs.
y = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)(x − d)
y y = (x − a)3(x − b)
y y
y = x4
(2, 16)
a b x
repeated factor
0 2 x (x − a)3 a b c d x
y
Negative quartics are reflected across the x-axis.
Consider the general factorised quartic, f (x) = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c)(x – d). abcd
As for the cubic functions, the Null Factor Law tells us that f (x) = 0 (that is,
an x-intercept occurs) when x = a, x = b, x = c or x = d.
The y-intercept occurs when x = 0, therefore the y-intercept is
f (0) = (0 – a)(0 – b)(0 – c)(0 – d) a b c d x
= abcd
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Sketch the following graphs, showing all intercepts.

a y = (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) b y = (x − 3)2(x + 1)(x + 5)
c y = (2x − 1)(x + 1)3
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 The y-intercept occurs when x = 0. a y = (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3)

y = (−2)(−1)(1)(3)
=6
Point: (0, 6)
(Make each bracket equal to 0 and solve a x − 2 = 0, x − 1 = 0, x + 1 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
mini-equation.) x = 2, x = 1, x = −1 or x = −3
Points: (2, 0), (1, 0), (−1, 0), (−3, 0)
3 The graph has a positive x4 coefficient, so large positive Shape:
values for x result in large positive values for y.
4 Combine information from steps 1 to 3 to sketch y
the graph.
6
−3 −1 0 1 2 x
b 1 The y-intercept occurs when x = 0. b y = (x − 3)2(x + 1)(x + 5)

y = (−3)2(1)(5)
= 45
Point: (0, 45)
2 Use the Null Factor Law to find the x-intercepts: if y = 0,
x-intercepts. (Make each bracket equal x − 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0 or x + 5 = 0
to 0 and solve a mini-equation.) x = 3, x = −1 or x = −5
Points: (3, 0), (−1, 0), (−5, 0)

3 The graph has a positive x4 coefficient. (Large Shape:
positive values for x result in large positive values
for y.)
4 Combine all the information above to sketch the y
graph. Note that it touches the x-axis where there
are repeated squared factors, (x − 3)2. 45
−5 −1 0 3 x
c 1 The y-intercept occurs when x = 0. c y = (2x − 1)(x + 1)3

y = (−1)(1)3
= −1
Point: (0, −1)
(Make each bracket equal to 0 and solve a 2x − 1 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
mini-equation.) x = 12 or x = −1
Points: (1, 0) and (−1, 0)
2
3 x4
The graph has a positive coefficient. (Large Shape:
positive values for x result in large positive values
for y.)
4 Combine all the information from above to sketch y
the graph. Note that the graph has a point of
inflection where it crosses the x-axis with repeated
cubic factors (x + 1)3.
−1 0 1– x
2
−1
Follow the instructions in worked example 21 to draw quartic graphs using a CAS calculator.
Exercise 3I Quartic graphs — intercepts method

1 WE22 Sketch the following graphs, showing all intercepts.
a y = (x − 3)(x − 2)(x + 1)(x + 2) b y = (x − 2)2(x + 1)(x + 2)
c y = (x + 5)(x − 1)3 d y = (x − 1)4
−
e y = x(2x − 1)(x – 3)(x + 3) f y = (x − 2)2(x + 1)2
g y = (1 − 3x)4 h y = (x + 5)3(1 − x)
2 Compare your answers to question 1 to those found using a CAS calculator.
3 If the graph of y = (x + a)(x + 3)(x + 1)(x − 3) has four distinct x-intercepts and has a y-intercept at
(0, 45), find the value of a.
4 A quartic graph has only two x-intercepts, at x = a and x = b, and a y-intercept at the point (0, 81).
If a = −b:
a find a possible equation for the quartic graph
b sketch the graph, labelling all intercepts.
5 MC Which of the following has two distinct x-intercepts when graphed?
A y = x(x + 7)(x − 7)(x + 2)
B y = x2(x + 3)(x − 3)
C y = x3(x + 27)
D y = x(x + 7)2(x − 7)
E y = x4

6 MC If a, b and c are positive numbers, the equation of the graph y
shown is:
A y = (x + a)2(x + b)(x + c) B y = (x − a)2(x − b)(x − c)
C y = (x + a)2(x − b)(x + c) D y = (x − a)(x + b)(x – c) −b a c x
E y = (x − a)2(x + b)(x − c) −abc
7 MC For the graph of the quadratic equation y = (x − 2)(x + 1)(x + 3)2,

the y-intercept occurs at:
A 6 B −6 C −12 D −18 E 18
8 Use a CAS calculator to help you sketch the following quartics, showing all intercepts and turning
points correct to 2 decimal places.
a y = 2x4 + x3 − 5x2 + 7x + 2 b y = 3x4 − 9x3 − 8x2 + 12x + 9
c y = −x4 − 2x3 + 5x2 + 4x d y = x4 − 5x3 − 45x2 + 8x + 120
e y = 3x4 − 10x2 − 3 f y = −8x4 − 10x3 + 120x2 + 15x + 358
Graphs of cubic functions in

3J
power function form
Remember the power form or turning point form for quadratic graphs y = a(x − b)2 + c, which was related
to transformations of the basic parabola? The same understanding of transformations can be used to sketch
cubic functions.
Cubic functions can be power functions. Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = xn, n ∈ R.
The value of the power, n, determines the type of function. When n = 1, f (x) = x, and the function is
linear. When n = 2, f (x) = x2, and the function is quadratic. When n = 3, f (x) = x3, and the function is
cubic. When n = 4, f (x) = x4, and the function is quartic.
Other power functions will be discussed later.
f (x) = a(x − b)n + c (where a, b, c and n ∈ R).
Although all linear and quadratic polynomials are also linear and quadratic power functions, this is not
the case for cubic functions (or quartic functions). For example, a cubic power function in the form of
f (x) = a(x − b)n + c has exactly one x-intercept and one stationary point of inflection. A cubic polynomial
in the form f (x) = ax3 − bx2 + cx + d can have one, two or three x-intercepts and is therefore not always a
power function.
For example, the cubic function y = 2(x − 3)3 + 1 is a polynomial and a power function. It is the graph
of y = x3 under a sequence of transformations.
A cubic power function has a stationary point of inflection at (b, c). A stationary point of inflection is
where a graph ‘levels off’ to have a zero gradient at one point with the same sign gradient either side.
y y = x3 y = −x3 y
x x
Stationary point
of inflection
Summary of transformations
y = a(x − b)3 + c y
(b, c)
Stationary point
of inflection
Dilation factor x-translation y-translation c
b
from the x-axis x
(y-stretch)

The effect of a is illustrated below.
y = 2x3 y = −2x3
y y = x3 y = −x3 y
y = 1–2 x3 y = − 1–2 x3
x x
Positive a Negative a
Intercepts
Intercepts may be found by substituting x = 0 (to find the y-intercepts) and y = 0 (to find the x-intercepts)
into the equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing the stationary point of inflection and intercepts.
a y = 3(x − 2)3 + 3 b y = −2x3 + 54 c y = −2(1 − 2x)3 − 16
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Compare the equation with y = a(x − b)3 + c, which a y = 3(x − 2)3 + 3

has a stationary point of inflection (b, c).
2 Note the values that match, namely a = 3, b = 2 and c = 3. Stationary point of inflection (2, 3)
State the stationary point of inflection (b, c).
3 Find the y-intercept. If x = 0, y = 3(0 − 2)3 + 3
y = 3(−8) + 3
y = −21
4 Find the x-intercept. If y = 0, 0 = 3(x − 2)3 + 3
(Note that the cube root of −1 is −1.) −3(x − 2)3 = 3
(x − 2)3 = −1
x − 2 = −1
x=1
5 Note that the equation is for a positive cubic. Shape:
6 Sketch, showing the stationary point of inflection and y

intercepts.
(2, 3)
1 2 x
−21
b 1 Manipulate into y = a(x − b)3 + c form. b y = −2x3 + 54

y = −2(x − 0)3 + 54
2 Note the graph is a negative cubic with stationary Stationary point of inflection (0, 54)
point of inflection (0, 54).

3 Find the y-intercept. If x = 0, y = −2(0) + 54
y = 54
4 Find the x-intercept. If y = 0, 0 = −2x3 + 54
2x3 = 54
x3 = 27
x=3
5 Sketch, showing the stationary point of inflection and y
intercepts.
(0, 54)
3 x
c 1 Manipulate into y = a(x − b)3 + c form. c y = −2(1 − 2x)3 − 16

= −2[−2(x − 12)]3 − 16
= −2[−8(x − 12)3] − 16
= 16(x − 12)3 − 16
2 Note the graph is a positive cubic with stationary point Stationary point of inflection ( 12 , −16)
1
of inflection ( 2 , −16).
−
1
3 Find the y-intercept. If x = 0, y = 16( 2 )3 − 16
= −2 − 16
= −18
1
4 Find the x-intercept. Use the result from step 1. If y = 0, 0 = 16( x − 2 )3 − 16
1
16 = 16( x − 2 )3
1
1 = ( x − 2 )3
1
1=x − 2
3
2
=x
5 Sketch, showing stationary point of inflection and y
intercepts.
3– x
2
−18 ( 1–2, −16)
Graphs of cubic functions in power

Exercise 3J
function form
1 Without sketching graphs for each of the following, state:
i the dilation factor ii the coordinates of the stationary point of inflection.
a y = 2(x − 1)3 + 3 b y = 3(x + 5)3 − 2
−
c y = 2(x − 6) − 8
3 d y = −7(x + 4)3 + 1
e y = (x − 9) + 4
3 f y = x3 − 7

1
g y = −(x + 1)3 − 1 h y = 2 (x + 2)3
−1
i y= 4 (x − 3)3 + 2 j y = 4x3
−1 3
k y= 3
x l y = −2x3 − 2
2 WE23 Sketch the graph of each of the following, showing the stationary point of inflection and
intercepts.
a y = 2(x − 2)3 + 2 b y = −3(x + 3)3 + 81
c y = 4(x − 4) − 32
3 d y = −5(x − 1)3 + 5
−
e y= x −83 f y = x3 − 1
1
g y = (x + 2) + 27
3 h y = (x + 5)3 − 32
2
−1 −1
i y= 3 (x − 3) − 9
3 j y= 4 (x + 1)3 + 2
1
k y= 5
(x + 2)3 + 25 l y = −2x3
m y= 5x3 n y = 3x3 − 3
3 Sketch the following, showing the stationary point of inflection. Intercepts are not required. Use a
CAS calculator to verify answers.
a y = (4 − x)3 + 1 b y = 3(5 − x)3 − 3
c y = 2(4x − 1)3 d y = 5(3 − 2x)3 + 1 DIGITAL DOC
doc-9731
y = − 17 (3 − 4x)3 − 2
2
e y = 5 (1 − x)3 f Cubic graphs — basic
form
g y = −(4 − x)3 + 3 h y = (9 − 5x)3 − 7
i y = 83 (6 − x)3 + 4 j y = −2(5 − 2x)3 − 1
4 MC The basic cubic graph y = x3 undergoes a dilation factor of 6 from the x-axis and is translated
right 4 units and down 3 units. The equation for this graph is:
A y = 6(x − 4)3 − 3 B y = 3(x − 4)3 − 6
C y = −6(x − 3)3 − 4 D y = 4(x + 6)3 + 3
E y = −4(x + 3)3 + 6
5 MC The graph of y = 5(2 − x)3 + 9 has a stationary point of inflection at:
A (5, 2) B (5, 9) C (−2, 9)
D (2, −9) E (2, 9)
6 Suggest a possible equation for each of the following, given that each is a cubic with a dilation factor of
1 or −1 from the x-axis.
a y b y
(1, 5)
(−2, 2)
x
x
c y d y
(−3, 4) x
(−3, 0)
7 Write an equation for a cubic with:

a a dilation factor of 4 from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (2, 3)
DIGITAL DOC
b a dilation factor of –2 from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (−5, 1)
doc-9732
c a dilation factor of 1 from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (1, −2) Investigation
4
−1 Graphs of the form
d a dilation factor of from the x-axis and a stationary point of inflection at (0, 4). y = a (x − b )n + c
2

Domain, range, maximums
3K
and minimums
The domain of a function is the set of x-coordinates of points on its graph. The range is the set of
y-coordinates of points on the graph. Normally, the domain and range of a cubic function are the set of
all real numbers, or R for short, as such graphs extend indefinitely in both positive and negative axis
directions. The domain and range of a restricted cubic function may be a smaller set of numbers.
Actual maximum
(within given domain)
y
Local maximum
10
Range = [−8, 10]

−5 3 x
−8
Domain = [−5, 3]
The restricted graph has a domain of x-values between −5 and 3, denoted [−5, 3]. y
The range is [−8, 10].
Square brackets are used to indicate that an end value is included. 10
Range = [−8, 10]

We show this with a small coloured-in circle on the graph. If an end
value is not included, a curved bracket is used. We show such points
on a graph using a ‘hollow’ circle. −5 3 x
−8
Domain = [−5, 3]
Function notation
When we wish to convey information about the domain of a function, the following notation may be used:
f : [−4, 1] → R, where f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)
}
}
The ‘name’ of The domain The rule for
the function the function
The co-domain. The
range is within this set.
Note: The range is not necessarily equal to R; the range is within R.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
For the function f: [−4, 1] → R where f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4), sketch the graph of f (x), showing
intercepts and the coordinates of any local maximum or local minimum, and state the range.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Determine the y-intercept by setting x = 0. f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)

f (0) = (0 − 1)(0 + 2)(0 + 4)
= −8
The y-intercept is (0, −8).
2 Determine the x-intercept by setting y = 0. Use the 0 = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)
Null Factor Law. x − 1 = 0 or x + 2 = 0 or x + 4 = 0
x=1 x = −2 x = −4
The x-intercepts are (1, 0), ( 2, 0) and (−4, 0).
−

3 Enter the rule into a CAS calculator (including the f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4) | −4 ≤ x ≤ 1
restricted domain).
4 Sketch the graph over the restricted domain. y
A
(−2, 0) (1, 0)
(−4, 0) x
B
5 Use the CAS calculator to determine the maximum The maximum (A) is (−3.12, 4.06).
at point A.
6 Use the CAS calculator to determine the minimum The minimum (B) is (−0.21, −8.21).
at point B.
7 Use the graph and the local maximum and The range is [−8.21, 4.06].
minimum to determine the range.
The maximum and minimum of a graph within a certain y

Absolute maximum
domain are not necessarily the values of the local Local maximum
maximum or minimum. Sometimes an extreme value is
simply the y-coordinate of an end point of a graph.
Local minimum
x
Absolute minimum
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
Sketch f: [0, 7) → R where f (x) = x(x − 5)2, showing intercepts, end points, and the local maximum
and minimum, and state the range.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Determine the y-intercept by setting x = 0. f (x) = x(x − 5)2
f (0) = 0(0 − 5)2
=0
The y-intercept is (0, 0).
2 Determine the x-intercept by setting y = 0. Use the 0 = x(x − 5)2
Null Factor Law. x = 0 or (x − 5)2 = 0 → x = 5
The x-intercepts are (0, 0) and (5, 0).
3 Calculate the value of the end points of the f (0) = 0
restricted domain. f (7) = 7(7 − 5)2
= 7 × 22
= 28
4 Use a CAS calculator to sketch the graph over the y
restricted domain. Note the right end point (7, 28)
(7, 28) should be shown as a hollow circle.
A
(0, 0) (0, 5) x

5 Use the CAS calculator to determine the local The local maximum is (1.67, 18.52).
maximum at point A.
6 Use the graph to determine the range. Note the use The range is [0, 28).
of a curved bracket to indicate that the end value is
not included in the range.
Domain and range will be discussed in more detail in chapter 4.

A method of finding maximums and minimums without a calculator will be covered in the study of
calculus later in this book.
Domain, range, maximums and

Exercise 3K
minimums
A graphics calculator is required for this exercise.
1 State the domain and range of the sections of graph shown in each case.
a y b y
(−2, 5)
DIGITAL DOC (1, 7)
doc-9733
SkillSHEET 3.2
Interval notation (−5, 2) (−2, 3)
(4, 0)
x
x
(2, −2)
(4, −2)
c y d y (6, 10)
(−4, 2)
x
(4, 1)
x
(2, −3)
(−2, −2)
(−3, −5)
e y f y
(5, 5)
(2, 0)
(−1, 2) x
x (−3, −8) (4, −5)

(−3, 0) (3, 0)
(−1, −9)
2 WE24,25 For each of the following, sketch the graph (showing local maximums and minimums, and
intercepts) and state the range.
a f: [−1, 4] → R where f (x) = (x − 3)(x − 4)(x + 1)
b f: [−5, 1] → R where f (x) = (x + 2)(x + 5)(x − 1)
c f: [1, 3) → R where f (x) = (x − 2)2(x − 1)
d f: (−3, 0] → R where f (x) = (x + 3)(x + 1)2
e f: [−8, 2) → R where f (x) = (2x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 7)
f f: [0, 4] → R where f (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x − 4
g f: [−4, −1.442] → R where f (x) = x3 + 6x2 + 11x + 6
h f: (−2, 2.1) → R where f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 6
i f: [−3, 5.1] → R where f (x) = −x3 + x2 + 17x + 15
1
j f: (−3, 2 ) → R where f (x) = 3x3 + 5x2 − 19x − 21
3

3 MC The range of the function shown at right is: y (4, 18)
(−0.786, 8.209)
A [−4.061, 18]
B [−4.061, 8.209] 6
C (0, 18]
D (−2, 3]
E (−2, 4]
−2 1 3 x
(2.120, −4.061)
4 MC Point A on the curve is: y

A an intercept
B a local minimum
C an absolute minimum
D a local maximum
E an absolute maximum
A
x
5 A roller-coaster ride is modelled by the function y

f (x) = 0.001(x − 10)(x + 20)(x − 40).
a What is the height above ground level of the 20
A Ground level
track at x = 50? x
−20 40
b How far apart vertically are points A and B?
B
6 The course of a river as marked on a map follows the curve defined by the function
f (x) = 1.5x3 − 2.7x2 + x − 1. Find the coordinates of the southernmost point on the river
between x = 0 and x = 2.
y
N
−1.5 1.5 x
DIGITAL DOC
−5 doc-9734
Investigation
Modelling the path of
a roller-coaster

3L Modelling using technology
INTERACTIVITY Scientists, economists, doctors and biologists often wish to find an equation that closely matches, or
int-0262 ‘models’, a set of data. For example, the wombat population of a particular island may vary as recorded
Modelling data using in the following table.
polynomials
Year of study (x) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Wombat
59 62 69 83 81 76 70 66 52 49 41
population (W)
The graph below shows these data, with a possible

model for the wombat population superimposed.
90
Wombat population
80
70
60
50
40
30
20 y = 0.0888x3 − 2.4598x2 + 14.196x + 55.063
10
0 2 4 6 8 10
Year
We will examine polynomial models up to degree 3, that is, models of the form:
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 y
where a0, a1, a2 and a3 are constants. 35
Several technological options are available to assist in 30
25 Sum of squares of these
obtaining models for data, including a CAS calculator, 20 lengths is minimised.
spreadsheets and computer algebra systems such as 15
Mathcad. Many of these applications use a method 10
5 y = 2.6636x + 7.3182
involving minimising the sum of the squares of the vertical
distances of the data points from the graph of the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
function — this is known as the least squares method.
Modelling using a calculator

A CAS calculator can be used to find a model or regression for a set of data. The following example
employs cubic regression, but the general approach is the same for all types of regression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
Fit a cubic model to the following data using a CAS calculator.

Write the equation and draw a rough sketch of the graph. TUTORIAL
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 eles-1416
Worked example 26
y 627 545 580 528 436 318 238 229 134 169 139
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Use the CAS calculator to perform a cubic Enter the x- and y-values into two columns in
regression. This fits a best-fit cubic to the given data. a spreadsheet on the CAS calculator.
2 Write the equation. y = 1.37x3 + 19.14x2 + 8.55x + 607.48
3 Use the CAS calculator to sketch the graph over y
the even domain. 600
0 x
10

Exercise 3L Modelling using technology
Use a CAS calculator or other technology to answer the questions in this exercise.
1 WE26 Find a linear model for each of the following sets of data, and draw a rough sketch of the graph.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−30 −9
DIGITAL DOC
y 0 5 28 29 50 68 73 77 84 doc-9735
Modelling
b x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y −15 −12 −26 −27 −12 −20 −39 −46 −50 −40 −67
c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 11 8 9 14 19 18 29 29 28 32 39
d x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 53 44 39 42 35 32 30 29 23 27 19
2 Find a quadratic model for each of the following sets of data, and draw a rough sketch of the graph.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 19 4 48 60 36 88 126 116 159 168 122
b x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 65 33 80 12 50 248 228 252 496 439 694
c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y −14 16 32 36 37 51 57 56 55 54 56
d x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 70 −27 92 2 −148 −327 −447 −639 −733 −910 −1204
3 Find the cubic model for each of the following sets of data, and draw a rough sketch of the graph.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 627 545 580 528 436 318 238 229 134 169 139
b x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 21 28 91 182 81 203 345 397 730 873 1205
c x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 55 84 64 29 10 4 −17 35 182 400 631
d x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 45 26 109 201 399 466 621 755 800 868 854
4 For the following data set, find and sketch:

a a linear model b a quadratic model c a cubic model.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 537 681 536 624 632 763 686 885 1090 1230 1451
5 Which of the models in question 4 fits best?

6 Use the model from question 1a to predict the value of y when x = 20.
7 Use the model from question 2a to predict the value of y to the nearest unit when x = 5.5.
8 Use the model from question 3a to predict the value of y to the nearest unit when x = 12.

9 The value of shares in the company Mathsco is plotted by a sharemarket analyst over a
12-month period as shown.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Month
J J A S O N D J F M A M
Share
0.50 0.58 0.53 0.76 1.00 1.50 1.55 2.20 3.06 3.83 4.79 4.40
price
a Find and sketch a quadratic model for the data.

b Use your model to predict the share price 2 months later.
c Give reasons why such a prediction may not be accurate.
10 The population of a colony of yellow-bellied sap-suckers on an isolated island is studied
over a number of years. The population at the start of each year is shown in the table below.
Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Population 250 270 310 375 410 395 335 290 290 320 325
Find and sketch a cubic model for the population, and use it to estimate the population at the start of
year 11.
3M Finite differences
If pairs of data values in a set obey a polynomial equation, that equation or model may be found using
the method of finite differences.
Consider a difference table for a general polynomial of the form
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0.
We begin the difference table by evaluating the polynomial for x values of 0, 1, 2 etc.
The differences between successive y-values (see table) are called the first differences.
The differences between successive first differences are called second differences.
The differences between successive second differences called the third differences.
We will call the first shaded cell (nearest the top of the table) stepped cell 1, the second shaded cell
stepped cell 2 and so on.
x y First Second Third

(= a3 x3 + a2 x2 + a1x + a0) differences differences differences
0 a0
a3 + a2 + a1
1 a3 + a2 + a1 + a0 6a3 + 2a2
7a3 + 3a2 + a1 6a3
2 8a3 + 4a2 + 2a1 + a0 12a3 + 2a2
19a3 + 5a2 + a1 6a3
3 27a3 + 9a2 + 3a1 + a0 18a3 + 2a2
37a3 + 7a2 + a1 6a3
4 64a3 + 16a2 + 4a1 + a0 24a3 + 2a2
61a3 + 9a2 + a1
5 125a3 + 25a2 + 5a1 + a0
If a3 ≠ 0, the above polynomial equation represents a cubic model, and the third differences are
identical (all equal to 6a3).
If a3 = 0, a2 ≠ 0 and the polynomial reduces to y = a2x2 + a1x + a0, that is, a quadratic model, and the
second differences become identical (all equal to 2a2).

If a3 = 0 and a2 = 0, the polynomial becomes y = a1x + a0, that is, a linear model, and the first
differences are identical (all equal to a1).
1. Stepped cell 1 = a0
2. Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3
3. Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3
4. Stepped cell 4 = 6a3
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
Complete a finite difference table based on the data below, and use it to determine the equation
for y in terms of x.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −1 0 7 20 39 64
THINK WRITE
1 Place the data in columns as shown, allowing

Differences
space for 3 difference columns. x y
1st 2nd 3rd
2 Calculate the first differences and place them in the −1
next column. The first differences are not constant, 0
so we need to find the second differences. 1
3 Calculate these and place them in the next column. 1 0 6
The second differences are constant, so our table 7 0
is complete. Showing the third differences is 2 7 6
optional. The curve is a quadratic.
13 0
3 20 6
19 0
4 39 6
25
5 64
4 Recall the stepped cell equations, and equate them a0 = −1* [1]
to the shaded cells as shown: a1 + a2 + a3 = 1 [2]
Stepped cell 1 = a0 2a2 + 6a3 = 6 [3]
Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3 6a3 = 0 [4]
Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3
Stepped cell 4 = 6a3
Here, * is used to denote solved values.
5 [1] gives a0 = −1 and [4] gives a3 = 0. So a3 = 0*
Substitute this information into [2] and [3]. Sub a3 = 0 into [2]:
a1 + a2 + 0 = 1
a1 + a2 = 1 [5]
Sub a3 = 0 into [3]:
2a2 + 6 × 0 = 6
2a2 = 6
a2 = 3*
Sub a2 = 3 into [5]:
6 Substitute a2 = 0 into [5] to find a1. a1 + 3 = 1
a1 = −2*
7 Substitute your values for a0, a1, a2 and a3 into the y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 becomes
equation y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0. y = (0)x3 + (3)x2 + (−2)x + (−1)
y = 3x2 − 2x − 1

The stepped equations work only if the finite differences table begins with x = 0 and x increases in
steps of 1. It may be necessary on occasions to adjust the table to achieve this, as the following example
shows.
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
Complete a finite difference table based on these

x 1 2 3 4 5
data and use it to determine the equation for y in
terms of x. y −3 5 13 21 29
THINK WRITE
1 Construct a difference table, leaving room

Differences
for the x = 0 row. x y
1st 2nd 3rd
2 Calculate and fill in the first differences
where possible. 0 −11
3 Note the first differences are constant, so 8

the last two columns are optional. The
1 −3 0
relationship is linear.
4 Working ‘backwards’, the first stepped 8 0
cell must be −11 in order for the difference 2 5 0
between it and the next cell to be 8.
8 0
3 13 0
8 0
4 21 0
8
5 29
5 Recall the stepped cell equations, and equate

them to the shaded cells as shown:
Stepped cell 1 = a0 a0 = −11* [1]
Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3 a1 + a2 + a3 = 8 [2]
Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3 2a2 + 6a3 = 0 [3]
Stepped cell 4 = 6a3 6a3 = 0 [4]
Here, an asterisk (*) is used to denote
solved values.
6 [1] gives a0 = −11, [4] yields a3 = 0, and So a3 = 0* and a2 = 0*
hence [3] yields a2 = 0. Substitute this Sub a2 = 0 and a3 = 0 into [2]:
information into [2]. a1 + 0 + 0 = 8
a1 = 8*
7 Use the asterisked values to build the equation
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0 becomes
y = a3x3 + a2x2 + a1x + a0.
y = (0)x3 + (0)x2 + (8)x + (−11)
y = 8x − 11
Using simultaneous equations to find

a polynomial model
The method of fitting a polynomial to a set of data using finite differences requires the data to be
sequential. Often this is not the case. Simultaneous equations can be used to find a polynomial model
when the data are not sequential.

The number of simultaneous equations required to find the rule of a degree n polynomial is n + 1.
For example, to find a quadratic model, 2 + 1 = 3 points are required as a quadratic is a degree 2
polynomial. Each of the points are substituted into the general equation of the quadratic polynomial,
y = ax2 + bx + c, to generate 3 simultaneous equations. These can be solved using elimination or by
using a CAS calculator.
WORKED EXAMPLE 29
Using simultaneous equations, find a quadratic model for the points (−2, −9), (3, 1) and (1, 9).
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the general rule of a quadratic. y = ax2 + bx + c

2 Substitute each point into the general equation to a(−2)2 + b(−2) + c = −9
get three simultaneous equations. ∴ 4a − 2b + c = −9 [1]
a(3)2 + b(3) + c = 1
∴ 9a + 3b + c = 1 [2]
a(1)2 + b(1) + c = 9
∴a+b+c=9 [3]
3 Solve equations [1], [2] and [3] using elimination.
Equation [1] − [2] to eliminate c. −5a − 5b = −10 [4]
Equation [2] − [3] to eliminate c. 8a + 2b = −8 [5]
Equation [4] × 8 −40a − 40b = −80 [6]
Equation [5] × 5 40a + 10b = −40 [7]
Add equations [6] and [7] to eliminate a and solve −30b = −120
for b. ∴b=4
Substitute b = 4 into equation [4] to find a. −5a − 5(4) = −10
−5a = 10
∴ a = −2
−2 + 4 + c = 9
Substitute a = −2 and b = 4 into equation [3] ∴c=7

to find c.
4 Write the rule. y = −2x2 + 4x + 7
WORKED EXAMPLE 30
Using simultaneous equations, find a cubic model for the points (−2, −10), (1, 2), (3, −20) and (6, 22).
Use a CAS calculator to solve the simultaneous equations.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the general rule for a cubic. y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

2 Substitute each point into the general equation to a(−2)3 + b(−2)2 + c(−2) + d = −10
get 4 simultaneous equations. −8a + 4b − 2c + d = −10 [1]
a(1) + b(1)2 + c(1) + d = 2
3
a+b+c+d=2 [2]
a(3)3 + b(3)2 + c(3) + d = −20
27a + 9b + 3c + d = −20 [3]
a(6) + b(6)2 + c(6) + d = 22
3
216a + 36b + 6c + d = 22 [4]

3 Use the CAS calculator’s solve feature to The values are a = 1, b = −5, c = −4 and d = 10.
determine a, b, c and d.
4 Write the rule. y = x3 − 5x2 − 4x + 10

Exercise 3M Finite differences
1 WE27,28 For each of the following, complete a finite difference table based on the data below and
use it to determine the equation of y in terms of x.
a x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 6 17 28 39 50 61
b x 0 1 2 3 4 5
−4 −30
y 100 74 48 22
c x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −4 7 32 71 124 191
d x 1 2 3 4 5
y 1 −9 −13 −11 −3
e x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −7 −10 −1 26 77 158
f x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 16 17 20 31 56 101
g x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −23 −11 5 25 49 77
h x 1 2 3 4 5
y 28 27 32 31 12
i x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −27 −18 −9 0 9 18
j x 1 2 3 4 5
y −7 −3 −3 −7 −15
k x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y −66 −5 58 99 94 19
l x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 43 35 27 19 11 3
2 Triangular numbers may be illustrated as shown at right. x=1 x=2

If x is the number of dots on the base of each diagram, and y is the total
number of dots:
a complete the table below
b find an equation linking x and y x=3 x=4
x (base dots) 0 1 2 3 4 5
y (total dots)
c find the total number of cans in the supermarket display shown at right using
the equation found in b, and check your answer by counting the cans.

3 The diagonals in polygons of various types are shown at right in red. Find the
relationship between the number of dots (x) and the number of diagonals (n).
(Hint: Continue patterns in a difference table so that it is completed back to
x = 0.)
4 If n is the number of different squares that can be found within a square grid of edge length x, find
an equation for n in terms of x and use this equation to find the number of different squares on a
chessboard.
x=1 x=2 x=3

n=1 n=5 n=?
5 Find a linear model for the following sets of points.

a (2, 1) (−1, −23) b (−4, 6) (8, −3)
6 WE29 Using simultaneous equations, find a quadratic model for the following sets of points.
a (−2, −13) (6, −37) (−4, −57) b (−1, 4) (1, −2) (4, 19)
−
c (4, 8) (0, 8) ( 4, 24) d (−5, −360) (−2, −96) (6, −272)
7 WE30 Using simultaneous equations, find a cubic model for the following sets of points. Use a CAS
calculator to solve the simultaneous equations.
a (−6, 3) (−3, −27) (3, −33) (2, 3) b (−2, −39) (1, 6) (4, 141) (−3, −118)
c (4, −10) (6, 90) (8, 302) (−2, 2) d (−1, −4) (1, −8) (4, −314) (0, −6)
8 Using simultaneous equations, find a quartic model for the following sets of points. Use a
CAS calculator to solve the simultaneous equations.
a (1, 2) (−3, 354) (4, 1313) (2, 79) (−1, −2)
b (−4, 73) (0, 1) (2, −11) (−2, 13) (6, −707)

Summary
Expanding r When expanding three linear factors:
1. expand two factors first, then multiply the result by the remaining linear factor
2. collect like terms at each stage
3. (x + 2)3 may be written as (x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 2)
4. (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2b + 3ab2 − b3
Long division of r Long division of polynomials is similar to long division with numbers.
polynomials r The highest power term is the main one considered at each stage.
r The key steps are:
1. How many?
2. Multiply and write the result underneath.
3. Subtract.
4. Bring down the next term.
5. Repeat until no variables remain to be divided.
6. State the quotient and the remainder.
Polynomial values r P(a) means the value of P(x) when x is replaced by a and the polynomial is evaluated.
The remainder and r The remainder R = P(a) when P(x) is divided by x − a.

factor theorems r If P(a) = 0, then (x − a) is a factor of P(x).
Factorising r To factorise a polynomial:

polynomials 1. let P(x) = the given polynomial
2. use the factor theorem to find a linear factor
3. use long or short division to find another factor
4. repeat steps 2 and 3, or factorise by inspection if possible.
Alternatively, use the factor function on a calculator.
Sum and difference of r a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2)

two cubes r a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2)
Solving polynomial r To solve a polynomial equation:

equations 1. rewrite the equation so it equals zero
2. factorise the polynomial as much as possible
3. let each linear factor equal zero and solve for x in each case.
Cubic graphs — r To sketch a cubic function of the form f (x) = Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D: y
intercepts method 1. determine if the expression is a positive or negative cubic (that is,
if A is positive or negative) 20
2. find the y-intercept (let x = 0)
3. factorise if necessary or possible; for example, obtain an
expression in the form f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)
4. find the x-intercepts (let factors of f (x) equal 0)
−1 5– 4 x
5. use all available information to sketch the graph. 2
Quartic graphs — r To sketch a quartic function in the form y

intercepts method f (x) = (x – a)(x – b)(x – c) (x – d): 840
1. find the y-intercept (f (0) = abcd)
2. find the x-intercepts (let factors of f (x) = 0)
3. use all available information to sketch the graph.
−8 −5 0 3 7 x

Graphs of cubic r A cubic function in the form y = a(x − b)3 + c has a y-dilation of a and a stationary point of
functions in power inflection at (b, c).
function form
y y
a>0 a<0
(b, c) (b, c)
x x
Positive a Negative a
Domain, range, r The absolute maximum or minimum is either the y-value at a local maximum or minimum, or the
maximums and y-value at an end of the domain.
minimums
Modelling using r An equation to model data may be obtained using a calculator.

technology 1. Enter data as lists.
2. Find the regression equation (linear, quadratic etc.).
Finite differences r To use the method of finite differences:

1. Set up a table as shown and find differences by subtracting successive values (value – previous
value). Circle or shade the stepped cells.
First Second Third
x y
differences differences differences
0 Stepped cell 1
Stepped cell 2
1 Stepped cell 3
Stepped cell 4
2
3 Etc.
Etc.
4 Previous value
Value –
previous value
5 Value
2. Use the following equations to determine the polynomial model’s coefficients.
}
1. Stepped cell 1 = a0
2. Stepped cell 2 = a1 + a2 + a3 The equation of the polynomial model is
3. Stepped cell 3 = 2a2 + 6a3 y = a3x3 + a2x2+ a1x + a0.
4. Stepped cell 4 = 6a3

Chapter review
1 Expand:
SHORT
ANS WER a (x − 2)2(x + 10) b (x + 6)(x − 1)(x + 5)
c (x − 7)3 d (5 − 2x)(1 + x)(x + 2).
2 Find the quotient and remainder when the first polynomial is divided by the second in each case.
a x3 + 2x2 − 16x − 3, x + 2 b x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 7, x − 3 c −x3 + x2 + 4x − 7, x + 1
3 If P(x) = −3x3 + 2x2 + x − 4, find:
a P(1) b P(−4) c P(2a).
4 Without dividing, find the remainder when x3+ 3x2 − 16x + 5 is divided by x − 1.
5 Show that x + 3 is a factor of x3 − 2x2 − 29x − 42.
6 Factorise x3 + 4x2 − 100x − 400.
7 Factorise:
a 1 − 125x3 b (x − 2)3 + (x + 3)3.
8 Solve:
a 5(x + 5)3 + 5 = 0 b (2x + 1)2 (x − 3)2 = 0 c x3 − 9x2 + 26x − 24 = 0.
9 Sketch:
a y = x(x − 2)(x + 11) b y = x3 + 6x2 − 15x + 8 c y = −2x3 + x2.
10 Sketch:
a y = x(x – 7)(x – 2)(x + 4) b y = (2x – 1)(x + 1)(x + 4)2 c y = −x(x + 5)3.
−1
11 Sketch y = 8
(x + 1)3 + 8.
12 Find the range of f : [−6, 3] → R, where f (x) = (x + 1)(2 − x)(x + 5).
13 Complete a finite difference table, and use it to determine the equation for y in terms of x for the
following data set.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 8 7 8 17 40 83
14 The following series of diagrams show the maximum number of regions
produced by drawing chords in a circle.
x=0 x=1 x=2 x=3
Find a relationship between the number of chords (x) and the maximum r = 1 r = 2 r = 4 r = 7
number of regions (r).
15 Using simultaneous equations, find a cubic model for the points (−1, −10), (2, −4), (−3, −104) and (0, −2).
MULTIP L E 1 The expansion of (x + 5)(x + 1)(x − 6) is:

C H OICE
A x3 − 30 B x3 − 6x2 + 5x − 6 C x3 + 12x2 − 31x + 30
D x3 − 31x − 30 E x3 + 5x2 − 36x − 30
2 x3 + 5x2 + 3x − 9 is the expansion of:
A (x + 3)3 B x(x + 3)(x − 3) C (x − 1)(x + 3)2
D (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) E (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 3)
Questions 3 and 4 refer to the following long division.
x2 + x + 2
x + 4)x3 + 5x2 + 6x − 1
x3 + 4x2
x2 + 6x
x2 + 4x
2 −1
2x
2 +8
2x
−9
3 The quotient is:
A −9 B 4 C x+4 D x2 + x + 2 E x3 + 5x2 + 6x − 1

4 The remainder is:
A −9 B 2 C 4 D 2x − 1 E 2x + 8
5 If P(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 7x + 1, then P(−2) equals:
A −34 B −33 C −9 D 7 E 35
6 The remainder when − 7x is divided by x − 1 is:
x3
A −6 B 1 C 6 D 7 E 8
7 Which of the following is a factor of x − 3x2 − 18x + 40?
3
A (x − 4) B (x − 2) C (x + 1) D (x + 3) E (2x − 1)
8 x3 + 6x2 − 15x + 8 factorises to:
A (x − 1)2(x + 8) B (x + 1)2(x + 8) C (x + 2)3
D (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 4) E (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 4)
9 64x3 − y3 factorises to:
A (4x − y)(16x2 + 4xy + y2) B (4x − y)(16x2 − 4xy + y2) C (4x − y)(16x2 + 8xy + y2)
D (4x + y)(16x2 − 8xy + y2) E (4x + y)(16x2 − 4xy + y2)
10 Which of the following is the solution to −(x − 4)3 − 2 = 6?
A −6 B −2 C 2 D 4 E 6
11 Which of the following is a solution to (x − 11)(3x + 5)(7 − 3x)(2x + 5) = 0?
−3 3 5 7
A −11 B 5
C 7 D 3 E 3
12 The equation for this graph could be: y

A y = (x − 5)(x + 1)(x + 3)
B y = (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 5)
C y = (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 5)
D y = (3x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 5)
E y = (5 − x)(1 + x)(3 + x)
−3 −1 5 x
13 The equation for the graph shown below could be: y

A y = (x – 3)2(x + 3)2
B y = (x – 3)(x + 3)3
C y = (x – 3)3(x + 3) −3 0 3 x
D y = (x – 3)4
−81
E y = (x + 3)4
14 Which of the following shows the graph of y = −2(x + 5)3 − 12?
A y B y C y
x x
(−5, 12)
(−5, −12) (5, −12)
x
D y E y
(5, 12)
x
x
(−5, −12)

Questions 15 and 16 refer to the following graph (below).
y
(−7, 252)
(4.813, 60.370)
−5 2 7 x
(−2.147, −108.222)
15 The domain of the graph is:

A [−108.222, 252) B (−2.147, 4.183] C (−108.222, 60.370]
D (−7, 7] E (−6, 7]
16 The range of the graph is:
A [−108.222, 252) B [−2.147, 4.183] C [−108.222, 60.370]
D [7, 252) E [0, 252)
17 The data below obey which type of relationship?
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 0 4 16 66 208 520
A Linear B Quadratic C Cubic D Quartic E None of the above
18 Which of the following points lies on the curve of the quadratic model that fits the points (1, 0), (0, −7)
and (2, 11)?
A (3, −4) B (0, 7) C (−2, −7) D (−1, −10) E (−1, −14)
E X TENDED 1 For P(x) = 5x3 − 3x2 − 6x − 22, find P(3) and P(−x).
R E S P ONS E
2 Find the value of m if x + 3 is a factor of 2x3 − 15x2 + mx − 21.
3 Factorise x3 − 2x2 − 9x + 18. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 9x +18.
4 Factorise (3x − 2)3 + (x + 5)3.
5 Determine the x- and y-intercepts of the cubic graph y = (2 − 3x)(4x + 1)(2x − 7). Hence, sketch the
graph.
6 The graph y = x3 has been moved parallel to the x-axis 5 units to the left and moved upwards 2 units
from the x-axis.
What is the equation of the translated graph and what are the coordinates of the point of inflection?
Sketch the translated graph.
7 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 2)2(x − 3)(x − 4), showing all intercepts.
8 The polynomial P(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 54 is exactly divisible by x − 9 and also exactly divisible by x − 6.
a Find the values of a and b.
b Find the third factor.
c Hence, sketch the graph of the polynomial y = x3 + ax2 + bx + 54.
9 Factorise x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 6 over the real number field. Sketch the graph of y = x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 6.
10 Find the points of intersection between y = x3 − x2 − 19x − 13 and 3x + y − 7 = 0.
11 Use the method of finite differences to fit a polynomial model to the following data.
x 0 1 2 3 4
y 4 16 25 30 30

12 A diagram of a proposed waterslide based on a cubic function appears below.
Find:
a the height, h1, of the top of the slide
b the coordinates of point A (where the slide enters the water)
c the length, L, of the ladder
d the height, h2, of the ‘mini-hump’ to the nearest centimetre.
y
y = −0.008(x3 − 30x2 + 285x − 900)
L
h1
h2
(−5, 0) (8, 0.22) A x
13 An innovative local council decides to put a map of the district on a website. Part of the map involves
two key features — the Cubic River and the Linear Highway. A mathematically able website designer
has found the following equations for these features:
Cubic River: y = x3 + x2 − 4x − 4
Linear Highway: y = 5x + 5.
a Sketch the river and highway, showing x- and y-axis intercepts.
b Find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the highway and the river.
c A fun-run organiser wishes to arrange checkpoints at the closest points of intersection. Find the
distance between the proposed checkpoints.
14 A cubic function in the form f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has the following values.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 42 36 20 0 −18 −28
a Use finite differences to find the values of a, b, c and d.

b State one factor of f (x), giving your reasoning.
c Using long or short division, factorise f (x).
d Sketch the graph of f (x), labelling all intercepts.
15 The height (in centimetres) of a wave above a 1-metre pole is measured over an interval of 8 seconds.
The wave’s height above the 1-metre pole has been found to approximate the function H1 = t3 − 13t2 + 48t.
a Find the initial height of the wave above the 1-metre pole.
b Using a CAS calculator, sketch the function and find the local maximum and minimum height of
the wave.
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ICT activities
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Answers CHAPTER 3
CUBIC AND QUARTIC c 4x2 − 7x − 2, −3 Exercise 3D The remainder and factor
FUNCTIONS d x2 − 4x + 3, 8 theorems
e x2 + x − 6, −11 1 a −30 b 0 c 0
Exercise 3A Expanding f 3x2 + 2x + 1, 13 d −24 e −24
1 a x3 + 7x2 + 6x 3 a −x2 − 5x − 2, −14
f k3 + 3k2 − 10k − 24
b x3 − 7x2 − 18x b − 2
3x − 2x + 4, −3 g −n3 + 3n2 + 10n − 24
c x3 + 8x2 − 33x c −x2 + 5x + 6, 9 h −27c3 + 27c2 + 30c − 24
d 2x3 + 10x2 + 12x d −2x2 + 7x − 1, 1 2 a 58 b −8 c 11
e 48x − 3x3 4 a x2 − x − 2, 3 d −9 e −202 f 6
f 5x3 + 50x2 + 80x g 158 h −6 i 35
b x2, −7
g x3 + 4x2 j 441
c x2 − x − 2, −8
h 2x3 − 14x2 −x2 − x − 8, 0 3 a 6 b 3 c 1
d
i −
30x3 − 270x2 d −2 e 2 f 2
e 5x − 2, 7
j −7x3 − 56x2 − 112x g −5, 2 h a = −5, b = −3
f 2x2 − 2x + 10, −54 4 a Not a factor b Is a factor
2 a x3 + 12x2 + 41x + 42 g −2x2 − 4x − 9, −16
c Is a factor d Not a factor
b x3 − 3x2 − 18x + 40 h −2x2 + 4x − 1, 1
5 Show P(−2) = 0, P(3) = 0 and P(−5) = 0.
c x3 + 3x2 − 36x + 32 5 a x3 + 2x2 + 5x – 2, −2 6 For example, for a show P (1) = 0.
d x3 − 6x2 + 11x − 6 b x3 + 2x2 – 9x – 18, 0 7 a E b C c D d A
e x3 + 6x2 − x − 6 6x3 + 17x2 + 53x + 155, 465
c 8 a (x − 1)
f x3 + 5x2 − 49x − 245 6 a The quotient is x2 − 6x + 101; the b (x − 3) or (x − 2)
g x3 + 4x2 − 137x − 660 remainder is −1490. c (x − 3) or (x + 2)
h x3 + 3x2 − 9x + 5 b The quotient is 2x2 + 44x + 1369; the d (x − 6) or (x + 4) or (x + 5)
i x3 − 12x2 + 21x + 98 remainder is 42 430. 9 a i 0 ii 0 iii 0
j x3 + x2 − x − 1 16 x 160 b i (x + 1)(6x2 + x − 2)
3 a x3 + 13x2 + 26x − 112 c The quotient is 4x2 − + ; ii (x + 1)(2x − 1)(3x + 2)
− 721 3 9
b 3x3 + 26x2 + 51x − 20 the remainder is 9 . c P ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟ = 0 and (2x − 1) is a factor.
c 4x3 − x2 − 36x + 9 735
⎝ 2⎠
d 10x3 − 49x2 + 27x + 36 d The quotient is 9x3 − 30x2 + 105x − 2 ; 2x − 1 = 0 gives x = 2 .

1
−6x3 − 71x2 − 198x + 35 5235 −2

e the remainder is 2 . P( 3 ) = 0 and (3x + 2) is a factor.
f 21x3 − 96x2 + 48x −2
g 54x3 + 117x2 − 72x Exercise 3C Polynomial values 3x + 2 = 0 givesx = 3.
h 24x3 − 148x2 + 154x + 245 1 a 10 b 11 c 18 d In general if (ax + b) is a factor, then
i 20x3 − 19x2 − 69x + 54 d 43 e 3 f −22 −
−77
⎛ b⎞
j 4x3 + 42x2 + 146x + 168 g P ⎜⎝ ⎟ = 0.
a⎠
4 a x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8 h 2a3 − 3a2 + 2a + 10
b x3 + 15x2 + 75x + 125 i 16b3 − 12b2 + 4b + 10 Exercise 3E Factorising polynomials
c x3 − 3x2 + 3x − 1 j 2x3 + 9x2 + 14x + 18 1 a (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 6)
d x3 − 9x2 + 27x − 27 k 2x3 − 21x2 + 74x − 77 b (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5)
−128y3 − 48y2 − 8y + 10
e 8x3 − 72x2 + 216x − 216 l c (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 9)
f 27x3 + 108x2 + 144x + 64 2 a P(−11) = 230 522 d (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 4)
5 a x3 − 4x2 − 67x − 110 b P(102) = 1 735 072 853 e (x + 3)(x + 4)(x + 7)
b 3x3 + 15x2 − 18x c P(2x + 9) = 256x4 + 4632x3 + 31 428x2 f (x + 2)(x + 3)(x + 7)
c −6x3 + 72x2 + 510x − 3600 + 94 726x + 106 982 g (x + 1)2(x + 2)
d − 3
x + 29x2 − 264x + 720 d P(x3 + 2) = 16x12 + 131x9 + 402x6 h (x + 2)2(x + 3)
e −x3 − 20x2 − 100x + 526x3 + 253 i (x + 4)(x + 5)2
f −x3 − 39x2 − 507x − 2197 3–7 j x(x + 5)(x + 8)
Exercise 3B
Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column Column
Long division of polynomials
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 a x + 3x − 6, 19
2
b x2 + 2x − 1, 6 Rem Rem Rem Rem

c x2 + 1, 2 when when when when
d x2 − x + 6, −11 divided divided divided divided
e x2 + 4x + 3, −3 by by by by
f x2 + 3x − 3, −11 P (x) P (1) P (2) P (−1) P (−2) (x − 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x + 2)
g x2 − 2x − 3, −17 a 4 15 0 −5 4 15 0 −5
h x2 − 4x − 18, −91
i 3x2 − 7x + 20, −35 b 10 28 −2 −8 10 28 −2 −8
j 4x2 − 8x + 18, −22

c 3 11 −7 −21 3 11 −7 −21
k 2x2 − 3x + 3, 7
l 2x2 − 9, 35 d −7 −19 5 −7 −7 −19 5 −7
2 a 3x2 − 2x + 1, 5
b 2x2 + 5x − 6, −7 8 a P (−8) b P (7) c P (a)

k x(x + 3)(x + 4) 3 a (2a − 1)(a2 − a + 1) Exercise 3H Cubic graphs — intercepts
l x(x + 5)2 b x(x2 + 6x + 12) method
m x(x + 1)(x + 5) c 2(x + 2)(4x2 + 10x + 7) 1 a y
n x2(x + 6) d −5(3w2 − 15w + 25)

2 a (x − 1)(x + 1)2 e 5m(7m2 − 3mp + 3p2)
x
b (x − 2)(x − 1)(x + 1) f (2x − 3)(13x2 + 15x + 9) 1 2 3
c (x + 1)2(x + 5) g (3y + 5)(3y2 + 21y + 67)
d (x − 3)(x + 2)2 h (4x − 3y)(7x2 + 9xy + 21y2) −6
e (x + 1)(x + 4)2 i (1 − 5p)(13p2 − 16p + 7)
f (x − 5)(x − 2)(x + 2) j 2(3x − 8)(21x2 − 60x + 67)
b y
g (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2) k (x2 + y3)(x4 − x2y3 + y6)
h (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 2) l 2(x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9)
i (x − 1)(x + 2)2 m 3(a + 1)(a2 − a + 1) −6 −1 7 x
j (x + 2)(x2 − x + 3) n 6(x2 + 4)(x4 − x2 + 7) −42
k (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 5) 4 m = 27, n = 1
l (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 3)
5 a 3x3 + my3 = ( 3 3 x )3 + ( 3 m y)3
m (x − 2)2(x + 3)
n (x − 4)(x + 5)(x + 8) b a = 3 3x , b = 3 m y
c y
o (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)2
c (3 3x + 3 m y) ((3 3 x) 2 − 3 3mxy + ( 3 my)2 )
p (x − 3)(x + 2)3 −8 −1 11
q (x − 1)(x + 1) (x + 3)2 Exercise 3G
x
Solving polynomial −88
r x(x − 1)(x − 7)(x + 3)
3 a x(x − 2)(3x + 5)
equations
1 a 6 −5
b 2x(x + 1)(2x − 1) b
c 14 −5
c 3x(x − 4)(x + 2) d
e 4 −2
d −2x(x + 3)2 f
−4 y
e 6x2(x − 1) g 0 h
d
f −x(x + 4)(x + 3) 3
g −(x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3) i −4 j 1 60
h −2x(x − 3)(x − 2) k 12 l −13
i −(x + 2)(2x − 1)(3x − 2) 2 a 1, 2, 5 b −
3, −4, −7
j −(x − 2)2(5x − 4) −2, −2, −1, 5–
c 1, 5, 9 d 2, 3
k −(x − 1)(x + 3)(x − 5)(x + 2)2 −4, −2, −1, 1, 2
2
e 4 f −4 3 x
l (x − 2)2(3x + 5)(8x + 1) −5, 8
g h 1
4 a (2x + 3)(x − 1)(x + 2) e y
b (3x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 4) i −1, 0, 1 j 0, 9 12 3–
4
c (3x + 2)(x − 2)(x + 2) −
−7
− 1– 4 x
k 2, 6 l 2, 0 2
d (4x + 3)(x + 3)(x + 5)
e (5x − 1)(x + 1)2 −3 6 6 1 3
m 2 , 0, 7 , 5 n 5, 4
f (x + 2)(x2 − x + 2)
g (x + 1)(2x + 3)2 3 a −2, 0, 2 b −4, 0, 4 c −5, 0, 5
h (x − 2)(2x − 1)(3x − 4) −3, −5,
d 3 e 0 f 0, 2
i (x + 4)(2x − 5)(5x + 2) f
y
− −1 1
j (7x − 2)(x − 2)(x + 4) g 2, 0, 2 h ,0 i 0, 5
k (x − 3)(x + 1)2(2x + 1) 4 3 6 x
l (x − 1)(x + 3)(2x + 1) (3x − 2) j 0, 2, 3 k 0, 4 l −7, 0, 1
Exercise 3F Sum and difference of m 0, 4, 5 n 0
two cubes 4 a −4, 1, 4 b −2, 3, 5 c −5, 1, 5
1 a a = x, b = 6 b a = 2y, b = z d −4, −2,
2 e −1,
2, 3 f −2, 1, 5 −54
c a = x + 5, b = 3 d a = 1, b = 4h −1
g −2, −1, 3 h −5, 0, 1, 2 i −6, −1 y
2,
c u 2 a
e a= , b = eg f a = t, b = −1 3 1
30
2 6 , k −3, −2, l −2, −1, 1
j 2 2, 3 2
2 a (x − 5)(x2 + 5x + 25)
−
b ( j + k)( j2 − jk + k2) 5 a 8.002, 9.008, 15.994
−
c (y − 2)( y2 + 2y + 4) b 12, −7, 7
−
d (3x + y)(9x2 − 3xy + y2) c 9, 13
e 8(2t − 3u)(4t2 + 6tu + 9u2) d 16 −5 −3 2 x
−
f (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) e 6.91
b y
f 14.22, −1.071, 0.854
⎞ ⎛ x − 2 xp + 4 p2 ⎞
2
⎛x
g ⎜ + 2 p⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎠ g 3.627
⎝9 ⎠ ⎝ 81 9
h 0.646, −1.948, −0.199 −8 − 3– 8 x
h (3r − 1)(9r2 + 3r + 1) i −4.894, −1.325 2
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 3k 1⎞ −12.556, 0.418 −192

j
i ⎜⎝ 3k − ⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 9 k + + ⎟
2
2 2 4⎠ 6 C
j (st + g2)(s2t 2 − stg2 + g4) 7 B

e y
c y 5D 6 C 7 B
8 E 9 D
−3 −1 7 x
x −21 10 a y
−1 2
f y −1
y x
d
12
150
b y = (x + 1)(x2 − 2x + 5)
−1 −2 c Find the discriminant for the quadratic
3
−10 −5 x
−3 −2 x factor,
Δ = (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 5 = 4 − 20 = −16.
g y ∴ As Δ < 0, the quadratic factor has no
y 8 real solutions, so y = x3 − x2 + 3x + 5 has
e
only one real solution at x = −1.
d Find the discriminant of the quadratic
factor,
−1 4 Δ = (−2k)2 − 4 × 1 × 5 = 4k2 − 20.
2 3
x i For 2 real solutions, the quadratic
2
−8 x factor must have 1 solution. ∴ Δ = 0.
h y Solve 4k2 − 20 = 0.
y −9 x
∴ If k = ± 5 , the cubic will have
f
2 real solutions.
ii For 3 real solutions, the quadratic
factor must have 2 solutions. ∴ Δ > 0.
Solve 4k2 − 20 > 0.
7
∴ If k < − 5 or k > 5 , the cubic will
−7 1– x
6 4 a y (−0.33, 14.81) have 3 real solutions.
14 Exercise 3I
3a y Quartic graphs — intercepts
method
−7 −2 1 x
1 a y
12
−2 −1 1 x
(−5, −36) 0 x
−2 −1 2 3
−2 b y (6.04, 10.02)
−4 5 7 b y
b y x
6
8
x
−2 −1 0 2
−140
−3 −2 −1 (−0.71, −144.84) c y
x
c y
−1 3 0 1 x
y −5
c x −5
(−1, 0)
8
−9
d y
−4 −2 −1 (3, 16)
x (1.67, −28.44) 1
d y 0 1 x
d y
4 e y
24 −2 −1
7
(−2, 0) x
−4 2 3 x
(−0.76, −6.64) −3 0 1– 3 x
2

f y 6 E −1
7 D i i 4 ii (3, 2)
8 a y j i 4 ii (0, 0)
4 −1
k i 3 ii (0, 0)
−1 0 2 x −2.23 −0.24 2 l i −2 ii (0, −2)
x
g y 2 a y
(2, 2)
(−1.55, −13.04) 1 x
1
0 1– x (0.46, 12.09)
3
b y
−14
h y
9
125 1.30 3.36
(−0.83, 0.10) x
b y
−5 0 1 x
(−3, 81)
3 a = −5 (2.61, −34.98)
4 a There are many possible quartic c y
equations, including y = −(x + 3)(x – 3)3 (−2.38, 13.68) x
or y = −x4 + 81 or y = −(x − 3)(x + 3)3. (1.22, 6.47)
b y = −(x + 3)(x – 3)3
c y
−3.18 1.86 6
y −0.68 0 x x
(4, −32)
81
d y
(0.09, 120.35)
120 −288
−4.33 −1.79 1.62 9.51
x
−3 0 x (−3.28, −98.19)
3
d y
(6.95, −1343.39) 10
(1, 5)
e y
y = −x4 + 81
2
x
y
−1.90 1.90
81 x
(0, −3) −3 y
e
(−1.29, −11.33) (1.29, −11.33) −2 x
f (−3.22, 1027.74)y
−8
(−0.06, 357.53)
−3 0 3 x (2.35, 682.19)
f y
358
−(x
y= − 3)(x + 3)3 −4.75 3.74
1 x
x
y
−1
81 Exercise 3J Graphs of cubic functions in

power function form
1 a i 2 ii (1, 3) y
g
b i 3 ii (−5, −2)
0 x
−3 3 c i −2 ii (6, −8)
35
d i −7 ii (−4, 1) (−2, 27)
e i 1 ii (9, 4)
f i 1 ii (0, −7)
g i −1 ii (−1, −1)
1 −5 x
5 C h i ii (−2, 0)
2

h y y y
b j
1
30 –2
x
4 x
−1 ( 5– , −1)
2
x (5, −3)
(−5, −32)
i y
c y 4 A
5 E
6 a y = (x − 1)3 + 5
x b y = (x + 2)3 + 2
x
( 1– , 0) c y = −(x + 3)3 + 4
4
(3, −9) d y = −(x + 3)3
7 a y = 4(x − 2)3 + 3
b y = −2(x + 5)3 + 1
j y
d y 1
c y = 4 (x − 1)3 − 2
1 3–4 −1
(−1, 2)
d y= 2x
3
+4
( 3– , 1)
1 2
x x Exercise 3K Domain, range, maximums
and minimums
1 a Domain [−5, 4], range [−2, 5]
k y b Domain [−2, 4], range [−2, 7]
e y c Domain [−4, 2], range [−5, 2]
26 3–5 d Domain [−2, 6), range [−2, 10)
(−2, 25)
e Domain (−3, 5), range [0, 5)
(1, 0) f Domain (−3, 4], range [−9, 0]
x
2 a y
(0.472, 13.129)
−7 x 12
l y
f y
x x −1 4
x
(3.528, −1.128)
( 3– , −2)
(1, −2) 4 Range [−1.128, 13.129]
b (−3.732, 10.392) y
m y
(1, 5) y
g
(4, 3)
−5 −2 1 x
x
x (−0.268, −10.392) −10
Range [−10.392, 10.392]
n y
h y c y (3, 2) Range [0, 2)
1 x
x
−3
(9–5 , −7) (1.333, 0.148)
1 2 x
3 a y d y Range [0, 3]
i y
3
(4, 1) (6, 4) (−2.333, 1.185)
5 x
x −3 −1 x

e (−4.689, 105.526) y b y c y y = 2.5307x3 − 23.29x2 + 38.808x + 59.448
0 x 600
−10 2 4 6 8 10 500
3– (2, 27) −20 400
−7 −1 2 −30 300
x 200
−21 (0.355, −22.822) −40 100
−50 0
−60 2 4 6 8 10 x
y = −4.6273x − 9.0455
(−8, −133) d y y = −2.2988x3 + 32.575x2 −14.094x + 30.154
900
Range [−133, 105.526] c y y = 3.0273x + 6.3182
600
f y 40
30 300
1 4 20
x 0
10 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
4a y y = 81.855x + 419.36
−4 d y y = −2.8818x + 48.318 1400
(3, −4) 1200
1000
50 800
600
Range [−4, 0] 40 400
30 200
g (−2.577, 0.385) y 20 0 x
10 0 2 4 6 8 10
−3 −2 x
0
(−1.422, −0.385) 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
b y y = 12.953x2 − 47.679x + 613.66
1400
2 a y y = −0.5291x2 + 20.8x + 0.5175 1200
1000
250 800
600
200 400
(−4, −6) 150 200
0 x
100 0 2 4 6 8 10
Range [−6, 0.385] 50
h (−2, 4) y 0 c y y = 10.006x3 − 2.1369x2 + 9.8652x + 577.45
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
1400
(2.1, 1.581) 1200
b y y = 8.2459x2 − 21.777x + 56.371 1000
800
−1 2 x 800 600
600 400
200
400 0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10
−6 200
(0.786, −8.209) 5 The cubic model
0
Range [−8.209, 4) 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
6 205.629
y 7 99
i (2.737, 48.517) c y y = −1.1014x2 + 16.75x − 5.5664 8 330
50 9 a y
40
Share price ($)
6
30 5
20 4
10 3
−3 −1 5 0
−10 2 4 6 8 10 x 2
x 1
(−2.070, −7.035) (5.1, −4.94) 0 x
y 2 4 6 8 10 12
d
Range [−7.035, 48.517] Time (months)
y 0 x
j (−2.111, 13.169) −200 2 4 6 8 10 b $6.78
−400
2.333 −600 c Anything can happen with prices in the
−3 −1 x −800 sharemarket. The last data point may be
−1000
−1200 the beginning of a share price crash!
y = −11.124x2 − 15.655x + 79.329 10 y y = 1.048x3 − 19.309x2 + 98.296x + 220.7
−21
400
Population
3 a y y = 1.3747x3 − 19.138x2 + 8.5536x + 607.48

(1, −32) 300
600
500 200
Range [−32, 13.169] 400 100
3 A 4 B 300 0
200 x
5 a 28 m b 20.785 m 100
0 2 4 6 8 10
Year
6 (0.971, −1.201) 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x
Exercise 3L
Year 11 estimate: 360 birds
Modelling using technology
b y y = 1.5056x3 − 6.6906x2 + 35.465x + 20.615 Exercise 3M
1 a y y = 11.436x − 23.091 Finite differences
1200
100
80 1000 1 a y = 11x + 6
60 800
600
b y = −26x + 100
40
20 400 c y = 7x2 + 4x − 4
0 200 d y = 3x2 − 19x + 17
−20 2 4 6 8 10 x 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 x e y = x3 + 3x2 − 7x − 7

f y = x3 − 2x2 + 2x + 16 9a y EXTENDED RESPONSE
g y = 2x + 10x − 23
2 1 P(3) = 68
h y = −2x3 + 15x2 − 32x + 47 P(−x) = −5x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 22
2 m = −70
i y = 9x − 27
3 Factors: (x − 3)(x + 3)(x − 2)
j y = −2x2 + 10x − 15
y
k y = −4x3 + 13x2 + 52x − 66
l y= −8x
+ 43 −11 2 x
b y 18
2 a x (base dots) 0 1 2 3 4 5
y (total dots) 0 1 3 6 10 15
8 x
1 1 −3 0 2 3
b y= x2 + 2 x
2
c 28 −8 1 x
4 (4x + 3)(7x2 − 15x + 39)
3 x (dots) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 c y
5 x-intercepts: x = ⎨
⎧ −1 2 1
, ,3
⎩ 4 3 2
}
n (diagonals) 0 −1 −1 0 2 5 9 y-intercepts: y = −14
y
1 3
n = 2 x2 − 2 x 1– x
2
1 3 1 1
4 n= x + 2 x 2 + 6 x, 204 squares on
3
a chessboard y
10 a
5 a y = 8x − 15 − 1 0 2 3 1– x
−3 4 3 2
b y = 4x + 3 −4 0 2 7
x
−5
6 a y= 2 x + 7x + 11
2
−14
b y= 2x2 − 3x − 1
1 2 b y
c y= x − 2x + 8
2
d y= −10x2 + 18x –
20 6 Equation: y = (x + 5)3 + 2
Point of inflection: (−5, 2)
7 a y = −x3 − 5x2 + 8x + 15 1– x
−4 −1 0 y
b y = 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 2
3 3 1
−16
c y= x + 2 x 2 − 12 x − 18 (−5, 2)
4 2
d y= −5x3 + 3x – 6 y
c 0 x
−5
8 a y = 5x4 + x3 − 2x2 + x − 3
−1
b y = 4 x4 − 2x3 + x2 + 2x + 1 x
−5 0
CHAPTER REVIEW 7 y
SHORT ANSWER 11 y
1 a x3 + 6x2 − 36x + 40 7 –8
7 48
b x3 + 10x2 + 19x − 30 (−1, 8)
c x3 − 21x2 + 147x − 343
d −2x3 − x2 + 11x + 10
2 a x2 − 16, 29
b x2 + 6x + 5, 8 3 x −2 0 3 4 x
c −x2 + 2x + 2, −9
3 a −4 12 [−32, 40]
b 216 13 y = x3 – 2x2 + 8 8 a a = −14, b = 39
c −24a3 + 8a2 + 2a − 4 1 1 b The third factor is x + 1.
14 r = 2 x 2 + 2 x + 1 y
4 −7 c
5 Show P (−3) = 0. 15 y = 2x3 – 5x2 + x – 2
6 (x − 10)(x + 4)(x + 10)
MULTIPLE CHOICE 54
7 a (1 − 5x)(1 + 5x + 25x2)
b (2x + 1)(x2 + x + 19) 1D 2C 3D
4A 5B 6A
8 a −6 7B 8A 9A
−1
10 C 11 E 12 E
b 2, 3
13 B 14 A 15 D −10 6 9 x
c 2, 3, 4 16 A 17 D 18 D

9 y = ( x − 2)( x − 3)( x + 3) c 8.766 m 14 a a = 1, b = −8, c = 1, d = 42
y
d 58 cm b (x – 3), f (3) = 0
13 a (3, 20) c (x – 7)(x – 3)(x + 2)
y
6 d y
42
0 x
−2 3 7
Linear Highway:
5
− 3 0− 3 2 x y = 5x + 5
15 a Initial height = 0 cm
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x b y 54.5185 (2 2–3 , 54.5185)
−4
(8, 64)
64
10 Points of intersection are (−2, 13) and (5, −8). Cubic River:
(6, 36)
− 3 (−3, −10) y = x3 + x2 − 4x − 4
x 79 36
11 y = − x2 + x + 4
6 6
0 22–3 6 8 x
12 a 7.2 m b (−3, −10), (−1, 0), (3, 20)
b (15, 0) c 10.198 km c 1 s, 5 s and 8 s

Exam practice 1 CHAPTERS 1–3
1 Determine the exact values for x for which x2 − 5 = 3x. 3 marks S H O RT
2 Let f : [−3,
1] → R, where f (x) = +
2x3 − 4x − 3.
5x2 A N S W ER
25 minutes
a Show that (x − 1) is a linear factor. 2 marks
b When factorised, f (x) = (x − 1)(x + 3)(ax + b). Determine the values of a and b. 3 marks
c Hence, sketch the graph of f (x). 3 marks
3 The line y = ax + b passes through the point (2, 1) and is parallel to the line y − 4x + 3 = 0. Determine
the values of a and b. 2 marks
4 Let f : [−1,
3] → R, f (x) = − 4x − 3.
2x2
a Express f in the form f (x) = a(x − b)2 + c. Hence, state the coordinates of the turning point. 3 marks
b State the range for f. 2 marks
c Determine the exact values of the x-intercepts. 3 marks
d Sketch f on a set of axes. Label all key features. 3 marks
M U LTIP L E
1 A straight line passes through the points (2, 4) and (−1, −5). Its equation would be: C HO IC E
A y=6−x B y=x+2 C 3y = x + 10 D y = 3x − 2 E y = −3x + 10 12 minutes
Each question is worth

2 The exact values of x for which 3(2x − 1)2 + 2(2x − 1) − 8 = 0 are: one mark.
−4
A (2x + 1)(6x − 7) B (3x + 4)(x − 2) C or 2
3
− 13 −1 7
13
D or E or
10 10 2 6
3 If (x − a) is a linear factor of the function f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 11x − 12, then the possible value for a is:
A −3 B −1 C 0 D 1 E 4
4 A cubic function has the following axis intercepts: x-intercepts 1, 3 and −4, and y-intercept 24. The
equation that would best describe this function would be:
A 24(x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4) B (x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4) + 24 C (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 4) + 24
D 2(x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 4) E 2(x + 1)(x + 3)(x − 4)
5 Three linear functions are defined as:
L1: 4y − 3x − 8 = 0
L2: 3y + 4x + 1 = 0
L3: 3y − 4x − 2 = 0
Which one of the following statements is correct?
A L1 and L2 are parallel. B L1 and L3 are parallel. C L1 and L2 are perpendicular.
D L1 and L3 are perpendicular. E L1, L2 and L3 are parallel.
6 y
−a b x
Which one of the following rules best describes the graph above?
A y = (x + a)2(b − x) B y = (x − a)2(x − b) C y = (x + a)(x − b)
D y = (x − b)2(x + a) E y = (x − a)2(x − b)
7 A polynomial of degree 3 passes through the origin and has x-intercepts at −2 and 3. The equation for
this polynomial would best be described by which one of the following?
A y = (x − 2)(x + 3) B y = (x + 2)(x − 3) C y = x(x − 2)(x + 3)
D y = x(x + 2)(x − 3) E y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x + 3)
8 A linear function L(x) = ax + 1 intersects the quadratic function Q(x) = 2x2 − x − 1 at the point (−0.5, 0).
The coordinates of the second point of intersection would be closest to:
A (−1, 1) B (−1, 2) C (−1, 4)
D (2, 3) E (2, 5)
Exam practice 1 159

E XTENDED 1 Points A (−2, 1), B (1, 5) and C (5, 2) are vertices on a triangle.
R E S P ONS E
40 minutes a Show that the triangle is an isosceles triangle. 3 marks
b Determine the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line AC. 4 marks
c Show that the perpendicular bisector found in part b passes through vertex B. 2 marks
2 Seng and Victor are training for a 1000-metre race. The distance in metres they each ran was recorded
in 1-minute intervals. Victor was delayed for 1 minute because he was tying up his shoelaces when he
was 110 m from the starting line. The individual distances are recorded in the table below.
Time (minutes) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Seng’s distance (m) 0 200 380 680 880 1040
Victor’s distance (m) −110 0 200 560 875 1050
a The relationship between distance and time for Victor can be modelled using a quartic function.
Determine this quartic function, Qv. Write your function in terms of Qv (distance in metres) and
t (minutes). Express coefficients correct to 2 decimal places. 2 marks
b Seng’s distance and time relationship can be modelled using a cubic function. Determine this
cubic function, Cs. Write your function in terms of Cs (distance in metres) and t (minutes).
Express coefficients correct to 2 decimal places. 2 marks
c i State the domain of Qv. 1 mark
ii State the domain of Cs. 1 mark
iii Sketch both Qv and Cs on the same set of axes. 3 marks
d Using your functions Qv and Cs, determine the time first Victor passes Seng. Write your answer in
minutes and seconds. 2 marks
3 A children’s playground in the shape of a rectangle is to be constructed at a local park. The longer side
is 5 metres longer than the shorter side.
a If x is the shorter side, write down an expression for the longer side in terms of x. 1 mark
b Write down an equation for the area, A(x), of the playground in terms of x. 2 marks
c If the maximum area of the playground is 150 m2, determine the
dimensions of the playground. 3 marks y
A miniature bike path will be built within the playground. It will travel
from the gate to the seesaws, slides and swings. The bike path can
be modelled by the cubic function B(x) = x3 − 6x2 +10x, where x is
the horizontal distance, in metres, and B(x) is the vertical distance, in
metres, from the gate.
d Assuming that the slides are on the path, determine the vertical
distance the slides are from the gate if their measurement is 3 metres
horizontally from the gate. 2 marks
e If the seesaws are on the bike path, show that the seesaws are located
DIGITAL DOC 1 metre horizontally and 5 metres vertically from the gate. 2 marks
doc-10161
Solutions f Determine the shortest distance, in metres, between the seesaws and
Exam practice 1 the slides. Write your answer in exact form. 2 marks
0 x

CHAPTER 4
Relations, functions and
transformations
doc-9738
4A Set notation 10 Quick Questions
4B Relations and graphs
4C Domain and range
4D Types of relations (including functions)
4E Power functions (hyperbola, truncus and square root function)
4F Function notation
4G Special types of function (including hybrid functions)
4H Inverse relations and functions
4I Circles
4J Functions and modelling
4A Set notation
Set notation is used in mathematics in the same way as symbols that are used to represent language statements.
Definitions
1. A set is a collection of things.
2. The symbol {. . .} refers to a set.
3. Anything contained in a set, that is, a member of a set, is referred to as an element of the set.
(a) Thes ymbol ∈ means ‘is an element of’, for example, 6 ∈ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
(b) Thes ymbol ∉ means ‘is not an element of’, for example, 1 ∉ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
CHAPTER 4 Relations, functions and transformations 161

4. A capital letter is often used to refer to a particular set of things.
5. The symbol ⊂ means ‘is a subset of’, so, if B ⊂ A, then all of the elements of set B are contained in
set A. For example, {2, 4} ⊂ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
6. The symbol ⊄ means ‘is not a subset (or is not contained in)’, for example {2, 3} ⊄ {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.
7. The symbol ∩ means ‘intersection’, so, A ∩ B is the set of elements common to sets A and B. For
example, {1, 2, 3} ∩ {2, 4, 6} is {2}.
8. The symbol ∪ means ‘union’, so, A ∪ B is the set of all elements belonging to either set A or B or
both. For example, {1, 2, 3} ∪ {2, 4, 6} is {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}.
9. The symbol A \ B denotes all of the elements of A that are not elements of B.
10. The symbol ∅ means the null set. It implies that there is nothing in the set, or that the set is empty.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
If A = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32}, B = {1, 2} and C = {1, 2, 3, 4}, find:

a A∩B b A∪C c A\B d {3, 4} ∩ B
e whether or not: i 8 ∈ A ii B ⊂ A iii C ⊂ A.
THINK WRITE
a The elements that A and B have in common are 1 and 2. a {1, 2}
b The elements that belong to either A or C are 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16 and 32. b {1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 16, 32}
c The elements of A that are not elements of B are 4, 8, 16 and 32. c {4, 8, 16, 32}
d {3, 4} and B have no common elements. d {∅}
e iii 8 is an element of A. e i Yes. 8 ∈ A

ii All elements of B belong to A. ii Yes. B ⊂ A
iii 3 is an element of C but not A. iii No. C ⊄ A
Sets of numbers
Certain letters are reserved for important sets that arise frequently in the study of mathematics.
1. R is the set of real numbers, that is, any number you can think of.
2. N is the set of natural numbers, that is, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}.
3. Z is the set of integers, that is, {. . ., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
a
4. Q is the set of rational numbers (that is, numbers that can be expressed as fractions in the form
where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0). b
5. Q′ is the set of numbers that are not rational (that is, cannot be expressed as a ratio of two whole
numbers). These numbers are called irrational, for example, π, 3, etc.
Note that N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R, that is,
R
Q' 3
Q π ...
1–
Z 2 3–
4 2–
3
7–
N 5
1 2 3 33
— ...
51
0 4 ...
−1
−2 −3 ...
Exercise 4A Set notation

1 WE1 If A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}, C = {4, 5, 6, 7} and D = {6, 7, 8}, find:
a A∩B b A∩C c A∩C∩D d A∪B
e C∪D f A\C g C \ D.

2 If A = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}, B = {0, 1, 2, 3} and C = {−3, 2, 3, 4}, find:
a A∩B∩C b A\B c A \ (B ∪ C)
d A \ (B ∩ C) e A ∪ C.
3 If F = {a, e, i, o, u}, G = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i} and H = {b, c, d, f, g, h}, find:
a F∩G∩H b G∩H c G\H
d H\F e (F ∪ H) \ G.
4 MC Given that A ⊂ B, then A ∩ B is equivalent to:
A B B ∅ C {1, 2}
D A∪B E A
5 MC Given that C ⊂ B ⊂ A, then it follows that:
a A ∪ B ∪ C is equivalent to:
A B B C C A D A∪B E B∪C
b (A \ B) ∩ C is equivalent to:
A B B ∅ C C D A∩B E B\C
6 Answer true (T) or false (F) to each of the following statements relating to the number sets N, Z, Q
and R.
a 7 ∈R b −4 ∈ N c 6.4217 ∈ Q
d 5∈Q e 1.5 ∈ Z f {5, 10, 15, 20} ⊂ Z
g {5, 10, 15, 20} ⊂ N h Z \ N = {. . ., −3, −2, −1} i Z∩N=N
j Q⊂N k Q∩Z=∅ l (Z ∪ Q) ⊂ R
4B Relations and graphs

A relation is a set of ‘ordered pairs’ of values or ‘variables’.
Consider the following relation. The cost of hiring a trailer depends on the number of hours for which
it is hired. The table below outlines this relation.
Number of hours of hire 3 4 5 6 7 8

Cost ($) 50 60 70 80 90 100
Since the cost depends upon the number of hours, the cost is said to be the dependent variable, and the
number of hours is called the independent variable. The information in the table can be represented by a
graph, which usually gives a better indication of how two variables are related. When graphing a relation, the
independent variable is displayed on the horizontal (or x) axis and the dependent variable is displayed on the
vertical (or y) axis. So we can plot the set of points {(3, 50), (4, 60), (5, 70), (6, 80), (7, 90), (8, 100)}. The
points are called (x, y) ordered pairs, where x is the first element and y is the second element.
y
Cost of trailer hire ($)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
Number of hours
This graph clearly shows that the cost increases as the number of hours of hire increases. The relation
appears to be linear. That is, a straight line could be drawn that passes through every point. However,
the dots are not joined as the relation involves ‘integer-valued’ numbers of hours and not minutes or
seconds. The number of hours can be referred to as a ‘discrete dependent variable.’
Discrete variables include names and numbers of things; that is, things that can be counted (values are
natural numbers or integers).

Some variables are referred to as continuous variables. Continuous variables include height, weight
and volume; that is, things that can be measured (values are real numbers). If a relationship exists
between the variables, we may try to find a rule and then write this rule in mathematical terms. In our
example, the relationship appears to be that for each extra hour of hire the cost increases by $10 after an
initial cost of $20.
Cost = 10 × number of hours + 20
Using x and y terms, this is written as
y = 10x + 20
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Sketch the graph by plotting selected x-values for the following relations and state whether each is
discrete or continuous.
a y = x2, where x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4} b y = 2x + 1, where x ∈ R
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Use the rule to calculate y and state the a When x = 1, y = 12

ordered pairs by letting x = 1, 2, 3 and 4. =1 (1, 1)
x = 2, y = 22
=4 (2, 4)
x = 3, y = 32
=9 (3, 9)
x = 4, y = 42
= 16 (4, 16)
2 Plot the points (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9) and (4, 16) y
on a set of axes. 16
12
8
4
0 1 2 3 4 x
3 Do not join the points as x is a discrete It is a discrete relation as x can be only whole
variable (whole numbers only). number values.
b 1 Use the rule to calculate y. Select values of x, b When x = 0, y = 2(0) + 1
say x = 0, 1 and 2 (or find the intercepts). State =1 (0, 1)
the ordered pairs. x = 1, y = 2(1) + 1
=3 (1, 3)
x = 2, y = 2(2) + 1
=5 (2, 5)
2 Plot the points (0, 1), (1, 3) and (2, 5) on a set y y = 2x + 1
of axes. 5
4
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 −10 1 2
−2
−3
3 Join the points with a straight line, continuing It is a continuous relation as x can be any real
in both directions as x is a continuous variable number.
(any real number).

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The pulse rate of an athlete, R beats per minute, t minutes after the
athlete finishes a workout, is shown in the table below.
t 0 2 4 6 8
R 180 150 100 80 70
a Plot the points on a graph.
b Estimate the athlete’s pulse rate after 3 minutes.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw a set of axes with t on the horizontal axis a&b

and R on the vertical axis because heart rate is 180
dependent on the time. 160
R (beats/min)
140
2 Plot the points given in the table. 120
100
b 1 Join the points with a smooth curve as t (time) 80
60
is a continuous variable. 40
20
2 Construct a vertical line up from t = 3 until it
touches the curve. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t (min)
3 From this point draw a horizontal line back to
the vertical axis.
4 Estimate the value of R where this line touches When t = 3, the pulse rate is approximately
the axis. 125 beats per minute.
Note: In any defined domain, for example, −3 ≤ x ≤ 3, the variable (x) is assumed continuous in that
domain unless otherwise stated.
Exercise 4B Relations and graphs

Questions 1, 2, and 3 refer to the following information. A particular relation is described by the following
ordered pairs:
{(0, 4), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 1)}.
1 MC The graph of this relation is represented by:
A y B y C y
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1 2 3 4 x 0 1 2 3 4 x
D y E y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 1 2 3 4
x 0 1 2 3 4 x

2 MC The elements of the dependent variable are:
A {1, 2, 3, 4} B {1, 2, 3} C {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
D {0, 1, 2, 3} E {1, 2}
3 MC The rule for the relation is correctly described by:
A y = 4 − x, x ∈ R B y = x − 4, x ∈ N
C y = 4 − x, x ∈ N D y = x − 4, x ∈ Z
E y = 4 − x, x ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}
4 MC During one week, the number of people travelling on a particular train, at a certain time,
progressively increases from Monday through to Friday. Which graph below best represents this
information?
A B
Number of people
Number of people
0 M T W T F 0 M T W T F
C D
Number of people
Number of people
0 M T W T F 0 M T W T F
E
Number of people
0 M T W T F
5 State whether each of the following relations has discrete (D) or continuous (C) variables.
a {(−4, 4), (−3, 2), (−2, 0), (−1, −2), (0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 4)}
b The relation that shows the air pressure at any time of the day
c y d y
0 x 0 x
e The relation that shows the number of student absences per day during term 3 at your school
f The relation describing the weight of a child from age 3 months to one year
6 WE2 Sketch the graph representing each of the following relations, and state whether each is discrete
or continuous.
a
Day Mon Tues Wed Thur Fri Sat Sun
Cost of petrol (c/L) 68 67.1 66.5 64.9 67 68.5 70
b {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}
c y = −x2, where x ∈ {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2}
d y = x − 2, where x ∈ R
e y = 2x + 3, where x ∈ Z
f y = x2 + 2, where −2 ≤ x ≤ 2

7 WE3 The table at right shows the temperature of a cup t (min) 0 2 4 6 8
of coffee, T °C, t minutes after it is poured.
T (°C) 80 64 54 48 44
a Plot the points on a graph.
b Join the points with a smooth curve.
c Explain why this can be done.
d Use the graph to determine how long it takes the coffee to reach half of its initial temperature.
8 A salesperson in a computer store is paid a base salary of $300 per week plus $40 commission for each
computer she sells. If n is the number of computers she sells per week and P dollars is the total amount
she earns per week, then:
a copy and complete the table below.
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
P
b plot the information on a graph.

c explain why the points cannot be joined together.
9 The speed of an aircraft, V km/h, t seconds after it starts to accelerate down the runway, is shown in the
following table.
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
V 0 30 80 150 240 350
a Plot a graph that represents the information shown in the table.

b Use the graph to estimate the speed after: i 2.5 s ii 4.8 s.
10 The cost, C dollars, of taking n students on an excursion to the zoo is $50 plus $6 per student.
a Complete a table using 15 ≤ n ≤ 25.
b Plot these points on a graph.
c Explain why the dots can or cannot be joined.
4C Domain and range

Domain and range
A relation can be described by:
1. a listed set of ordered pairs
2. a graph
3. a rule.
The set of all first elements of a set of ordered pairs is known as the domain, and the set of all
second elements of a set of ordered pairs is known as the range. Alternatively, the domain is the set of
independent values, and the range is the set of dependent values.
If a relation is described by a rule, it should also specify the domain. For example:
1. the relation {(x, y): y = 2x, x ∈ {1, 2, 3}} describes the set of ordered pairs {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6)}
2. the domain is the set X = {1, 2, 3}, which is given
3. the range is the set Y = {2, 4, 6}, and can be found by applying the rule y = 2x to the domain values.
If the domain of a relation is not specifically stated, it is assumed to consist of all real numbers for
which the rule has meaning. This is referred to as the implied domain of a relation. For example:
{(x, y): y = x3} has the implied domain R.
{(x, y): y = x } has the implied domain x ≥ 0.
Interval notation
If a and b are real numbers and a < b, then the following intervals are defined with an accompanying
number line.
(a, b) implies a < x < b or (a, b] implies a < x ≤ b or
x a b x
a b

(a, ∞) implies x > a or [a, ∞) implies x ≥ a or
a x a x
(−∞, b) implies x < b or (−∞, b] implies x ≤ b or
b x b x
[a, b) implies a ≤ x < b or [a, b] implies a ≤ x ≤ b or
x a b x
a b
A closed circle indicates that the number is included and an open circle indicates that the number is
not included.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Describe each of the following subsets of the real numbers using interval notation.
a b c
x x
−4 0 2 −3 0 5 x 0 1 3 5
THINK WRITE
a The interval is x < 2 (2 is not included). a (−∞, 2)
b The interval is −3 ≤ x < 5 (−3 is included). b [−3, 5)
c The interval is both 1 ≤ x < 3 and x ≥ 5 (1 is included, c [1, 3) ∪ [5, ∞)

3 is not).
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Illustrate the following number intervals on a number line.

a (−2, 10] b [1, ∞)
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a The interval is −2 < x ≤ 10 (−2 is not included, 10 is). a
−2 0 10 x
b The interval is x ≥ 1 (1 is included). b
0 1 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
State the domain and range of each of the following relations.

a {(1, 2), (2, 5), (3, 8), (4, 11)}
b
Weight (kg) 10 15 20 25 30
Cost per kg ($) 3.5 3.2 3.0 2.8 2.7
c y d y
4
−4 0 4 x
0 x
−4

THINK WRITE
a 1 The domain is the set of first elements of the a Domain = {1, 2, 3, 4}

ordered pairs.
2 The range is the set of second elements of the Range = {2, 5, 8, 11}
ordered pairs.
b 1 The domain is the set of independent values in the b Domain = {10, 15, 20, 25, 30}
table, that is, the weight values.
2 The range is the set of dependent values in the Range = {2.7, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, 3.5}
table, that is, the cost values.
c 1 The domain is the set of values that the graph c Domain = R
covers horizontally.
2 The range is the set of values that the graph covers Range = [0, ∞)
vertically.
d 1 The domain is the set of values that the graph d Domain = [−4, 4]
covers horizontally.
2 The range is the set of values that the graph covers Range = [−4, 4]
vertically.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
For each relation given, sketch its graph and state the domain and range
using interval notation. TUTORIAL
a {(x, y): y = x − 1} b {(x, y): y = x2 − 4, x ∈ [0, 4]} eles-1461
Worked example 7
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 The rule has meaning for x ≥ 1 because a

if x < 1, y = negative number.
2 Calculate the value of y when x = 1, 2, 3, 4 When x = 1, y = 0
and 5, and state the coordinate points. =0 (1, 0).
x = 2, y = 1
=1 (2, 1)
x = 3, y = 2 (3, 2)
x = 4, y = 3 (4, 3)
x = 5, y = 4
=2 (5, 2)
3 Plot the points on a set of axes. y
y= x−1
4 Join the points with a smooth curve starting 2
from x = 1, extending it beyond the last point.
1
Since no domain is given we can assume
x ∈ R (continuous).
0 x
1 2 3 4 5
5 Place a closed circle on the point (1, 0) and put −1
an arrow on the other end of the curve.
6 The domain is the set of values covered Domain = [1, ∞)
horizontally by the graph, or implied by the
rule.
7 The range is the set of values covered Range = [0, ∞)
vertically by the graph.

b 1 Calculate the value of y when x = 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, b When x = 0, y = 02 − 4
say, as the domain is [0, 4]. State the coordinate = −4 (0, −4)
points. x = 1, y = 12 − 4
= −3 (1, −3)
x = 2, y = 22 − 4
=0 (2, 0)
x = 3, y = 32 − 4
=5 (3, 5)
x = 4, y = 42 − 4
= 12 (4, 12)
2 Plot these points on a set of axes. y
y = x2 − 4, x ∈ [0, 4]
12
3 Join the dots with a smooth curve from x = 0 to 10
x = 4. 8
6
4 Place a closed circle on the points (0, −4) and
4
(4, 12). 2
0 x
−2 1 2 3 4
−4
5 The domain is the set of values covered by the Domain = [0, 4]

graph horizontally.
6 The range is the set of values covered by the Range = [−4, 12]
graph vertically.
Verify that the graphs are correct using a graphics calculator or other technology.
Exercise 4C Domain and range

1 WE4 Describe each of the following subsets of the real numbers using interval notation.
a b
−2 0 1 0 5
c d
−3 0 4 −8 0 9
e f
−1 0 0 1
g h
−5 −2 0 3 −3 0 1 2 4
2 WE5 Illustrate each of the following number intervals on a number line.
a [−6, 2) b (−9, −3)
−
c ( ∞, 2] d [5, ∞)
e (1, 10] f (2, 7)
g (−∞, −2) ∪ [1, 3) h [−8, 0) ∪ (2, 6]
i R \ [1, 4] j R \ (−1, 5)
k R \ (0, 2] l R \ [−2, 1)
3 Describe each of the following sets using interval notation.
a {x: −4 ≤ x < 2} b {x: −3 < x ≤ 1}
−1
c {y: −1 < y < 3} d {y: <y≤ 1}
2 2
e {x: x > 3} f {x: x ≤ −3}
g R h R+ ∪ {0}
i R \ {1} j R \ {−2}
k R \ {x: 2 ≤ x ≤ 3} l R \ {x: −2 < x < 0}

4 MC Consider the set described by R \ {x: 1 ≤ x < 2}.
a It is represented on a number line as:
A B
0 1 2 0 1 2
C D
0 1 2 0 1 2
E
0 1 2
b It is written in interval notation as:
A (−∞, 1) ∪ (2, ∞)
B (−∞, −1) ∪ [2, ∞)
C (−∞, 1) ∪ (2, ∞]
D (−∞, 1] ∪ (2, ∞)
E (−∞, 1) ∪ [2, ∞)
5 MC The domain of the relation graphed at right is: y
A [−4, 4] 4
B (−4, 7) DIGITAL DOC
C [−1, 7] doc-9739
D (−4, 4) SkillSHEET 4.1
E (−1, 7) −1 0 3 7 x Domain and range
−4
6 MC The range of the relation {(x, y): y = 2x + 5, x ∈ [−1, 4]} is:

A [7, 13] B [3, 13]
C [3, ∞) D R
E R \ (7, 13)
7 WE6a, b State i the domain and ii the range of each of the following relations.
a {(3, 8), (4, 10), (5, 12), (6, 14), (7, 16)}
b {(1.1, 2), (1.3, 1.8), (1.5, 1.6), (1.7, 1.4)}
c
Time (min) 3 4 5 6
Distance (m) 110 130 150 170
d
Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Cost ($) 25 35 30 35 30
e y = 5x − 2, where x is an integer greater than 2 and less than 6
f y = x2 − 1, x ∈ R
8 WE6c, d State the domain and range of each of the following relations. Use a CAS calculator to view
more of each graph if required.
a y b y c y
y = 2ex 2
2
2
−3 0 x
0 x −2 0 2x
d y e y f y
y= x−1 2
4 y = 4e−x
0 x
0 1 x −3
0 x

g y h y i y
1–
y= x 1
0 x
0 x 0 x −2
9 WE7 For each relation given, sketch its graph and state the domain and range using interval notation.
a {(x, y): y = 2 − x2}
b {(x, y): y = x3 + 1, x ∈ [−2, 2]}
DIGITAL DOC c {(x, y): y = x2 + 3x + 2}
doc-9740
WorkSHEET 4.1 d {(x, y): y = x2 − 4, x ∈ [−2, 1]}
e {(x, y): y = 2x − 5, x ∈ [−1, 4)}
f {(x, y): y = 2x2 − x − 6}
Verify that the graphs are correct with a CAS calculator.
10 State the implied domain for each relation defined by the following rules.
a y = 10 − x
b y=3 x
DIGITAL DOC −
doc-9741 c y= 16 − x 2
Investigation
Interesting
d y=x +3
2
1
relations e y=
x
f y = 10 − 7x2
4D Types of relations (including

functions)
One-to-one relations y
A one-to-one relation exists if, for any x-value, there is only one corresponding
y-value and vice versa.
For example:
0 x
{(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
One-to-many relations
A one-to-many relation exists if there is more than one y-value for any x-value y
but for any y-value there is only one x-value.
For example:
0 x
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
Many-to-one relations
A many-to-one relation exists if there is more than one x-value for any y-value y
but for any x-value there is only one y-value.
For example:
{(−1, 1), (0, 1), (1, 2)}
0 x
Many-to-many relations
A many-to-many relation exists if there is more than one y y
x-value for any y-value and vice versa.
For example:
{(0, −1), (0, 1), (1, 0), (−1, 0)} 0 x 0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
What type of relation does each graph represent?

a y b y c y TUTORIAL
eles-1462
Worked example 8
0 x
0 x 0 x
THINK WRITE
a 1 For some x-values there is more than one a One-to-many relation.

y-value. A line through some x-values shows
that two y-values are available:
y
x = −1
0 x
2 For any y-value there is only one x-value. A

line through any y-value shows that only one
x-value is available:
y
y=1
0 x
b 1 For any x-value there is only one y-value. b One-to-one relation.
2 For any y-value there is only one x-value.
c 1 For any x-value there is only one y-value. c Many-to-one relation.
2 For some y-values there is more than one

x-value.
Functions
Relations that are one-to-one or many-to-one are called functions. That is, a function is a relation where
for any x-value there is at most one y-value. For example:
y y
0 x 0 x
Vertical line test

A function is determined from a graph if a vertical line drawn anywhere on the graph cannot intersect
with the curve more than once.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
State whether or not each of the following relations are functions.

a {(−2, 1), (−1, 0), (0, −1), (1, −2)}
b y c y
0 x
0 x
THINK WRITE
a For each x-value there is only one y-value. (Or, a plot of a Function
the points would pass the vertical line test.)
b It is possible for a vertical line to intersect with the curve b Not a function
more than once.
c It is not possible for any vertical line to intersect with c Function

the curve more than once.
Exercise 4D Types of relations (including functions)

1 WE8 What type of relation does each graph represent?
a y b y c y
0 x
0 x 0 x
d y e y f y
0 x 0 x
0 x
g y h y i y
0 x 0 x
0 x
j y k y l y
0 x
0 x 0 x
2 WE9 Use the vertical line test to determine which of the relations in question 1 are functions.

3 MC Which of the following relations is not a function?
A {(5, 8), (6, 9), (7, 9), (8, 10), (9, 12)}
B y C y2 = x D y = 8x − 3 E y
0 x 0 x
4 MC Consider the relation y ≥ x + 1.

a The graph that represents this relation is:
A y B y
1
1
−1 0 x
−1 0 x
C y D y
1
1 0 x
1
0 x
1
E y Note: The shaded side

indicates the region not
required.
1
−1 0 x
b This relation is:

A one-to-one B one-to-many
C many-to-one D many-to-many
E a function
c The domain and range are respectively:
AR and R+
BR and R
CR and R−
DR+ and R
ER− and R
5 Which of the following relations are functions? State the domain and range for each function.
a {(0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5)} b {(−3, −2), (−1, −1), (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, −2)}
− − − − d {(1, 2), (1, 0), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)}
c {(3, 1), (4, 1), (5, 1), (6, 1)}
e {(x, y): y = 2, x ∈ R} f {(x, y): x = −3, y ∈ Z}
g y = 1 − 2x h y>x+2
i x + y = 25
2 2 j y = x + 1, x ≥ − 1
k y=x +x
3 l x = y2 + 1
4EPower functions (hyperbola, truncus

and square root function)
Power functions are functions of the form f (x) = xn, n ∈ R. The value of the power, n, determines the
type of function. We saw earlier that when n = 1, f (x) = x, and the function is linear. When n = 2, INTERACTIVITY
int-0263
f (x) = x2, and the function is quadratic. When n = 3, f (x) = x3, and the function is cubic. When n = 4, Domain and
f (x) = x4, and the function is quartic. range

Other power functions are:
−
r when n = −1, f (x) = x 1, and the power function produces the graph of a hyperbola
− −
r when n = 2, f (x) = x 2, and the power function produces the graph of a truncus
1 1
r when n = 2 , f ( x ) = x , and the function is the square root function.
2
f (x) = a(x − b)n + c (where a, b, c and n ∈ R).
The hyperbola
1
r The graph shown is called a hyperbola, and is given by the equation y = x .
−
r This can also be represented as the power function y = x 1.
y
y=0
0 x
x=0
The graph exhibits asymptotic behaviour.

r That is, as x becomes very large, the graph approaches the x-axis but never touches it. As x becomes
very small (approaches 0), the graph approaches the y-axis, but never touches it.
r So the line x = 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote, and the line y = 0 (the x-axis) is the horizontal
asymptote.
r Both the domain and the range of the function are all real numbers, except 0; that is, R \ {0}.
1
r The graph of y = can be subject to a number of transformations.
x
a −
r Consider y = + c or y = a( x − b) 1 + c.
x−b
y y= 3–
x
(1, 3)
Dilation 3 y= 1–
x
r The value a is a dilation factor. It dilates the graph from the x-axis. 2
3 1
r For example, the graph of y = compared to the basic graph of (1, 1)
x y=0
x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 −1
y = is shown at right. −2
x
−3
x=0
Reflection
r If a is negative, the graph of the basic hyperbola is reflected in the x-axis.
r If x is replaced with −x, the graph of the basic hyperbola is reflected in the y-axis.
1 1
r For example, the graphs of y = and y = − are reflections of each other across the y-axis.
x+1 x +1
y y
y = x 1+ 1 3
2 2
1 1
−2 −1 0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 x
−1 −1 1 2
−2 −2
y = −x1+ 1
x = −1 x=1

Translation
Horizontal translation
r The value b translates the graph b units horizontally, that is, parallel to the x-axis. If b > 0, the graph is
translated to the right, and if b < 0, the graph is translated to the left.
1
r For example, the graph with equation y = is a basic hyperbola translated one unit to the left, since
x +1
b = −1. This graph has a vertical asymptote of x = −1 and domain R \ {−1}, and a horizontal asymptote
of y = 0.
1
r If a basic hyperbola is translated one unit to the right, it becomes y = , with a vertical asymptote
of x = 1 and domain R \ {1}. x −1
r Hence, the equation of the vertical asymptote is x = b and the domain is R \ {b}. The horizontal
asymptote and the range remain the same, that is, x = 0 and R \ {0} respectively.
Vertical translation
r The value c translates the graph c units vertically, that is, parallel to the y-axis. If c > 0, the graph is
translated upward, and if c < 0, the graph is translated c units downward.
1
r The graph with equation y = − 1 is a basic hyperbola translated one unit down. This graph has a
x
horizontal asymptote of y = −1, a range of R \ {−1} and a vertical asymptote of x = 0.
1
r If a basic hyperbola is translated two units up, it becomes y = + 2, with a horizontal asymptote of
x
y = 2 and a range of R \ {2}. Hence, the equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = c, with a vertical
asymptote of x = 0, and the range is R \ {c}.
y
a
y= x−b
+c
y=c c
0 b x
x=b
a −
The graph of y = + c or y = a(x − b) 1 + c shows the combination of these transformations.
x−b
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
3
Sketch the graph of y = + 2, clearly showing the intercepts with the axes and the position of
the asymptotes. x +1
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a
1 Compare the given equation with y = + c, a = 3, b = −1, c = 2
and state the values of a, b and c. x−b
1
2 Write a short statement about the effects of The graph of y = is dilated by the factor of 3
1 x
a, b and c on the graph of y = . from the x-axis (a = 3), translated 1 unit to the left
x (b = −1) and 2 units up (c = 2).
3 Write the equations of the asymptotes. The Asymptotes: x = −1; y = 2
horizontal asymptote is at y = c. The vertical
asymptote is at x = b.
4 Find the value of the y-intercept by letting y-intercept: x = 0
x = 0. 3
y= +2
0 +1
=3+2
=5
Point (0, 5)

5 Find the value of the x-intercept by making x-intercept: y = 0
y = 0. 3
+2
0=
x +1
− 3
2=
x +1
−
2(x + 1) = 3
−2x − 2 = 3
−2x = 5
−5
x= 2
Point ( −5
2
,0 )
6 To sketch the graph: y
(a) draw the set of axes and label them y= 3
+2
x+1
(b) use dotted lines to draw the asymptotes
6 (0, 5)
The asymptotes are x = −1 and y = 2. 4
(c) mark the intercepts with the axes 2 y=2
−5
The intercepts are y = 5 and x = 2 . 0 x
−3 −2 −1
−2 1 2 3
(d) treat the asymptotes as your new set of
−4
axes, sketch the graph of the hyperbola.
(− 5 , 0) −6
(As a is positive, the graph is not 2
reflected in the x-axis.) x = −1
The truncus
r The graph shown is known as a truncus. The equation of the graph is given by:
1
y= 2
x
−
r This can also be represented as the power function y = x 2.
r The function is undefined for x = 0. Hence, the equation of the vertical y
asymptote is x = 0 and the domain of the function is R \{0}.
1
r We can also observe that the graph approaches the x-axis very closely y=
x2
but never touches it. So y = 0 is the horizontal asymptote.
y=0
r Since the whole graph of the truncus is above the x-axis, its range is R+ 0 x
(that is, all positive real numbers).
r Similarly to the graphs of the functions, discussed in the previous x=0
1
sections, the graph of y = 2 can undergo various transformations.
x
a
r Consider the general formula y = + c or y = a(a − b)−2 + c.
( x − b) 2
y
Dilation
r The value a is the dilation factor. It dilates the graph from the 6 4
4 y=
x-axis. The dilation factor does not affect the domain, range or x2
asymptotes. 2
4
r Consider the graph of y = 2 . −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x y=0
x
x=0
Reflection
r If a is negative, the graph of a basic truncus is reflected in the x-axis. The range becomes R− (that is,
all negative real numbers).
r If x is replaced with −x, the graph of the basic truncus is reflected in the y-axis. The effect of this
reflection cannot be seen in the basic graph, but it becomes more obvious if the graph has been
translated horizontally first.

1 1
r For example, the graphs of y = and y = − are reflections across the y-axis.
( x − 2) 2 ( x − 2)2
The vertical asymptote changes from x = 2 to x = 2, and the domain changes from R \{2} to R \{−2}.
−
y y
3 y= 1 1
2 (x − 2)2 y=
(−x − 2)2
1
−2 −1 0 1 2 x −3 −2 −1 0 x
−1
−2 x = −2
x=2
Translation
r The value b translates the graph b units horizontally. If b > 0, the graph is translated to the right, and if
b < 0, the graph is translated left.
r For example, the graph of the equation y = 1 results from translating a basic truncus 3 units to
( x − 3)2
the right. The vertical asymptote is x = 3 and the domain is R \ {3}.
r If a basic truncus is translated 2 units to the left, it becomes y = 1 , where the vertical asymptote
( x + 2)2
is x = −2 and the domain is R \ {−2}.
r Hence, the equation of the vertical asymptote is x = b, and the domain is R \ {b}. The range is still R+,
and the equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = 0.
r The value c translates the graph c units vertically. If c > 0, the graph is translated upward, and if c < 0,
the graph is translated c units downward.
1
r For example, the graph with equation y = 2 + 1 results when a basic truncus is translated 1 unit
x
upward. The horizontal asymptote is y = 1, and the range is (1, ∞).
1
r If a basic truncus is translated 1 unit down, it becomes y = 2 − 1, with y = −1 as the horizontal
asymptote and (−1, ∞) as the range. x
r Hence, the equation of the horizontal asymptote is y = c, and the range is (c, ∞).
Note: If a is positive (see graph below), the whole graph of the truncus is above the line y = c
(the horizontal asymptote), and hence its range is y > c, or (c, ∞).
r If a is negative, the whole graph is below its horizontal asymptote, y a
y= +c
− (x − b)2
and therefore the range is y < c, or ( ∞, c).
a
r The graph of y = + c or y = a(x − b)−2 + c shows the y=c
( x − b) 2 c
combination of these transformations.
0 b x
x=b
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
1
Sketch the graph of y = + 3, clearly showing the position of the asymptotes and the
( x − 2) 2
intercepts with the axes.
THINK WRITE
a
1 Write the general formula for the truncus. y= +c
( x − b) 2
2 Identify the values of a, b and c. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3

1
3 Write a short statement about the The graph of y = 2 is translated 2 units to the right
1
transformations the graph of y = 2 should and 3 units up. x
undergo in order to be changed x
into the one in question.
4 Write the equations of the asymptotes Asymptotes: x = 2 and y = 3

(y = c and x = b).
5 Find the x-intercept. As you cannot get the x-intercept: y = 0

square root of a negative number, there is no 1
0= +3
solution and therefore no x-intercepts. ( x − 2)2
An inspection of the equation of the graph 1
would also have revealed this. = −3
( x − 2)2
−1
( x − 2)2 = 3
−1
( x − 2) = ±
3
6 Find the y-intercept. y-intercept: x = 0

1
y= +3
(0 − 2)2
1
= +3
4
13
=
4
7 To sketch the graph: y
(0, 13 )
(a) draw the set of axes and label them 4 6
(b) use dotted lines to draw asymptotes
4 y=3
(c) mark the x- and y-intercepts 2
(d) treating the asymptotes as the new set of
axes, draw the basic truncus curve −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4x
(e) make sure it intersects the axes in the
right places. x=2
The square root function

r The square root function is given by y = x .
1
r This can be written as the power function y = x .2
r The function is defined for x ≥ 0; that is, the domain is R+ ∪ {0}, or [0, ∞).
r As can be seen from the graph, the range of the square root function is also R+ ∪ {0}, or [0, ∞).
r Throughout this section we will refer to the graph of y = x as ‘the basic square root curve’.
y= x
0 x
r Let us now investigate the effects of various transformations on the basic square root curve.
1
r Consider the function y = a x − b + c or y = a( x − b) + c.2
Dilation
r The value a is a dilation factor; it dilates the graph from the x-axis. The domain is still [0, ∞).

Reflection
r If a is negative, the graph of a basic square root curve is reflected in the x-axis. The range becomes
(−∞, 0]. The domain is still [0, ∞).
r If x is replaced with −x, the graph is reflected in the y-axis. For example, the graphs with equations
y = x and y = − x are reflected across the y-axis.
r The domain becomes (−∞, 0] and the range is [0, ∞).
y y
y= x y = −x
0 1 2 x −2 −1 0 1 2 x
Translation
r The value h translates the graph horizontally. If b > 0, the graph is translated to the right, and if b < 0,
the graph is translated to the left.
r The graph with the equation y = x − 1 results when the basic curve is translated 1 unit to the right.
This translated graph has domain [1, ∞) and range [0, ∞).
r If the basic curve is translated 3 units to the left, it becomes y = x + 3 and has domain [−3, ∞) and
range [0, ∞).
y
y= x+3
2
1 3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
r The domain of a square root function after a translation is given by [b, ∞).
r The value c translates the graph vertically. If c > 0, the graph is translated vertically up, and if c < 0,
the graph is translated vertically down.
r If y = x is translated 3 units vertically up, the graph obtained is y = x + 3, with domain [0, ∞) and
range [3, ∞).
y
5
4
y= x+3
3
2
1
−2 −1
−1
0 1 2 3 4x
r If the basic curve is translated 2 units down, it becomes y = x − 2, with domain [0, ∞) and range
[−2, ∞).
r The range of the square root function is [c, ∞) for a > 0.
1
r The graph of y = a x − b + c or y = a( x − b) + c shows the combination of these transformations.
2
y
y=a b−x+c y=a x+b+c
(−b, c) (b, c)
x

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Sketch the graph of y = 3 x − 1 + 2, clearly marking intercepts and the end points.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation. y = 3 x − 1 + 2,
2 Write the coordinates of the end point. End point: (1, 2)
3 State the shape of the graph. Shape: .

4 Inspection of the equation reveals that there is no There is no x-intercept.
y-intercept.
5 Inspection of the equation reveals that there is no There is no y-intercept.
y-intercept.
6 To help sketch the graph, determine the coordinates of x = 3: y = 3 3−1 + 2

a second point.
=3× 2+2
Let x = 3.
Point: (3, 3 2 + 2)
7 Sketch the graph by plotting the end point, showing the y=3 x−1+2
y
second point, and drawing the curve so that it starts at 7
the end point and passes through the second point. 6 (3, 3 2 + 2)
5
4
3
(1, 2)
2
1
−2 −1
−1
0 1 2 3 4x
Power functions (hyperbola, truncus

Exercise 4E
and square root function)
1 State the dilation factor and the vertical and horizontal translations or reflections for each of the
following. Write a short statement about the effects each has on the basic graph of that function.
3
a y= +1
x−5
2
b y = 2 +1
x
1
c y= −2
4−x
d y= 2 x+4
1
e y=
(3 − x )2
f y = −4 x −5
2 WE10, 11, 12 Sketch a graph for each of the following functions, clearly showing x- and y-intercepts
and any asymptotes.
3
a f (x) = 2 + 1 b f (x) = 3− x −1
x
2 2
c f (x) = +5 d f (x) = 2 −
x −1 ( x − 1)2

3 Assuming the dilation factor is 1, write the equation of the graph.
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3 y=3
5– 2
2
1
−1 0 1 2 3 4x
5–
3
x=2
4F Function notation
Consider the relation y = 2x, which is a function.
The y-values are determined from the x-values, so we say ‘y is a function of x’, which is abbreviated
to y = f (x).
So, the rule y = 2x can also be written as f (x) = 2x.
If x = 1, then y = f (1) If x = 2, then y = f (2)
=2×1 =2×2
=2 = 4, and so on.
Evaluating functions
For a given function y = f (x), the value of y when x = 1 is written as f (1), the value of y when x = 5 is
written as f (5) and so on.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
If f (x) = x2 − 3, find:
a f (1) b f (−2) c f (a) d f (2a).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the rule. a f (x) = x2 − 3
2 Substitute x = 1 into the rule. f (1) = 12 − 3

3 Simplify. =1−3
= −2
b 1 Write the rule. b f (x) = x2 − 3
2 Substitute x = −2 into the rule. f (−2) = (−2)2 − 3

3 Simplify. =4−3
=1
c 1 Write the rule. c f (x) = x2 − 3
2 Substitute x = a into the rule. f ( a) = a2 − 3
d 1 Write the rule. d f (x) = x2 − 3
2 Substitute x = 2a into the rule. f (2a) = (2a)2 − 3

3 Simplify the expression if possible. = 22a2 − 3
= 4a2 − 3

Fully defining functions
To fully define a function:
1. define the domain
2. state the rule.
That is, if a function f (x) has domain X, the function may be defined as follows:
f : X → Y, f (x) = . . . . . .
Domain Co-domain Rule

Y is not necessarily the range but is a set that contains the range, called the co-domain. The co-domain
gives the set of possible values that contains y. It is usually R (the set of real numbers). The actual values
that y can be — the range — is determined by the rule. When using function notation the domain can be
abbreviated as dom f and the range as ran f.
For example, the function defined by {(x, y): y = 2x, x ∈ [0, 3]} can be expressed in function notation
as f : [0, 3] → R, f (x) = 2x.
For this function we can write dom f = [0, 3]. The co-domain = R. Also, ran f = [0, 6] (x = 0 gives
y = 0 and x = 3 gives y = 6, which are the minimum and maximum values of y).
R R
–5.1 – 7–8 etc.
– 2 1– 2– 2
1
1.2 3 46
3
[0, 3] 0.6 2 –10 [0, 6]

2 3 etc.
3 3 0
0 Range
etc.
– 11
—
3
Domain Co-domain
f : domain co-domain , f(x) = rule
The graph of this function is shown below.

y
6
5
4
3 f(x)
2
1
0 1 2 3x
The maximal domain of a function is the largest possible set of values of x for which the rule is
defined. The letters f, g and h are usually used to name a function, that is, f (x), g(x) and h(x).
Note: If a function is referred to by its rule only, then the domain is assumed to be the maximal domain.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Express the following functions in function notation with maximal domain.

1
a {(x, y): y = x2 − 4} b y = 3x − 4, −2 ≤ x ≤ 5 c y= x
THINK WRITE
a The rule has meaning for all values of x (it is a a f : R → R, f (x) = x2 − 4

quadratic), so the domain of the function is R.
b The rule has meaning for all values of x in the b f : [−2, 5] → R, f (x) = 3x − 4
given domain [−2, 5].
1
c The rule has meaning for all values of x except 0. c f : R \ {0} → R, f (x) =
x

WORKED EXAMPLE 15
State i the domain, ii the co-domain and iii the range for each of the following functions.
1
a f : R → R, f (x) = 5 − x b g : R+ → R, g(x) =
x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 The domain is given as R. a i dom f = R
2 The co-domain is given as R. ii The co-domain is R.
3 Use a CAS calculator to obtain the graph of y

the function, or sketch it. 5
0 5 x
f(x)
4 From the graph the range is observed to be R. iii ran f = R
b 1 The domain is given as R+. b i dom g = R+
2 The co-domain is given as R. ii The co-domain is R.

the function, or sketch it.
1
g(x)
0 1 x
4 The range is observed from the graph to be R+. iii ran g = R+
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
State i the maximal domain and ii the range for the function defined by the rule:
1
a y = x+1 b y = . TUTORIAL
x+2 eles-1463
Worked example 16
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 The rule has meaning for all x if x + 1 ≥ 0 a Require x + 1 ≥ 0

(that is, contents of are positive).
2 Solve this inequation. So x ≥ −1
3 State the maximal domain. i Maximal domain = [−1, ∞)
4 To confirm the maximal domain and see y

the range, use a CAS calculator or other y= x+1
technology to obtain the graph of the function,
or sketch it by plotting selected points. 1
(−1, 0)
0 x
5 The range is observed from the graph ii Range = [0, ∞)

to be [0, ∞).

b 1 The rule exists for all x, except when x + 2 = 0. bx+2≠0
2 Therefore x ≠ −2. x ≠ −2
3 State the maximal domain. i Maximal domain = R \ {−2}

the function, or sketch it by plotting selected
y = ——
1
x+2
points to confirm the maximal domain and see 1
the range.
−2 −1 0 x
5 The range is observed from the graph to be ii Range = R \ {0}

R \ {0}.
Exercise 4F Function notation

1 WE13
a If f (x) = 3x + 1, find: i f (0), ii f (2), iii f (−2) and iv f (5).
DIGITAL DOCS b If g(x) = x + 4 , find: i g(0), ii g(−3), iii g(5) and iv g(−4),
doc-9742 1 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ − 1⎞ ⎛ − 1⎞
SkillSHEET 4.2 c If g(x) = 4 − , find: i g(1), ii g ⎜⎝ 1 ⎟⎠ , iii g ⎜⎝ ⎟, and iv g ⎜⎝ ⎟,
x 2 2⎠ 5⎠
Substitution
doc-9743 d If f (x) = (x + 3)2, find: i f (0), ii f (−2), iii f (1) a nd iv f (a).
SkillSHEET 4.3 24
Transposition of e If h (x) = , find: i h (2), ii h (4), iii h (−6) and iv h (12).
equations x
2 Find the value (or values) of x for which each function has the value given.
a f (x) = 3x − 4, f (x) = 5 b g(x) = x2 − 2, g(x) = 7
1
c f (x) = , f (x) = 3 d h (x) = x2 − 5x + 6, h (x) = 0
x
e g(x) = x2 + 3x, g(x) = 4 f f (x) = 8 − x , f (x) = 3
10
3 Given that f ( x ) = − x , find:
x
a f (2) b f (−5) c f (2x)
d f (x2) e f (x + 3) f f (x − 1)
4 WE14 Express the following functions in function notation with maximal domain.
a {(x, y): y = 4x + 1} b y= x−6
1 2
c y= d y=
x −1 x +1
e y = (x + 2)2, where x ∈R+ f y = x2 + 3x, where x ≥ 2
g y = 8 − x, where x ≤ 0 h y = x2 + x
5 WE15 For each of the following functions, state:
i the doma
in ii the co-domain iii the range.
3
DIGITAL DOC a f : {0, 1, 2, 3} → Z, f (x) = 3x − 7 b g: (0, 10] → R, g(x) =
doc-9744 x
Square root graphs
x 1
c f : {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} → N, f (x) = d f : ( −∞, 0) → R, f (x) =
2 −x
e g: R+ → R, g(x) = x2 − 2 f h: [−3, 3] → R, h(x) = 9 − x 2

6 WE16 State i the maximal domain and ii the range for the function defined by the rule:
a f (x) = 3 − x b f (x) = 5 x c y = x3 + 2
1
d y = 5 − 3x2 e y= x−4 f y=
x−3

Special types of function (including
4G
hybrid functions)
One-to-one functions
As we have already seen, one-to-one relations and many-to-one relations are functions. A one-to-one
function has, at most, one y-value for any x-value and vice versa. The graph of a relation is a function if
any vertical line crosses the curve at most once. Similarly, a one-to-one function exists if any horizontal
eLESSON
line crosses the curve at most once. For example: eles-0077
Hybrid functions
y y
0 x 0 x
A function that is not one-to-one; this passes the A one-to-one function; this passes the
vertical line test but not the horizontal line test. vertical line test and the horizontal line test.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Which of the following functions are one-to-one?

a {(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)}
b {(2, 3), (3, 5), (4, 7)}
c f (x) = 3x
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Check whether each function has, at most, one a When x = 0 and x = 3, y = 1.

y-value for any x-vaue and vice versa. It is not a one-to-one function.
b There is only one x-value for each y-value.
2 Sketch the graph of f (x) = 3x. Check whether c y f(x)

both a vertical line and a horizontal line crosses 3
only once.
0 1 x
It is a one-to-one function.
3 Write a statement to answer the question. The functions are one-to-one for b and c.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Which of the following graphs show a one-to-one function?

a y b y c y
0 x
0 x 0 x
THINK WRITE
If a function is one-to-one, any vertical or horizontal Only b is a one-to-one function.

line crosses the graph only once.

Restriction of functions
Restrictions can be placed on a function through its domain. If we have one relation, for example
f (x) = x2, we can create several different functions by defining different domains. For example:
y y y h(x)
f(x)
g(x)
x −1 0 1x 0 x
0
f : R → R, f (x) = x2 g: [−1, 1] → R, g(x) = x2 h: R+ → R, h(x) = x2
The restriction imposed on the function f to produce the function h has created a one-to-one function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
For each function graphed below state two restricted, maximal (largest possible) domains that
make the function one-to-one.
a y y = (x − 2)2 b y
1
4 y=—2x
0 x
0 x
2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 One-to-one functions will be formed if the a y y

curve is split into two through the vertical line
x = 2. 4
0 2 x 0 2 x
2 State the required domains. For the function to be one-to-one, the domain
is (−∞, 2] or [2, ∞).
b 1 One-to-one functions will be formed if the b y y
curve is split into two through the line x = 0.
0 x 0 x
2 State the required domains. For the function to be one-to-one, the domain
is (−∞, 0) or (0, ∞).
Hybrid functions
A hybrid, mixed, or piecewise defined function is a function that has different rules y f(x)
for different subsets of the domain. For example:
⎧⎪ x + 1, for x ≤ 0 1
f (x) = ⎨ 2 is a hybrid function that obeys the rules y = x + 1 if
⎪⎩ x , for x > 0
x
x ∈ (−∞, 0] and y = x2 if x ∈ (0, ∞). The graph of f (x) is shown at right. Note −1 0
that the domains do not overlap.

WORKED EXAMPLE 20
⎧ x, x<0
⎪
a Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = ⎨ x + 1, 0≤x<2 TUTORIAL
eles-1464
⎪ 5 − x, x≥2
⎩ Worked example 20
b State the range of f.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Calculate and plot points as shown. a If x = −1, y = x

= −1
1 Sketch the graph of y = x for the If x = 0, y = x
domain (−∞, 0). =0
2 On the same axes sketch the graph of If x = 0, y = x + 1
y = x + 1 for the domain [0, 2). =1
If x = 2, y = x + 1
=3
3 On the same axes sketch the graph of y = 5 − x If x = 2, y = 5 − x
for the domain [2, ∞). =3
If x = 5, y = 5 − x
=0
y
3
y=x+1
2 f(x)
1 y=5−x
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
y = x−1−1
b The range is made up of (or is the union of) two b ran f = (−∞, 3]
sections, (−∞, 0) with (−∞, 3].
Special types of function (including

Exercise 4G
hybrid functions)
1 WE17 Which of the following functions are one-to-one? Use a CAS calculator or other technology to
obtain the graph of the function where appropriate.
a {(1, −1), (2, 1), (3, 3), (4, 5)} b {(−2, 1), (−1, 0), (0, 2), (1, 1)}
c {(x, y): y = x2 + 1, x ∈ [0, ∞)} d {(x, y): y = 3 − 4x}
e {(x, y): y = 3 − 2x2} f f (x) = x3 − 1
g y = x2, x ≤ 0 h g(x) = 1 − x 2
2 WE18 Consider the relations below and state:
i which of them are functions
ii which of them are one-to-one functions.
a y b y c y
0 x 0 x
0 x

d y e y f y
0 x 0 x
0 x
g y h y i y
0 x
0 x 0 x
j y k y l y
0 x
0 x
0 x
3 WE19 For each function below, state two restricted, maximal domains that make the function
one-to-one.
a y b y c y
−3 0 3 x
0 2 x
−1 0 x −3
d y e y f y
(3, 4) (−1, 4)
−4 0 x
0 x
(−2, −2)
0 (1, 0) x
g f (x) = 1 − x2 h g(x) = 4 − x 2 , x ∈ [−2, 2]

1 j f (x) = (x + 3)2
i g(x) =, x ∈ R \ {0}
x2
4 MC Use the graph of the relation y2 = x − 1, shown below, to answer the following questions.
a A one-to-one function can be formed by: y
A restricting the domain to R+
B restricting the domain to [1, ∞)
C restricting the domain to (1, ∞) x
0 1
D restricting the range to [0, ∞)
E restricting the range to R \ {0}
b A rule that describes a one-to-one function derived from the relation y2 = x − 1 is:
A y2 = x − 1
B y=± x −1
−
C y= x −1
D y= x −1
E y = x −1

5 MC Consider the following hybrid function.
⎧ − x, x < 1
f (x) = ⎨
⎩⎪ x , x ≥ 1
a The graph that correctly represents this function is:
A y B y C y
1 1
1
0 1 x 0 x
2 1 2
−1 −1 0 x
1
−1
D y E y
x 1
0 1
−1 x
0 1
−1
b The range of this hybrid function is:

A R B R \ {−1} C (−1, ∞)
D [0, ∞) E R+
6 WE20
a Sketch the graph of the following function.
⎧1
⎪ , x<0
f (x) = ⎨ x
⎪⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 0
b State the range of f.
⎪⎧ x + 1, x≥0
2
7 a Sketch the graph of the function g( x ) = ⎨ .
b State the range of g. ⎩⎪2 − x , x<0
c Find:
i g(−1) ii g(0) iii g(1).
⎧ x − 2, x < − 2
⎪
8 a Sketch the graph of the function f ( x ) = ⎨ x 2 − 4, − 2 ≤ x ≤ 2 .
b State the range of z. ⎪ x + 2, x > 2
c Find: ⎩
i f (−3) ii f (−2) iii f (1) iv f (2) v f (5). y
3 f(x)
9 Specify the rule for the function represented by the graph at right. 2
1
−2 −1 0 x
−1 1
−2
y
10 The graph of the relation {(x, y): x2 + y2 = 1, x ≥ 0} is shown at right.
From this relation, form two one-to-one functions and state the range of each. 1
0 1 x
−1
11 a Sketch the graph of the function f : R → z, f (x) = (x − 3)2.
b By restricting the domain of f, form two one-to-one functions that have the same rule as f (use the
largest possible domains).
12 a Sketch the graph of the function g : R → R, g(x) = x2 + 2x + 1.
DIGITAL DOC
b By restricting the domain of g, form two one-to-one functions that have the same rule as g doc-9745
(use maximal domains). WorkSHEET 4.2

4H Inverse relations and functions
A relation is a set of ordered pairs that can be graphed or described by a rule. The inverse of a
set of ordered pairs is obtained simply by interchanging the x and y elements. So, the inverse of
{(1, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7)} is {(5, 1), (6, 2), (7, 3)}. If these points are plotted on a set of axes, it can
be seen that when each original point is reflected across the line y = x, the inverse points are
obtained.
Similarly, if the graph of a function is given, then its inverse function can be sketched by reflecting the
original function across the line y = x.
Only functions that are one-to-one have inverses.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Sketch the graph of the following and then sketch the inverse.
a {(3, −6), (4, −4), (5, −2), (6, 0)} b y c y = x2 for x ≥ 0
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Plot the points on a set of axes. a y y=x

6
5
2 Interchange the x- and y-values and plot them. 4
Alternatively, reflect the original points across 3
2
the line y = x. 1
So, (3, −6) → (−6, 3) 0
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−6−5−4−3−2−1
(4, −4) → (−4, 4) −2
(5, −2) → (−2, 5) −3
−4
(6, 0) → (0, 6) −5
−6
b 1 Re-draw the given graph. b y y=x
2 On the same set of axes, plot the line y = x.
3 Sketch a reflection of the original graph across

the line y = x.
c Sketch the original function. The graph is a c y y = x2 y=x

parabola with turning point (0, 0). The domain is
restricted.
0 x
1

Exercise 4H Inverse relations and functions
1 WE21a Sketch the graph of the following and then sketch the inverse.
a (1, 7), (2, 5), (3, 3)} b (1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9)} c (−2, 11), (0, 6), (2, 1)}
2 WE21b Sketch the graph of the following and then sketch the inverse. (Assume each set of axes has
the same scale for x and y.)
a y b y
x x
c y d y
e y f y
x
3 WE21c Sketch the graph of the following and then sketch the inverse.
1
a y = 4x b y = x2 + 3, x ≥ 0 c y = 2x + 1 d y = x3 + 4
4I Circles y
r
A circle is a many-to-many relation.
The rule that defines a circle with its centre at (0, 0) and of radius r is
−r r x DIGITAL DOC
x2 + y2 = r 2 doc-9746
Investigation
The graph of this circle is shown at right. −r A special relation
The vertical-line test clearly verifies that the circle graph is not a function.
Solving the equation for y we have y2 = r 2 − x2, so y = r 2 − x 2 or y = − r 2 − x 2 .
These two relations represent two semicircles that together make a complete circle:
r y = r 2 − x 2 is the ‘upper semicircle’ (above the x-axis).
r y = − r 2 − x 2 is the ‘lower semicircle’ (below the x-axis).
y y
y = r 2− x2
r −r r x
−r y = − r 2 − x 2
−r r x
Both these relations are many-to-one functions.

WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Sketch the graphs of the following relations.

a x2 + y2 = 16 b x2 + y2 = 9, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3 c y= 8 − x2
THINK DRAW
y
a 1 This relation is a circle of centre (0, 0) and radius = 16 = 4. a
4
2 On a set of axes mark x- and y-intercepts of −4 and 4.
3 Draw the circle. −4 0 4 x
−4
b y
b 1 This relation is part of a circle of centre (0, 0) and radius = 9 = 3.
3
2 Since the domain is [0, 3], on a set of axes mark y-intercepts −3
and 3 and x-intercept 3.
0 3 x
3 Draw a semicircle on the right-hand side of the y-axis.
−3
c 1 This relation is an ‘upper semicircle’ (as y > 0) of centre (0, 0) c y

and radius = 8.
8
−
2 On a set of axes mark the x-intercepts of 8 and 8 and
y-intercepts of 8 .
− 8 0 8x
3 Draw a semicircle above the x-axis.
General equation of a circle y

The general equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2
k+r
is (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2.
The domain is [h − r, h + r]. (h, k)
The range is [k − r, k + r]. Range k
k−r
0 h−r h h+r x
Domain
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Sketch the graphs of the following circles. State the domain and range of each.
a x2 + (y − 3)2 = 1 b (x + 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 9
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 This circle has centre (0, 3) and radius 1. a y

4 x 2 + (y − 3)2 = 1
2 On a set of axes mark the centre and four
3
points; 1 unit (the radius) left and right of the
centre, and 1 unit (the radius) above and below 2
the centre.
−1 0 1 x
3 Draw a circle that passes through these
four points.
4 State the domain. The domain is [−1, 1].
5 State the range. The range is [2, 4].

b 1 This circle has centre (−3, −2) and radius 3. b (−3, 1) y
1
2 On a set of axes mark the centre and four
points; 3 units left and right of the centre, and −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 x
3 units above and below the centre. −1
3 Draw a circle that passes through these (−6, −2) −2 (0, −2)
(−3, −2)
four points. −3
−4
−5
(−3, −5)
4 State the domain. The domain is [−6, 0].

5 State the range. The range is [−5, 1].
Note: When using a CAS calculator to plot circle graphs, ensure that the upper and lower values are
entered as separate equations on the Graphs & Geometry page; for example,
f1(x) = − 16 − x 2 and f2(x) = 16 − x 2 .
Exercise 4I Circles
1 State the equation of each of the circles graphed below.
a y b y c y DIGITAL DOC
3 doc-9747
1 5 Circle graphs
−3 0 3x −1 0 1 x −5 0 5 x
−1 −5
−3
d y e y f y
10 6 2 2
−10 0 10 x −2 2 0 2 2x
− 6 0 6 x
−10 −2 2
− 6
g y h y
3
−4 0 4 x
−3 0 3x −4
2 State the domain and range of each circle in question 1.

3 WE22 Sketch the graphs of the following relations.
a x2 + y2 = 4 b x2 + y2 = 16 c x2 + y2 = 49
1
d x2 + y2 = 7 e x2 + y2 = 12 f x2 + y2 = 4
4 Sketch the graph of each of the following relations and state whether it is a function or not.
a y = ± 81 − x 2 b y= 4 − x2
1
c y = − 1− x2 d y= 9
− x2
1
e y=− 4
− x2 f y = 5 − x2
−
g y = ± 10 − x 2 h x2 + y2 = 3, 3≤x≤0

5 MC Consider the circle below.
y
2
0 2 4 x
−2
a The equation of the circle is:

A x2 + (y − 2)2 = 4 B (x − 2)2 + y2 = 16
C (x + 2)2 + y2 = 16 D (x − 2)2 + y2 = 4
E (x + 2)2 + y2 = 4
b The range of the relation is:
A R B [−2, 2] C [0, 4]
D [2, 4] E [−2, 1]
6 MC Consider the equation (x + 3)2 + (y − 1)2 = 1.
a The graph that represents this relation is:
A y B y C y
4
2 2
1 1
1
0 x 0 2 3 4 x 0 x
−6 −3 −4 −3 −2
−2
D y E y
2
0 2 3 4 x
−1 1
−2
−3.5−3−2.5 0 x
b The domain of the relation is:
A [−3.5, −2.5] B (−4, −2) C R
D [2, 4] E [−4, −2]
7 WE23 Sketch the graph of the following circles. State the domain and range of each.
a x2 + (y + 2)2 = 1 b x2 + (y − 2)2 = 4
c (x − 4)2 + y2 = 9 d (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 16
e (x + 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25 f (x − 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 9
g (x + 5) + (y − 4) = 36
2 2 1 3
h (x − )2 + (y + )2 =
9
2 2 4
8 Express the relation x2 + y2 = 36 as two
functions, and state the largest domain
and range of each.
9 Express the relation x2 + (y − 2)2 = 9 as
two functions, and state the largest
domain and range of each.
10 Circular ripples are formed when a
water drop hits the surface of a pond.
If one ripple is represented by the
equation x2 + y2 = 4 and then 3 seconds
later by x2 + y2 = 190, where the length
of measurements are in centimetres:
a find the radius (in cm) of the ripple
in each case
b calculate how fast the ripple is
moving outwards.
(State your answers to 1 decimal
place.)

When using functions to model rules in real-life situations the domain usually has practical restrictions
imposed on it. For example, the area of a circle is determined by the function A(r) = π 2.
For a circle to be drawn the radius needs to be a positive number. Hence the domain is (0, ∞) or R+.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
The table describes hire rates for a removal van.

a Express the cost as a hybrid function. TUTORIAL
b Sketch the graph of the function. eles-1465
Worked example 24
Hours of hire (h) Cost ($C)
Up to 3 200
Over 3 up to 5 300
Over 5 up to 8 450
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 The cost is $200 if 0 < h ≤ 3. a
2 The cost is $300 if 3 < h ≤ 5.

3 The cost is $450 if 5 < h ≤ 8.
⎧200, 0 <h ≤ 3
⎪
4 State the cost function C(h). C (h) = ⎨300, 3 <h ≤ 5
⎪450, 5 <h ≤ 8
⎩
b Sketch a graph with 3 horizontal lines over the b C ($)

appropriate section of the domain. 450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 h (hours)
Exercise 4J Functions and modelling

1 WE24 The cost of hiring a paper recycling removalist is described in the following table:
Hours of hire Cost

Up to 1 $40
Over 1 up to 2 $70
Over 2 up to 4 $110
Over 4 up to 6 $160
a State the cost function, $C, in terms of the time, t hours, for hiring up to 6 hours.
b Sketch the graph of the function.

2 The charge for making a 10-minute STD call on the weekend is listed below.
Up to 50 to 100 to 200 to Over
Distance d (km)
50 km 100 km 200 km 700 km 700 km
Cost $C 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.70 2.00
a State the cost function in terms of the distance.
b Sketch the graph of the function.
1
3 A car travels at a constant speed of 60 km/h for 1 hours, stops for half an hour, then travels for another
2
2 hours at a constant speed of 80 km/h until it reaches its destination.
a Construct a function that describes the distance travelled by the car, d (km), at time, t hours.
b State the domain and range of this function.
c Calculate the distance travelled after: i 1 hour ii 3 hours.
4 At a fun park, a motorised toy boat operates for 5 minutes for every dollar coin placed in a meter. The
meter will accept a maximum of 120 one-dollar coins.
a Write a rule that gives the time of boat operation, B hours, in terms of the number of dollar coins, n.
b Sketch the graph of the function and state the domain and range.
c How much is in the meter when the boat has operated for 450 minutes?
5 The tax for Australian residents who earn a taxable income between $37 000 and $80 000 is $4650 plus
30 cents for every dollar earned over $37 000.
a Write a rule for the tax payable, $T, for a taxable income, $x, where 37 001 ≤ x ≤ 80 000.
b Sketch a graph of this function.
c Calculate the tax paid on an income of $42 000.
6 The maximum side length of the rectangle shown is 10 metres.
(x + 4) m
(x − 1) m
a Write a function that gives the perimeter, P metres, of the rectangle.

b State the domain and range of this function.
7 A rectangular swimming pool is to have a length 4 metres greater than its width.
a Write a rule for the area of the pool, A m2, as a function of the width, x metres.
b State the domain and range if the maximum side length is 12 metres.
8 Timber increases in value (appreciates) by 2% each year. If a consignment of timber is currently
worth $100 000:
a express the value of the timber, P dollars, as a function of time, t, where t is the number of years
from now.
b what will be the value of the timber in 10 years?

9 The number of koalas remaining in a parkland t weeks after a virus strikes is given by the function
96
N (t ) = 15 + koalas per hectare.
t+3
a How many koalas per hectare were there before the virus struck?
b How many koalas per hectare are there 13 weeks after the virus struck?
c How long after the virus strikes are there 23 koalas per hectare?
d Will the virus kill off all the koalas? Explain why.
10 A school concert usually attracts 600 people at a cost of $10 per person. On average, for every $1 rise
in admission price, 50 less people attend the concert. If T is the total amount of takings and n is the
number of $1 increases:
a write the rule for the function that gives T in terms of n
b sketch the graph of T versus n
c find the admission price that will give the maximum takings.

Summary
Set notation r {. . .} refers to a set.
r ∈ means ‘is an element of’.
r ∉ means ‘is not an element of’.
r ⊂ means ‘is a subset of’.
r ⊄ means ‘is not a subset (or is not contained in)’.
r ∩ means ‘intersection with’.
r ∪ means ‘union with’.
r \ means ‘excluding’.
r ∅ refers to ‘the null, or empty set’.
r {(a, b), (c, d), . . .} is a set of ordered pairs.
r A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
r N refers to the set of natural numbers.
r Z refers to the set of integers.
r Q refers to the set of rational numbers.
r R refers to the set of real numbers.
Relations and graphs r The independent variable (domain) is shown on the horizontal axis of a graph.
r The dependent variable (domain) is shown on the vertical axis of a graph.
r Discrete variables are things that can be counted.
r Continuous variables are things that can be measured.
Domain and range r The domain of a relation is the set of first elements of a set of ordered pairs.
r The range of a relation is the set of second elements of a set of ordered pairs.
r The implied domain of a relation is the set of first element values for which a rule has meaning.
r In interval notation a square bracket means that the end point is included in a set of values, whereas
a curved bracket means that the end point is not included.
(a, b]
a b
Types of relations r A function is a relation that does not repeat the first element in any of its ordered pairs. That is, for
(including functions) any x-value there is only one y-value.
r The graph of a function cannot be crossed more than once by any vertical line.
y y
0 x
0 x
Function Not a function
Power functions 1
1. The graph of y = x is called a hyperbola.
(hyperbola, truncus a
and square root r The graph of y = + c is the graph of the basic hyperbola, dilated by the factor of a in the
x−b
function)
y-direction, translated b units horizontally (to the right if b > 0 or to the left if b < 0) and c units
vertically (up if c > 0 or down if c < 0). If a < 0, the graph is reflected in the x-axis. The
equations of the asymptotes are: x = b and y = c. The domain of the function is R \ {b} and its
range is R \ {c}.

2. The graph of y = 12 is called a truncus.
x a
r The graph of y = + c is the basic truncus curve, dilated by a factor of a in the y-direction
( x − b) 2
and translated b units along the x-axis (to the right if b > 0 or to the left if b < 0) and c units
along the y-axis (up if c > 0 or down if c < 0). If a is negative, the graph is reflected in the
x-axis. The vertical asymptote is x = b. The horizontal asymptote is y = c. The domain is R \ {b}.
The range is y > c if a > 0, or y < c if a < 0.
3. The graph of the function y = a x − b + c is the graph of y = x , dilated by the factor of a in the
y-direction and translated b units along the x-axis and c units along the y-axis.
r If a < 0, the basic graph is reflected in the x-axis.
r The end point of the graph is (b, c).
r The domain is x ≥ b.
r The range is y ≥ c for a > 0, or y ≤ c for a < 0.
r If y = a b − x + c, the domain is x ≤ b; the graph of y = a x is reflected in the y-axis.
Function notation r f (x) = . . . is used to describe ‘a function of x’. To evaluate the function, for example, when x = 2,
find f (2) by replacing each occurrence of x on the RHS with 2.
r Functions are completely described if the domain and the rule are given.
r Functions are commonly expressed using the notation
f : X → Y, f (x) = . . . . . .
Domain Co-domain Rule

r dom f is an abbreviation for the domain of f ( x).
r ran f is an abbreviation for the range of f ( x).
r The maximal domain of a function is the largest domain for which the function will remain
defined.
Special types of r A function is one-to-one if for each x-value there is at most one y-value and vice versa.
function (including r A one-to-many function may be ‘converted to’ a one-to-one function by restricting the domain.
hybrid functions) r A hybrid function obeys different rules for different subsets of the domain.
Inverse relations and r An inverse relation is obtained by interchanging the x- and y-values of the original relation.
functions r The graph of a function and its inverse are reflections of each other across the line y = x.
r Only one-to-one functions have inverses.
Circles r The general equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and radius r is
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2
r An ‘upper semicircle’ with centre (0, 0) and radius r is y = r 2 − x 2 .
r A ‘lower semicircle’ with centre (0, 0) and radius r is y = − r 2 − x 2 .
Functions and r When using functions to model situations:

modelling 1. form an equation involving one variable and sketch a graph
2. use the graph to determine domain and range.

Chapter review
1 The total number of cars that have entered a car park during the first 5 hours after opening is shown in
SHORT
ANS WER the table below.
Time, t (hours) 1 2 3 4 5
No. of cars, n 30 75 180 330 500
a Plot these points on a graph.
b Explain why the dots cannot be joined.
1
c Estimate the number of cars in the park 2 hours after the car park opens.
2
2 a Sketch the graph of the relation {(x, y): y = 1 − x2, x ∈ [−3, 3]}.
b State the domain and range of this relation.
3 State the implied domains of the following functions.
5
a y= x b y= c y = 12 − x
x
4 If g( x ) = x + 2, where x ≥ 0, then find:
a g ( x2)
b the domain and range of g ( x).
5 Determine which of the following relations are functions.
a y = 2x2 − 1 b 3x + y = 2 c x = y2 + 1
d x2 + y2 = 10 e y3 = x f y2 − x2 = 1
6 Express the following rules in full function notation.
1
a y= b y = (2 − x )
x
7 Sketch the graph of the function described below.
⎧2 − x , x ≤ −1
⎪ −
f ( x ) = ⎨3, 1< x < 3
⎪2 x − 5, x ≥3
⎩
8 Sketch the graph of each of the following, stating the domain and range.
−
a y= 1− x2 b (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 9
9 a Sketch the graph of the relation x2 + y2 = 100.
b From this relation form two one-to-one functions (with maximal domains) and state the domain
and range of each.
10 A chicken farmer delivers chicken manure according to the following fee schedule:
Less than half a truckload: $50
Half to a full truckload: $75
More than 1 but less than 2 truckloads: $100
Sketch a graph showing this informations.
2
11 Sketch a graph for the equation y = + 1.
x+3
12 State the dilation factor, reflections and translations that have occurred to each of the following
equations.
−3
5
a f (x) = − 2 x − 4 b f (x) = + 2 c f (x) = +7
x2 x−2
M U LT IP L E 1 If A = {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} and B = {−2, 0, 2, 4, 6}, then A ∪ B is:

C H OICE
A {−2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6} B {−2, 0, 2}
C {−1, 1, 3, 4, 6} D {−1, 1, 3}
E ∅
2 Which of the following statements is false?
A Z⊂Q B 3.142 ∈ Q C π∈R
D {0, 1, 2, 3} ∈ N E (N ∪ Z) = Z

3 The rule describing the relation shown is: y
A y = 2x 8
B y = 2x, x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4} 6
C y = 2x, x ∈ N
x 4
D y=
2 2
E y = 2x, x ∈ R+
0 x
1 2 3 4
4 Which one of the following graphed relations is continuous?
A y B y C y
0 x 0 x
0 x
D y E y
0 x
0 x
5 The interval shown below is:
−5 −1 0 1 4 x
A [−5, −1] ∪ [0, 4] B [−5, −1) ∪ [0, 4] C (−5, −1) ∪ (1, 4]

D (−5, −1) ∪ (1, 4) E [−5, −1) ∪ (1, 4]
6 The set R+ \ {2} is correctly represented on which number line below?
A B
0 2 x 0 2 x
C D
0 2 x 0 2 x
E
0 2 x
7 The domain of the relation shown below is: y

A R \ {0, 1} 4
B R \ {1} 2
C R
D Z \ {1}
E R+ ∪ R− 0 1 x
8 A relation has the rule y = x + 3, where x ∈ R+. The range of this relation is:
A R+ B R+ \ {3} C [3, ∞)
D R E (3, ∞)
1
9 The implied domain of the relation described by the rule y = is:
x−5
A (5, ∞) B R+ C [5, ∞)
D (0, 5) E R−
10 The range of the function f ( x ) = 2 4 − x is:
A R B R+ C R−
D [0, ∞) E (2, ∞)

11 The relation shown is: y
A one-to-one
B one-to-many
C many-to-many
0 x
D many-to-one
E none of the above
12 Which of the following is not a relation?
A y = x2 B x2 + y2 = 3 C {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 3)}
D y=5−x E {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
13 Which one of the following graphed relations is not a function?
A y B y C y
0 x 0 x
0 x
D y E y
0 x
0 x
14 Which of the following rules does not describe a function?

x
A y= B y = 2 − 7x C x=5 D y = 10x2 + 3 E y = −8
5
15 Which of the functions listed below is not one-to-one?
A {(10, 10), (11, 12), (12, 13)} B {(5, 8), (6, 10), (7, 8), (8, 9)} C {(x, y): y = 4x}
D {(x, y): y = 5 − 2x} E f (x) = 2 − x3
16 Which of the graphs below represents a one-to-one function?
A y B y C y
0 x 0 x
0 x
D y E y
0 x
0 x
17 The function with the domain −5 ≤ x ≤ 5, range −8 ≤ y ≤ 17 and rule y = x2 − 8 can be written in
function notation as:
A f : R → R where y = x2 − 8 B f : R → R where f (x) = x2 − 8
C f : [−5, 5] → R where f (x) = x2 − 8 D f : R → [−8, 17] where f (x) = x2 − 8
E f : [−8, 17] → R where f (x) = x2 − 8
18 The function f : {x: x = 0, 1, 2} → R, where f (x) = x − 4, may be expressed as:
A {(0, −4), (1, −3), (2, −2)} B {0, 1, 2} C {(0, 4), (1, 3), (2, 2)}
D {(−1, −5), (1, −3), (2, −2)} E {−4, −3, −2}
19 If g (x) = 6 − x + x2, then g (−2) is equal to:
A 6 B 8 C 0
D 12 E 5

20 If f (x) = 3x − 5, then f (2x + 1) is equal to:
A 6x − 8 B 6x − 5 C 3x − 5 D 3x − 4 E 6x − 2
21 The graph at right is to be restricted to a one-to-one function. A possible restricted y
domain could be:
A [−3, 1)
B (1, 3) 9
C (0, ∞)
D (3, ∞)
E (−3, ∞)
x
−3 −1 0 3
⎧ x + 1, x < 0
⎪
22 The hybrid function f ( x ) = ⎨ x 2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 is represented by which of
the following graphs? ⎪2 − x , x > 2
⎩
A y B y C y
4 4 4
1 1 1
−10 1 2 x −10 2 x 0 2 x
D y E y
4 4
1 1
−1 0 2 x −1 0 2 x
23 The inverse of the graph shown below is:

y
A y B y C y
x x x
D y E y
x x

24 The graph of the circle relation (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 4 is:
A y B y
2 1
1
−1 0 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 −2
−2 −3
−3
−4
C y D y
4 6
3 5
2 4
1 3
2
−3−2−1 0 x 1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−2 −7 −6−5−4−3−2−1 0 x
−3 −1 1 2 3
−4 −2
−5 −3
−4
E y
4
3
2
1
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 x
−1
−2
25 The equation of the circle shown is:

y
2
0 1 3 5 x
−2
A (x + 3)2 + y2 = 4 B (x − 3)2 + y2 = 2
C (x + 3)2 + y2 = 2 D (x − 3)2 + y2 = 4
E x2 + (y − 3)2 = 4
The circle with equation (x + 1)2 + (y − 4)2 = 9 applies to questions 26 and 27.
26 The domain is:
A [−10, 8] B [−2, 4]
C (−2, 4) D [−3, 3]
E [−4, 2]
27 The range is
A [−7, −1] B [−5, 13]
C [1, 7] D [−3, 3]
E [1, 7]

28 A circle has its centre at (4, −2) and a radius of 5. The equation of the circle is:
A (x − 4)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25
B (x − 4)2 + (y + 2)2 = 5
C (x + 4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 5
D (x + 4)2 + (y − 2)2 = 25
E 4x2 − 2y2 = 5
29 The graph that best represents the function f : [−2, 2] → R where f (x) = 4 − x 2 is:
A y B y C y
2 2 2
−2 0 2 x −2 0 2 x −2 0 2 x
−2 −2 −2
D y E y
4 4
−4 0 4 x −4 0 4 x
−4 −4
30 The table of maths tutoring fees charged by a Year 11 student is as follows:

Hours (h) Charge (C$)
0<h≤2 50
2<h≤4 80
4<h≤6 100
Which of the following graphs best shows the information in the preceding table?
A c B c C c
100 100 100
50 50 50
0 2 4 6 h 0 6 h 0
2 4 2 4 6 h
D c E c
100 100
50 50
0 0 6 h
2 4 6 h 2 4
1 Consider the diagram shown at right. EXTENDED

10 m R ES P O N S E
a Find an expression for the area, A, in terms of x and y.
b Find an expression for the perimeter, P.
xm
c If the perimeter is 72 cm, express A as a function of x.
ym
d What is the domain of A(x)? xm
e Sketch the graph of this function.
f Hence find the maximum area.

2 For the graph at right: y (3, 18)
a state the domain 18
b state the range
c find the rule for x ∈ (−∞, −2)
d find the rule for x ∈ (−2, 0]
e find the rule for x ∈ [0, 3], given it is of the form y = ax2
4
f determine the rule when x ≥ 3
g describe the relation using hybrid function notation
⎧… … −2 0 4 x
⎪
of the form f ( x ) = ⎨ … . ….
⎪… . …
⎩
3 A function f is defined as follows: f : [−2, a] → R, where f (x) = (x − 1)2 − 4.
a Find f (−2), f (−1), f (0), f (1), f (3).
b If f (a) = 12, find the value of a.
c Sketch the function f, labelling the graph appropriately.
d From the graph or otherwise, state the:
i domain of f (x)
ii range of f (x).
4 A new rectangular penguin enclosure is
to have a maximum side length of 8 m.
The width is to be twice the length (x).
a Draw a diagram of the enclosure and
label the sides.
b Define a rule that gives the perimeter,
P, of the new enclosure.
c What is the largest value that x can be?
d State the domain and range.
e Write in function notation the rule for
the perimeter.
f Define the function for the area of the
enclosure, A(x).
g If the maximum area allowed is 18 m2,
find the dimensions of the enclosure.
5 Thomas is looking to connect to a mobile phone service. He has to decide on one of two plans from
Busytone Communications. The details are as follows.
Plan Flag fall Cost perminute (cents)
A 20 30
B 50 20
a Write a function A for the cost of making a call from plan A.
b Write a function B for the cost of making a call from plan B.
c What is the cost of a 2-minute call from:
i plan A?
ii plan B?
d What is the length of one call costing $5 from:
i plan A?
DIGITAL DOC ii plan B?
doc-9748
Test Yourself e How long would a call be for the call costs to be the same for both plans?
Chapter 4 f If Thomas frequently makes calls lasting more than 4 minutes, which plan should he connect with?

ICT activities
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Answers CHAPTER 4
y
RELATIONS, FUNCTIONS AND e
7
10 a n C($)
TRANSFORMATIONS 6 15 140
5
Exercise 4A Set notation 4 16 146
3
1 a ∅ 2 17 152
b {4, 6} 1
c {6] x 18 158
−2 −1 0 1 2
d {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14} −2 19 164
e {4, 5, 6, 7, 8} 20 170
f {2, 8, 10, 12, 14} f y
g {4, 5} 6 21 176
2 a {2, 3} 4
22 182
b {−3, −2, −1} 23 188
c {−2, −1} 2 24 194
d {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1}
−2 −1 0
x 25 200
e {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4} 1 2
3 a ∅ b C ($)
b {b, c, d, f, g, h} 7 a T (°C) 200
80 190
c {a, e, i} 70
d {b, c, d, f, g, h} 180
60
170
e {o, u} 50
160
4 E 40
30 150
5 a C b B 20 140
6 a T b F cT d F 10 130
e F f T gT h T 0 5 10 15 20 25 n
0 2 4 6 8 t (minutes)
i T j F kF l T c The variables are discrete.
b T (°C) Exercise 4C Domain and range
Exercise 4B Relations and graphs 80
1 B 70 1 a [−2, ∞)
2 A 60 b (−∞, 5)
50
3 E 40
c (−3, 4]
4 C 30 d (−8, 9)
5 a D bC cC d D 20 e (−∞, −1]
e D f C 10
f (1, ∞)
0 2 4 6 8 10 t (minutes)
6 a 70 g (−5, −2] ∪ [3, ∞)
h (−3, 1) ∪ (2, 4]
c Because the variables are continuous.
Cost (¢)
2 a
d Approx. 11 minutes
−6 0 2
8 a
b
60 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 −9 −3 0
M TWT F S S
Day P($) 300 340 380 420 460 500 540 c
b y 0 2
9 b P ($)
d
550
500 0 5
4
450 e
1
0 x 400 01 10
1 2 3 350
c 300 f
y
250 0 2 7
200 g
−2 −1 0 1 2
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 n
−1 −2 0 1 3
c The variables are discrete.
−2 h
9 a V (km/h)
−3 −8 0 2 6
350
−4 300 i
250 01 4
d y 200
y=x−2 150 j
100 −1 0 5
0 x 50
2 k
0 1 2 3 4 5 t (s) 0 2
−2 b i Approx. 110 km/h l

ii Approx. 320 km/h −2 0 1

3 a [−4, 2) b (−3, 1] f y y = 2x2 − x − 6 c y
−
c (− 1, 3) d ⎛ 1 1 ⎤
⎜⎝ ,
2 2 ⎥⎦ −2 −1 0 1 2 x
y=5
e (3, ∞) f ( ∞, −3]
−
3
g (−∞, ∞) h [0, ∞)
i (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, ∞) −6
j 0 3 x
Domain = (−∞, ∞), Range = [−6 81, ∞)
5
k (−∞, 2) ∪ (3, ∞) l (−∞, −2] ∪ [0, ∞)
4 a D b E 10 a R b [0, ∞) c [−4, 4] x=1
5 C 6 B y
d R e R\{0} f R d
7 a i {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
ii {8, 10, 12, 14, 16} Exercise 4D Types of relations
2
b i {1.1, 1.3, 1.5, 1.7} (including functions) y=2
ii {1.4, 1.6, 1.8, 2} 1 a One-to-many b Many-to-one

c i {3, 4, 5, 6} c Many-to-one d One-to-one x
1 2
ii {110, 130, 150, 170} e One-to-one f Many-to-one
d i {M, T, W, Th, F} g Many-to-many h Many-to-one
ii {25, 30, 35} i One-to-one j Many-to-one
e i {3, 4, 5} k Many-to-many l Many-to-one x=1
ii {13, 18, 23} 2 b, c, d, e, f, h, i, j, l 1
f i R 3 y= +3
3C ( x − 2)
ii [−1, ∞) 4 a B b D c B
8 a R, R b R, (0, ∞) 5 b {−3, −1, 0, 1, 2}, {−2, −1, 1, 3} Exercise 4F Function notation
c [−2, 2], [0, 2] d [1, ∞), R c {3, 4, 5, 6}, {−1} 1 a i 1 ii 7 iii −5 iv 16
e R, (0, 4] f R, (−∞, −3] e R, {2} b i 2 ii 1 iii 3 iv 0
g R\{0}, R\{0} h R, (−∞, 1] g R, R c i 3 ii 2 iii 6 iv 9
i R, R j [−1, ∞), [0, ∞)
d i 9 ii 1 iii 16 iv a2 + 6a + 9
9 a y k R, R e i 12 ii 6 iii −4 iv 2
2 a, d, f, h, i and l are not functions. 2 a 3 b −3 or 3
c
1 d 2 or 3
Exercise 4E Power functions (hyperbola, 3
− 2 0 2 x
−
truncus and square root function) e 4 or 1 f −1
1 a Dilation factor of 3 away from the 3 a 3 b 3
Domain = (−∞, ∞), range = (−∞, 2] x-axis, horizontal translation of 5 units 5 10
in the positive direction of the x-axis and c − 2x d 2 − x2
b y x x
9 a vertical translation of 1 unit up.
y = x3 + 1
b Dilation factor of 2 away from the x-axis 10 10
x ∈ [−2, 2]
e − x−3 f − x +1
and a vertical translation of 1 unit up. x+3 x −1
1
c Reflection in the y-axis, horizontal 4 a f : R → R, f ( x) = 4x + 1
−2 0 2 x
translation of 4 units in the positive
−7 b f : [ 6, ∞) → R, f ( x) = x − 6
direction of the x-axis and a vertical
1
Domain = [−2, 2], range = [−7, 9] translation of 2 units down. c f : R\{1} → R, f ( x) =
c y d Dilation factor of 2 away from the x-axis x −1
and a horizontal translation of 4 units in 2
y = x2 + 3x + 2
d f : ( −1, ∞) → R, f ( x) =
2 the negative direction of the x-axis. x +1
e Horizontal translation of 3 units in the e f : ( 0, ∞) → R, f ( x) = (x + 2)2
positive direction of the x-axis. f f : [ 2, ∞) → R, f ( x) = x2 + 3x
−2 −1 0 x f Reflection in the x-axis, dilation factor g f : ( −∞, 0] → R, f ( x) = 8 − x
of 4 away from the x-axis and a vertical
− h f : [ 0, ∞) → R, f ( x) = x2 + x
Domain = (−∞, ∞), range = [ 14 , ∞) translation of 5 units down.
y 5 a i {0, 1, 2, 3} ii Z
d y 2 a
(−1, 4) (1, 4) iii {−7, −4, −1, 2}
b i (0, 10] ii R
−2 −1 0 1 x 3
1 iii [ 10 , ∞)
y= x2 − 4, x ∈ [−2, 1] y=1 c i {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} ii N
−3
−2 −1 x
−4
1 2 iii {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Asymptote d i (−∞, 0) ii R
Domain = [−2, 1], range = [−4, 0] x =0
iii (0, ∞)
e y y = 2x − 5, x ∈ [−1, 4) b y
3 e i R+ ii R
iii (−2, ∞)
−1 0 1 2 3 4 x f i [−3, 3] ii R
3−1 iii [0, 3]
−5 6 a i R ii R
x
−7 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 b i [0, ∞) ii [0, ∞)
Domain = [−1, 4), Range = [−7, 3) (3, −1) c i R ii R

d i R ii (−∞, 5] 12 a y c y
e i [4, ∞) ii [0, ∞) g(x)
f i (3, ∞) ii (0, ∞)
Exercise 4G Special types of function 1
(including hybrid functions)
−1 0 x
1 a, c, d, f, g
2 i a, b, c, d, f, h, i, j, k, l
ii c, h, i, k b g : ( −∞, −1] → R, g ( x) = x2+ 2x + 1 or x
3 a (−∞, −1], [−1, ∞) g : [ −1, ∞) → R, g ( x) = x2+ 2x + 1
b (−∞, 2), (2, ∞) Exercise 4H Inverse relations and
c [−3, 0], [0, 3]
functions
d (−∞, 3], [3, ∞)
1 a {(7, 1), (5, 2), (3, 3)} d y
e [−4, −2), (−2, 0]
y
f (−∞, −1], [−1, 1] or [1, ∞) y=x
g (−∞, 0], [0, ∞) 8
7
h [−2, 0], [0, 2] 6
i (−∞, 0), (0, ∞) 5
j (−∞, −3], [−3, ∞) 4
4 a D 3
b E 2 x
1
5 a B
b C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x y
e
6 a y f(x)
2 b {(3, 1), (6, 2), (9, 3)}
1
y
−2 −1 01 2 x y=x
9
8
7
6
b (−∞, 0) ∪ [1, ∞) 5
7 a y 4 x
g(x) 3
3 2
1
2
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
x
−2 −1 0 1 2 f y
c {(11, −2), (6, 0), (1, 2)}
b [1, ∞) y
y=x
c i 3 ii 1 iii 2 10
8 a y
8
5
4 6
3 4 x
2
1 2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x 0 2 4 6 8 10 x
−4 3 a y
−5 y = 4x y=x
2 a y
b (−∞,
0] ∪ (4, ∞)
c i −5 ii 0 iii −3 iv 0 v 7
⎪⎧ x + 2, x ≤ 0
9 f (x) = ⎨
⎩⎪ 2 x + 1, x > 0 x
10 f : [0, 1] → R, f ( x) = 1 − x 2
with range [0, 1] or
f : [0 , 1] → R, f ( x) = − 1 − x 2 x
with range [−1, 0]. b y
11 a y b y y=x
f(x) y = x2 + 3
9
0 3 x 3
b f : (−∞, 3] → R, f ( x) = (x − 3)2 or
0 x
f : [3, ∞) → R, f ( x) = (x − 3)2 x 3

c y f y h y
1– 3
2
y = 1_2 x + 1 −1–2 0 1– x − 3 0 x
2
−1–2
− 3
1
Not a function
0 x 4 a y
1
9
5 a D
d y b B
y = x3 + 4 6 a C
−9 0 9 x b E
7 a y
−9
4 Not a function
−1 −1 0 1 x
0 x
4 b y
−2
Exercise 4I Circles −3
1 a x2 + y2 = 9 b x2 + y2 = 1 0 x [−1, 1] and [−3, −1]

−2 2
c x2 + y2 = 25 d x2 + y2 = 100
b y
e x2 + y2 = 6 f x2 + y2 = 8 4
− Function
g y = 9 − x2 h y = 16 − x 2
2 a Both [−3, 3] b Both [−1, 1] c y 2
c Both [−5, 5] d Both [−10, 10]
−
e Both [ 6, 6] f Both [− 2 2, 2 2] x 0 x
−1 0 1 −2 2
g [−3, 3], [0, 3] h [−4, 4], [−4, 0]
[−2, 2] and [0, 4]
3 a y
2 c y
Function 3
−2 0 2 x d y
1– 0 1 4 7 x
−2 3
−3
b y x
4 − 1–3
0 1– [1, 7] and [−3, 3]
3
d y
Function 3
−4 0 4 x
e y
−4 −2 −1 0 2 6 x
c y 0 x
− 1–2 1–
2 −5
7
− 1–2 [−2, 6] and [−5, 3]
−7 0 7 x e y
Function 3
−7 f y
5 −8 −3 0 2 x
d y −2
7
0 x
− 5 5 −7
− 7 0 7 x
Function [−8, 2] and [−7, 3]

− 7
g y f y
e y 5
10
2 3
− 10 0 10 x 2
−2 3 0 2 3 x −1 0 6
x
− 10 3
−2 3 Not a function [0, 6] and [−1, 5]

g y n 3 a Domain = [0, ∞)
4 a B=
10
12 b Domain = R\{0}
b B (hours) c $90 c Domain = (− ∞, 12]
10 4 a x + 2, x ≥ 0
b Domain = [0, ∞); range = [2, ∞)
4
5 a, b, e
5 1
6 a f : R \{0} → R, f ( x) =
x
−11 −5 0 1 x
−2 b f : ( − ∞, 2] → R, f ( x) = 2− x
0 n
60 120 7 y
[−11, 1] and [−2, 10] 5
5 a T = 0.3x − 6450 4
h y
b T ($) 3
17 550 2
0 1– x 1
−1 2
2
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
− 3–2
8 a y
−3 4650.30
[−1, 2] and [−3, 0] −1 0 1 x

37 001 80 000 x ($)
8 y= 36 − domain x2 ;6] and range [−6, Domain [ 37 001, 80 000];
− −1
[0, 6] or y = 36 − x 2 ; domain [−6, 6] range [4650.3, 17 550]
and range [−6, 0] c $6150
6 a P = 4x + 6 Domain = [−1, 1]; range = [−1, 0]
9 y = 2 + 9 − x 2 ; domain [−3, 3] and range
b Domain (1, 6]; range (10, 30] b y
[2, 5] or y = 2 − 9 − x 2 ; domain [−3, 3]
7 a A = x2 + 4x
and range [−1, 2] 2
b Domain (0, 8]; range (0, 96]
10 a 2 cm, 13.8 cm b 3.9 cm/s
8 a P = 100 000(1.02)t −1 0 5 x
Exercise 4J Functions and modelling (2, −1)
b $121 899
9 a 47 b 21 −4
⎧ 40, 0 < t ≤1
⎪ c 9 weeks
96 Domain = [−1, 5]; range = [−4, 2]
⎪ 70, 1< t ≤ 2 d No, as t increases approaches zero,
1 a C (t ) = ⎨ t+3
2<t ≤4 9 a y
⎪ 110, so N approaches 15. x2 + y2 = 100
⎪ 160, 4<t ≤6 10 a T = 6000 + 100n − 50n2 10
⎩
b T c $11
b C ($)
160 6000 −10 0 10 x
5000
4000 −10
110 3000
2000
70
1000 b f 1 : [ −10, 10] → R, f ( x) = (100 − x 2 )
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112 n with dom f = [−10, 10], ran f = [0, 10]
0 and f 2 : [ −10, 10] R, f ( x) = − (100 − x 2 )
1 2 3 4 5 6 t (hours)
CHAPTER REVIEW with dom f = [−10, 10], ran f = [−10, 0]
⎧ 0.40, 0 < d ≤ 50 10
SHORT ANSWER 100
⎪
⎪ 0.60, 50 < d ≤ 100 1 a 75
⎪
Cost ($)
2 a C (d ) = ⎨ 0.80, 100 < d ≤ 200 500

Graph is not 50
⎪ 1.70,
No. of cars (n)
200 < d ≤ 700 400 continuous

⎪ 300
as n ∈ N 25
⎪⎩ 2.00, d > 700
200 0
b 1 2
2.00 100 Number of truck loads
1.70
11 y
Cost ($)
0 1 2 3 4 5 t (hours)
0.80 b The number of cars is a discrete variable.

0.60
0.40 c 120 2
5
3
2 a y
0 100 200 700 1
1 x
Distance (km) −5 −4−3−2−1 1 2 3
x −1
−3−2−1 0 1 2 3
⎧ 60t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.5
⎪ −3
3 a d (t ) = ⎨ 90, 1.5 ≤ t ≤ 2
⎪ 80t − 70, 2 ≤ t ≤ 4 12 a Dilation factor of 2 away from the
⎩ y = 1 − x2 x-axis, reflection in the y-axis and
−8
b Domain [0, 4]; range [0, 250] vertical translation of 4 units in the
c i 60 km ii 170 km b Domain = [−3, 3]; range = [−8, 1] positive direction of the x-axis.

b Dilation factor of 5 away from the d (0, 13) c f (x)
x-axis and a horizontal translation of 12 (5, 12)
e A (m2)
2 units up. 292
c Dilation factor of 3 away from the
260 (−2, 5)
x-axis, reflection in the y-axis, vertical
130
translation of 2 units in the positive (−1, 0)
direction of the x-axis and a horizontal 0
−2 1 5 x
translation of 7 units up.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x (m) (0, −3)
MULTIPLE CHOICE
f 292 m2 −4 (1, −4)
1 A 2 D 3 B − −
2 a x ∈ ( ∞, 4)\{ 2} d i Domain = [−2, 5] ii Range = [−4, 12]
4 C 5 E 6 C
7 B 8 E 9 A b [0, 18] 4 a
2x
10 D 11 D 12 E c y=4
13 B 14 C 15 B d y = −2x
16 C 17 C 18 A x
e y = 2x2
19 D 20 E 21 D
22 A 23 E 24 A f y = −18x + 72
D E C b P(x) = 6x c 0<x≤4
25 26 27 ⎧ 4, x ∈(− ∞ , − 2)
28 B 29 C 30 E ⎪ d Domain = (0, 4]; Range = (0, 24]
⎪⎪ − 2 x , x ∈(− 2, 0] e P: (0, 4] → R where P(x) = 6x
g f (x) = ⎨ f A: (0, 4] → R where A(x) = 2x2
EXTENDED RESPONSE
⎪ 2x ,
2 x ∈[0, 3] g Length = 3, Width = 6
1 a A = xy + 10y − x2 ⎪ − 18 x + 72 x ∈[3, 4] 5 a A(x) = 0.2 + 0.3x b B(x) = 0.5 + 0.2x
b P = 2x + 2y + 20 or ⎪⎩ c i 80 cents ii 90 cents
P = 2(x + y + 10) 3 a 5, 0, −3, −4, 0 d i 16 min ii 22.5 min
c A = 260 + 16x − 2x2 b a=5 e 3 min f Plan B

CHAPTER 5
Exponential and
logarithmic functions
doc-9749
5A Index laws 10 Quick Questions
5B Negative and rational powers
5C Indicial equations
5D Graphs of exponential functions
5E Logarithms
5F Solving logarithmic equations
5G Logarithmic graphs
5H Applications of exponential and logarithmic functions
Introduction
Functions in which the independent variable is an index number are called indicial or exponential
functions. For example:
f (x) = ax where a > 0 and a ≠ 1
is an exponential function.
It can be shown that quantities that increase
or decrease by a constant percentage in
a particular time can be modelled by an
exponential function.
Exponential functions have applications
in science and medicine (for example, decay
of radioactive material, or growth of bacteria
like those shown at right), and finance (for
example, compound interest and reducing
balance loans).
5A Index laws
Recall that a number, a, that is multiplied by itself n times can be represented in index notation:
Index (or power or exponent)
a!×###
a × a"…###×a=$an
n lots of a Base
where a is the base number and n is the index (or power or exponent).
The expression an is read as ‘a to the power of n’ or ‘a to the n’.
Multiplication
When multiplying two numbers in index form with the same base, add
the indices. am × an = am + n
For example, 23 × 24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 27
CHAPTER 5 Exponential and logarithmic functions 217

Division
When dividing two numbers in index form with the same base, subtract
the indices. am ÷ an = am − n
2×2×2×2×2×2
For example, 26 ÷ 22 = = 24
2×2
Raising to a power
To raise an indicial expression to a power, multiply the indices. (am)n = am × n = amn
For example, (24)3 = 24 × 24 × 24 = 24 + 4 + 4 = 24 × 3 = 212
Raising to the power of zero

Any number raised to the power of zero is equal to one. a0 = 1, a ≠ 0
For example 23 ÷ 23 = 23 − 3 = 20 [1]
or 23 ÷ 23 = (2 × 2 × 2) ÷ (2 × 2 × 2)
=8÷8
=1
So 23 ÷ 23 = 1 [2]
Using [1] and [2] we have 20 = 1.
Products and quotients

Note the following. (ab)n = anbn
For example, (2 × 3)4 = (2 × 3) × (2 × 3) × (2 × 3) × (2 × 3) n n
=2×3 × 2×3 × 2×3 × 2×3 ⎛ a⎞ = a
=2×2×2×2 × 3×3×3×3 ⎝ b⎠ bn
= 24 × 34
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Simplify.
d 8 p m × (3 p) m
6 2 3 5
a 2x3y2 × 4x2y b (2x2y3)2 × xy4 c (3a)5b6 ÷ 9a4b3
6 p4 m
THINK WRITE
a 1 Collect ‘plain’ numbers (2 and 4) and terms with a 2x3y2 × 4x2y

the same base. = 2 × 4 × x3 × x2 × y2 × y
2 Simplify by multiplying plain numbers and adding = 8x5y3
powers with the same base. (Note: y = y1.)
b 1 Remove the bracket by multiplying the powers. b (2x2y3)2 × xy4
(The power of the 2 inside the bracket is 1.) = 22 × x4 × y6 × xy4
2 Convert 22 to a plain number (4) first and collect = 4 × x4 × x × y6 × y4
terms with the same base.
3 Simplify by adding powers with the same base. = 4x5y10
(3a)5 b6
c 1 Write the quotient as a fraction. c (3a)5 b 6 ÷ 9a 4 b 3 =
9a 4 b 3
2 Remove the bracket by multiplying the powers. 243a5 b6
=
9a 4 b 3
3 Simplify by first cancelling plain numbers. 27a5 b6

=
a 4 b3
4 Complete simplification by subtracting powers = 27ab3
with the same base. (Note: a1 = a.)

d 8 p m × (3 p) m = 8 p m × 3 p m
6 2 3 5 6 2 3 3 5
d 1 Expand the brackets by raising each term to
4 4
the power of 3. 6p m 6p m
2 Convert 33 to 27 and collect like variables. 8 × 27 × p6 × p3 × m 2 × m 5

=
6 p4 m
3 Simplify by first reducing the plain numbers, = 36p6 + 3 − 4m2 + 5 − 1

and then reducing the variables by adding
the indices for multiplication and subtracting
the indices for division.
4 Simplify the indices of each base. = 36p5m6
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
3
6 a 4 b3 ⎛ 3 a 2 b ⎞
Simplify ÷ .
16 a7 b6 ⎜⎝ 2 a3 b2 ⎟⎠
THINK WRITE
3
1 Write the expression. 6a 4 b3 ⎛ 3a 2 b ⎞
÷
16a 7 b6 ⎜⎝ 2a3 b 2 ⎟⎠
3
2 Change the division sign to multiplication and 6a 4 b 3 ⎛ 2a 3 b 2 ⎞
= ×
replace the second term with its reciprocal (turn 16a 7 b6 ⎜⎝ 3a 2 b ⎟⎠
the second term upside down).
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying the powers. 6 a 4 b 3 23 a 9 b 6

= ×
16a 7 b6 33 a6 b3
4 Collect plain numbers and terms with the 6 × 8a 4 + 9 − 7 − 6 b 3 + 6 − 6 − 3

=
same base. 16 × 27
5 Cancel plain numbers and apply index laws. a0 b0

=
9
6 Simplify. 1
=
9
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Write the following in simplest index notation and evaluate.

95 × 34
a 23 × 162 b
27 3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Rewrite the bases in terms of their prime factors. a 23 × 162 = 23 × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2)2
2 Simplify the brackets using index notation. = 23 × (24)2

3 Remove the brackets by multiplying the powers. = 23 × 28
4 Simplify by adding the powers. = 211
5 Evaluate as a basic number. = 2048

95 × 34 (3 × 3)5 × 34
b 1 Rewrite the bases in terms of their prime factors. b =
273 (3 × 3 × 3)3
2 Simplify the brackets using index notation. (32 )5 × 34

=
(33 )3
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying the powers. 310 × 34

=
39
4 Write in simplest index form. = 35
Complex expressions involving terms with different bases have to be simplified by replacing each
base with its prime factors.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
3 4 n × 18 n + 1
Simplify .
63 n − 2
THINK WRITE
1 Rewrite the bases in terms of their prime factors. 34 n × 18n + 1 34 n × (3 × 3 × 2)n + 1

=
63 n − 2 (2 × 3)3n − 2
2 Simplify the brackets using index notation. 34 n × (32 × 21 )n + 1

=
(2 × 3)3n − 2
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying powers. 34 n × 32 n + 2 × 2 n + 1

=
23n − 2 × 33n − 2
4 Collect terms with the same base by adding the = 34n + 2n + 2 − (3n − 2) × 2n + 1 − (3n − 2)
powers in the products and subtracting the powers in
the quotients.
5 Simplify. = 36n + 2 − 3n + 2 × 2n + 1 − 3n + 2
−
= 33n + 4 × 2 2n + 3
= 33n + 4 × 23 − 2n
Exercise 5A Index laws

1 WE1a, b Simplify each of the following.
a x2 × x5 × x3 b 52 × 57 × (53)3 c (xy)3 × x4y5 d 3m2p5 × (mp2)3 × 2m4p6
2 WE1c Simplify each of the following.
a a7b8 ÷ a2b5 b 2a12b9 ÷ (2a)3b4 c (3x5)y11 ÷ 6x2y2 d p13q10 ÷ ( pq4)2
3 WE1d Simplify each of the following.

6 p8 m 4 × 2 p7 m 6 (3 x )2 y 2 × 5 x 6 y3 14u11v 9 × (3u 2 )3 v (5e3 )2 f 4 × 8e 4 f 3
a b c d
9 p5 m 2 10 x 7 y 21u6 v 5 20e f 5
4 WE2 Simplify each of the following.
2
15a8 b3 ⎛ 2a3 b ⎞ 5k 12 d 6 kd 4
a ÷ b ÷
9a 4 b5 ⎜⎝ 3ab 2 ⎟⎠ 3 2
(2 k ) 25( k 2 d 3 )3

3 p3 m 4
5 MC a can be simplified to:
p1m 2
A 3p2m2 B 3p4m6 C 3p3m8 D 3p3m2 E 3
6 5 4
6x y x
b × can be simplified to:
x 5 y3 (2 y)2
3 x 9 y10 3x 5
A 2x5y4 B 3x5y4 C x30y16 D E
2 2 2
3ab3 ⎛ a 2 b ⎞
c − ÷ is equal to:
ab ⎜⎝ a5 ⎟⎠
− 3a15
A −a18 B −3a6 C −3a6b D E 3a6
b6
6 Simplify each of the following.
x n + 1 × y5 × z 4 − n ( x n y m + 3 )2 x2 y
a n−2
b ×
x × y4 − n × z 3 − n x n + 2 y3 − m x n − 5 × y5 − 3m
7 WE3 Write the following in simplest index notation.
a 24 × 42 × 8 b 37 × 92 × 273 × 81 c 53 × 152 × 32
34 × 272 8 × 52
d 205 × 84 × 125 e f
64 × 35 23 × 10
8 Write the following in simplest index notation and evaluate.
45 (162 )3 272
a b 94 × 35 ÷ 27 c d
27 (25 )4 (32 )3
(625)4 (25)4 411 ÷ 82 272 × 81
e f g h
(53 )5 (125)3 163 93 × 35
9 WE4 Simplify the following.
a
× 92 n + 1
2n b
12 x − 2 × 4 x c
4 n × 7n − 3 × 493n + 1
6n − 2 6x − 2 14 n + 2
5n − 4 n − 5n + 1
d
3 × 16 × 9
n 3
e*
5
4 n + 1 × 181 − n × 63 − 2 n 5n + 1 + 5n
*Hint: Factorise the numerator and denominator first.
362 n × 6n + 3
10 MC In simplest index notation, is equal to:
216n − 2
A 216n + 5 B 65n + 1 C 62n + 5 D 69 E 62n + 9
5B Negative and rational powers

Negative powers
Wherever possible, negative index numbers should be expressed as positive index numbers using the
simple rule:
When an index number is moved from the numerator to denominator
or vice versa, the sign of the power changes.
1
a −n = n , a ≠ 0
a
This is easily verified as follows:
1 a0
= since a0 = 1
an an
= a0 − n using the division rule for indices
=a n
−
simplifying the inde x.
−
a n 1 1 an
In other words, = n and − n = .
1 a a 1
A simple way to remember this rule is ‘change the level, change the sign’.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Express each of the following with positive index numbers.

−4 TUTORIAL
⎛ 5⎞
a ⎜ ⎟ eles-1417
⎝ 8⎠ Worked example 5
−2 −
4
b x y × ( x 4 y) 5
−
x 3 y3
THINK WRITE
−4 −
4
a 1 Remove the brackets by raising the denominator a ⎛ 5⎞ =
5
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ −
4
and numerator to the power of −4. 8 8
2 Interchange the numerator and denominator, 84

=
changing the signs of the powers. 54
4
⎛ 8⎞
3 Simplify by expressing as a fraction to the =⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5⎠
power of 4.
× ( x 2 y) × x 10 y
− − − − −
4 2 5
b 1 Remove the brackets by multiplying powers. b x y x4 y 2 5
− = −
x 3 y3 x 3 y3
− −
2 Collect terms with the same base by adding the x 6y 7

= −
powers on the numerator and subtracting the x 3 y3
powers on the denominator. =x
−
6 − ( − 3)
y
−
7−3
= x 3y
− −
10
3 Rewrite the answer with positive powers. 1

=
x 3 y10
Rational powers
Until now, the indices have all been integers. In theory, an index can be any number. We will confine
ourselves to the case of indices that are rational numbers (fractions).
1
a n , where n is a positive integer, is defined as the nth root of a:
1
an = n a
For example, we know that a × a = a
1 1 1 1
+
but a2 × a2 = a2 2
= a1
=a
1
Therefore, a = a2
1 1
Similarly, 3 a = a 3 , 4 a = a 4 … etc.
1
a n is defined for all a ≥ 0 and n ≠ 0.
In general,
m
m ⎛ 1⎞
an = ⎜ an ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= ( n a )m = n a m

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Evaluate each of the following without a calculator.

−3
3
a 16 2 ⎛ 9⎞
b ⎜
2
⎝ 25 ⎟⎠
THINK WRITE
3 3
a 1 Rewrite the base number in terms of its a 16 2 = (24 ) 2
prime factors.
2 Remove the brackets by multiplying the = 26
powers.
−3 −3
b 1 Rewrite the base numbers of the fraction in b ⎛⎜ 9 ⎞⎟ 2 ⎛ 32 ⎞ 2

=⎜ 2⎟
terms of their prime factors. ⎝ 25 ⎠ ⎝5 ⎠
−
3
2 Remove the brackets by multiplying the 3
= −
3
powers. 5
3 Rewrite with positive powers by 53

=
interchanging the numerator and 33
denominator.
4 Evaluate the numerator and denominator as 125

=
basic numbers. 27
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Simplify the following, expressing your answer with positive indices.

7
a 128 × 4 64 b 3 x 2 y6 ÷ x 3 y 5
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the expression. a 7

128 × 4 64
1 1
2 Write using fractional indices. = 128 7 × 64 4
1 1
3 Write 128 and 64 in index form. = (27 ) 7 × (26 ) 4
6
4 Multiply the powers. = 21 × 2 4
3
5 Simplify the powers. = 21 × 2 2
5
= 22
b 1 Write the expression. b 3 x 2 y6 ÷ x 3 y5

1 1
2 Express the roots in index notation. = ( x 2 y6 ) 3 ÷ ( x 3 y5 ) 2
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying the 2 3 5
powers. = x 3 y2 ÷ x 2 y 2

2 3 5
− 2−
4 Collect terms with the same base by = x3 2y 2
subtracting the powers.

−5 −1
5 Simplify the powers. =x 6y 2
6 Rewrite with positive powers. 1

= 5 1
x6 y2
Exercise 5B Negative and rational powers

1 WE5a Express each of the following with positive index numbers.
DIGITAL DOC −
4
doc-9750 −
3 ⎛ 3⎞
−
2 ⎛ 34 ⎞
SkillSHEET 5.1 a 6 b ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ c ⎜ 3⎟
5 ⎝2 ⎠
Negative and
rational powers 2 WE5b Simplify each of the following, expressing your answer with positive index numbers.
( x 2 )3 × ( y 4 ) 2 ( − m)2 × m 3
− − −
( − 22))3 ×2 4
−
a b c
x 5 × ( y 2 )3 (p 2) 1 × p 4
− − − − − −
2 3
(3 2 )2 × (2 5 ) 1 x 3 y 2 × ( xy 2 ) 3
− − − − − −
x5 (x 4 ) 2
d ÷ e f
(24 ) 2 × (34 ) 3 (2 x 3 )2 × ( y 3 )2
− − − − −
x 3 (x 2 ) 3
3 WE6 Evaluate the following without a calculator.

1 1 2 3
a 92 b 27 3 c 83 d 814
−
1 3 3 − 2
⎛ 16 ⎞ 4 ⎛ 25 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 8⎞ 3
e ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ f ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ g 81 4 h ⎝⎜ 27 ⎟⎠
81 16
4 MC
3
25 × 125 simplifies to:
5 7 3 11 13
A 25 6 B 56 C 52 D 56 E 56
5 WE7 Simplify each of the following, expressing your answer with positive indices.
2 1
a 9 × 3 81 b x3 × x6 c 3 (xy3 ) ÷ ( x 2 y)
−1 −2
4
5
(64 m 6 ) 3 1
d 24 ×4 2 ×8 3 e f −
4
4m 2
−
x
( x + 1)2
g h ( y − 4) y − 4
x +1
5C Indicial equations
1
We can solve equations of the form x 3 = 2 as follows:
1
( x 3 ) 3 = 23
Take the cube of both sides:
The left-hand side becomes x, so x = 8.
However, when the unknown (or variable) is not a base number but is an index number, a different
approach is required.
Method 1: Exact solutions without a calculator

To attempt to solve index equations exactly, express both sides of the equation to the same base and
equate the powers.
If am = an, then m = n.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Find the value of x in each of the following equations.

a 3x = 81
b 4x − 1 = 256
c 63x − 1 = 362 x − 3
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a 3x = 81

2 Express both sides to the same base. 3x = 34
3 Equate the powers. ⇒x=4
b 1 Write the equation. b 4x − 1 = 256

2 Express both sides to the same base. 4x − 1 = 44
3 Equate the powers. ⇒x−1=4
4 Solve the linear equation for x by adding one to x=5
both sides.
c 1 Write the equation. c 63x − 1 = 362x − 3
2 Express both sides to the same base. 63x − 1 = (62)2x − 3
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying the powers. 63x − 1 = (6)4x − 6
4 Equate the powers. ⇒ 3x − 1 = 4x − 6
−1
5 Subtract 3x from both sides to make x the subject. =x−6
6 Add 6 to both sides to solve the equation. x=5
More complicated equations can be solved using the same technique.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Solve for n in the following equation.

23n × 16n + 1 = 32
THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. 23n × 16n + 1 = 32

2 Express both sides using the same base, 2. 23n × (24)n + 1 = 25
3 Remove the brackets by multiplying the powers. 23n × 24n + 4 = 25
4 Multiply the terms on the left-hand side by adding 27n + 4 = 25
the powers.
5 Equate the powers. ⇒ 7n + 4 = 5
6 Solve the linear equation for n. 7n = 1
1
n=
7
In some cases indicial equations can be expressed in a quadratic form and solved using the Null
Factor Law. Look for numbers in index form similar to a2x and ax appearing in different terms.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Solve for x if 52x − 4(5x) − 5 = 0.

THINK WRITE TUTORIAL
eles-1418
1 Write the equation. 5 −
2x 4(5x) −5=0 Worked example 10
2 Rewrite the equation in quadratic form. (5x)2 − 4(5x) − 5 = 0

Note that 52x = (5x)2.
3 Substitute y for 5x. Let y = 5x
4 Rewrite the equation in terms of y. ⇒ y2 − 4y − 5 = 0.
5 Factorise the left-hand side. (y − 5)(y + 1) = 0
6 Solve for y using the Null Factor Law. ⇒ y = 5 or y = −1
7 Substitute 5x for y. 5x = 5 or 5x = −1
8 Equate the powers. ⇒ 5x = 51 and 5x = −1
9 State the solution(s). ⇒x= 1 (5x = −1 has no solution.)
Note that in step 9, the possible solution 5x = −1 was rejected because there is no value of x for which
it will be satisfied. Recall that exponential functions such as 5x are always positive.
Method 2: Using a CAS calculator

If answers are not exact, the CAS calculator can be used to solve indicial equations.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
−
2x+1 1
Solve for x given 3 = . Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
45
THINK WRITE
1 Use the solve feature of the CAS calculator: The result is x = 3.654 65.
⎛ 1 ⎞
solve⎜ 3 2 x + 1 = 5 , x ⎟
−
⎝ 4 ⎠
− 1
2x +1
2 Write the answer. Solving 3 =
for x gives x = 3.65,
45
correct to 2 decimal places.
Exercise 5C Indicial equations

1 WE8a Find the value of x in each of the following equations.
a 2x = 32 b 5x = 625 c 3x = 243
= 16 6x = 1
−
= 100
1 x
−
x
d 10 e 4 f 216
2 WE8b Find the value of n in each of the following equations.

+
a 2 3n 1 = 64 b 52n + 3 = 25 c 32 − n = 27
5 − 3n 1
d 16n + 3 = 23 e 49 = 7 f 364n − 3 = 216
3 WE8c Find x in each of the following.
3x + 5 1
a 42x = 8x − 1 b 274 − x = 92x + 1 c 163x + 1 = 128x − 2 d 9 = 243
4 WE9 Solve for x in each of the following equations.

812 − x
a 2x × 83x − 1 = 64 b 52x × 1253 − x = 25 c 34x × 27x + 3 = 81 d = 92 x
27 x + 3

5 WE10 Solve for x in each of the following.
a 32x − 4(3x) + 3 = 0 b 22x − 6(2x) + 8 = 0
c 3(4 ) = 15(4 ) − 12
2x x d 25x − 30(5x) + 125 = 0
6 MC Consider the indicial equation 32x − 12(3x) + 27 = 0. The equation can be solved by making the
substitution:
A y = 3x B y = 2x C y = 32x
D y = 2x E y = 3x
7 MC The quadratic equation formed by the appropriate substitution in question 6 is:
A y2 − 3y + 27 = 0 B y2 − 11y + 27 = 0 C y2 + 12y + 27 = 0
D y2 − 12y + 27 = 0 E y2 − 9y + 3 = 0
8 MC The solutions to the equation in question 7 are x equals:
A 2 or 3 B 1 or 2 C 1 or 3
D 0 or 1 E 0 or 2
9 WE11 Solve for x. Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
a 2x = 3 b 3x = 8
c 10x = 45 d 4x = 10
10 MC The nearest solution to the equation 3x = 10 is:
A x = 2.5 B x = 2.3 C x = 1.9
D x=2 E x = 2.1
5D Graphs of exponential functions

Functions of the form f (x) = ax, where a is a positive real number other than 1 and x is a real number, are
called exponential functions.
In general, there are two basic shapes for exponential graphs:
y = ax, a > 1 or y = ax, 0 < a < 1
y y
y = ax, a > 1
y = ax, 0 < a < 1

1 1
Asymptote Asymptote
0 x y=0 0 y=0x
Increasing exponential Decreasing exponential
However, in both cases:
r UIFy-intercept is (0, 1)
r UIFEPNBJOJTR
r UIFBTZNQUPUFJTy = 0 (x-axis)
r UIFSBOHFJTR+. x x
Verify the shapes of these graphs by graphing, say y = 2x, y = 3x, y = ⎛⎜⎝ 1 ⎞⎟⎠ and y = ⎛⎜⎝ 1 ⎞⎟⎠ on a graphics
2 3
calculator. What is the effect of changing a on the steepness of the graph?
Reflections of exponential functions

The graph of y = a x is obtained by
−
The graph of y = −ax is obtained by
reflecting y = ax in the y-axis. reflecting y = ax in the x-axis.
y y
y= ax, a>1 y = ax, a > 1
1
Asymptote
1 y= a−x, a>1 0 x y=0
Asymptote −1
0 x y = −ax, a > 1
y=0

Horizontal translations of exponential
functions
The graph of y = a x + b is obtained by translating y = ax: y
1. b units to the right if b < 0 y = 2x y = 2x − 3
2. b units to the left if b > 0.
For example, the graph of y = 2x − 3 is obtained by translating
y = 2x to the right 3 units. 3 units
Check this graph using a graphics calculator. Note also that 2
()
1
2 x −3 = (2 x )(2 3 ) = 1 2 x , so the effect is identical to that of Asymptote
−
8
−1 0 1 2 3 4 x y=0
multiplying by a constant.
Vertical translations of exponential

functions y y = 10 x
10
The graph of y = ax + c is obtained by translating y = ax:
1. up by c units if c > 0
2. down by c units if c < 0. 5
Furthermore the equation of the asymptote becomes y = c. y = 10 x − 5
For example, the graph of y = 10x − 5 is obtained by translating y = 10x 1
down by 5 units. −1 x
1
The equation of the asymptote is y = −5. −5 units
−4. −4
The y-intercept is Asymptote
−5
Check this graph using a graphics calculator. y = −5
Dilation from the x-axis

The graph of y = Aax (for positive, real values of A) has a dilation factor of A. The graph is stretched along
the y-axis, away from the x-axis (as each y-value is being multiplied by the constant A). Consider the graphs
below. The y-intercept in each case is equal to A. Also, as A increases, the graph becomes steeper; as A
decreases, the graph becomes less steep. The domain, range and asymptotes are the same as for f (x) = ax.
y f(x) = 4 × 2x y f(x) = 2x
1–
(0, 4) f(x) = 3 × 2x f(x) = 2 × 2x
4 f(x) = 2x 2 (1, 2) 1–
f(x) = 4 × 2x
3 (0, 3)
(0, 1) (1, 1)
2
1 (0, 1–2) 1–
(0, 1)
Asymptote (0, 1–4) (1, 2 ) Asymptote
0 x y=0 0 x y=0
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −1 1
Dilation from the y-axis

1
The graph of y = akx (for k > 0) has a dilation factor of k from the y-axis. The graph is said to be stretched
along the x-axis. Consider the graphs at below. The y-intercept is (0, 1) in each case. As k increases, the
graph becomes steeper and closer to the y-axis. The domain, range and asymptotes are the same as for
f (x) = ax.
y f(x) = 22x
f(x) = 2x
–x
4 f(x) = 22
2
(0, 1)
Asymptote
01 2 3 x y=0
−3 −2 −1

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Find the equation of the asymptote and the y-intercept for each of the following functions. Hence,
sketch the graph of each function and state its domain and range.
a f : R → R, f (x) = 2x + 3 − 5
x
b f : R → R, f ( x ) = 3 × 2 2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the rule. a f (x) = 2x + 3 −5
2 The graph is the same as y = 2x translated

3 units left and 5 units down.
3 State the asymptote. The asymptote is y = −5.
4 Evaluate y when x = 0 to find the y-intercept. When x = 0, y = 23 − 5
=3
Therefore, the y-intercept is (0, 3).
5 Locate the y-intercept and asymptote on a set y f(x) = 2x+3 − 5
of axes. 3
6 Sketch the graph of the exponential function using 0 x
the y-intercept and asymptote as a guide.
Asymptote
y = −5
−5
7 Use the graph to state the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is (−5, ∞).
x
b 1 Write the rule. b f (x) = 3 × 2 2
0
2 Find the y-intercept by letting x = 0, or recall that f (0) = 3 × 2 2
the y-intercept is equal to A in f (x) = Aa x. = 3 × 20
= 3×1
=3
The y-intercept is 3.
3 Locate the horizontal asymptote. The horizontal asymptote is the x-axis.
2
4 Locate another point on the graph. This is necessary f (2) = 3 × 2 2
to be able to see the effect of the dilation. Locate = 3 × 21
the second point by substituting a value for = 3× 2
x into the equation and evaluating a corresponding =6
y-value.
Another point is (2, 6).
–x
Note: The asymptote remains at y = 0 as there is no f(x) = 3 × 22
vertical translation.
6
(2, 6)
(0, 3)
Asymptote
0 x y=0
1 2
6 State the domain and the range. The domain is R and the range is R+.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Use a CAS calculator to solve 2x = 15 (correct to 2 decimal places) by finding the intersection of
two graphs.
THINK WRITE
1 Enter the left-hand side as a function into the f1(x) = 2x

CAS calculator.
2 Enter the right-hand side as a function into the f2(x) = 15
CAS calculator.
3 Graph the two functions and use the The graphs intersect at (3.91, 15).
intersection points feature of the CAS
calculator. Write the answer.
Exercise 5D Graphs of exponential functions

1 Sketch the graph of each of the following on separate axes. (Use a table of values or copy a
CAS calculator screen).
a y = 3x b y = 5x−
DIGITAL DOC
d y=2
x
doc-9751 c y = 10x
e y=4 x
−
−
SkillSHEET 5.2 f y= 3 x
g y = −3 x
−
Substitution in h y = 0.5x
exponential functions
2 Sketch the following graphs, using a table of values or by copying a CAS calculator screen. State the
equation of the asymptote and the y-intercept for each.
a y = 2(3x) b y = 0.5(4x)
1 x
c y = 4 (2 x ) d y = 4 ⎛⎜⎝ 1 ⎞⎟⎠
3
3 WE12a Find the equation of the asymptote and the y-intercept for each of the following. Hence,
sketch the graph of each and state its domain and range.
a f : R → R, f (x) = 2x − 1 b f : R → R, f (x) = 3x + 2
c f : R → R, f (x) = 51 − x d f : R → R, f (x) = 2x + 3
e f : R → R, f (x) = 3x − 3 f f : R → R, f (x) = 2x + 3 − 1
h f : R → R, f (x) = 102 − x + 5
−
x
g f : R → R, f (x) = 6 +3
4 MC a The rule for the graph at right is: y
A y = 3x − 2
B y = 3x 3
C y = 2x − 3 2
1 Asymptote
D y = 3x + 2
E y = 3x − 1 0 1 2 3 x y=0
b The rule for the graph at right is: y

A y = 2x − 3
B y = 3x − 2
C y = 2x + 1 − 3 0 x
D y = 2x − 1 + 3
−2
E y = 2x − 1 − 3 (1, −2)
−3 y = −3
−4
5 WE12b Sketch the graph of each of the following, stating the domain and range.
a f : R → R, f (x) = 22x b f : R → R, f (x) = 23x
c f : R → R, f (x) = 3 × 2x d f : R → R, f (x) = 5 × 32x
x x
e f : R → R, f ( x ) = 2 × 5 2 f f : R → R, f ( x ) = 2 × 2 3

6 Sketch a graph of f (x) = 4 × 23x + 3, stating the domain and range. Compare your answer to that found
using a CAS calculator.
7 WE13 Use a CAS calculator to solve the following indicial equations using the intersection of two DIGITAL DOC
graphs. Give answers rounded to 2 decimal places. doc-9752
a 2x = 10 b 10x = 20 c 3x = 12 d 2x = x + 3 e 3x = x + 4 WorkSHEET 5.1
5E Logarithms
The index, power or exponent (x) in the indicial equation y = ax is Logarithm
also known as a logarithm.
This means that y = ax can be written in an alternative form: y = ax
loga (y) = x, which is read as ‘the logarithm of y to the base a is Base numeral
equal to x’. Base
For example, 32 = 9 can be written as log3 (9) = 2.
105 = 100 000 can be written as log10 (100 000) = 5.
In general, for a > 0 and a ≠ 1: ax = y is equivalent to x = loga (y).
Using the indicial equivalent, it is possible to find the exact value of some logarithms.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Evaluate the following without a calculator.

1
a log6 (216) b log 2 ( 8 )
THINK WRITE
a 1 Let x equal the quantity we wish to find. a Let x = log6 (216)
2 Express the logarithmic equation as an indicial equation. 6x = 216

3 Express both sides of the equation to the same base. 6x = 63
4 Equate the powers. x=3
1 ⎛ ⎞
b 1 Write the logarithm as a logarithmic equation. b Let x = log2 ⎝⎜ ⎠⎟
8
1
2 Express the logarithmic equation as an indicial equation. 2x = 8
3
= ⎛⎜⎝ 1 ⎞⎟⎠
2
= (2 1 )3
−
2 =2 3
−
x
3 Express both sides of the equation to the same base.
4 Equate the powers. x = −3
Logarithm laws
The index laws can be used to establish corresponding rules for calculations involving logarithms. These
rules are summarised in the following table.
Name Rule Restrictions

Logarithm of a product loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n) m, n > 0
a > 0, a ≠ 1
Logarithm of a quotient loga ⎛⎝⎜ m ⎠⎟⎞ = loga (m) − loga (n) m, n > 0
n a > 0 and a ≠ 1
Logarithm of a power loga (m)n = n loga (m) m>0
a > 0 and a ≠ 1
Logarithm of the base loga (a) = 1 a > 0 and a ≠ 1
Logarithm of one loga (1) = 0 a > 0 and a ≠ 1

It is important to remember that each rule works only if the base, a, is the same for each term.
The ‘logarithm of a product’ and ‘logarithm of a quotient’ rules formed the basis for the pre-1970s
calculation device for multiplication and division — the slide rule.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Simplify, and evaluate where possible, each of the following without a calculator.
a log10 (5) + log10 (4) b log2 (12) + log2 (8) − log2 (3)
THINK WRITE
a 1 Apply the ‘logarithm of a product’ rule. a log10 (5) + log10 (4) = log10 (5 × 4)
2 Simplify. = log10 (20)

b 1 Multiply the base numerals of the b log2 (12) + log2 (8) − log2 (3) = log2 (12 × 8) − log2 (3)
logs being added since their bases = log2 (96) − log2 (3)
are the same.
2 Apply the ‘logarithm of a quotient’ = log2 (96 ÷ 3)
law.
3 Simplify, noting that 32 is a power = log2 (32)
of 2. = log2 (2)5
4 Evaluate using the ‘logarithm of a = 5 log2 (2)
power’ and ‘logarithm of the base’ =5
laws.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Simplify 3 log2 (5) − 2 log2 (10).

THINK WRITE
1 Express both terms as logarithms of 3 log2 (5) − 2 log2 (10) = log2 (5)3 − log2 (10)2
index numbers.
2 Simplify each logarithm. = log2 (125) − log2 (100)
3 Apply the ‘logarithm of a quotient’ = log2 (125 ÷ 100)
law.
⎛ 5⎞
4 Simplify. = log2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ or log2 (1.25)
4
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Simplify each of the following.

log 8 (49)
a b 2 log10 (x) + 1 c 5 log10 (x) − 2
log 8 (343)
THINK WRITE
log8 (49) log8 (7)2

a 1 Express each base numeral as powers a =
to the same base, 7. log8 (343) log8 (7)3
2 log8 (7)
2 Apply the ‘logarithm of a power’ law. =
3 log8 (7)
2
3 Simplify by cancelling out the common = 3
factor of log8 (7).

b 1 Express 2 log10 (x) as log10 (x)2 and b 2 log10 (x) + 1 = log10 (x)2 + log10 (10)
1 as a logarithm to base 10 also.
2 Simplify using the ‘logarithm of a = log10 (10x2)
product’ law.
c 1 Express 5 log10 (x) as log10 (x)5 and c 5 log10 (x) − 2
2 as 2 log10 (10). = log10 (x)5 − 2 log10 (10)
2 Express 2 log10 (10) as log10 (10)2. = log10 (x)5 − log10 (10)2
⎛ x5 ⎞
3 Simplify using the ‘logarithm of a = log10 ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
quotient’ law.
⎛ x5 ⎞
= log10 ⎜
⎝ 100 ⎟⎠
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Evaluate each of the following expressions, correct to 3 decimal places.

a log2 (5) b log7 (8)
THINK WRITE
a & b 1 On a Calculator page, complete the

entry lines as:
log2 (5)
log7 (8)
2 Write the answer. a log2 (5) = 2.332
b log7 (8) = 1.069, correct to 3 decimal places.
Exercise 5E Logarithms
1 Express the following indicial equations in logarithmic form.
a 23 = 8 b 35 = 243 c 50 = 1
−2 − 1
d 0.01 = 10 e bn = a f 2 4=
16
2 Express the following logarithmic equations in indicial form.
⎛ 1⎞
a log4 (16) = 2 b log10 (1000 000) = 6 c log2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ = −1
2
d log3 (27) = 3 e log5 (625) = 4 f log2 (128) = 7
g log3 ⎛⎝⎜ 1 ⎞⎠⎟ −
= 2 h logb (a) = x
9
3 MC The value of log5 (25) is:

A −2 B 5 C 1 D 2 E 4
4 MC When expressed in logarithmic form, = 512 is:
83
A log3 (8) = 512 B log3 (512) = 8 C log8 (512) = 3
D log512 (3) = 8 E log8 (3) = 512
5 MC When expressed in indicial form, log10 (10 000) = 4 is:

A = 10 000
104 B 10 0004 = 10 C 10 00010 = 4
D 10 10 000 =4 E 4 = 10 000
10
6 WE14 Evaluate each of the following.

⎛ 1⎞
a log2 (16) b log3 (81) c log5 (125) d log2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
4
⎛ 1 ⎞
e log10 (1000) f log10 (0.000 01) g log2 (0.25) h log3 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
243
i log2 (32) j log2 ⎛⎜⎝ 1 ⎞⎟⎠ k log3 (−3) l logn (n5)
64

7 WE15 Simplify the following, and evaluate where possible.
a log2 (8) + log2 (10) b log3 (7) + log3 (15) c log10 (20) + log10 (5)
d log6 (8) + log6 (7) e log2 (20) − log2 (5) f log3 (36) − log3 (12)
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
g log2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ + log2 (9) h log4 (25) + log4 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ i log3 (8) − log3 (2) + log3 (5)
3 5
8 WE16 Simplify each of the following.

a 3 log10 (5) + log10 (2) b 2 log2 (8) + 3 log2 (3)
c log5 (12) − 2 log5 (2) d 4 log10 (2) − 2 log10 (8)
1 1
e log2 (27) − 2 log2 (36) f log2 (x − 4) + 3 log2 (x)
3
1
g 2
log3 (16) + 2 log3 (4) h 2 log10 (x + 3) − log10 (x − 2)
9 WE17a Simplify the following.

log3 (25) log2 (81) 2 log10 (8)
a b c
log3 (125) log2 (9) log10 (16)
3log5 (27) log3 ( x 6 ) log10 ( x 3 )
d e f
2 log5 (9) log3 ( x 2 ) log10 ( x )
2 log2 ( x + 1)3
g
log2 ( x + 1)
10 MC The expression log10 (xy) is equal to:

log10 ( x )
A log10 (x) × log10 (y) B log10 (x) − log10 (y) C
log10 ( y)
D y log10 (x) E log10 (x) + log10 (y)
11 MC The expression log5 (xy) is equal to:

A x log5 (y) B y log5 (x) C 5 logx (y) D log5 (x) + log5 (y) E 5y
1
12 MC The expression 3 log2 (64) + log2 (5) can be simplified to:
⎛ 64 ⎞ ⎛ 320 ⎞
A log2 (40) B 1 C log2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ D log2 (20) E log2 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
15 3
log4 ( x 5 )
13 MC The expression can be simplified to:
log4 ( x 2 )
5 5
A log4 (x3) B log4 ( x 2 ) C 2 D log4 (x5 − x2) E log4 (x7)
14 WE17b Express each of the following in simplest form.
a log3 (27) + 1 b log4 (16) + 3 c 3 log5 (2) − 2
1
d 2 + 3 log10 (x) e 4 log3 (2) − 2 log3 (6) + 2 f + 3 log10 ( x 2 )
2
15 WE18 Evaluate the following, correct to 3 decimal places where appropriate.
a log2 (16) b log3 (81) c log10 (0.001)
d log2 (9) e log3 (4) + log2 (7)

Logarithms to the base 10
Logarithms to the base 10 are called common logarithms and can be evaluated using the log function on
a calculator.
Note: The logarithm of a negative number or zero is not defined. Therefore:
loga (x) is defined for x > 0, if a > 0.
This can be seen more clearly using index notation as follows:
r Let n = loga (x.)
r Therefore, an = x (indicial equivalent of logarithmic expression).
r However, an > 0 for all values of n if a > 0 (positive based exponentials are always positive).
r Therefore, x > 0.

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Find x if log3 (9) = x − 2.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. log3 (9) = x − 2

2 Simplify the logarithm using the ‘logarithm of a log3 (32) = x – 2
power’ law and the fact that log3 (3) = 1. 2 log3 (3) = x – 2
2=x–2
3 Solve for x by adding 2 to both sides. x=4
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Solve for x if log6 (x) = −2.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. log6 (x) = −2

2 Express in index form. Therefore, x = 6 2.
−
1
3 Evaluate the index number. x=
62
1
=
36
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Solve for x given that 2 log x (25) = 4, x > 0.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. 2 logx (25) = 4

2 Divide both sides by 2. logx (25) = 2
3 Write as an index equation. Therefore, x2 = 25.
4 Express both sides of the equation to the same base, 5. x2 = 52
5 Equate the bases. x=5
Note that x = −5 is rejected as a solution, because x > 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Solve for x correct to 3 decimal places, if 2x = 7.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the equation. 2x = 7

2 Take log10 of both sides. log10 (2x) = log10 (7)
3 Use the ‘logarithm of a power’ law to bring the x log10 (2) = log10 (7)
power, x, to the front of the logarithmic equation.
logg10 ((7)
4 Divide both sides by log10 (2) to get x by itself. Therefore x =
logg10 ((2)
5 Evaluate the logarithms correct to 4 decimal places, 0.8451
x=
at least one more than the answer requires. 0.3010
6 Solve for x. x = 2.808

Therefore, we can state the following rule:
logg a ( b)
If ax = b, then x =
logg a ( a)
= logg a ( b)
This rule applies to any base a, but 10 is the most commonly used base for this solution technique.
Exercise 5F Solving logarithmic equations

1 WE19 Find x in each of the following.
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
a log2 (4) = x b log9 (1) = x c log10 ÁË ˜¯ =x d log3 ÁË ˜¯ =x
10 9
e 2 log2 (8) = x f log3 (81) = 2x g log10 (1000) = 2x 1

2 WE20 Solve for x.
a log2 (x) = 3 b log3 (x) = 2 c log5 (x) = 4
d log10 (x) = 1 e log8 (x) = 1 f log3 (x) = 3
g log3 (x 3) = 3 h log2 (3x + 1) = 4 i log10 (2x) = 1
j 2 log6 (3x) = 1 k log3 (5) log3 (4) = log3 (x) log3 (8)
3 WE21 Solve for x given that:
a logx (36) = 2 b logx (125) = 3 c 3 logx (16) = 6
- 2 log Ê 1 ˆ 1
d x ÁË 100 ˜¯ =4 e 2
log x (64) = 3 f 5 logx (625) = 10
- Ê 1ˆ
g logx + 1 (27) = 3 h log3 x - 1 ËÁ 32 ˜¯
= 5.
4 MC a The solution to the equation log7 (343) = x is:

A x=2 B x=3 C x=1 D x=0 E x= 2
b If log8 (x) = 4, then x is equal to:
1
A 4096 B 512 C 64 D 2 E
2
1
c Given that log x (3) = 2 , x must be equal to:
A 3 B 6 C 81 D 1 E 9
d The solution to the equation log3 (x) 2 = log3 (x 8) is:
A x=8 B x=6 C x=9 D x= 4 E x=2
5 WE22 Solve the following equations for x, correct to 3 decimal places.
a 2x = 11 b 2x = 0.6 c 3x = 1.7 d 5x = 8
1
e 0.7 = 3
x f 10 x = 18 g 22x + 1 = 5 h 10 2x = 7
i 82 x = 0.75
6 MC The nearest solution to the equation 4x = 5 is:

A x = 0.86 B x = 1.2 C x = 1.25 D x=1 E x = 0.5
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9753
7 MC The nearest solution to the equation 0.62x
= 2 is: 1
WorkSHEET 5.2 A x = 0.18 B x = 0.13 C x = 0.18 D x = 0.71 E x = 0.13
5G Logarithmic graphs
INTERACTIVITY The graphs of y = loga (x) and y = ax are reflections of each other across the line y = x. Functions such as
int-0264 these that are reflections of each other in the line y = x are called inverses of each other.
Logarithmic graphs
Consider the logarithm loga (ax). This logarithm can be simplified using the log laws.
loga (ax) = x loga (a)
=x 1
=x
Notice how the logarithm with base a and the exponential with base a have a cancelling effect on one
another, demonstrating that they are inverse operations. This is similar to the way that multiplication and
division have a cancelling effect. Multiplication and division are also inverse operations of each other.
5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_05.indd 236 8/05/13 2:37 PM

Consider now the exponential aloga (x). As the logarithm with base a is the inverse operation to the
exponential with base a, the expression aloga (x) simplifies to give x. That is, aloga (x) = x.
The inverse properties of logarithms and exponentials can be used to plot the graphs of logarithmic
functions. Alternatively, a table of values can be used. For example:
y = log10 (x)
x −1 0 1 2 3 4 y Asymptote
x=0
y undefined undefined 0 0.301 0.477 0.602
The graph of y = loga (x) does not exist for values of x ≤ 0. It is f(x) = log10 (x)
an increasing function. There is a vertical asymptote along the
y-axis, and so there are no y-intercepts. The x-intercept for all
values of a is always (1, 0). That’s because loga (1) = 0. Another x
0 1
point on the graph is (a, 1). That’s because loga (a) = 1. The
domain of the function is R+ and the range is R.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Sketch the graph of f (x) = log2 (x).

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Realise that f (x) = log2 (x) is the inverse of f (x) = 2x, f(x) = 2x
so these two graphs are reflections of each other y
across the line y = x. y=x
2 Alternatively, recall the basic shape of the logarithmic f(x) = log2 (x)
graph. Sketch the basic shape on a set of axes. 1 (2, 1)
0 (1, 0) x
3 Mark the x-intercept (1, 0).
4 Mark a second point on the graph (a, 1), which in
this case is (2, 1).
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Find the equation of the inverse of f (x) = 2x.

THINK WRITE
1 Write the function using (x, y) notation. y = 2x

2 Interchange x and y. x = 2y
3 Take the logarithm to base 2 of both sides. log2 (x) = log2 (2y)
4 Simplify using loga (mn) = n loga (m). log2 (x) = y log2 (2)
5 Simplify using loga (a) = 1. log2 (x) = y
−
6 State the inverse of f. f 1(x) = log2 (x)
Exercise 5G Logarithmic graphs

1 Simplify the following expressions.
a log2 (2x) log (b)
b 10 10 c 3 × log5 (5y) d 5 × 20 log20 (x)
2 WE23 Sketch the graphs of each of the following.
a f (x) = log2 (x) b f (x) = log5 (x) c f (x) = log8 (x)
d f (x) = log10 (x) e f (x) = log12 (x) f f (x) = log15 (x)

3 Compare the steepness of each of the graphs in question 2, and hence explain how changing the base, a,
affects the steepness of a logarithmic graph of the type f (x) = loga (x).
4 WE24 Find the equation of the inverse of the following.
a f (x) = 3x
b f (x) = 4x
c f (x) = log5 (x)
Further work on logarithmic graphs is available on your eBookPLUS.
DIGITAL DOCS
Applications of exponential and
5H
doc-9754
Logarithmic graphs logarithmic functions
doc-9755
Extension Exponential and logarithmic functions can be used to model many practical situations in science,
Logarithmic graphs medicine, engineering and economics.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
A square sheet of paper that is 0.1 mm thick is repeatedly folded in half.

a Find a rule that gives the thickness, T mm, as a function of the number of folds, n.
b What is the thickness after 10 folds?
c How many folds are required for the thickness to reach 6 cm?
THINK WRITE
a 1 T = 0.1 when n = 0 and doubles with each fold. This a When n = 0, T = 0.1, and as n increases
doubling implies that the base should be 2. by 1, T doubles.
2 Complete a table of values showing the thickness, T, n 0 1 2 3 4 5
for values of n from 0 to 5. T 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2
3 Determine the rule for T(n). There is a doubling T(n) = 0.1(2n)
term (2n) and a multiplying constant for the
starting thickness (0.1).
4 Compare the rule for T(n) against the table of
values in step 2.
b 1 Substitute n = 10 into the formula for T. b When n = 10,
T(10) = 0.1(210)
2 Calculate T. T = 102.4 mm
c 1 Change 6 cm to millimetres. c 6 cm = 60 mm
2 Substitute T = 60 into the formula. When T = 60,
60 = 0.1 (2n)
3 Divide both sides by 0.1. 600 = 2n
4 Take log10 of both sides. log10 (600) = log10 (2n)
5 Use the ‘logarithm of a power’ law to bring the log10 (600) = n log10 (2)
power n to the front of the logarithm.
log10 (600)
6 Divide both sides by log10 (2). n=
log10 (2)
7 Evaluate. n ≈ 9.23
8 Round the answer up to the nearest whole Therefore, n = 10 folds.
number, as the number of folds are positive
integers and if you round down the thickness will
not have reached 60 mm.

WORKED EXAMPLE 26
The price of gold since 1980, P (dollars per

ounce), can be modelled by the function TUTORIAL
P = 400 + 50 log10 (5t + 1), where t is the eles-1419
number of years since 1980. Worked example 26
a Find the price of gold per ounce in 1980.
b Find the price of gold in 2006.
c In what year will the price pass $550
per ounce?
THINK WRITE
a 1 State the modelling function. a P = 400 + 50 log10 (5t + 1)
2 Determine the value of t represented by the year 1980. In 1980, when t = 0,

3 Substitute t into the modelling function. P = 400 + 50 log10 [5(0) + 1]
= 400 + 50 log10 (1)
4 Evaluate P. P = 400
b 1 Repeat part a by determining the value of b t = 2006 − 1980
t represented by the year 2006. = 26
2 Substitute the value of t into the modelling function When t = 26,
and evaluate P. P = 400 + 50 log10 [5(26) + 1]
= 400 + 50 log10 (131)
= 400 + 105.864
= $505.86
c 1 Since P = 550, substitute into the modelling c 550 = 400 + 50 log10 (5t + 1)
function and solve for t.
2 Simplify by isolating the logarithm part of the 150 = 50 log10 (5t + 1)
equation. 3 = log10 (5t + 1)
3 Express this equation in its equivalent indicial form. 103 = 5t + 1
4 Solve this equation for t. 1000 = 5t + 1
999 = 5t
199.8 = t
5 Convert the result into years. The price of gold will reach $550 in
1980 + 199.8 = 2180 (approximately).
Applications of exponential and

Exercise 5H
logarithmic functions
1 WE25 Before a mice plague that lasts 6 months, the population of mice in a country region is
estimated to be 10 000. The mice population doubles every month during the plague. If P represents the
mice population and t is the number of months after the plague starts:
a express P as a function of t
b find the population after:
i 3 months ii 6 months
c calculate how long it takes the population to reach 100 000 during the plague.

2 WE26 The population of a town, N, is modelled by the function N = 15 000(20.01t), where t is the
number of years since 1980.
a Find the population in 1980.
b Find the population in: i 1985 ii 1990.
c What is the predicted population in 2015?
d In what year will the population reach 20 000?
3 The weight of a baby, W kg, t weeks after birth can be modelled by W = 3 log10 (8t + 10).
a Find the initial weight.
b Find the weight after: i 1 week ii 5 weeks iii 10 weeks.
c Sketch the graph.
d When will the baby reach a weight of 7 kg?
4 If $A is the amount an investment of $P grows to after n years at 5% p.a. using compound interest:
a write A as a function of P
b use the function from a to find the value of $10 000 after 10 years
c calculate how many years it will be until an investment of $10 000 reaches $26 500.
5 The value of a car, $V, decreases according to the function V = 25 000 ⎛⎜ 2 ⎞⎟ 0.1t, where t is the number of
⎝ 5⎠
years since the car was purchased.
a Find the value of the car when new.
b Find the value of the car after 6 years.
c In how many years will the car be worth $10 000?
6 The temperature, T (°C), of a cooling cup of coffee in a room of
temperature 20 °C can be modelled by T = 90(3 0.05t ) , where
−
t is the number of minutes after it is poured.

a Find the initial temperature.
b Find the temperature:
i 3 minutes after pouring ii 6 minutes after pouring.
c How long is it until the temperature reaches half its initial
value?
7 A number of deer, N, are introduced to a reserve. The deer population can be predicted by the model
N = 120(1.1t ), where t is the number of years since introduction.
a Find the initial number of deer in the reserve.
b Find the number of deer after:
i 2 years
ii 4 years
iii 6 years.
c How long does it take the population to treble?
d Sketch the graph of N versus t.
e Explain why the model is not reliable for an indefinite time period.
8 After a recycling program is introduced, the weight of rubbish disposed of by a household each week
is given by W = 80(2 0.015t ), where W is the weight in kg and t is the number of weeks since recycling
−
was introduced.
a Find the weight of rubbish disposed of before recycling starts.
b Find the weight of rubbish disposed of after recycling has been
introduced for:
i 10 weeks ii 40 weeks.
c How long is it after recycling starts until the weight of rubbish
disposed of is half its initial value?
d i Will the model be realistic in 10 years time?
ii Explain.
9 The number of hectares (N) of forest land destroyed by a fire t hours
after it started is given by N = 40 log10 (500t + 1).
a Find the amount of land destroyed after:
i 1 hour
ii 2 hours
iii 10 hours.
b How long does the fire take to burn out 155 hectares?

10 A discus thrower competes at several competitions during the year. The best distance, d metres,
that he achieves at each consecutive competition is modelled by d = 50 + log10 (15n), where n is the
competition number.
a Find the distance thrown at the:
i 1st competition ii 3rd competition iii 6th competition iv 10th competition.
b Sketch the graph of d versus n.
c How many competitions does it take for the thrower to reach a distance of 53 metres?
11 The population, P, of a certain fish t months after being introduced to a reservoir is
P = 400(100.08t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 20. After 20 months, fishing is allowed and the population is then modelled by
P = 15 000 + 924 log10 [10(t − 19)], t ≥ 20.
a Find the initial population.
b Find the population after:
i 5 months ii 15 months
iii 25 months iv 40 months.
c How long does it take the population to pass 10 000?
7
12 A ball is dropped from a height of 5 metres and rebounds to 10 of
its previous height.
a Find the rule that describes the height of the ball
(h metres) after n bounces.
b Find the height after: i 4 bounces ii 8 bounces.
c Sketch the graph of the height of the ball after n bounces.
13 A computer appreciates in value by 10% per year. If the computer
costs $5000 when new, find:
a the rule describing the value, V, of the computer at any time,
t years, after purchase
b the value of the computer after 6 years
c the number of years it takes to reach double its original value.
14 From the start of 1996, a small mining town has seen a steady increase in population until 2000 as the
price of minerals improved and mining was extended.
Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Population (P) 700 750 804 870 925
a Let 1996 be t = 0; then 1997 will be t = 1 and so on. Plot P against t.
b What does the shape of the curve look like?
c Calculate the ratio of the population in 1997 to the population in 1996.
d Calculate all the ratios in successive years, and hence estimate the percentage annual increase or
growth.
To obtain an accurate estimate of population growth, follow these steps.
e On the table above, evaluate log10 (P).
f Plot log10 (P) against t. Are the points approximately collinear?
g Draw a line of best fit and find its gradient and the intercept on the y-axis.
h Write the equation for the line.
i Show that P = 700(1.07)t. Is this close to your estimate in d?
j Use this formula to estimate the population in 2001 and 2002.
k When might the population have reached 2000?
l In fact there was a downturn in the population as the mine output decreased. From 2000 onwards
there was an annual decline of 10% in population. During which year did the population reduce to
below 600?
15 A used car dealership keeps data on the value of the Fraud Atlas (new at the start of 2005) over 5 years.
Year (t) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Value (V) 45 000 35 500 28 000 22 500 18 000
a Let t = 2005 be x = 0; then 2006 will be x = 1 and so on. Plot V against x.
b What does the shape of the curve look like?
c Calculate the ratios of values of the car in successive years, e.g. V2006 ÷ V2005 and so on.
d Estimate the annual rate of depreciation.
e For a more accurate result, evaluate log10 (V).

f Plot log10 (V) against x. Are the points approximately collinear?
g Draw a line of best fit and find its gradient and the intercept on the y-axis.
h Write the equation for the line.
i Show that V = 45 000(0.79)x (or a formula close to it).
j What is the annual rate of depreciation?
k Use this formula to estimate the car’s values in 2010 and 2011.
l When will it reach a value of $7000?
16 Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer born in the 16th century. He used data collected by Tycho
Brahe to formulate an equation or law connecting the period of a planet’s revolution around the sun
to the radius of its orbit. The following table contains the data Kepler used. The radius of the orbit is
expressed as a proportion of Earth’s orbit (with the period given in days).
Planet Radius (R) of orbit Period (T)
Mercury 0.389 87.77
Venus 0.724 224.70
Earth 1.000 365.25
Mars 1.524 686.98
Jupiter 5.200 4332.62
a Plot T against R (using (0,0) too). What does the graph look like?
The graph has the form T = aRb, where a and b are constants.
b To find them, find log10 (R) and log10 (T).
c Plot log10 (T) against log10 (R) on graph paper. Are the points collinear?
d Draw a line of best fit and find its gradient, correct to 2 decimal places.
e Read off the intercept on the y-axis and write it as the equivalent logarithm.
f Write an equation for the straight line.
g By transposition, show that T = 365.25R1.50 (or a formula close to it).
h If Saturn’s orbit has a radius of 9.510, find its period using the formula above. The actual period is
10 759.2 days. Why is there a difference in the results?
i Kepler’s Law is T 2 = kR3. What is the value of k?

Summary
Index laws 1. am × an = am + n
2. am ÷ an = am − n
3. (am)n = amn
4. a0 = 1
5. (ab)n = anbn
n n
6. ⎛ a ⎞ = a
⎝ b⎠ bn
r To simplify indicial expressions:
– when dealing with questions in the form (expression 1) ÷ (expression 2), replace expression 2
with its reciprocal and change ÷ to ×
– remove brackets using laws 4, 5 and 6
– collect plain numbers and terms of the same base
– simplify using laws 1, 2 and 3.
−n 1
Negative and rational r a = ,a≠0
powers an
1
r a n = n a
m 1
n
r a n = (a n )m = ( n a )m = a m
Indicial equations r If am = an, then m = n.

r A graphics calculator may be used to solve indicial equations, using the solve function.
Graphs of exponential r f ( x) = ax, a > 1; f ( x) = ax, 0 < a < 1

functions r The y-intercept is (0, 1).
r The asymptote is y = 0 (x-axis).
r The domain is R.
r The range is R+.
y y
f(x) = ax, a > 1 f(x) = ax, 0 < a < 1

1 1
Asymptote Asymptote
0 x y=0 0 x y=0
r Reflections: y
f ( x) = ax, a > 1; f ( x) = a−x, a > 1 f(x) = ax, a > 1
1 f(x) = a−x, a > 1

Asymptote
0 x y=0
f ( x) = ax, a > 1; f ( x) = −ax, a > 1 y
f(x) = ax, a > 1

1
Asymptote
0 x y=0
−1
f(x) = −ax, a > 1

−
r Translations x+b
y f(x) = a , a > 1, b > 0
f ( x) = ax, a > 1; f ( x) = ax + b, a > 1, b > 0
x
b f(x) = a , a > 1
b
1
Asymptote
0 x y=0
f ( x) = ax, a > 1; f ( x) = ax + c, a > 1, c > 0 x

y f(x) = a + C, a > 1, C > 0
f(x) = ax, a > 1

Asymptote C
y=C
C 1
0 x
r Dilations
f ( x) = ax, a > 1; f ( x) = Aax, A > 0, a > 1 f(x) = Aax, A > 1, a > 1
y
f(x) = ax, a > 1
A
1
Asymptote
0 x y=0
f ( x) = ax, a > 1; f ( x) = akx, a > 1, k > 0 y f(x) = 22x

f(x) = 2x
–x
4 f(x) = 22
2
(0, 1)
Asymptote
0 1 2 3 x y=0
−3 −2 −1
Logarithms r If y = ax, then loga ( y) = x, where a = the base, x = the power, index or logarithm, and y = the base
numeral.
Log laws:
r loga (m) + loga (n) = log a (mn) m, n > 0
⎛ m⎞
r loga (m) − loga (n) = loga ⎝ n ⎠ m, n > 0
r loga (mn) = n loga (m) m > 0
r loga (a) = 1
r loga (1) = 0
Solving logarithmic r Logarithmic equations are solved more easily by:

equations 1. simplifying using log laws
2. expressing in index form
3. solving as required.

log10 (b)
r If ax = b, then x = = loga (b)
log10 (a)
r loga (ax) = x
loga ( x )
r a =x
Logarithmic graphs r The logarithmic function f ( x) = loga (x) is the inverse function of the exponential function
f ( x) = ax.
y
f(x) = ax, a > 1
y=x
1 f(x) = loga (x), a > 1
0 1 x
r The x-intercept is (1, 0).

r The asymptote is x = 0.
r The domain is R+.
r The range is R.

Chapter review
1 Simplify the following expression with positive indices.
SHORT 1
ANS WER −
(16 x 6 y10 ) 2 ÷ 3 (27 x 3 y9 )
2 Solve the following equations.
a 4x3 = 500 b 8x + 1 × 22x = 43x − 1
3 Find the solutions to:
−x + 1
a 9x − 1(3x) − 6 = 0 b 2x + 2 = 3.
4 For the function with the rule f ( x) = 3x − 2 + 1:
a find the y-intercept
b state the equation of the asymptote
c sketch the graph of f ( x)
d state the domain and range.
5 For the function with the rule f ( x) = 3 × 2x − 3:
b state the equation of the horizontal asymptote
c find a second point on the graph
d sketch the graph of f ( x)
e state the domain and the range of the function.
⎛ 1⎞
6 a Evaluate log3 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ .
27
b Express y in terms of x if log10 ( x) + log10 ( y) = 2 log10 (x + 1).
7 Simplify the following.
2 log5 ( x 2 )
a 3 log4 (5) − 2 log4 (6) b 1
logg5 ( x )
3
8 Solve each of the following.
a log6 (x) = 3 b 2 logx (125) = 6 c log2 (3x + 6) − log2 (5) = 2
9 If y = loge (7x − 6) + 3, then what does x equal?
10 If f (x) = 3x:
a sketch the graph of f (x) and label:
i the y-intercept ii the equation of the asymptote
b sketch the line y = x, use this line to sketch the inverse function g(x) = log3 (x), and label:
i the x-intercept
ii the equation of the asymptote.
11 The number of bacteria in a culture, N, is given by the exponential function N = 1500(20.4t ), where t is
the number of days.
a Find the initial number of bacteria in the culture.
b Find the number of bacteria (to the nearest 100) after: i 5 days ii 10 days.
c How many days does it take for the number of bacteria to reach 12 000?
MULTIP L E
C H OICE (2 xy3 )2 3 x 5 y 2
1 When simplified, × is equal to:
7x3 4y
x 4 y7 3x 4 y7 3 y7 3x 4 x
A B C D E
7 7 x2 y6 y
5m 4 p2 (5m 2 p6 )3
2 ÷ may be simplified to:
2m 3 p 3m 7 p
m2 3m10 3m 2 m15
A m 20 p24
47 p 16 B C D E
2 p32 50 p16 p29 25
−1
− 2 ⎛ 64 ⎞ 3
3 The value of 5 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ is:
125
4 5
A 1
B 5 C 5 D 4 E −5
20

4 If 252 − x = 125, then x is equal to:
1
A 1 B 2 C −1 D 2 E 5
5 If 42x − 17(4x) + 16 = 0, then x is equal to:

A 1 or 16 B 0 or 1 C 2 or 8 D 1 or 4 E 0 or 2
6 The rule for the graph below could be:
y
0 x
−1
−2
A y = 3x − 2 B y = 3x + 2 C y = 3x − 2 D y = −2x E y = 2x + 2
Questions 7 to 9 refer to the function defined by the rule y = 2x + 3 − 1.

7 The graph that best represents this function is:
A B C y
y y
7
0 x
−3
0 x −1
−3 0 x
D y E y
1
0 x
0 x −3
3
−1
8 The domain is:

A (3, ∞) B [−1, ∞) C R+ D R E R\{−3}
9 The range is:
A [−1, ∞) B R C R+ D (1, ∞) E (−1, ∞)
10 When expressed in log form, 5x = 250 becomes:
A logx (5) = 250 B log5 (x) = 250 C log5 (250) = x
D logx (250) = 5 E log250 (x) = 5
11 The value of log7 (49) + 3 log2 (8) − 4 is:
A 3 B 7 C 0 D 69 E 1
log3 25
12 The value of is nearest to:
log3 5
A 3 B 5 C 2 D 9 E 20
5
log7 (x 4 )
13 The expression simplifies to:
log7 ( x )
5 3
5 3 5
A 2 B log7 ( x 2 ) C log7 ( x 4 ) D 4 E 8
14 The solution to log5 (x) = 4 is:
A 25 B 125 C 1 D 625 E 20
15 The value of x if 2 logx (343) = 6 is:

A 3 B 7 C 5 D 14 E 7
16 If log3 (2x − 1) + log3 (2) = 2, then x is equal to:
5 11
A 2 B 1 C 3 D 2 E 4

17 The solution to the equation 43 − 2x = 12 is nearest to:
A x = −1 B x = 0.35 C x = 0.604 y
D x = 0.2 E x=0
18 The equation of the graph shown at right is:

A y = log16 (x) (4, 2)
B y = log2 (x)
C y = 2 log8 (x) x
0 1 4
D y = log10 (x)
E y = 2 log10 (x)
19 The inverse of the graph below would be:
(2, 1)
1
0 x
A y B y
0 x
−1
(1, −2)
x
1 (2, −1)
C y D y
(−1, 2)
(2, 1)
1
0 x
1
0 x
E y
x
−1
(−1, −2)

−x
1 a For the function f ( x ) = 5 : EXTENDED
i find the y-intercept RES P O N S E
ii find the values f (1) and f (−1)
iii find the equation of the asymptote
iv sketch the graph of f (x)
v state the domain and range.
−
b For the function g(x), where g(x) = f (x + 3) − 1 and f (x) = 5 x:
i state the transformations to change f (x) to g(x)
ii state the equation of the asymptote
iii sketch the graph of g(x)
iv state the domain and range of g(x).
2 The number of lions, L, in a wildlife park is given by L = 20 (100.1t ), where t is the number of years
since counting started. At the same time the number of cheetahs, C, is given by C = 25(100.05t ).
a Find the number of:
i lions ii cheetahs
when counting began.
b Find the numbers of each after
i 1 year ii 18 months.
c Which of the animals is the first to reach a population of 40 and by how long?
d After how many months are the populations equal, and what is this population?
3 The graph of the function f : R → R, where f (x) = −A × 102x + 4, is shown at right. y
a Give the equation of the horizontal asymptote in the form y = c. c
b The graph passes through the point (0, 3.8). Use this information to
find the value of A.
(0, 3.8)
c Find the x-intercept, correct to 3 decimal places.
d Find the values of:
i f (−3) ii f (4).
e Find the value of x if f (x) = −5.2.
x
f State the domain and range of f (x).
4 The temperature, T °C, of a coffee in a ceramic mug at time t minutes
−
after it is poured is given by T = 60(4 0.05t ) + 20.
a Find the initial temperature of the coffee.
b Find the temperature of the coffee, correct to one decimal place, at:
i 2 minutes after it is poured ii 25 minutes after it is poured.
c Sketch the graph of the equation for 0 ≤ t ≤ 50.
If the coffee can be comfortably drunk when it is between temperatures of 30 °C and 45 °C, find:
d the time available to drink the coffee e the final temperature the coffee will settle to.
5 The number of bacteria (N) in a culture is given by the exponential function N = 12 000(20.125t), where
t is the number of days.
a Find the initial number of bacteria in the culture.
b Find the number of bacteria in the culture after:
i 4 days ii 2 weeks.
c Find the time taken for the bacteria to reach 32 000.
When the bacteria reach a certain number, they are treated with an anti-bacterial serum. The serum
−
destroys bacteria according to the exponential function D = N0 × 3 0.789t, where D is the number
of bacteria remaining after time t and N0 is the number of bacteria present at the time the serum is
added. The culture is considered cured when the number of bacteria drops below 1000.
d If the bacteria are treated with the serum when their numbers reach 32 000, find the number of DIGITAL DOC
doc-9756
days it takes for the culture to be classed as cured. Test Yourself
e How much longer would it take the culture to be cured if the serum is applied after 6 weeks? Chapter 5

ICT activities
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Answers CHAPTER 5
EXPONENTIAL AND 3 a −3 b 7
10 h y
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS − 18 −5
c d y = 0.5x
Exercise 5A 5 2
Index laws 9 1
1 a x10 b 518 4 a 10
b 7 1–
2
−5 −1
c x7y8 d 6m9p17
c 7
d 11 0 1
x
a9b5
2 a a5b3 b 5 a 0 or 1 b 1 or 2
4 2 a y
c 0 or 1 d 1 or 2 y = 2(3x)
x 3 y9 6A 7 D 8 B
c d p11q2 6
2 9 a 1.58 b 1.89
4 p10 m8 9 xy 4 c 1.65 d 1.66 2
3a b
3 2 10 E
x
0 1
c 18u11v5 d 10e9f 2
Exercise 5D y = 0, (0, 2)
Graphs of exponential b
15 125k 11d 6 y y = 0.5(4x)
4a b functions
4 24 1 a y x
y=3 2
5a A bE c B
6 a x3yn + 1z b x5y6m − 1 3
0.5
7 a 211 b 324 c 55 × 34 1
3 0 x
5 0 x 1
d 222 × 58 e f 2 1
24 y = 0, (0, 0.5)
8a 8 b 59 049 c 16 c y
b y y = 1–4 (2x)
1 y = 5x
d 1 e5 f 5 5
1–
1
g 16 h 3 2
1–
4
9 a 22 × 33n + 4 b 23x − 2 1
c 2n − 2 × 76n − 3 d 25n − 6 × 39n − 3 0 x
−2 0 x 1
1
e 1
3 c y y = 0, (0, 4)
y = 10x
10 E 10 d y
Exercise 5B Negative and rational powers
y = 4( 1–3 )x
1 52 212 4
1 a 3 b 2 1 4–
c 316
6 3 0 1
x 3
1 p2 d y 0 1
x
2 a −22 b c y = 2−x
xy 2 m y = 0, (0, 4)
2 1
1 3 a y = 0, (0, 2 )
d x10 e 213 × 38 f dom = R, ran = (0, ∞)
4 x 6 y2 1
y y = 2x − 1
3 a 3 b3 c 4 x
−1 0
2 125
d 27 e 3
f 64
e y
1 9 1–
g 27 h 4 y = 4−x 2
4
4 E 0 x
1
7 5
y2 1 b y = 0, (0, 9)
5 a 33 b x6 c x dom = R, ran = (0, ∞)
2 −1 0
x3 y
y = 3x + 2
1 f y
d 7 e 64m10 f x2
9
24 0 1 x
−1
3 3
g (x + 1) 2 h ( y − 4) 2 −3
x
0
y = −3x c y = 0, (0, 5)
Exercise 5C Indicial equations dom = R, ran = (0, ∞)
g y
1 a 5 b4 y = 51 − x y
c 5 d2 x
−1 −1 0
e −2 f −3
−1
2 a 5 b c −1 −3 5
3 2
−9 11 9
d e f y = −3−x x
4 6 8 0

d y = 3, (0, 4) c dom = R, ran = R+ 2 a 42 = 16 b 106 = 1 000 000
dom = R, ran = (3, ∞) − 1
y c 2 1= 2 d 33 = 27
y f(x) = 3 × 2x
e 5 = 625
4
f 27 = 128
y = 2x + 3 (1, 6) −2 1
4 6 g 3 = 9
h bx = a
3 3D 4 C 5A
3 6 a 4 b 4 c 3
0 x d −
2 e 3 f −5
g −2
h −5 i 5
−3, −2)
e y= (0, − k Undefined l 5
0 x j 6
dom = R, ran = (−3, ∞) 1
7 a log2 (80) b log3 (105)
y log6 (56)
d dom = R, ran = R+
c log10 (100) = 2 d
y = 3x − 3
e log2 (4) = 2 f log3 (3) = 1
y g log2 (3) h log4 (5)
0 x 45 (1, 45) i log3 (20)
−2 f(x) = 5 × 32x 8 a log10 (250) b log2 (1728)
−3 ⎛ 1⎞
c log5 (3) d log10 ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
4
f y = −1, (0, 7) ⎛ 1⎞
e log2 ⎝⎜ ⎠⎟ = −1 f log2 [x3(x − 4)]
dom = R, ran = (−1, ∞) 2
y ⎛ ( x + 3)2 ⎞
g log3 (64) h log10 ⎜
7
5
⎝ x − 2 ⎟⎠
0 x
y = 2x + 3 − 1 1 2 3 9
9 a 3 b 2 c 2 d 4
0 e dom = R, ran = R+ e 3 f 6 g 6
x
−1 y
10 E 11 B 12 D 13 C
–x
g y = 3, (0, 4) f(x) = 2 × 52 14 a log3 (81) = 4 b log4 (1024) = 5
dom = R, ran = (3, ∞) 10 (2, 10)
⎛ 8⎞
y c log5 ⎝⎜ 25 ⎠⎟ d log10 (100x3)
−x
y=6 +3 6
e log3 (4) f log10 ( 10 x )
4 2
3 15 a 4 b 4 c −3
0 2 x d 3.170 e 4.070
0 x
f dom = R, ran = R+ Exercise 5F Solving logarithmic equations
h y = 5, (0, 105) y –x 1 a 2 b 0 c −1 d −2
f(x) = 2 × 23
dom = R, ran = (5, ∞) e 6 f 2 g 2
y 2 a 8 b 9 c 625 d 10
y = 102 − x + 5 1 1
15 e 8 f 27 g 30 h5
4 (3, 4) 6
2 i 5 j 3 k 10
5
0 1 x
0 3 x 3 a 6 b 5 c 4 d 10
e 2 f 25 g 2 h1
4 a A b E 6 y 4 a B b A c E dC
f(x) = 4 × 23x + 3 −0.737
5 a dom = R, ran = R+ 5 a 3.459 b c 0.483
1.292 − f 2.255
y d e 3.080
g 0.661 −0.423 i 2.138
h
4 (1, 4)
3 6 B 7C
2 f(x) = 22x
1 (− 1–3, 5) 7 Exercise 5G Logarithmic graphs
5 y=3 1 a x b b c 3y d 5x
0 1 x 3
2 a y
0 x
b dom = R, ran = R+ − 1–3 f(x) = log2(x)
y (2, 1)
1
8 (1, 8) 7 a 3.32 b 1.30 0 x
2
c 2.26 d 2.44, −2.86
−3.99
e 1.56,
f(x) = 23x b y
Exercise 5E Logarithms
1 a log 2 (8) = 3 b log 3 (243) = 5 (5, 1) f(x) = log5(x)
1
1 c log 5 (1) = 0 d log 10 (0.01) = −2
0
( )
5 x
0 x
1 e log b (a) = n f log2 1 = − 4
16

c y e The population will reach a limit at
f log10(P)
some stage.
8 a 80 kg 3.1
(8, 1) f(x) = log8(x)
1 b i 72.1 kg ii 52.8 kg 3.0
0 8 x c 67 weeks
d i W 2.9
d y 2.8
80
W = 80(2−0.015t) t
(10, 1) f(x) = log10(x) 0 1 2 3 4
1
0 x
The points appear collinear.
10 0 t
g m ≈ 0.03; y-intercept = 2.845
h log10 (P) = 0.03 t + 2.845
e y ii No, the model suggests virtually no
i P = 10(0.03t + 2.845)
rubbish will be disposed of in 10 years
or so, which is unlikely. ⇒ P = 100.03t × 102.845
(12, 1) f(x) = log12(x) ⇒ P = 700 × 1.072t, i.e. 7.2% growth
1 9 a i 108 hectares
similar to d
0 12 x ii 120 hectares
j P5 = 982 people; 2002 (t = 6),
iii 148 hectares
b 15 h
P6 = 1051
f y 10 a i 51.18 m ii 51.65 m iii 51.95 m k During 2011
iv 52.18 m l During 2004
(15, 1) f(x) = log15(x) b d 15 a V($000)
1 50
0 15 x 52 40
51 d = 50 + log10(15n)
30
3 The smaller a is, the steeper the graph. 20
4 a log3 (x) for x > 0 0 n
1 2 3 4 10
1 2–
b 2 log2 (x) for x > 0 3
c 5x 0 1 2 3 4 x(year)
c 67
Exercise 5H Applications of exponential 11 a 400 b The curve starts from $45 000, curving
and logarithmic functions b i 1005 ii 6340 iii 16 643 iv 17 146 down with a reducing slope —
1 a P = 10 000(2t) c 17.48 months exponential decay.
b i 80 000 ii 640 000 12 a h = 5(0.7n) c 0.789, 0.789, 0.804, 0.800
c 3.32 months b i 1.20 m ii 0.29 m d The ratio is about 0.795 or a 20.5% rate
2 a 15 000 c h of depreciation.
b i 15 528 ii 16 077 e
5 h = 5(0.7n), n ≥ 0, n ∈ J x 0 1 2 3 4
c 19 118 4
d 2022 3
V 4.653 4.550 4.447 4.352 4.255
3 a 3 kg 2
b i 3.77 kg ii 5.1 kg iii 5.86 kg 1
n
f log10(V )
c 0 1 2 3 4 5
W
4.6
3 13 a V = 5000(1.1t)
W = 3 log10(8t + 10) 4.5
b $8857.81
c 8 years 4.4
−5– 0 t 14 a P(people) 4.3
4
4.2
900
d 26 weeks
0 1 2 3 4 x
4 a A = P(1.05)n b $16 288.95 c 20 years 800
5 a $25 000 b $14 427 c 10 years The points are roughly collinear.
6 a 90 °C 700 g m ≈ −0.099; y-intercept = 4.65
b i 76.3 °C ii 64.7 °C h log10 (V ) = −0.099t + 4.65
c 12 min 37 s 0 1 2 3 4 t(years) i log10 (V ) = −0.099t log10(10)
7 a 120 + 4.65 log10(10)
b i 145 ii 176 iii 213 b The graph shows a slight upward curve −
= log10(10 0.099t)
c 11 1 years
not starting from (0, 0); this suggests + log10(104.65)
2 possible exponential growth. −
⇒ V = 10 0.099t × 104.65
N c 1.071 −
d = 10 × (10 0.099)t
4.65
d 1.072, 1.082, 1.063. Estimated % annual
N = 120(1.1t) = 45 000(0.79)t
120
growth is 7%. j The rate of depreciation is about 21%.
e
t 0 1 2 3 4 k In 2010 (x = 5), V = $13 847; in 2011,
V = $10 939.
0 t P 2.845 2.875 2.905 2.940 2.966 l During 2012

16 a T c y y = 3x − 2+ 1 7 A 8 D 9 E
5000 10 C 11 B 12 C
(0,10
—)
9 13 A 14 D 15 B
4000 (2, 2) 16 E 17 C 18 B
1
3000 x
19 C
0
EXTENDED RESPONSE
2000
1
1 a i 1 ii 5 , 5 iii y = 0
1000 d Domain = R, range = (1, ∞)
iv y
5 a y=0 b y = −3 y = 5−x
(0, 0) 1 2 3 4 5 R c (1, 3) (for example)
d y (−1, 5)
The graph starts from (0, 0) and curves f(x) = 3 × 2x − 3
slightly up to the right like a positive
exponential function.
3 (1, 3)
b 1
log10 R log10 T y=0
−1 0 x
− 1.943
0.410 0
1 x
−0.140 y = −3 v Domain R, range R+

2.352
b i Horizontal translation of 3 units to the
0 2.563 e The domain is R and the range is (−3, ∞). left, vertical translation of 1 unit down
ii y = −1
0.183 2.837 (x + 1)2
6 a −3 b y= iii y = 5−(x + 3) − 1 y
x
0.716 3.637 (−4, 4)
7 a log4 ⎛⎜ 125 ⎞⎟ b 12
⎝ 36 ⎠
c log10 (T ) 14
4 8 a x = 216 b x=5 c x= 3
3 ey − 3 + 6 −3 1 x
9 x= y = −1 −1
2 7
1 10 a iv Domain R, range ( −1, ∞)
y
y = 3x 2 a i 20 ii 25
−·4 −·3 −·2 −·1 0 ·1 ·2 ·3 ·4 ·5 ·6 ·7 ·8 log10 (R) b i L = 25, C = 28 ii L = 28, C = 30
3 (1, 3)
c Lions by 1 year 1 month
The points are very close to collinear.
d 31 after 1 year 11 months
d m ≈ 1.50 y=0 1
3 a y= 4 b A = 0.2 c x = 0.651
e The y-intercept is 2.5614 or log10 (364.25) 0 x d i 3.999 998 ( ≈ 4)
f log10 (T ) = 1.50 log10 (R) + 2.5614
ii −19 999 996 ( ≈ −2 × 107)
g log10 (T ) = log10 (364.25 × R1.50) b y e 0.831 f Domain R, range (−∞, 4)
⇒ T = 364.3 R1.50 y = 3x
4 a 80 °C
h T = 10 711.76 days. The difference may 3 (1, 3) b i 72.2 °C ii 30.6 °C
be due to rounding errors or ignoring the y = log3(x)
(1, 1) c T
small effects of other planets and moons 1 (3, 1) 80 T(x) = 60 (4−0.05t) + 20
on Saturn’s orbit. 01 x 70
3
i k = 133 407.5625 60
50
y=x x=0 40 (25, 30.6)
CHAPTER REVIEW 11 a 1500
30
20
SHORT ANSWER b i 6000 10
4 y2 ii 24 000 0 10 20 30 40 50 x
1 c 7.5 days
3x 4 d 13.2 minutes e 20 °C
2 a x=5 b x=5 MULTIPLE CHOICE 5 a 12 000
3 a x=1 b x = 0 or x = 1
1 B 2 C 3 A b i 16 970 ii 40 363
10
4 a (0, 9 ) b y=1 4 B 5 E 6 C c 11.3 days d 4 da ys e 4 more days

CHAPTER 6
Circular functions
doc-9757
6A Trigonometric ratio revision 10 Quick Questions
6B The unit circle
6C Radians
6D Symmetry
6E Identities
6F Sine and cosine graphs
6G Tangent graphs
6H Solving trigonometric equations
6I Applications
6A Trigonometric ratio revision

Recall that for a right-angled triangle: O
sin (θ ) =
O = opposite H
A = adjacent H A
H = hypotenuse. O cos (θ ) =
These ratios can be memorised using H
the term ‘SOH CAH TOA’. θ O
A tan (θ ) =
A
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the value of x in each of the following triangles. Express lengths correct to 2 decimal places
and angles to 1 decimal place.
a b 4.1
9 64°
x
x
27°
c
7.5
x
8.6
CHAPTER 6 Circular functions 255

THINK WRITE
A
a 1 Write the cosine ratio. a Use cos (θ ) =
H
x
2 Replace A with x, H with 9 and θ with 64°. cos (64! ) =
9
3 Make x the subject of the equation. x = 9 cos (64 °)
4 Calculate x, correct to 2 decimal places. = 3.95
b Use sin (θ ) =
O
b 1 Write the sine ratio.
H
4.1
2 Replace O with 4.1, H with x and θ with 27°. sin (27! ) =
x
4.1
3 Make x the subject of the equation. x=
sin (27 !)
4 Calculate x, correct to 2 decimal places. = 9.03
O
c 1 Write the tangent ratio. c Use tan (θ ) =
A
8.6
2 Replace O with 8.6, A with 7.5 and θ with x°. tan ( x !) =
7.5
3 Evaluate the right-hand side of the equation, = 1.146 67
keeping plenty of decimal places at this stage.
x = tan 1 (1.14667)
−
4 Make x the subject of the equation using
inverse tan notation.
5 Calculate x, correct to 1 decimal place, using = 48.9°
the inverse tan function of the calculator.
Exercise 6A Trigonometric ratio revision

1 WE1a Find the value of x in each of the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
DIGITAL DOCS
a 10 b c
doc-9758
SkillSHEET 6.1 x x
18°
Trigonometry review I
doc-9759
SkillSHEET 6.2
12 6.8
Trigonometry review II
x 81°
36°
2 WE1b Find the value of y in each of the following.

a 8 b c
10.6
54°
y
32°
y y
72°
2.4
3 WE1c Find the value of a in each of the following. Give answers correct to the nearest tenth of a degree.
a b c
8 a
2.5 9 6.4
10.2 a
a
3.7

4 MC In the figure below:
y 21.98 cm
a 20°
x
10 cm
a x is nearest to:
A 60 cm B 22 cm C 7.5 cm D 8 cm E 9 cm
b angle a is nearest to:
A 53° B 64° C 37° D 26° E 39°
c y is nearest to:
A 8 cm B 6 cm C 5 cm D 10 cm E 7 cm
5 MC If sin (a°) = 0.951, then tan a is equal to:
A 0.000 29 B 0.0166 C 3.076
D 1.32 E 0.309
6 MC If 0° < a < 90° and cos a < 0.5, then which of the following is correct?
A a < 30° B a > 30° C a < 60°
D a < 45° E a > 60°
7 A tree 5 metres tall casts a shadow so that the angle of elevation from the end of the shadow to the top
of the tree is 35°. How long is the shadow?
5m
35°
8 A mathematically able tree removalist measures the angle of elevation of two points on a diseased
section of a large eucalypt at a distance of 40 m from the base of the tree. If the angles are 20° and 24°
respectively, how tall is the diseased section of the tree?
Diseased section
20° 24°
40 m
9 A 60-metre flying fox cable is set up to cross a river so that it will drop 10 metres vertically. What is the
angle of depression of the cable?
10 A soccer player has a shot for goal from the position shown in the figure below right. Find the ‘scoring
angle’, θ.
Goal
5m
7.3 m
12 m

6B The unit circle
So far in this chapter we have considered angles in a right-angled y
triangle. But trigonometric functions can be defined over a larger domain 1
by considering their definition inside a unit circle. This is a circle with P(θ )
centre (0, 0) and a radius of 1 unit. 1
y
A point P (x, y) is a point on the circle. Its location can also be defined
θ
as P (θ), where θ is the anticlockwise rotation from the positive x-axis. A −1 0 x 1x
negative θ value denotes a clockwise rotation.
Using the SOH, CAH definitions in the diagram:
x
cosine (θ) = = x −1
1
y
sine (θ) = = y
1
These may be abbreviated:
x = cos (θ)
y = sin (θ)
The point P can also be denoted as (cos (θ), sin (θ)).
Note: As θ increases, the x- and y-coordinates oscillate between −1 and +1, so −1 ≤ sin (θ) ≤ +1 and
−1 ≤ cos (θ) ≤ +1 for all θ.
The ‘tangent line’ on a unit circle is the line that is a tangent to the circle at the point (1, 0).
Tangent (θ), or tan (θ) for short, is the height at which a line along an angle hits the tangent line. The
diagrams below show tan θ for angles in the first and second quadrants.
y y
tan (θ )
θ
θ
x x
tan (θ)
The tangent line
y sin (θ )
Note: Tangent (θ), or tan (θ), may also be defined as the ratio x . That is, tan (θ ) = .
cos (θ )
This formula and its derivation will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Quadrants
The coordinate axes divide the unit circle into four quadrants as shown in the diagram below left.
The angle measurements, in degrees, between the quadrants are shown in the diagram below right.
y y
90°
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
θ°
180° x
0 x 0
0° or 360°
3rd quadrant 4th quadrant

270°

Therefore:
quadrant 1 is where 0° < θ < 90°
quadrant 4 is where 270° < θ < 360°.
Since y = sin (θ), sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2 and y

sine is negative in quadrants 3 and 4.
Since x = cos (θ), cosine is positive in quadrants 1 and 4 and
cosine is negative in quadrants 2 and 3. Sine All
y
Since tan (θ ) = , tangent is positive in quadrants 1 and 3 and positive positive
x
tangent is negative in quadrants 2 and 4. x
The diagram at right summarises which of the trigonometric Tangent Cosine
functions is positive in each quadrant. positive positive
The word ‘CAST’ will assist in recalling this.
You could also use a short phrase, such as ‘All Stations To Croydon’.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
If a is any angle, find the quadrant where:

a sin (a°) > 0 and tan (a°) < 0 b sin (a°) < 0 and cos (a°) > 0.
THINK WRITE
a Sine is positive and tangent is negative in quadrant 2. a Quadrant 2
b Sine is negative and cosine is positive in quadrant 4. b Quadrant 4
Exact values
Calculated trigonometric values (sin, cos and tan) of most angles y
are rational approximations correct to several decimal places. 90°
(0, 1)
However, for a few particular angles, exact trigonometric
values can be determined. These include multiples of 90° and the
ratios of isosceles and equilateral triangles. 0° or 360°
Exact values can be determined for 0° and any multiple of 90° 180° x
(−1, 0) 0 (1, 0)
using this diagram and the fact that y = sin (θ), x = cos (θ) and
y
tan (θ) .
x (0, −1)
The isosceles triangle with equal sides of one
unit each gives the exact trigonometric values 270°
45°
for 45°.
The hypotenuse is calculated using 2
Pythagoras’ theorem: 1
hypotenuse = 12 + 12
= 2 45°
1
So, using SOH CAH TOA
1 1 1
sin (45!) = cos (45!) = tan (45!) =
2 2 1
1 2 2
= × = =1
2 2 2
2
=
2

The equilateral triangle with each side 2 units long, shown in the figure below, has been bisected.
Line of bisection
30°
60°
1
Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
line of bisection = 22 − 12
= 3
So, using SOH CAH TOA
1 3 1
sin (30 !) = cos (30!) = tan (30!) =
2 2 3
1 3
= ×
3 3
3
=
3
3 1 3
sin (60 !) = cos (60 !) = tan (60 !) =
2 2 1
= 3
These exact values are summarised in the table below.
Angle (θ °) sin (θ) cos (θ) tan (θ)

0° 0 1 0
1 3 3
30° 2 2 3
2 2
45° 2 2
1
3 1
60° 2 2
3
90° 1 0 Undefined
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Without using a calculator, find:

a sin (90 °) b cos (180 °) c tan (270 °).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Sine corresponds to the y-coordinate on the unit circle. a

2 The value of y at the point where θ = 90° is 1. sin (90 °) = 1
b 1 Cosine corresponds to the x-coordinate on the unit circle. b
2 The value of x at the point where θ = 180° is −1. cos (180 °) = −1
y
c 1 Tangent corresponds to the value of
x on the unit circle. c
−1
2 The value of y is −1 and the value of x is 0 at the point tan (270 !) =
where θ = 270°. 0
−1
3 The value of is not defined. tan (270 °) is undefined.
0

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Without using a calculator, state the exact value of:

a sin (45 °) b cos (60 °) c tan (30 °).
THINK WRITE
a sin (45!) =
1
a Read the value from the table, or
2
determine using the special triangle, 45°
O 2 =
1
×
2
sin (θ ) = . 1 2 2
H 2
45° = 2
1
b cos (60!) =
1
b Read the value from the table, or 2
determine using the special triangle,
A 30°
cos (θ ) = . 2
H 3
60°
1
c tan (30 !) =
1
c Read the value from the table, or
3
determine using the special triangle,
1 3
O 30° = ×
tan (θ ) = . 2 3 3
A 3
3
= 3
60°
1
Exercise 6B The unit circle

1 State whether the following values are positive (P ) or negative (N ).
a sin (40°) b sin (65°) c sin (110°) d sin (160°) e sin (230°)
f sin (260°) g sin (215°) h sin (321°) i sin (425°) j sin (−36°) DIGITAL DOC
Compare your answers with those found using a calculator. doc-9760
The unit circle
2 State whether the following values are positive (P) or negative (N).
a cos (27°) b cos (68°) c cos (115°) d cos (200°) e cos (250°)
f cos (295°) g cos (402°) h cos (−83°) i cos (−240°) j cos (157°)
Compare your answers with those found using a calculator.
3 State whether the following values are positive (P ) or negative (N ).
a tan (12°) b tan (75°) c tan (118°) d tan (166°) e tan (199°)
f tan (255°) g tan (308°) h tan (500°) i tan (−45°) j tan (−137°)
Compare your answers with those found using a calculator.
4 WE2 If a is any angle, find the quadrant where:
a sin (a) < 0 and tan (a) > 0
b sin (a) > 0 and cos (a) > 0.
5 MC a If 0° < a < 360°, sin (a) < 0 and cos (a) < 0, then which one of the following is true?
A 0° < a < 90° B 90° < a < 180° C 180° < a < 270°
D 270° < a < 360° E 0° < a < 180°
b If 0° < a < 360°, sin (a) > 0 and tan (a) < 0, then which one of the following is true?
A 0° < a < 90° B cos (a) < 0 C 180° < a < 270°
D cos (a) > 0 E 270° < a < 360°
c Given that 0° < a < 360°, then the equation cos (a) = −1 has:
A one solution B no solution C two solutions
D three solutions E four solutions
d If 0° < a < 360°, then the equation sin (a) = cos (a) has:
A no solutions B two solutions C three solutions
D one solution E four solutions

e If 0° ≤ a ≤ 180°, and sin (a) = cos (a), then a is equal to:
A 60° B 150° C 45°
D 0° E 90°
6 WE3 Find:
a cos (180°) b sin (270°) c tan (360°) d sin (180°) e cos (270°)
f cos (360°) g tan (270°) h tan (180°) i sin (630°) j cos (720°)
7 WE4 State the exact value of:
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9761 a sin (60°) b cos (45°) c tan (30°) d cos (60°) e sin (30°)
WorkSHEET 6.1 f tan (45°) g sin (45°) h cos (0°) i sin (90°) j tan (90°)
6C Radians y
You are used to measuring angles in degrees (°), and will recall
that there are 360° in a circle. An alternative unit for angle measurement
is the radian (c). This is given on the calculator as (r).
1
rad
Radians are derived from the circumference of the unit
ius
circle, that is, a circle of radius 1 unit. In a unit circle, the 1 radian
circumference = 2πr = 2π(1) = 2π units. So, the angle swept in x
one revolution is equivalent to 2π c.
Therefore 2π c = 360°, so:
180! πc
π c = 180° 1c = 1! =
π 180! An arc length of
These formulas may be used to convert degrees to radians and vice versa. one radian is 1c.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Convert the following angles into exact radians.

a 120° b 270° using a CAS calculator
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
πc πc
a 1 Multiply 120 by . a 120! = 120 ×
180 180
2π c
2 Simplify by dividing through by the highest =
3
common factor, 60.
b 1 Ensure your CAS calculator is in radians mode. b 270°
Enter the value of the angle in degrees.
3π
2 Press ENTER to convert to radians. =
2
3π c
3 Write the answer. 270! =
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Convert the following angles to degrees.

3π c
a using a CAS calculator
4
b 0.8π c
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
r
⎛ 3π ⎞
a⎜
a 1 Ensure your CAS calculator is in degrees mode.
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
Enter the value of the angle in radians.

2 Press ENTER to convert to degrees. = 135°
3π c
3 Write the answer. = 135!
4
180! 180!
b 1 Multiply 0.8π c by . b 0.8π c = 0.8π ×
πc π
2 Cancel out π c. = 0.8 × 180°
3 Simplify. = 144°
When working in degrees, all angles should be expressed to the nearest tenth of a degree unless
otherwise stated.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Use a calculator to convert:

a 57.2° to radians, correct to 3 decimal places
b 2.75c to the nearest tenth of a degree.
THINK WRITE
πc πc
a 1 Multiply 57.2 by . a 57.2! = 57.2 ×
180 180
2 Evaluate and round off to 3 decimal places. = 0.998c
180! 180!
b 1 Multiply 2.75 by . b 2.75! = 2.75 ×
π π
2 Evaluate to 1 decimal place. = 157.6°
Exact values and radians

Since π c = 180°,
πc πc πc πc
= 90! = 30! = 45! and = 60!
2 6 4 3
So the table of exact values can be written in terms of radian measurements:
Angle (θ c) sin (θ) cos (θ) tan (θ)
0 0 1 0
π 1 3 1
=
3
2 2 3 3
6
π 1 2 1 2
= 2
= 2
1
4 2 2
π 3 1
2 2
3
3
π
1 0 Undefined
2

Other important angles are shown on the circle below.
y
πc
90° –2
2π—
60° –π c
c
3
3
3
12
— c
c
4 1 π
0°
35
4–
°
°
45
5 c
—π c π–
6 15
0° ° 6
30
0° 0c
π c 180° x
360° 2π c
0° 330 1
c 21 ° —
1π c
7π— 31 6
6
5°
°
25
7
—π c
4 2
—π c
0°
4
30
5
3 24
270°
0°
4π c
5π—
—
c
3
πc
3—
2
( π–6 sectors shaded)
π
–
6
Our special triangles can be updated to
include radians as shown.
30°
2
2 3
1
π 45° π– 60°
–
4 1 3 1
Exercise 6C Radians
1 WE5 Convert the following angles into exact radians.
a 30° b 45° c 60°
d 20° e 50° f 90°
g 270° h 360° i 150°
j −225° k −420° l 300°
2 WE6 Convert the following angles to degrees.
π 2π 2π 11π
a b c d
5 3 9 6
−π −π
e 3.6π f g h 0.375π
6 4
3 MC The smallest angle measurement listed below is:
2π 2π
A 85° B π C 1.92c D E
3 5
4 MC The largest angle measurement listed below is:
4π 5π
A −3π B C 250° D E 3.84c
3 4
5 MC If sin (a) = cos (a), then a could be equal to:
π π π
A B C 50° D E 135°
3 4 6
6 WE7a Use a calculator to convert the following angles to radians, correct to 3 decimal places.
a 49° b 78.2° c −125°
d 191.4° e 234.6° f 327.5°
g 170.25° h 216.8°

7 WE7b Use a calculator to convert the following radian measurements to degrees, to the nearest tenth
of a degree.
a 0.35 b 1.47 c 3.142 d 0.958
e 15.6 f −2.71 g 4.06 h 8
8 Find the exact value of each of the following.
a sin
⎛π⎞ b cos
⎛π⎞ c tan
⎛π⎞ d sin
⎛π⎞
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
e tan
⎛π⎞ f
π
cos ⎛ ⎞ g sin
⎛π⎞ h cos
⎛π⎞
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
6D Symmetry
The unit circle can be divided into symmetrical sections, as shown in the diagram below.
Relationships between the circular functions — sine, cosine and tangent — can be established, based INTERACTIVITY
on these symmetrical properties. int-0265
For simplicity, assume θ is an acute angle, although the following properties hold for any θ. Symmetry
c
π
–
2
1
P(π − θ ) y P(θ ) = (cos (θ ), sin (θ ))
= (x, y)
θ 0 or 2π c
π c −x
−1 x 1
P( π + θ ) −y P(2π −θ )
−1
c
3—
π
2
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
By symmetry: As already seen:
sin (π − θ ) = y = sin (θ ) sin (θ ) = y
cos (π − θ ) = − x = − cos (θ ) cos (θ ) = x
y y
tan (π − θ ) = − = − tan (θ ) tan (θ ) =
x x
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
By symmetry: By symmetry:
sin (π + θ ) = − y = − sin (θ ) sin (2π − θ ) = − y = − sin (θ )
cos (π + θ ) = − x = − cos (θ ) cos (2π − θ ) = x = cos (θ )
− −y
y tan (2π − θ ) = = − tan (θ )
tan (π + θ ) = −
= tan (θ ) x
x
Note: An angle measurement is assumed to be in radians unless the

degree symbolis given.
Provided an angle is expressed as π ± θ or 2π ± θ, the trigonometric
function remains the same, only the sign (+ or −) may change. Use this S A
diagram to determine the sign.
T C

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
a If sin (θ) = 0.93, find sin (180° + θ).

b If cos (θ) = 0.44, find cos (360° − θ). TUTORIAL
c If tan (θ) = 1.72, find tan (π − θ). eles-1420
d If cos (θ) = 0.83, find cos (π + θ). Worked example 8
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Sketch the angle on a unit circle and relate it a y

to the first quadrant.
S A
θ θ sin (θ )
180°
sin (180° + θ ) x
+ θ) T C
(180°
2 By symmetry sin (180 ° + θ ) = −sin (θ ). sin (180 ° + θ) = −sin (θ)

3 Replace sin (θ ) with 0.93. = −0.93
b 1 Sketch the angle on a unit circle and relate b y
it to the first quadrant.
S A cos (θ )
θ
θ x
T C cos (360° − θ )
(36
0°
−θ
)
2 By symmetry cos (360 ° − θ ) = cos (θ ). cos(360 ° − θ) = cos (θ)

3 Replace cos (θ ) with 0.44. = 0.44
c 1 Sketch the angle on a unit circle and relate c y
it to the first quadrant.
π−
θ S A
tan (θ )
π θ θ
x
T C tan (π − θ )
2 By symmetry tan (π − θ ) = −tan (θ ). tan( π − θ) = −tan (θ)

3 Replace tan (θ ) with 1.72. = −1.72
d 1 Sketch the angle on a unit circle and d y
relate it to the first quadrant.
cos (π + θ ) S A
θ
θ
cos (θ ) x
π +θ
T C
2 By symmetry cos (π + θ ) = −cos (θ ). cos( π + θ) = −cos (θ)

3 Replace cos (θ ) with 0.83. = −0.83

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Find the exact value of each of the following.

a tan (150 °) b sin (330 °) TUTORIAL
eles-1421
⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 7π ⎞ Worked example 9
c cos ⎜ ⎟ d tan ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Express tan (150 °) as tan (180 − 30 °). a tan (150 °) = tan (180 − 30 °)
2 Sketch the angle on a unit circle and relate it to y

(18
the first quadrant. 0°
− 30
°)
S A tan (30°)
30° = tan (180° − 30°)
x
T C
3 By symmetry tan (180° − 30 °) = −tan (30 °). tan (150 °) = −tan (30 °)
1 3 − 1 − 3
4 Replace tan (30 °) with its exact value, or 3
. = or 3
3 3
b 1 Express sin (330 °) as sin (360° − 30 °). b sin (330 °) = sin (360 ° − 30 °)

the first quadrant.
S A sin (30°)
30°
x
sin (360° − 30°)
T C (36
0°
− 30
°)
3 By symmetry sin (360° − 30 °) = −sin (30 °). sin (330 °) = −sin (30 °)
1 −1
4 Replace sin (30 °) with its exact value, 2 . =
2
⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ π⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞ = ⎛ π⎞
c 1 Express cos ⎜ ⎟ as cos π − ⎝
. c cos ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎝ π − ⎠
⎝ 4 ⎠ 4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 4

the first quadrant.
π
−
π–
4
S A
π
–
4
cos ( π–4 ) x
T C
cos (π − π–4 )
π π 3π ⎞ π
3 By symmetry cos ⎛ π − ⎞ = − cos ⎛ ⎞ . cos ⎛⎜ ⎟ = − cos ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
Replace cos ⎛ π ⎞ with its exact value of

1 2 − 1 − 2
4 or . = or
⎝ 4⎠ 2 2 2 2

d 1 Express tan
⎛ 7π ⎞ as tan ⎛ π + π ⎞ . d tan
⎛ 7π ⎞ = tan ⎛ π + π ⎞
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
2 Sketch the angle on a unit circle and relate it to the first y
quadrant.
S A tan (π–6 )
π–
6
= tan (π + π–6 )
x
π– T C
π+ 6
π π 7π π
3 By symmetry tan ⎛ π + ⎞ = tan ⎛ ⎞ . tan ⎛ ⎞ = tan ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 6⎠
π
Replace tan ⎛ ⎞ with its exact value
1 1
4 or 3 = or 3
⎝ 6⎠ 3 3
. 3 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
⎛ 3π ⎞
If sin ⎜ = 0.924 , evaluate each of the following.
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
⎛ 5π ⎞ ⎛ 11π ⎞
a sin ⎜ ⎟ b sin ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
THINK WRITE
⎛ 5π ⎞ ⎛ 8π − 3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 5π ⎞ = ⎛ 3π ⎞
a 1 Express sin ⎜ ⎟ as sin ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ π − ⎟ . a sin ⎜ ⎟⎠ sin ⎜⎝ π − ⎟⎠
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 8
3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞ 3π ⎞
2 Using symmetry express sin ⎛⎜ π − ⎟ as sin ⎜ ⎟ . = sin ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
3π ⎞
3 Replace sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ with 0.924. = 0.924
⎝ 8 ⎠
⎛ 11π ⎞ as sin ⎛ 8π + 3π ⎞ = ⎛ 3π ⎞ ⎛ 11π ⎞ = ⎛ π + 3π ⎞

b 1 Express sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎜ ⎝ 8⎟ sin ⎜ π + ⎟ . b sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ⎜⎝ ⎟
8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ 8 ⎠
3π ⎞ ⎛ 3π ⎞ 3π ⎞
2 By symmetry express sin ⎛⎜ π + ⎟ as − sin ⎜ ⎟ . = − sin ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
3π ⎞
4 Replace sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ with 0.924. = −0.924
⎝ 8 ⎠
Exercise 6D Symmetry
1 WE 8 If sin (θ °) = 0.63, find:
a sin (180 ° − θ ) b sin (180 ° + θ ) c sin (−θ ) d sin (360 ° − θ ).
DIGITAL DOC 2 If cos (θ) = 0.25, find:
doc-9760
The unit circle
a cos (π − θ ) b cos (π + θ ) c cos (2π − θ ) d cos (−θ ).
3 If tan (θ) = 2.1, find:
a tan (2π − θ ) b tan (−θ) c tan (π + θ ) d tan (π − θ ).

4 Given that sin (a) = 0.3, cos (b) = 0.7 and tan (c) = 0.9, write down the value of each of the
following.
a sin (180 ° + a) b cos (180 ° − b) c tan (360 ° − c)
d sin (−a °) e sin (180 ° − a) f cos (−b °)
g cos (360 ° − b) h tan (180 ° − c) i tan (180 ° + c)
5 WE9a, b Find the exact value of each of the following.
a sin (150 °) b cos (135 °) c tan (240 °) d tan (330 °)
e sin (240 °) f cos (210 °) g tan (120 °) h sin (300 °)
i cos (−60 °) j sin (−135 °) k tan (180 °) l sin (270 °)
6 WE9c, d Find the exact value of each of the following.
⎛ 5π ⎞ ⎛ 5π ⎞ ⎛ 7π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
a cos ⎜ b sin ⎜ c tan d sin ⎜
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ ⎟
3 ⎠
e cos
⎛ 7π ⎞ f tan ⎛
−π
⎞ ⎛ 4π ⎞
g sin ⎜ h cos
⎛ 7π ⎞
⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ ⎟ ⎝ 6 ⎠
3 ⎠
11π ⎞ − 5π −π
sin ⎛⎜
⎞
tan ⎛⎜ k cos (π) sin ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
i j l
⎝ 6 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
π π π
7 WE 10 If sin ⎛ ⎞ = 0.383, cos ⎛ ⎞ = 0.924 and tan ⎛ ⎞ = 0.414, evaluate each of the following.
⎝ 8⎠ ⎝ 8⎠ ⎝ 8⎠
⎛ 9π ⎞ 7π ⎞ ⎛ 17π ⎞
a sin ⎜ b cos ⎛ c tan ⎜
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
d cos
⎛ −π ⎞ e sin
⎛ 7π ⎞ f tan ⎛⎜
15π ⎞
⎝ 8⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
8 Given that sin (75°) = 0.966, cos (75°) = 0.259 and tan (75°) = 3.732, find the value of each of the
following.
a sin (105 °) b cos (255 °) c tan (285 °)
d sin (255 °) e cos (435 °) f tan (−75 °)
9 If sin (0.7) = 0.644, cos (0.7) = 0.765 and tan (0.7) = 0.842, find the value of each of the following.
(Hint: π = 3.142, approximately.)
a sin (2.442) b cos (3.842) c tan (5.584) d sin (−0.7)
6E Identities y
An identity is a relationship that holds true for all legitimate values
of a variable or variables. For example, a simple identity is x + x = 2x. P(θ )
1
The Pythagorean identity sin (θ)
θ
Consider the right-angled triangle in the unit circle shown. 0 D x
Applying Pythagoras’ theorem to this triangle gives the identity: cos (θ )
sin2 (θ ) + cos2 (θ ) = 1
The tangent
Consider the unit circle on the right.
A tangent is drawn at A and extended to the point C, so that OC y B
1
is an extension of OP. This tangent is called tangent (θ ), which is P(θ ) C
abbreviated to tan (θ ).
Triangles ODP and OAC are similar, because they have their 1 sin (θ ) tan (θ )
three corresponding angles equal. θ
tan (θ ) sin (θ ) 0
cos (θ )
D 1A x
It follows that: = (corresponding sides)
1 cos (θ )
sin (θ )
or tan (θ ) = (as mentioned in an earlier section).
cos (θ )

Another relationship between sine and cosine —
complementary functions
Consider the unit circle shown on the right.
The triangles OAB and ODC are congruent because they have all y
corresponding angles equal and their hypotenuses equal (radius = 1). 1 y
D C(90° − θ )
Therefore all corresponding sides are equal and it follows that:
sin (90 ° − θ ) = cos (θ °) = x x 1 B(θ )
θ 1
and cos (90 ° − θ ) = sin (θ °) = y y
or θ
−1 0 x A1 x
⎛ π ⎞
sin − θ = cos (θ )
⎝2 ⎠
π
and cos ⎛ − θ ⎞ = sin (θ ) −1
⎝2 ⎠
We say that sine and cosine are complementary functions.
Though not required for this course, you may like to try to find the complementary function for
tangent, that is, tan (90 ° − θ ) = ?
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
If sin (θ) = 0.4 and 0° < θ < 90°, find, correct to 3 decimal places:
a cos (θ) b tan (θ).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Use the identity sin2 (θ ) + cos2 (θ ) = 1. a sin2 (θ ) + cos2 (θ ) = 1
2 Substitute 0.4 for sin (θ ). (0.4)2 + cos2 (θ ) = 1

3 Solve the equation for cos (θ) correct to 3 decimal cos2 (θ ) = 1 − 0.16
places. = 0.84
cos (θ ) = ± 0.84
= 0.917 or −0.917
4 Retain the positive answer only as cosine is positive in For 0° < θ < 90°, cos is positive
the first quadrant. so cos (θ ) = 0.917.
sin (θ ) sin (θ )
b 1 Use the identity tan (θ ) = . b tan (θ ) =
cos (θ ) cos (θ )
0.4
2 Substitute 0.4 for sin (θ ) and 0.917 for cos (θ ). =
0.917
3 Calculate the solution correct to 3 decimal places. = 0.436
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Find all possible values of sin (θ) if cos (θ) = 0.75.

THINK WRITE
1 Use the identity sin2 (θ ) + cos2 (θ ) = 1. sin2 (θ ) + cos2 (θ ) = 1

2 Substitute 0.75 for cos (θ ). sin2 (θ ) + (0.75)2 = 1
3 Solve the equation for sin (θ ) correct to 3 decimal places. sin2 (θ ) = 1 − 0.5625
= 0.4375
sin (θ ) = ± 0.4375
4 Retain both the positive and negative solutions, since the = 0.661 or −0.661
angle could be in either the first or fourth quadrants.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Find a° if 0° < a° < 90° and a sin (a°) = cos (42°) b cos (a°) = sin (73°).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a sin (a °) = cos (42 °)
2 Replace cos (42 °) with sin (90 ° − 42 °) sin (a °) = sin (90 ° − 42 °)

(complementary functions). sin (a °) = sin (48 °)
a° = 48°
b 1 Write the equation. b cos (a °) = sin (73 °)
2 Replace sin (73 °) with cos (90 ° − 73 °). cos (a °) = cos (90 ° − 73 °)
cos (a °) = cos (17 °)
a° = 17°
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
2
If 0° < a° < 90° and cos (a°) = 3 , find the exact values of:
a sin (a°) b tan (a°) c cos (90 − a°) d sin (180 + a)°. TUTORIAL
eles-1422
THINK WRITE/DRAW Worked example 14
1 Draw a right-angled triangle.

a°
2 Mark in angle a°, its adjacent side (A = 2) and H=3
the hypotenuse (H = 3). A=2
O= 5
3 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the O2 = 32 − 22

opposite side (O) to a°. =5
O= 5
O O
a 1 Use the right-angled triangle to find . a sin (a!) =
H H
5
2 Substitute O = 5 and H = 3. =
3
O O
b 1 Use the right-angled triangle to find . b tan (a!) =
A A
5
2 Substitute O = 5 and A = 2. =
2
c 1 Use the identity cos (90 ° − a °) = sin (a °). c cos (90 ° − a °) = sin (a °)
5
Substitute sin (a! ) =
5
2 . =
3 3
d 1 Use the symmetry property d sin (180 ° + a °) = −sin (a °)
−sin
sin (180 ° + a °) = (a °).
−
5
Substitute sin (a!) =
5
2
3
. =
3
(Note: The above results could have been obtained using the identities directly.)

Exercise 6E Identities
1 Copy and complete the table below, correct to 3 decimal places:
−47°
θ° 30° 81° 129° 193° 260° 350°
sin2 (θ )
cos2 (θ )
sin2 (θ ) + cos2 (θ )
2 WE11a If sin (θ ) = 0.8 and 0° < θ < 90°, find, correct to 3 decimal places:
a cos (θ ) b tan (θ ).
3 WE11b If cos (θ ) = 0.3 and 0° < θ < 90°, find, correct to 3 decimal places:
a sin (θ ) b tan (θ ).
4 WE12 Find all possible values of the following, correct to 3 decimal places.
a cos (x °) if sin (x °) = 0.4 b cos (x °) if sin (x °) = −0.7
c sin (x °) if cos (x °) = 0.24 d sin (x °) if cos (x °) = −0.9
5 Use the diagram at right to find the exact values of:
a c b sin (x °)
3
c cos (x °). 5
6 Use the diagram at right to find the exact values of: x
a b b cos (x) bc
c tan (x).
7 Find the exact values of:
12 2 7
a cos (x) if sin (x) = 13 and 90° < x < 180° 8
x
−3
b sin (x) if cos (x) = 5
and x is in the third quadrant
−7
c cos (x) if sin (x) = and x is in the fourth quadrant
25
3 3π
d sin (x) if cos (x) = 2 and < x < 2π .
2
8 MC Examine the diagram at right and answer the following questions.
a sin (54 °) is equal to: 36° c
A cos (54 °) B cos (36 °) C tan (36 °) a
D sin (36 °) E tan (54 °)
54°
b cos (54 °) is equal to:
b
A tan (36 °) B cos (36 °) C tan (54 °)
D sin (36 °) E sin (54 °)
c tan (36 °) is equal to:
A
cos (36! ) B sin (36 °) cos (36 °) C
sin (36! )
!
sin (36 ) cos (36! )
D sin (54 °) cos (54 °) E sin (36 °) + cos (36 °)
d tan (54 °) is equal to:
A
cos (36! ) B sin (54°) − cos (54 °) C
cos (54! )
!
sin (36 ) sin (54! )
D sin (54 °) cos (54 °) E sin (36 °) cos (36 °)
9 WE13 Find a° if 0° ≤ a° ≤ 90° and:
a sin (a °) = cos (20 °) b sin (a °) = cos (58 °) c cos (a °) = sin (39 °)
d cos (a °) = sin (82 °) e sin (8 °) = cos (a °) f cos (44 °) = sin (a °)
g sin (89 °) = cos (a °) h cos (17 °) = sin (a °).
10 Copy and complete the following table.
sin (θ ) 0.8 0.28 0.77 0.573
cos (θ ) 0.6 0.96 0.3 0.447
tan (θ ) 3.18 1.207 2 0.7

If 0° < a°, b°, c° < 90° and sin (a! ) = cos (b! ) = 5 , tan (c! ) =
2 3 11
11 WE14 , 5
, find:
5
a sin (b °) b tan (b °) c cos (a °)
d tan (a °) e sin (c °) f cos (c °)
g sin (90 ° − a °) h cos (90 ° − b °) i sin (90 ° − c °)
j sin (180 ° − a °) k cos (180 ° + b °) l tan (180 ° + c °).
6F Sine and cosine graphs

The graph of y = sin (x)
To get an idea of the shape of the y = sin (x) graph, we can construct a table of values, plot the points and
join them with a smooth line.
The values for the table can be generated from the unit circle. You may recall that continuing
INTERACTIVITY
on the unit circle past 2π, the sine values begin repeating themselves. For example, int-0251
9π ⎞ π π π
sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎛ 2π + ⎞ = sin ⎛ ⎞ . We have gone exactly once around the circle from . Sine and cosine graphs
⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ 4
−3 π −π −π π π 3π 5π 3π 7π
−π
x 4 2 4
0 4 2 4
π 4 2 4
2π
−0.71 −1 −0.71 −0.71 −1 −0.71

y = sin (x) 0 0 0.71 1 0.71 0 0
( –2π , 1)
1 π
( 3— , 0.71) y = sin (x)
4
0.71 π
( –4 , 0.71)
(−π, 0) (0, 0) (π , 0) (2π, 0)
−π 0 π 3π
2π x
− π–2 − π–4 –π
4
–π
2
—
2
π
(− 3—4π , − 0.71) −0.71 ( 5—
4
, −0.71) ( 7—4π , −0.71)
−1
( − π–2 , − 1) ( 3—2π , −1)
You can verify the shape of this curve using a CAS calculator. It can be observed that the curve repeats
itself in cycles after an interval of 2π units. Due to this repetition it is called a periodic function; the
period is the interval between repetitions. The y
period of y = sin (x) is 2π radians (or 360°).
When dealing with graphs of circular functions Period
such as sin (x), unless otherwise stated, we
assume that the units for x are radians. Amplitude
The mean position of the graph of y = sin (x) is
y = 0 and the maximum and minimum values are x
1 and −1 respectively. The distance from the mean
Mean
position to the maximum (or minimum) position position
is called the amplitude of the periodic function.
The amplitude of y = sin ( x) is 1 unit. Period
The graph of y = cos (x)

As for the graph of y = sin (x), the graph of y = cos (x) can be established by first completing a table
of values.
−3π −π −π π π 3π 5π 3π 7π
−π
x 4 2 4
0 4 2 4
π 4 2 4
2π
−1 −0.71 −0.71 −1 −0.71

y = cos (x) 0 0.71 1 0.71 0 0 0.71 0

When these points are plotted on a set of y
axes and joined with a smooth curve, the y = cos (x)
graph looks like the diagram at right.
1 (0, 1) (2π , 1)
It can be seen that the basic shape of (−π–4 , 0.71) (π–4 , 0.71) (7—4π , 0.71)
the curve y = cos (x) is the same as that 0.71)
of y = sin (x). It is also a periodic function (− π–2 , 0) ( π–2 , 0) ( 3—2π , 0)

with: 0 3π x
−π − π–2 − π–4 π
–
π
– π — 2π
period = 2π (− 3—4π, −0.71)
4 2 2
−0.71 3π ( 5—4π , −0.71)

amplitude = 1. −1 ( —4 , −0.71)
(−π , −1) (π , −1)
π
Note: The graph of y = cos (x) is exactly the same as that of y = sin (x) translated units or 90° to
the left. 2
In general, the graphs of y = a sin (bx) + c and y = a cos (bx) + c (for a, b, c ∈R) have the following
properties:
1. Amplitude = | a |
2π 360!
2. Period = (or )
b b
3. Mean position at y = c
4. Maximum = c + a and minimum = c − a
π 1
5. When c = 0, x-intercepts for cosine are at x = ± and every 2 period to the left and right of these;
π 1
2 b
x-intercepts for sine are at x = ± and every 2 period to the left and right of these.
b
Note: | a | means the size or magnitude of a, expressed as a positive number, as the amplitude must
always be positive.
If a < 0, then the resulting graph is a reflection in the x-axis of the graph for which a > 0. For example,
the graph of y = −2 sin (x) is the reflection of y = 2 sin (x) in the x-axis (think of the x-axis as a plane or
flat mirror).
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
State i the period and ii the amplitude of each of the following functions.
a y b y = −1.5 sin (4 x)
4
0 x
π
3—
2
3π
−4
THINK WRITE
a 1 The cycle repeats after 3π units. a i Period = 3π
2 The distance from the mean position to the ii Amplitude = 4

maximum position is 4 units.
2π
b 1 Write the formula for the period of y = a sin (bx). b i Period = where b = 4
b
2 Substitute b = 4. 2π
=
4
π
3 Simplify. =
2
4 By rule, the amplitude is | a | or | −1.5 |. ii Amplitude = | −1.5 |
= 1.5

WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Sketch the graphs of the following functions and state i the period and
ii the amplitude of each. TUTORIAL
⎛ x ⎞ x ∈ [0, 12π] 2 eles-1607
a y = 4 cos b y = sin (4 x) x ∈ [0, 2π]
⎝ 3⎠ 3 Worked example 16
THINK WRITE/DRAW
2π
a 1 Write the formula for the period. a i Period =
b
1 2π
2 Substitute b = 3 . = 1
3
3 Simplify the value of the period. = 6π

4 The amplitude is the value in front of cos, ii Amplitude = 4
written as a positive value.
5 Draw a set of axes.
6 Because the amplitude is 4, mark or
imagine horizontal guidelines at y = −4
and 4.
7 Sketch one cycle of the graph every y
period (every 6π) along the x-axis, for
x ∈ [0, 12π], showing key x-values. 4
0 π
3—
2
3π π
9—
2
6π 15—2π 9π 21
—
2
π
12π x
−4
2π
b 1 Write the formula for the period. b i Period =
b
2π
2 Substitute b = 4. =
4
π
3 Simplify the value of the period. =
2
2
4 The amplitude is the value in front of sin, ii Amplitude =
written as a positive value. 3

2 y
6 Because the amplitude is 3 , mark
2–
or imagine horizontal guidelines at 3
−2 2
y = 3 and 3 .
0 –π
4
–π
2
π
3—
4
π π
5—
4
π
3—
2
7π
—
4
2π x
− 2–3
7 Sketch one cycle of the graph every

period (every π2 ) along the x-axis, for
x ∈ [0, 2π].
8 Determine the x-intercepts and mark
these on the graph.

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Sketch the graph of y = cos (2x) − 3, x ∈ [0, 2π], and state:

a the period b the amplitude c the maximum and minimum values.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
2π
a 1 Write the formula for the period. a Period =
b
2π
2
3 Simplify the value of the period. =π
b 1 The amplitude is the value in front of cos, b Amplitude = 1
written as a positive value.
2 Sketch the graph of y = cos (2x) first. Since y
the amplitude is 1, mark or imagine horizontal 1
guidelines at y = +1 and y = −1.
3 Sketch one cycle of the graph every period 0 –π π π
3— 2π x
2 2
(every π) along the x-axis, for x ∈[0, 2π]. −1
4 Determine the x-intercepts and mark these on
the graph.
c 1 The mean position of y = cos (2x) − 3 is at c Maximum = −3 + 1
−3.
y= The maximum and minimum are at = −2
c + a and c − a. Minimum = −3 − 1
= −4
2 Because the mean position is now at y = −3, y
translate y = cos (2x) vertically to this position. 1
0 π π π
3— 2π x
−1 —
2 2
−2
−3
−4
−5
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Sketch the graph of the following function.

π
f: [−2, 4] → R, f (x) = 2 cos ⎛ x ⎞
⎝2 ⎠
THINK WRITE/DRAW
2π π 2π
1 The period of the function is , where b = . Period =
b 2 π
2
2 Simplify the value of the period. =4
3 The amplitude is 2. Amplitude = 2
5 Using an interval of 4 (the period), mark the
x-axis from −2 to 4 (the specified domain).

Show −2 and 2 on the y-axis, since the amplitude πx
6 y
y = 2 cos —( )
2
is 2. 2
(4, 2)
7 Visualise or check the general shape of the graph
of y = a cos (bx). 0 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
8 Starting from the point (0, 2), complete one
−2
cycle of the cosine function forward to (4, 2). (−2, −2)
9 Complete half of a cycle back from (0, 2) to
(−2, 2).
10 The x-intercepts are halfway between the

maximum and minimum points.
Exercise 6F Sine and cosine graphs

1 WE15a State i the period and ii the amplitude for each of the following functions.
a y b y c y
2 1 1.5
DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9762
x x Sine graphs
0 2π 4π 0
–π π
5— 0 3π x doc-9763
4 4
Cosine graphs
−2 −1 −1.5
d y e y f y
4 2 3
0 π x x
3—
2 −π 0 π − –3π 0 π x
−4
−2 −3
g y h y i y
2.5 0.5
8
6
− –2π 0 π x 0 x
–π –π 4
6 2
2
−2.5 −0.5
0 x
−2π −π π 2π
2 WE15b State i the period and ii the amplitude of each of the following functions.
a y = sin (x) b y = 3 sin (x) c y = 2 sin (2x)
x
sin ⎛ ⎞
1
d y = −4 sin (3x) e y= f y = 2 cos (4x)
2 ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ x ⎞ +1 πx
g y = 0.4 cos h y = −3 cos (5x) i y = 2.5 cos ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
πx
cos ⎛ ⎞
1 ⎝ 2 ⎠
j y = −sin (6x) + 4 k y=
5
sin (π x ) l y=
4
3 WE16 Sketch the graph of the following functions, showing one complete cycle, and state i the
period and ii the amplitude of each.
a y = sin (2x) b y = 2 cos (x) c y = 3 sin
⎛ x⎞
⎝ 2⎠
x
cos ⎛ ⎞
1 2
d y = 4 cos (2x) e y = 2 sin (3x) f y= 3 ⎝ 2⎠
x ⎛ x⎞
g y = 5 sin ⎛ ⎞ h y = − 4 cos i y = 2 cos (4x)
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
j y = −3 sin (2x)

4 MC Parts a to c refer to the graph shown below.
y
0 –π
x
2
−3
a The amplitude of the function is:

π
A B −3 C π D 3 E 6
2
b The period of the function is:
π
A 2π B C π D 6 E 3
2
c The equation of the function could be:
A y = 3 sin (2x) B y = 3 sin (x) C y = 3 cos (2x)
⎛ x⎞
D y = −3 sin (2x) E y = 3 sin
⎝ 2⎠
y
5 MC The equation of the curve at right could be:
A y = 2 cos (x) B y = 2 sin

⎛ x⎞ 2
⎝ 2⎠
C y = −2 cos (x) D y = cos

⎛ x⎞
⎝ 2⎠ 0 π 2π 3π x
x
E y = − 2 cos ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 2⎠
−2
6 State the equation of each of the functions graphed below.

a y b y
1.5
2
0 3π x
−1.5 0 x
−π–4 π
–
4
3π
—
4
−2
c y d y
5 4
−2π 0 2π 4π x 0 3π
—
x
2
−5 −4
e y f y
1
3
0 2π
—
4π
—
x
3 3
− π– 0 π– x
−1 6 6
−3

7 WE17 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions.
a f (x) = cos (2x) for x ∈ [−2π, 2π] b f (x) = 3 cos ⎛ x ⎞ for x ∈ [−4π, 4π]
⎝ 2⎠
−3
c f (x) = 2 sin (3x) for x ∈ [0, 2π] d f (x) = cos (2x) for x ∈ [0, 2π]
e f (x) = 1.5 sin ⎛ x ⎞ for x ∈ [−6π, 6π] f f (x) = −4 sin (4x) for x ∈ [0, π]
⎝ 3⎠
8 WE17 Sketch the graph of the following functions and state i the period, ii the amplitude, and iii the
maximum and minimum values of each.
a y = cos (2x) + 1 x ∈ [0, 2π] b y = 2 sin (x) − 2 x ∈ [−2π, 2π]
x
c y = 2 cos ⎛ ⎞ + 3 x ∈ [0, 2π] x
d y = sin ⎛ ⎞ – 1 x ∈ [0, 6π]
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
9 WE18 Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions.
2x ⎞ ⎛πx⎞
sin ⎛⎜ ⎟
3
a f : [−π, 2π] → R, f (x) = b f : [ −6, 6] → R, f (x) = 1.8 cos
2 ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠
3π x ⎞
c f : [0, 6] → R, f (x) = −1.4 sin ⎛ π x ⎞ d f : [0, 8] → R, f (x) = −3 cos ⎛⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
10 For each of the functions graphed below, state the rule using full function notation.
a y b y
f(x)
3 5–
2
f(x)
x 0 5π x
0 π
8—
6 − 5–
2
−3
c y d y
2
1.8
f(x)
f(x)
0 x
−1 1 0 x
−1 3
−2
−1.8
e y f y
3 2.4
f(x)
f(x)
0 x − 1–3 0 x
3 1
−3 −2.4
g y y
h
0 x 1
—
2
π 3— 2π
2
−1 −π −—2 −10 — π 2π x
2
−2 −2
−3 DIGITAL DOC
−3 −4 doc-9764
WorkSHEET 6.2

6G Tangent graphs
The graph of y = tan (x)
To manually plot the graph of y = tan (x), the following table of values may be used.
−3π −π −π π π 3π 5π 3π 7π
−π
x 4 2 4
0 4 2 4
π 4 2 4
2π
−1 −1 −1
y = tan (x) 0 1 Undefined 0 1 Undefined 0 1 Undefined 0
π
Note: Multiples of 8 could be used to give more points to plot and a clearer indication of the shape of
the graph. sin ( x )
Note the presence of some undefined y-values. This is because y = and cos (x) = 0 at these
values. cos (x)
These undefined values are shown as vertical asymptotes at the given value of x for which they occur.
(An asymptote is a line that a graph approaches, but never quite reaches. In the case of y = tan (x), y
approaches (but never actually reaches) −∞ and +∞ for particular x-values.)
The graph of y = tan (x) is shown in the figure below.
Vertical asymptotes
y = tan (x)
3π 5π
(− —
4
, 1) 1 ( π–4 , 1) ( —4, 1)
(−π, 0) (0, 0) (π , 0) (2 π , 0)
−π π π 0 π π π π 2π x
− –2 − –4 – –
4 2
3—
2
−1 ( 3—4π, −1) ( 7—4π,
−1)
The features of the graph of y = tan (x) are as follows:

− π π 3π
1. It has vertical asymptotes through x = … , , ,…
2. It has no amplitude. 2 2 2
3. It has a period of π.
4. It has a range of R (the set of all real numbers).
In general, the graph of y = a tan (bx) + c has the following properties.
y
0 x
3π
−—
2b
− π–b π
−—
2b
π
—
2b
π–
b
3—π
2b
1. No amplitude
π
2. Period = .
b π
3. When c = 0, the graph has x-intercepts at x = ± and every period to the left and right of these.
π −π b
4. It has asymptotes at x = and x = and every period to the left and right of these.
2b 2b (2n + 1)π
5. The following formula for asymptotes applies: xasymptote = ± , where n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
2b
6. Mean position at y = c. The graph is translated vertically to c.

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
For each function below, state i the period and ii the equation of the two asymptotes closest to the
y-axis.
1
a y = 2 tan (4 x) b y = 3 tan
⎛ x⎞ + 3
⎝ 2⎠
THINK WRITE
π
a 1 Write the formula for the period. a i Period =
b
π
4
π
3 Write the formula to find the two closest ii Asymptotes: x = ±
asymptotes to the y-axis. 2b
π
4 Substitute b = 4. x=±
2×4
π
5 Simplify. x=±
8
π
b 1 Write the formula for the period. b i Period =
b
1 π
2 Substitute b = 2
. = 1
2
3 Simplify. = 2π
π
4 Write the formula to find the two closest ii Asymptotes: x = ±
asymptotes to the y-axis. 2b
1 π
5 Substitute b = 2
. x=± 1
2× 2
6 Simplify. x=±π
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
π x⎞
Sketch the graph of the function y = 3 tan ⎛ over [−2, 4] without a
⎝ 2 ⎠ TUTORIAL
CAS calculator.
eles-1423
THINK WRITE Worked example 20
π π
1 Find the period using b = . Period =
2 ⎛π⎞
⎝ 2⎠
=2
π
2 Find the two asymptotes closest to the y-axis Asymptotes: x = ±
π π π
by substituting b = into x = ± . 2×
2 2b 2
= ±1
3 State the other asymptotes by adding/subtracting Other asymptotes are: x = −1 − 2, x = 1 + 2,
the period, 2 units, to/from the first asymptotes, x = 1 + 2 + 2 etc.
x = ± 1.

4 State all asymptotes in the domain [−2, 4]. All asymptotes in the domain [−2, 4] are: x = −1,
x = 1, x = 3.
π
When x = 2 , y = 3 tan ⎛ ⎞
1 −1 1
5 Evaluate y when x = 2 and x = 2 to
⎝ 4⎠
establish two definite points on the graph.
=3×1
=3
−π
When x = 2 , y = 3 tan ⎛ ⎞
−1
⎝ 4⎠
= 3 × −1
= −3
Draw a set of axes using x ∈ [−2, 4]. πx

6
y
( )
y = 3 tan —
2
7 Mark in the vertical asymptotes at x = −1,
x = 1, x = 3. 3
8 Using the asymptotes as a guide, sketch the

1 0 x
standard tan curve. −2 −1 − –2 1–
2
1 2 3 4
9 Verify that this graph is correct by using a −3

CAS calculator.
Exercise 6G Tangent graphs

DIGITAL DOC 1 WE19 State i the period and ii the equation of the two asymptotes closest to the y-axis for each of
doc-9765 the following.
Tangent graphs
⎛ x⎞ ⎛ x⎞
a y = tan (2x) b y = tan (3x) c y = tan d y = tan
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
x x
e y = 3 tan (x) f y = 2 tan ⎛ ⎞ g y = − tan ⎛ ⎞ h y = −2 tan (2x)
⎝ 4⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
i y = tan (x) − 1 j y = tan (2x) − 3
2 Sketch the graph of each function in question 1, showing the first two cycles.
3 WE20 MC The function y = 3 tan (4x) has a period equal to:
π π
A 4π B C π D E 2π
4 2
4 MC Use the graph to answer questions a and b.
a The period of the function is equal to:
y
π
A B π
4
π
C D 2π
2 1.5
E 3
b The equation of the function is: 0 x
π
–
2
π 2π 3π
⎛ x⎞
A y = 1.5 tan (x) B y = 1.5 tan
⎝ 2⎠
C y = 1.5 tan (2x) D y = 1.5 tan (3x)
E y = 3 tan (x)
5 WE20 Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions over the given domain.
a y = 3 tan
⎛ x ⎞ , [0, 2π] b y = tan
⎛ π x ⎞ , [0, 3] c y = 2 tan
⎛ x ⎞ , [0, 2π]
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9766
d y = 1.8 tan ⎜
⎛ 2π x ⎞ , [0, 5] e y = −2 tan (π x), [−1, 1]
Investigation
⎝ ⎟
Tangent graphs 5 ⎠

1
To find the solution to the equation sin ( x ) = where x ∈ [0, 4π], we can consider the graph of y = sin (x).
2
y
1
1–
2
0 π π
3— π
5— π
7— x
–
2 π 2 2π 2 3π 2 4π
y = 8 sin (θ )
−1
1
By drawing a horizontal line through y = , it can be seen that there are four solutions in the domain
2
[0, 4π].
π π
The solution for 0 < x < , that is, in the first quadrant, is (from our knowledge of exact values).
2 4
Note: For inexact solutions in the first quadrant, use a calculator.
The sine function is also positive in the second quadrant.
y
π 3π
Using sine symmetry, the next solution is π − =
π
4 4
−
π–
(different symmetry properties are used for cosine and sin (π − π–4 ) sin ( π–4 )
4
S A
tangent). Since the graph is periodic, any further solutions are π
–
found by adding (or subtracting) the period (in this case 2π) to 4
x
(or from) each of the first two solutions.
For example, two further solutions are: T C
π 3π
+ 2π and + 2π
4 4
9π 11 π
= and
4 4
π 3π 9π 11π
Therefore, four solutions in the specified domain are , , and .
4 4 4 4
However, if a domain is not specified, there are an infinite number of solutions, as multiples of 2π
π 3π
can be added (or subtracted) indefinitely to (or from) and . In this situation a general solution is
4 4
obtained where the solutions are in terms of a parameter, n, where n is an integer, i.e. n ∈ Z.
π π
The general solution for the first quadrant solution x = becomes x = 2nπ + where n ∈ Z.
4 4
3π 3π
The general solution for the second quadrant solution x = becomes x = 2nπ + where n ∈ Z.
4 4
3π π π
Note that the general solution x = 2nπ + can be expressed as x = 2nπ + π − = (2n + 1)π − .
4 4 4
Substituting different integer values of n will give specific solutions as shown in the table below.
π 3π
n x = 2nπ + , n ∈Z x = 2nπ + , n ∈Z
4 4
−1 π − 7π 3π − 5π
x = − 2π + = x = − 2π + =
4 4 4 4
π π 3π 3π
0 x = 0+ = x = 0+ =
4 4 4 4
π 9π 3 π 11π
1 x = 2π + = x = 2π + =
4 4 4 4
π 17π 3 π 19π
2 x = 4π + = and so on x = 4π + = and so on
4 4 4 4

In general, if:
− −
r sin (x) = a, then x = 2nπ + sin 1 (a) and x = (2n + 1)π − sin 1 (a) where a ∈ [−1, 1] and n ∈ Z.
−1 −
r cos (x) = a, then x = 2nπ ± cos (a) where a ∈ [ 1, 1] and n ∈ Z
−
r tan (x) = a, then x = nπ + tan 1 (a) where a ∈ R and n ∈ Z.
When solving trigonometric equations, the following need to be determined:
1. The first quadrant angle, irrespective of the sign
2. The two quadrants in which the given function is positive or negative
3. Two solutions between x = 0 and x = 2π (use the appropriate sine, cosine or tangent symmetry property).
If more solutions are required:
1. Repeatedly add (or subtract) the period to the two solutions as many times as required, noting
solutions after each addition or subtraction.
2. Stop when all solutions within the specified domain are found.
3. If no domain is given, a general solution is required.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Find θ to the nearest tenth of a degree if cos (θ °) = −0.58, given that θ ∈ [0°, 360°].
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation. cos (θ °) = −0.58

2 Find the first quadrant angle by solving First quadrant angle = cos−1 (0.58)
cos (θ °) = 0.58 to the nearest tenth of a degree. = 54.5°
3 Identify where the cosine function is negative. Cosine is negative in quadrants 2 and 3.
4 Use cosine symmetry to find the solutions.
(1
y
80
−
54
.5
)°
54.5°
180°
−0.58 + 0.58 x
(−0.58)
)°
.5
54
+
80
(1
5 Simplify the solutions. θ = (180 − 54.5)° or (180 + 54.5)°

= 125.5° or 234.5°
6 Since the period is 360°, no further solutions are
required for θ ° ∈ [0°, 360°].
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Find the value of x in each of the following equations if x ∈ [0, 4π].

Give answers correct to 3 decimal places, unless exact answers may be found.
a sin (x) = 0.3
−1
b cos ( x) = 2
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation. a sin (x) = 0.3 x ∈ [0, 4π]

2 Use a CAS calculator to find the first First quadrant angle = sin−1 (0.3)
quadrant angle (since no exact answer exists). = 0.305
Ensure your CAS calculator is set to radians.
3 Identify where sine is positive. Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2.

4 Use sine symmetry to find the two solutions y
for x ∈ [0, 2π].
2.83 c
7c .305
0.3 0.3
x
For x ∈ [0, 2π]

x = 0.305 or (π − 0.305)
= 0.305 or 2.837
5 Convert the specified domain to a decimal. [0, 4π] = [0, 12.566]
6 The period of y = sin (x) is 2π, so add For x ∈ [0, 4π]

2π (= 6.283) to each of the solutions above. x = 0.305, 2.837, (0.305 + 6.283),
(2.837 + 6.283)
7 Adding 2π (= 6.283) to the last two solutions x = 0.305, 2.837, 6.588, 9.120
would give solutions beyond the specified
domain, so stop here.
−1
b 1 Write the equation. b cos( x ) = x ∈ [0, 4π]
2
−1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2 Recall a special triangle to find the first First quadratic angle = cos ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠
2
quadrant angle. Note: This is not a solution in
π
this case. =
3
3 Identify where cosine is negative. Cosine is negative in quadrants 2 and 3.
4 Use cosine symmetry to find the two solutions y

for x ∈ [0, 2π]. π
2— –π
3 3
−—
1 1
— x
2 2
π
4—
3
For x ∈ [0, 2π]

π π
x = π − or π +
3 3
2π 4π
= or
3 3
5 The period of y = cos (x) is 2π, so add 2π to For x ∈ [0, 4π]
each of the solutions above for x ∈ [0, 4π]. 2π 4π 2π 4π
x= , , + 2π , + 2π
3 3 3 3
2π 4π 2π 6π 4π 6π
= , , + , +
3 3 3 3 3 3
6π 2π 4π 8π 10π
6 Adding 2π (= ) to the last two solutions x= , , ,
3 3 3 3 3
would give solutions beyond the specified
12π
domain (4π or ), so stop here.
3

WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Find solutions to 2 sin (x) = 0.984 over the domain [0, 2π].
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the equation. 2 sin (x) = 0.984 x ∈ [0, 2π]

2 Divide both sides by 2 to get sin (x) by itself. sin (x) = 0.492
3 Determine the first quadrant angle in radians, First quadrant angle = sin−1 (0.492)
correct to 3 decimal places. = 0.514
4 Identify where the sine is positive. Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2.
5 Use sine symmetry to find the solutions. y
(π −
0.51
4) c
0.492 0.492
π x
0.514c
x = 0.514 or (π − 0.514)
6 Simplify the solutions. = 0.514 or 2.628
7 Since the period is 2π, no further solutions
are required over the domain [0, 2π].
Note: Any equation not in the form sin (A) = B (or cos or tan) should be transposed before the solutions
are found.
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Find the general solution of the following equations.

1
a cos ( x) = b 2 sin (x) − 1 = 0 c tan ( x) = 3 TUTORIAL
2 eles-1424
Worked example 24
Hence, find all the solutions for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π for each equation.
THINK WRITE
−1
a 1 Write the general solution for a x = 2nπ ± cos (a)
cos (x) = a.
1 − ⎛ 1 ⎞
2 Substitute a = into the general equation x = 2nπ ± cos 1 ⎜
2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
− ⎛ 1 ⎞ π
and evaluate cos 1 ⎜ , recognising that it x = 2nπ ±
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ 4
is an exact angle.
π π
3 Write the two separate solutions and x = 2nπ + and x = 2nπ − , n ∈ Z
specify n ∈ Z. 4 4
− 9π −
7π
4 Substitute n = −1, n = 0 and n = 1 into each n = − 1: x = and x =
of the general solutions. 4 4
π −π
n = 0: x = and x =
4 4
π 7π π 9π
n = 1: x = 2π − = and x = 2π + =
4 4 4 4

−
7π − π π 7π
5 Write the solutions for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π. x= , , ,
4 4 4 4
1
b 1 Rearrange the equation and substitute b sin ( x ) =
1 2
a = 2 into the general equations. Evaluate x = 2nπ + sin
−1
(a) and x = (2n + 1)π − sin
−1
(a)
− 1
sin 1 ( 2 ), recognising that it is an exact angle. − 1 − 1
x = 2nπ + sin 1 ( 2 ) and x = (2n + 1)π − sin 1 ( 2 )
Specify n ∈ Z.
π π
x = 2nπ + and x = (2n + 1)π − or
6 6
5π
x = 2nπ + , where n ∈ Z
6
π − 11π
2 Substitute n = −1 and n = 0 into each of the n = − 1: x = − 2π + = and
general solutions. 6 6
π − 7π
x = −π − =
6 6
π π 5π
n = 0: x = and x = π − =
6 6 6
−
11π − 7π π 5π
6 6 6 6
−1
c 1 Write the general solution for tan x = a. c x = nπ + tan (a)
−
x = nπ + tan = ( 3) 1
π
x = nπ + , n ∈ Z
3
π
2 Substitute n = −2, n = −1, n = 0 and n = 1 into n = − 2 : x = − 2π +
each of the general solutions. 3
−5
π
=
3
π
n = − 1: x = − π +
3
− 2π
=
3
π
n = 0: x =
3
π
n = 1: x = π +
3
4π
=
3
− 5π −
2π π 4π
3 3 3 3
Exercise 6H Solving trigonometric equations

1 Find the exact value of x in terms of π in each of the following equations, given that x is in the first
quadrant.
1 1
a cos ( x ) = b sin ( x ) = 2
2
3 DIGITAL DOC
c tan ( x ) = 3 d cos ( x ) = doc-9767
2
Trigonometric
3
e tan (x) = 1 f sin ( x ) = equations
2

2 WE21 Find the value of θ to the nearest tenth of a degree in each of the following equations, given
that θ ∈ [0°, 360°].
a sin (θ) = 0.6 b cos (θ) = −0.25 c tan (θ) = 5.72
d sin (θ) = −0.85 e cos (θ) = 0.195 f tan (θ) = −0.837
g sin (θ) = −0.333 h cos (θ) = 0.757
3 WE22 Find the value of x in each of the following equations if x ∈ [0, 4π]. Give answers correct to
3 decimal places, unless exact answers are found.
a sin (x) = 0.8 b cos (x) = −0.5 c tan (x) = 1.5
−1 −0.39 2
d tan ( x ) = e sin (x) = f cos ( x ) =
3 2
− 2
4 MC a If sin ( x ) = cos ( x ) =and 0° < x < 360°, then x is equal to:
2
A 150° or 210° B 135° or 225° C 225°
D 135° or 315° E 120°
π
b If 3 tan (x) = 1 and 0 < x < , then x is equal to:
2
π π π π π
A B C D E
6 2 3 4 5
5 WE23 Find solutions, exact where possible, to the following over the domain [0, 2π].
a 2 sin (x) = 0.586 b 2 cos (x) = 1
c 2 tan ( x ) = 2 3 d 2 sin (x) + 0.893 = 0
e 1.8 cos (x) + 1.236 = 0 f 3 tan ( x ) + 1 = 0
6 MC The solution to the equation 2 cos (x) + 1 = 0 over the domain [0, 2π] is:
π 2π 5π 7π π 5π 2π 4 π 4π 5π
A , B , C , D , E ,
3 3 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3
7 Solve each of the following, to the nearest tenth of a degree, over the domain [0°, 360°].
a 4 sin (x) = 1 b 3 cos (x) = −2
c 2 tan (x) − 7 = 0 d 4 + sin (x) = 3
e 1 + 2 cos (x) = 2 f 3 tan (x) + 9 = 0
8 Solve the following equations over [0°, 360°].
a sin (x + 30)° = 1 b cos (x − 60)° = 0
c tan (x + 45)° = 1 d 2 sin (x − 60)° = 1
e 2 cos (x + 90)° + 1 = 0 f sin (2x) = 0
⎛ x⎞ =1 ⎛ x⎞
g 2 cos h 2 sin ⎝ ⎠ = 2
⎝ 2⎠ 2
i 3 tan (2 x ) = 1 j 2 cos (3 x ) = − 1
!
k tan (2 ( x − 30) ) = 3 l sin ( 1
2 )
( x − 40) ! = 0.6
9 WE24 Find the general solution of the following equations.
a 2 cos ( x ) − 3 = 0
1
b tan ( x ) =
3
c 2 sin ( x ) − 1 = 0 .
Hence, find all solutions for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π for each equation.
10 Find the general solution of the equation 2 sin (2x) − 1 = 0. Hence, find all solutions for −π ≤ x ≤ π.
11 Find the general solution of the equation 2 cos (3x) − 1 = 0. Hence, find all solutions for −π ≤ x ≤ π.
6I Applications
Many situations arise in science and nature where relationships between two variables exhibit periodic
behaviour. Tide heights, sound waves, biorhythms and ovulation cycles are examples.
In these situations trigonometric functions can be used to model the behaviour of the variables. The
independent variable (x) is often a measurement such as time.
When modelling with trigonometric functions you should work in radians unless otherwise instructed.

WORKED EXAMPLE 25
E. coli is a type of bacterium. Its concentration,

P parts per million (ppm), at a particular beach TUTORIAL
over a 12-hour period t hours after 6 am is eles-1425
described by the function Worked example 25
πt
P = 0.05 sin ⎛ ⎞ + 0.1.
⎝ 12 ⎠
a Find i the maximum and ii the minimum
E. coli levels at this beach.
b What is the level at 3 pm?
c How long is the level above 0.125 ppm
during the first 12 hours after 6 pm?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Write the function. a P = 0.05sin

⎛ π t ⎞ + 0.1
⎝ 12 ⎠
i 1 The maximum value of the sine function i The maximum P occurs when sin
⎛ π t ⎞ = 1.
⎝ 12 ⎠
is 1.
πt
2 Substitute sin ⎛ ⎞ = 1 into the equation Max. P = 0.05(1) + 0.1
⎝ 12 ⎠
for P and evaluate. = 0.15
3 State the solution. The maximum E. coli level is 0.15 ppm.
ii 1 The minimum value of the sine function ii The minimum P occurs when sin
⎛ π t ⎞ = − 1.
⎝ 12 ⎠
is −1.
πt
2 Substitute sin ⎛ ⎞ = − 1 into the equation Min. P = 0.05(−1) + 0.1
⎝ 12 ⎠
for P and evaluate. = 0.05
3 State the solution. The minimum E. coli level is 0.05 ppm.
b 1 At 3 pm it is 9 hours since 6 am. b At 3 pm, t = 9.
9π
2 Substitute t = 9 into the equation for P and When t = 9, P = 0.05 sin ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + 0.1
evaluate. ⎝ 12 ⎠
3π ⎞
= 0.05 sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ + 0.1
⎝ 4 ⎠
1
= 0.05 + 0.1
2
= 0.035 + 0.1
= 0.135
3 State the solution. The E. coli level at 3 pm is approximately
0.135 ppm.
c 1 A sketch graph will give a better c
understanding of this question.
2 State the amplitude. Amplitude = 0.05
3 Calculate the period. Period = 2π

π
12
Period = 24

πt
4 Identify the basic graph. The basic graph is P = 0.05 sin ⎛ ⎞ .
⎝ 12 ⎠
5 State the translations needed. No horizontal translation is needed; the vertical

translation is 0.1 units up.
6 Sketch the graph of P. P (parts per million)
7 Draw a horizontal line through P = 0.125.

0.150
0.125
0.100
0.050
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 t (hours)
8 Identify where P > 0.125 from the graph. The graph shows that P > 0.125 between the
first two points where P = 0.125.
9 Solve the equation P = 0.125 to find the When P = 0.125,

πt
0.05 sin ⎛ ⎞ + 0.1 = 0.125
first two values of t.
⎝ 12 ⎠
πt
0.05 sin ⎛ ⎞ = 0.025
⎝ 12 ⎠
πt
sin ⎛ ⎞ = 0.5
⎝ 12 ⎠
πt π π
= or π −
12 6 6
π 5π
= or
6 6
t 1 5
= or
12 6 6
t = 2 or 10
10 Find the difference between the solutions P > 0.125, for 10 − 2 = 8 hours
t = 2 and t = 10.
11 State the solution. The E. coli level is above 0.125 parts per
million for 8 hours.
Exercise 6I Applications
1 The weight of a rabbit over a period of time is modelled by the graph shown below.
W (kg)
4
3
2
1
0 3 6 t (days)
a State i the amplitude and ii the period.

b Express W as a function of t.

2 The graph below shows the heart rate of an athlete during a particular hour of a workout.
H (beats/min)
160
110
60
0 15 30 45 60 t (min)
a Find the initial heart rate.

b State i the amplitude and ii the period.
c Express H as a function of t.
3 WE25 The height above the ground, h metres, of a child on a swing at any time, t seconds, after being
released is:
πt
h = 1 + 0.6 cos ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 2⎠
Find:
a the maximum height of the swing
b the height after
4
i 3 seconds and ii seconds
3
c the length of time that the swing is below 1.5 metres, travelling from one side to the other.
4 The temperature, T (°C), inside a building on a given day is given by the function:
πt
T = 8 sin ⎛ ⎞ + 18
⎝ 12 ⎠
where t is the number of hours after 8 am.
a What is the maximum temperature in the building and the time at which it first occurs?
b Find the temperature at i 8 pm, ii 6 pm and iii 12 am (midnight).
5 The displacement, x (in mm), of a harp string t seconds after it is initially plucked is modelled by the
function:
x (t) = 12 sin (20π t)
a What is i the amplitude and ii the period of this function?
b How many vibrations (that is, cycles) will it complete in one second?
c Find the displacement after 0.08 seconds.
d At what time will its displacement first be 6 mm?

6 The height of a bungee jumper, h metres, above a pool of water at any time, t seconds, after jumping is
described by the function:
h (t) = 20 cos (0.8t) + 20
a What is the initial height of the bungee jumper?
b When, if at all, does the bungee jumper first touch the water?
c Assuming the cord is perfectly elastic, how long is it until the bungee jumper returns to the lowest
position?
7 A cyclist rides one lap of a circular track at a constant speed so that her distance, d metres, from her
starting point at any time, t seconds, after starting is:
πt
d = 50 − 50 cos ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 30 ⎠
Find:
a the time taken to complete one lap
b the radius of the track
c the maximum distance from the start
d the length of the track
e the distance from her starting point after i 15 seconds and ii 40 seconds
f the times at which she is 93.3 metres from her starting points.
8 The depth of water, d metres, at a port entrance is given by the function:
πt
d (t ) = 4.5 + 1.5 sin ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 12 ⎠
where t is in hours.
a Find i the maximum and ii the minimum depth at the port entrance.
b A certain ship needs the depth at the port entrance to be more than 5 metres. The ship can be
loaded and unloaded, and in and out of the port, in 9 hours. Assuming that the ship enters the port
just as the depth at the entrance passes 5 metres, will the ship be able to exit 9 hours later? How
long will it have to spare, or by how many minutes will it miss out?
9 The Australian dollar’s value (a) in US dollars was observed to follow the equation
a = 0.9 + 0.01t + 0.02 sin (0.5π t) over a period of 8 days (t represents the number of days).
a Using a CAS calculator, sketch a graph of a for 0 ≤ t ≤ 8.
b When will the Australian dollar first reach US$0.95?
c At what other times will it be worth US$0.95?
d Find all of the maximum turning points of the graph (to 3 decimal places).
e What is the highest value reached?

Summary
Trigonometric ratio r SOH CAH TOA
revision O A O
r sin (θ ) = cos (θ ) = tan (θ ) =
H H A H
O
θ
A
r Angles of elevation and depression:
tion
leva
of e
gle
An
Horizontal
n
sio
epres
of d
gle
An
The unit circle r sin (θ) = y –π

2
r cos (θ) = x 90°
y
1st quadrant
2nd quadrant P(θ )
S A
sin (θ )
π , 180° θ
x
cos (θ ) 0, 360°, 2π
T C
3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
270°
3π
—
2
r tan (θ) = the height of the point where the angle line meets the tangent line (at the RHS of the unit
circle)
y
tan (θ )
θ
x
y
r tan (θ ) =
x
Radians r π c = 180°
180!
r 1c =
π
π c
r 1! =
180

r For exact values use special triangles: π–
6
30°
2
2 3
1
π– 45° π– 60°
4 1 3 1
Angle (θ) sin (θ) cos (θ) tan (θ)

0 0 1 0
π 1 3
or 30° 1 3 =
6 2 2 3 3
π 1 2 1 2
or 45° = = 1
4 2 2 2 2
π
or 60° 3 1
3 2 2 3
π
or 90° 1 0 Undefined
2
Symmetry r Relating a given angle back to the first quadrant of the unit circle is often helpful. Provided an
angle is expressed as π ± θ or 2π ± θ, the trigonometric function (sin or cos) remains the same,
3π 4π 6π 8π
only the sign (+ or −) may change. So π may be written as , , , etc.
3 4 6 8
r sin (π − θ) = sin (θ) r sin (π + θ) = −sin (θ) r sin (2π − θ) = −sin (θ)
− −
r cos (π − θ) = cos (θ) r cos (π + θ) = cos (θ) r cos (2π − θ) = cos (θ)
r tan (π − θ) = −tan (θ) r tan (π + θ) = tan (θ) r tan (2π − θ) = −tan (θ)
Identities r sin2 (θ) + cos2 (θ) = 1

sin (θ )
r tan (θ ) =
cos (θ )
π
r sin (90 ° − θ °) = cos (θ °) or sin ⎛ − θ ⎞ = cos (θ °)
⎝2 ⎠
π
r cos (90 ° − θ °) = sin (θ °) or cos ⎛ − θ ⎞ = sin (θ °)
⎝2 ⎠
Sine and cosine r Basic graph types:

graphs 1. y = a sin (bx) + c y = a cos (bx) + c
2π
2. Period = , amplitude = | a |
b
y y
y = a sin (bx) y = a cos (bx)
a a
0 –π π
2— x 0 π –π 3—π π
2— x
b b = period —
2b b 2b b
−a −a

r When sketching:
1. Recall the basic graph type.
2. Find the period and amplitude.
3. Sketch in sections of one period.
4. Find x-intercepts between other known intercepts or minimum and maximum points.
5. Translate the graph vertically by c.
Tangent graphs r y = a tan (bx) + c y

π
r Period = , no amplitude
b
π
r Asymptotes at x = ± and every period to the
2b
left and right of these
3π 0 x
r The formula for asymptotes applies: −—
2b
− π–b π
−—
2b
π
—
2b
π–
b
3—π
2b
(2n + 1)π
xasymptote = ± ,
2b
where n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
Solving trigonometric r When solving trigonometric equations, the following need to be determined:
equations 1. The first quadrant angle, irrespective of the sign
2. The two quadrants in which the given function is positive or negative
3. Two solutions between x = 0 and x = 2π (use the appropriate sine, cosine or tangent symmetry
property).
r If more solutions are required:
1. Repeatedly add (or subtract) the period to the two solutions as many times as required, noting
solutions after each addition or subtraction.
2. Stop when all solutions within the specified domain are found.
3. If a general solution is required, the answer will be in tems of n, n ∈ Z.
In general, if:
− −
r sin (x) = a, then x = 2nπ + sin 1 (a) and x = (2n + 1)π − sin 1 (a) where a ∈ [−1, 1] and n ∈ Z.
−1
r cos (x) = a, then x = 2nπ ± cos (a) where a ∈ [−1, 1] and n ∈ Z
−
r tan (x) = a, then x = nπ + tan 1 (a) where a ∈ R and n ∈ Z.
Applications r To find the maximum value of a function, replace sin x or cos x with +1.
r To find the minimum value of a function, replace sin x or cos x with −1.
r Initial values occur at t = 0.
r A sketch graph may provide greater understanding.

Chapter review
1 The angle of elevation from an observer to an aircraft when it is 4.5 km away is 30°. How high is the
SHORT
ANS WER aircraft above the ground if the observer’s eye level is 1.75 m above the ground?
4.5 km
30°
1.75 m
2 Find the exact values of:

⎛ 5π ⎞ .
a tan (120 °) b cos (150 °) c sin ⎜
⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
3 π
3 If cos (θ ) = 4
and 0 < θ < 2 , find the exact values of:
a sin (θ) b tan (θ).
4 Convert the following angles to exact radians.
a 140° b 310° c 1°
5 Convert the following radian measures to degrees.
2π 7π
a b 1 c
5 2
6 If cos (θ) = 0.69, find:
a sin (180 ° − θ °) b cos (2π − θ) c tan (π + θ).
−0.9 π
7 If cos (x) = and < x < π, evaluate:
2
a sin (x) b tan (x).
8 Sketch the graphs of the following functions.
x
a y = −4 sin ⎛ ⎞ over [−2π, 4π] b y = 1.5 cos (2x) over [−π, π]
⎝ 2⎠
9 Sketch the graph of:
−1 x
a y = 2 tan (4x) for x ∈ [−π, π] b y= tan ⎛ ⎞ for x ∈ [0, 12π].
2 ⎝ 6⎠
1
10 Find all of the solutions to the equation sin ( x ) = over the domain [0, 3π].
2
11 Solve the equation 3 + 2 cos (x) = 0 over the domain [0°, 360°].
3
12 Find the general solution of the equation sin ( x ) = . Hence find all solutions for −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π.
2
13 If cos (θ) = 0.40 and sin (θ) = 0.92, find:
a tan (θ) b cos (180° − θ )
c sin (−θ) d cos (90° − θ ).
14 With the aid of a diagram if necessary, find exact values for:
a sin
⎛π⎞ b cos
⎛ 7π ⎞
⎝ 6⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
⎛ 5π ⎞
c tan ⎜ ⎟ d cos (π).
⎝ 3 ⎠
15 Solve the following.
3 −1
a sin ( x ) = b cos ( x ) =
2 2
1
c tan ( x ) = d cos (x °) = 1
3
e tan (x °) = −1

16 The sound level of a siren follows the rule L (t) = 6 sin (π t) + 80, where L is the sound level measured
in decibels (dB) and t is the time in seconds.
a What is the amplitude and period of L(t)?
b What are the minimum and maximum sound levels of the siren?
c How long does it take for the sound to reach its maximum level the first time?
d Find the first time the sound level reaches 83 dB.
e Sketch the graph of L(t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 2.
1 The relationship between a, x and y in the triangle shown is: M U LTIP L E

C HO IC E
a
y
y x x y
A tan (a) = B sin (a) = C tan (a) = D cos (a) = E sin (a) = xy
x y y x
2 In the triangle shown, the value of x is closest to:
4.2
x
56°
A 2.35 B 2.83 C 5.07 D 7.51 E 3.48

3 The angle that the 3-metre ladder makes with the wall in this diagram is closest to:
3.0 m
1.2 m
A 23.6° B 21.8° C 66.4° D 18° E 76°

4 In which quadrants is tan (x) positive?
A 1 and 2 B 1 and 4 C 2 and 4 D 2 and 3 E 1 and 3
5 The value of cos (320°) is:
A positive, as 320° is in the 1st quadrant B negative, as 320° is in the 2nd quadrant
C negative, as 320° is in the 3rd drant
qua D negative, as 320° is in the 4th quadrant
E positive, as 320° is in the 4th quadrant
6 If tan (a°) < 0, sin (a°) < 0 and 0° < a° < 360°, then which one of the following is correct?
A 0° < a° < 90° B 180° < a° < 270° C 90° < a° < 180°
D 0° < a° < 180° E 270° < a° < 360°

7 If tan (θ ) = 3, then sin (θ) could be equal to:
1
A 1
B 3
C −1 D E 0
2 2 2
8 The angle 150° is equivalent to:

2π 7π 5π 5π 4π
A B C D E
3 6 9 6 3
9π
9 The angle that is equivalent to is:
4
A 405° B 315° C 540° D 270° E 300°
⎛ 4π ⎞
10 The value of cos ⎜ is:
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
− −1
3 1 3 1
A 2
B 2 C 2
D E 2
2
π
Use the following information to answer questions 11 to 13: sin (a) = 0.6 and 0 < a < .
2
11 sin (2π − a) is equal to:
A 0.36 B 0.8 C −0.6 D −0.8 E 1
12 cos (a) is equal to:
A 0.6 B 0.8 C −0.6 D −0.8 E 0
13 tan (π − a) is equal to:
A 0.75 B −1.33 C 1.33 D −0.75 E 1.4
14 The one value that is equal to sin (53°) is:
A tan (37 °) B cos (37 °) C cos (53 °) D sin (37 °) E cos (127 °)
Questions 15 to 17 refer to the function f (x) = −2 sin (3x).
15 The amplitude of f (x) is equal to:
A 3 B −2 C −3 D 2 E 1
16 The period of f (x) is equal to:
2π
A 6π B 4π C D 2π E 3
3
17 The range of f (x) is:
A [0, 2] B [0, 4] C [−2, 0] D [−1, 1] E [−2, 2]
18 The rule for this graph is:
y
A y = 3 cos
⎛ x⎞
⎝ 2⎠ 3
B y = 3 sin (2x)
⎛ x⎞
C y = 2 cos
⎝ 3⎠
0 π 2π 3π 4π x
D y = 3 cos (2x) −3
E y = −3 cos (2x)
19 The function y = 5 tan (4x) has a period and asymptote respectively of:
π π π
A 4π and x = 2π B π and x = C and x =
2 4 8
π π
D 4π and x = 8π E and x =
4 2
20 If sin (3x) = 0.966, then x could be equal to:
A 65° B 75° C 105°
D 25° E 20°
21 If tan (2x) = 0.839 has one solution of x = 20°, then another solution could be:
A 160° B 110° C 200°
D 380° E 70°

x
22 The maximum value of y = 3 sin ⎛ ⎞ − 1 is:
⎝ 2⎠
A −1 B 0 C 2 D 3 E −4
23 The minimum value of h = cos (3π t) + 5 is:
A 6 B 5 C 8 D 3 E 4
1 The temperature in an office is controlled by a thermostat. The preferred temperature, P, can be set to EXTENDED
values between 18 °C and 25 °C. R ES P O N S E
The temperature, T (°C) in the office at time t hours after 9 am is given by the rule T = P + 2.4 sin (π t).
If the preferred temperature on the thermostat has been set to 23 °C:
a find the maximum and minimum temperatures

b find the temperature at
i noon nd a ii 3.30 pm
c sketch the graph of the function between 9 am and 5 pm.
Freddy feels thirsty if the temperature is above 24.2 °C.
d Find the amount of time between 9 am and 5 pm that Freddy feels thirsty.
2 A ‘standing wave’ on a guitar string may be
y
⎛ π x⎞ ,
approximated by the function y = 0.3 sin
⎝ 20 ⎠ L
where x cm and y cm are defined on the diagram
at right. x
a Find the period of the standing wave.
b If the frets coincide with the mean positions
of the wave, find the value of L.
c If the frets were to be spaced at 16 cm, what would be the equation of a similar standing wave of
amplitude 0.3 cm such that a fret is at each mean position?
3 The number of rabbits in a national park is observed for one year.
At any time t months after observation begins, the number is modelled
by the function:
πt
P = 2 − 0.8 sin ⎛ ⎞
⎝ 6⎠
where P is in thousands.
a Find:
i the maximum number of rabbits
ii the minimum number of rabbits
iii the median number of rabbits.
b Find i the period and ii the amplitude
of the function.

c Sketch the graph of the function.
d Find the population after 5 months.
e How long is the population below 1600?
f How long is the population above 2100?
4 The height (in cm) that a clock’s pendulum swings above its base can be approximated by the function
7π ⎞
H = 14 + 5.9 cos ⎛ t at any time t seconds after being released. Give all answers correct to
⎝ 4 ⎠
3 decimal places.
a Find i the maximum and ii the minimum heights that the pendulum reaches.
b Find the height after i 1.5 seconds and ii 1 minute.
c Sketch the graph of the function for the first 2 seconds.
d On the same set of axes, sketch the median position.
e Find the length of time that the pendulum is below 14 cm travelling from one side to the other.
f Find the number of times the pendulum swings in 1 minute.
The pendulum is found to be losing time and needs its swing adjusted to 75 swings per minute.
g Find the new function H(t) that approximates the height of the pendulum.
5 The depth, h(t), of water in metres at a point on the coast at a time t hours after noon on a certain day is
⎛ 2π (t + 2) ⎞
given by h(t ) = 2.5 + 0.5 cos ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ 11 ⎠
Use a CAS calculator to answer the following.

a What is the depth of the water at noon (correct to 2 decimal places)?
b What is the period of h(t)?
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9768 c What is the depth of the water (and what time does each occur) at:
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d Sketch the graph of h(t) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 12.
e The local people wish to build a bonfire for New Year’s celebrations on a rock shelf near that
point. They estimate that they can pass the point safely and not get splashed by waves if the depth
of water is less than 2.25 m. Between what times can they work?
f How long do they have?

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Answers CHAPTER 6
−0.3 −0.7
CIRCULAR FUNCTIONS 4 a b Exercise 6F Sine and cosine graphs
− −
Exercise 6A c 0.9 d 0.3 1 a i 4π ii 2 b i π ii 1
Trigonometric ratio revision
e 0.3 f 0.7 3π
1 a 3.09 b 1.88 c 4.00 −0.9 c i 3π ii 1.5 d i ii 4
g 0.7 h 2
2 a 8.41 b 2.97 c 12.50
i 0.9 4π
3 a 18.2° b 24.3° c 51.1° e i 2π ii 2 f i ii 3
− 2 − 3
4 a D bA c B 5 a
1
b c 3 d 3
2 2 3 2π
5 C 6E 7 7.14 m − g i π ii 2.5 h i ii 0.5
− 3 − 3 −
8 3.25 m 9 9.6° 10 23.1° e f g 3 h
3 3
2 2 2 i i 2π ii 4
− 2
Exercise 6B The unit circle i
1
j k 0 l −1 2 a i 2π ii 1 b i 2π ii 3
2 2 2π
1 a P bP cP d P −
2
c i π ii 2 d i ii 4
1 3
e N f N gN h N 6 a b c −1 d 3
2 2 2
1 π
i P j N 1
−
3
−
3
− 3 e i 6π ii f i ii 2
e f g h 2 2
2 a P bP cN d N 2 2 2
3
2π
e N f P gP h P −
3 2 g i 6π ii 0.4 h i ii 3
i j k −1 l −1 5
i N j N 3 2
−0.383 −0.924 π
3 a P bP cN d N 7 a b c 0.414 i i 8 ii 2.5 j i ii 1
e P f P gN h N d 0.924 e 0.383 f −0.414 3
1 1
i N j P − − k i 2 ii l i 4 ii
8 a 0.966 b 0.259 c 3.732 5 4
4 a Quadrant 3 d −0.966 e 0.259 f −3.732
3 a y i π ii 1
b Quadrant 1 9 a 0.644 b −
0.765 1
5 a C bB c A −0.842 −0.644
c d
d B eC
−1
6 a b −1 c 0 Exercise 6E Identities 0
–π π x
2
d 0 e0 f 1 1 −1
g Undefined h 0 i −1 θ sin2 θ cos2 θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ
j 1 b y i 2π ii 2
30° 0.25 0.75 1 2
3 2 1 3 1
7 a b c
3
= 3
d
2 2 2 81° 0.976 0.024 1
1 2
e f 1 g h 1 0
–π π 2π
3— x
2 2 129° 0.604 0.396 1 2 2
i 1 j Undefined −2
193° 0.051 0.949 1
Exercise 6C Radians c y i 4π ii 3
π π π π 260° 0.970 0.030 1 3
1 a b c d
6 4 3 9 350° 0.030 0.970 1
0
5π π 3π 2π 4π x
e f g h 2π −47° 0.535 0.465 1
18 2 2 −3
5π −
5π − 7π 5π 2 a 0.6 b 1.333 d y i π ii 4
i j k l 3 a 0.954 b 3.180 4
6 4 3 3
4 a −0.917, 0.917 b −0.714, 0.714
2 a 36°b 120° c 40° d 330°
−30° −45° c ±0.971 d ±0.436
e 648°
f g h 67.5°
5 2
3 E 5 a 2 b c 0
π
x
3 3 –π
2
4 C 7 3 3 7 –π π
3—
5 B 6 a 6 b c = 4 4
4 7 7 −4
6 a 0.855 b 1.365 c −2.182 −5 −4 24 −1 2π 1
7 a b c d e y i ii
d 3.341 e 4.095 f 5.716 13 5 25 2 2
3
g 2.971 h 3.784 8 a B b D c C d A 1–
2
7 a 20.1° b 84.2° c 180° 9 a 70° b 32° c 51° d 8°
d 54.9° e 893.8° f −155.3° e 82° f 46° g 1° h 73° 0 π 2—π x
g 232.6° h 458.4° –
3 3
1 2 1 10 − 1–2
8 a 2
= 2
b 2 c 3
sin θ 0.8 0.28 0.954 0.77 0.894 0.573 f y i 4π ii
2
1 3 3
d e1 f
2 2 cos θ 0.6 0.96 0.3 0.638 0.447 0.819 2–
1 2 3
g 1 h 2
=
2
tan θ 1.333 0.292 3.180 1.207 2 0.7 0 3π 4π x
π 2π
− 2–3
Exercise 6D Symmetry 4 4 1 5
11 a b c 5
= 5
−0.63 5 3
1 a 0.63 b g y i 6π ii 5
−0.63 −0.63 11 5
c d d 2 e f 5
−0.25 −0.25 6 6
2 a b 1 5 4 5
c 0.25 d 0.25 g 5
= 5
h i
5 6 0 x
−2.1 −2.1 3π 6π
3 a b 2 2 5 −3 11
c 2.1 d −2.1 j
5
= 5
k l −5
5 5

h y i 4π ii 4 f y d y
4 4 3
0 π 2π 3π 4 π x 0 8 x
−4 0 π x
π −3
y π –
2
i i ii 2
2 8π ⎤ 3x
⎡ → R, f ( x ) = 3sin ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
2
−4 10 a f : 0,
⎢⎣ 6 ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2⎠
8 a i π ii 1 iii 2, 0
2x ⎞
0 x y
cos ⎛⎜
5
–π –π b f : [0, 5π ] → R, f ( x ) = ⎟
4 2 2 2 ⎝ 5⎠
–π π
3—
8 8
−2 1 c f : [ −1, 1] → R, f (x) = 2 sin (π x)
0
i π ii 3 −1 π 2π x ⎛πx⎞
j y d f : [− 1, 3] → R, f ( x ) = 1.8cos
3
⎝ 2 ⎠
b i 2π ii 2 iii 0, −4
y ⎛ 2π x ⎞
e f : [0, 3] → R, f ( x ) = − 3sin ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ 3 ⎠
0 x
–π π
0 2 x
2
−2
−1 −1 − ⎛ 3π x ⎞
f f : [ 3 ,1] → R, f ( x ) = 2.4 cos ⎜
−3
−2 ⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
4 a D bC c A −3 g f : [0, 2π] → R, f (x) = −sin (x) − 1
5 E −4 h f : [−π, 2π] → R, f (x) = 2 sin (4x) – 1
2x ⎞ −5
6 a y = 1.5 sin ⎛⎜ b y = 2 cos (2x)
⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ c i 4π ii 2 iii 5, 1
Exercise 6G Tangent graphs
y π π
x⎞ ii x = ±
c y = 5 sin ⎛ 2x ⎞ 1 a i
d y = 4 cos ⎛⎜
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ 5 2 4
4 π π
3x ⎞
b i ii x=±
e y = − sin ⎛⎜ ⎟ f y = −3 cos ( 3x) 3 3 6
⎝ 2⎠ 2 c i 2π ii x = ±π
7 a 1 3π
d i 3π ii ±
y 2
0 x
1 −1 π 2π π
e i π ii x=±
− 7—π − 5—π − 3—π − π– π– π
3— π
5— π
7— 2
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 d i 6π ii 1 iii 0, −2
0 x f i 4π ii x = ±2π
−2π − 3—π −π − π– π– π π
3— 2π y
2 2 2 2 g i 2π ii x = ±π
−1 π π
0 x h i ii x=±
b y
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 2 4
−1 π
3 i i π ii x=±
2
−2 π π
0 x
j i ii x=±
−4 π 4π −3 2 4
−3
9 a y 2 a y
c y − 3–
2
2
−π 0 π 2π x 1
0 π
2— π
4— 2π x 0 π π x
3 3 − 2– – – π
– π
3— π
3 3 3
−2 − ——
4
8 4 2 4
b y
d y
3 1.8
b y
0 x
0 π 2π x −6 6
−1.8
−3
c y
1
y 1.4
e
0 π π π π π
2— x
1.5 — – – –
12 6 3 2 3
0 x
−6π 0 6π x 2 4 6
−1.5
−1.4

c y j y Exercise 6H Solving trigonometric
x = π– x = 3—π
2 4 4 equations
1
1
π π π
0 1 a b c
−1 π
– π
– π
3— π x 4 6 3
0 π π
– 2π 3π 4π x 4 2 4
2 −2 π π π
−3 d e f
−4 6 4 3
−5 2 a 36.9° and 143.1°
y −6 b 104.5° and 255.5°
d
c 80.1° and 260.1°
d 238.2° and 301.8°
1 e 78.8° and 281.2°
3 B
0 3π 3π 3π 9π
— — — 6π x 4 a D f 140.1° and 320.1°
4 2 2
b B g 199.5° and 340.5°
5 a y h 40.8° and 319.2°
3 a 0.927, 2.214, 7.210, 8.497
e y 3 2π 4π 8π 10π
b , , ,
3 3 3 3
3
c 0.983, 4.124, 7.266, 10.408
0 x
–π π 2π 5π 11π 17π 23π
2 d , , ,
0 –π π– π 3—π 2π x
4 2 2 6 6 6 6
e 3.542, 5.882, 9.826, 12.165
π 7π 9π 15π
f , , ,
b y 4 4 4 4
f y
4 a C b A
5 a 0.297, 2.844
2 π 5π
1 b ,
0 π 2π 4π 6π 8π x x
3 3
0 3 3
– 3–
π 4π
4 2 c ,
3 3
d 5.820, 3.604
e 2.328, 3.955
g y y 5π 11π
c f ,
6 6
6 D
π
2 7 a 14.5°, 165.5°
–
2 b 131.8°, 228.2°
0 π 2π 3π 4π x 0 x c 74.1°, 254.1°
π 3—
3— π 2π
−1 4 2 d 270°
−2 3
e 78°, 282°
f 108.4°, 288.4°
8 a 60°
b 150°, 330°
h y d y
c 0°, 180°, 360°
d 90°, 210°
e 45°, 135°
1.8
f 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°
g 120°
0 ππ π π
3— π x 0 5 5 x
– – – – – 5– 15
— 5 h 90°, 270°
8 4 2 4 8 4 2 4
i 15°, 105°, 195°, 285°
j 45°, 75°, 165°, 195°, 285°, 315°
−2
k 60°, 150°, 240°, 330°
l 113.74°, 326.26°
π
x = –π e y 9 a General solution: x = 2nπ − , n ∈Z
i y
2 x = 3—π 6
2
− −
3 11π π π 11π
2 For −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π : x = , , ,
1
1– 6 6 6 6
4
π
0 π 3—π 2π x −1 − 1– 0 1– 1 x b General solution: x = n π + , n ∈ Z
−1 –π 6
2 2 2 −2 2
−2 −
11π − 5π π 7π
−3 For −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π : x = , , ,
6 6 6 6

π c t = 6.582; t = 6.987 π 3π 9π 11π
c General solution: x = (2n + 1)π − or 10 , , ,
4 d (1.206, 0.931) and (5.266, 0.971) 4 4 4 4
3π π e $0.98 when t = 8
x = 2n π + and 2n π + , n ∈ Z 11 150° and 210°
4 4 π
CHAPTER REVIEW 12 General solution: x = 2n π + and
− 7π − 5π π 3π 3
For −2π ≤ x ≤ 2π : x = , , , SHORT ANSWER π
4 4 4 4 x = (2n + 1) π − , n ∈ Z
10 General solution: 1 2251.75 m 3
−
− 3 1 −
(12n + 5)π (12n + 1)π 2 a 3 b c 5π − 4π π 2π
x= and , n ∈Z 2 2 For 2π ≤ x ≤ 2π : x = , , ,
12 12 7 7 3 3 3 3
− − 3 a b
11π 7π π 5π 4 3
13 a
23
b −0.40
For −π ≤ x ≤ π : x = , , , 7π 31π π 10
12 12 12 12 4 a b c −
9 18 180 c 0.92 d 0.92
(6n ± 1)π
11 General solution: x = , n ∈Z 5 a 72° −
9 1 3
b 57.3° 14 a b
−π ≤ x ≤ π : 2
For 2
− c 630°
7π − 5π − π π 5π 7π c
−
3 d −1
x= , , , , , 6 a 0.724
9 9 9 9 9 9 b 0.690 π 2π 3π 5π
Exercise 6I c 1.049 15 a , b ,
Applications 3 3 4 4
1 a i 1 kg 7 a 0.436
−
0.484 π 7π
ii 6 days b c , d 0°, 360°
6 6
πt
W = cos ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + 3
b 8 a y
e 135°, 315°
⎝ 3⎠ 4
16 a Amplitude = 6, period = 2
2 a 110 beats/min
b Minimum = 74, maximum = 86
b i 50 1
ii 60 min −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π 4π x
c
2
s
πt 1
c H = 50sin ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ + 110 −4 d
6
s
⎝ 30 ⎠
e L (t)
3 a 1.6 m y
b 86
b i 1m
1.5
ii 0.7 m 80
c 3.254 s
74
4 a 26 °C at 2 pm
b i 18 °C 0 1 2 t
ii 22 °C −π − –π 0 –π π x
2 2
MULTIPLE CHOICE
iii Approx. 11.1 °C
5 a i 12 mm 1 C 2 D 3 A 4 E 5 E
1 −1.5 6 E 7 B 8 D 9 A 10 E
ii S
10 11 C 12 B 13 D 14 B 15 D
b 10 9 a 16 C 17 E 18 A 19 C 20 D
c −11.41 mm; if the displacement is y
21 B 22 C 23 E
positive to the right, then the string is 2
11.41 mm to the left (or vice versa). EXTENDED RESPONSE
1
d S 1 a 25.4 °C, 20.6 °C
120
6 a 40 m b i 23 °C ii 25.4 °C
b 3.9 s c
c 7.8 s π
− 7— π
− 5— π
− 3— − π–8 –π π
3— 5—π π
7— T (°C)
8 8 8 8 8 8 8
7 a 60 s −π π
− 3— − –2π − –4π
0
–π –π π
3— π x
27 25.4
b 50 m 4 4 2 4
26
c 100 m 25
d 314.16 m 24
e i 50 m 23
ii 75 m 22
−2
f 25 s and 35 s 21
8 a i 6 m ii 3 m 20
20.6
b Yes, by approx. 24 minutes b y 19
9 a a ($A) 18
0.99 (8, 0.98)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t
0.96
t (hours)
0.93
0 3π 6π 9π 12π x d 2 hours, 40 minutes
0.90
2 a 40 m
c b 80 cm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t (days)
π ⎞
c 0.3sin ⎛⎜ x
b t = 4.253 (3 d.p.), ∴ on the 5th day ⎝ 16 ⎟⎠

3 a i 2800 ii 1200 iii 2000 c H ⎛ 8π t ⎞
g H = 14 + 5.9cos ⎜
b i 12 months
19.9 ⎝ 5 ⎟⎠
ii 0.8 5 a 2.71 m
c P (thousands) b 11 hours
c i 3 m at 9 pm
2.8 14 ii 2 m at 3:30 pm
2 d h(t) (m)
1.2 (9, 3)
3.0 (0, 2.71)
0 8.1 2.5
3 6 9 12 t (months) (12, 2.25)
2.0
d 1600 (3.5, 2)
1.5
e 4 months 0 1 2 t
1
f Approx. 5 months d See c.
0 3 6 9 12 t (hours)
2
4 a i 19.9 mc ii 8.1 cm e 0.571 s e 1:40 pm and 5:20 pm
b i 11.742 mc ii 8.1 cm f 52.5 times f 3 h 40 min

1 Determine the centre and radius of the circle described by x2 + 6x + y2 + 8y – 24 = 0. 4 marks S H O RT
2 a Sketch the function f defined by: A N S W ER
20 minutes
⎧ 2x + 2 −
3< x <0
⎪
f (x) = ⎨ x + 2 0≤x<2 4 marks
⎪ − 2x + 8 2<x ≤5
⎩
b State the range of f. 1 mark
3 Solve for x in each of the following.

a 23x = 5 2 marks
b log2(x + 1) − log2(3x) = 2 3 marks
M U LTIP L E
1 For the function f (x) = (x − 2)2 + 3, what are the coordinates of the turning points for f (x − 1)? C HO IC E
A (–3, 3) B (–2, 3) C (1, 3) D (2, 3) E (3, 3) 12 minutes
2 The range for the function f: 1] → R, where f (x) = 6 − 5x − is:

[–5, x2, Each question is worth
one mark.
A [–5, 1] B [0, 6] C [6, ∞) D [–6, 1] E [0, 12.25]
3 Which one of the following represents a many-to-one relationship?
A y B y C y
x x x
D y E
y
x
x
4 62x × 3x × 2x + 1 simplifies to:

A 2 2 x + 2 x × 32 x B 364x + 1 C 62 x + 2 x
2 3 2
D 23x + 1 × 33x E 62 x +3 x
2
5 The two x-values that satisfy the equation 2 sin

⎛ π x ⎞ + 1 = 0 between the interval [−π, 2π] are:
⎝ 3 ⎠
7π −π 5 7 7π 11
A and B and C and
6 6 2 2 2 2
−
1 11 7 11π
D and E and
2 2 2 2
6 A possible equation for the rule of the function whose graph is shown below is:
A y = −2 sin (x) B y = −2 sin (3x) y
π
⎛ ⎞ x
C y = − 2 sin D y = −2 cos (x)
⎝ 3 ⎠ x
−3 0 3
E y = − 2 cos
⎛πx⎞
⎝ 3 ⎠
Exam practice 2 307

2
7 Consider the function f (x) = 3 − . The equations of the asymptotes would be:
−
1 (2 x + 1)
A x= f (x) = 3
2
B x = −1 f (x) = −3
C x=0 f (x) = 0
1
D x= f (x) = 3
2
E x=2 f (x) = 1
8 For the function g(x) = 4 − 2 − x , the implied domain and range would be respectively:
A (−∞, 2) and (4, ∞) B R /{2} a nd R + C [2, ∞) and [4, ∞)
− −
D ( ∞, 2] and ( ∞, 4] E R ∪ {0} and R+
E XTENDED
R E SPONS E 1 Rock pools in a tropical lagoon form when the depth of water in the lagoon falls below 6 metres. The
π (t − 3) ⎞
depth of water in a lagoon can be modelled using d (t ) = 1.5 sin ⎛⎜
35 minutes
+ 5.5, where d is the depth
⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
in metres and t is the time in hours after 7 am in the morning.
a Determine the maximum and minimum water depth. 2 marks
b Determine the time, in hours, taken for the water depth to increase from the minimum
depth to the maximum depth. 1 mark
c Sketch the graph of d(t) in the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 24. 3 marks
d At what time will the depth of water first be 6 metres deep? 1 mark
e Billy and Tommy swim only in the safety of the rock pools. They arrive at the lagoon
at 9:30 am and leave at 4:15 pm.
i Determine how long they will be able to swim in the rock pools. Write your answer
correct to 2 decimal places. 1 mark
ii Determine the total time Billy and Tommy would be able to swim in the rock pools.
Write your answer to the nearest whole minute. 2 marks
kt
2 Over the summer months, the number of mosquito larvae in a dam was modelled using M = M0 e ,
where M0 is the initial population, t is the time in days and k is a positive constant. The number of
mosquito larvae was recorded each morning at 8 am. The first day of recording was taken as t = 0. The
recording lasted only until the end of summer (90 days).
a On the first day of recording, there were 150 mosquito larvae. Determine the value of M0. 1 mark
b At 8 am on the fifth day there were 235 mosquito larvae.
i Write an equation that determines the number of larvae on the fifth day. 1 mark
ii Show that the value of k is 0.11. 2 marks
c If the mosquito larvae continue to increase according to the model, determine the expected
number of larvae present in the dam at the end of summer (90 days). 2 marks
d Frogs were introduced to the dam during the twentieth day. Mosquito larvae are part of the frogs’
diet. Since the frogs were introduced, the number of mosquito larvae has decreased. The decrease
in mosquito larvae can be modelled using D = 200 e(20 – t) + 300, where D is the decrease in
mosquito larvae after the twentieth day. The recording of the mosquito larvae has remains the
same as before.
i State the domain of the function D. 1 mark
DIGITAL DOC ii Determine the number of mosquito larvae expected in the dam over the long term. 1 mark
doc-10162
Solutions iii By how much had the mosquito larvae decreased in the first twenty-four hours of
Exam practice 2 recording after the frogs were introduced? 1 mark

CHAPTER 7
Matrices
doc-9769
7A Addition and subtraction of matrices 10 Quick Questions
7B Multiplying matrices
7C Solving matrix equations
7D Matrices and transformations
7A Addition and subtraction of matrices

Introduction
In all walks of life we deal with the mathematical phenomenon called the matrix. A train timetable, a
football scorecard and examination results are all examples of matrices. Anytime there is a rectangular
grouping of numbers, there is a matrix.
A summary of cricket scores after three matches is shown in the table below.
Overs Maidens Wickets Runs
Smith 10 3 2 35
Brown 14 2 3 29
Nguyen 9 2 3 39
Removing the headings from the table leaves only

an array of numbers:
⎡ 10 3 2 35 ⎤
⎢ 14 2 3 29 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 9 2 3 39 ⎥⎦
This is called a matrix. The plural of matrix is matrices. The

matrix above is a (3 × 4) matrix as it has 3 rows and 4 columns.
This number of rows and columns gives the order, or the
dimensions, of the matrix.
⎡ 6 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥ is a (4 × 1) matrix since it has 4 rows and 1 column.
⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢ −4 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an (m × n)

matrix.
CHAPTER 7 Matrices 309

Each individual entry in a matrix is called an element. In general, the elements of a matrix are identified
by the row and column that pinpoint their position in the matrix. Thus if A is a (3 × 2) matrix, we write:
⎡ a11 a12 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
A = ⎢ a21 a22 ⎥
⎢ a31 a32 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The elements of the matrix A are referred to as aij, where i refers to the position of the element in the
row and j refers to the position of the element in the column. So, a21 refers to the element that is in row
2, column 1.
Addition and subtraction of matrices

Imagine, for the three players in the cricket team, that a fourth match gave the following results:
Total Overs Maidens Wickets Runs

Smith 3 1 0 10
Brown 10 1 2 34
Nguyen 15 2 4 54
Clearly we can add these results to the previous results, giving the total figures for four matches:
Total Overs Maidens Wickets Runs

Smith 13 4 2 45
Brown 24 3 5 63
Nguyen 24 4 7 93
In matrix form we write this as:
⎡ 10 3 2 35 ⎤ ⎡ 3 1 0 10 ⎤ ⎡ 13 4 2 45 ⎤
⎢ 14 2 3 29 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ 10 1 2 34 ⎥ = ⎢ 24 3 5 63 ⎥
⎢⎣ 9 2 3 39 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 15 2 4 54 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 24 4 7 93 ⎥⎦
Matrices are added by adding corresponding elements.

It follows that:
⎡ 13 4 2 45 ⎤ ⎡ 3 1 0 10 ⎤ ⎡ 10 3 2 35 ⎤
⎢ 24 3 5 63 ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 14 2 3 29 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 10 1 2 34 ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 24 4 7 93 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 15 2 4 54 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 2 3 39 ⎥⎦
Matrices are subtracted by subtracting corresponding elements.

The matrices we have added or subtracted have the same order, i.e. the same number of rows (three)
and the same number of columns (four).
Addition and subtraction of matrices can be performed only if the matrices are of the same order.
The commutative and associative laws for addition

of matrices
The Commutative Law
Simply stated, if this law holds, matrices can be added in reverse position. Consequently for matrix
addition, A + B = B + A, provided A and B are of the same order. And clearly with subtraction,
A − B = A + (−B) = (−B) + A, if A and B are the same order.
The Commutative Law holds for matrix addition for matrices of the same order.

The Associative Law
Simply stated, if this law holds, any number of matrices (of the same order) can be added together,
adding any pair of matrices first. Thus:
A + B + C + D = (A + B) + C + D
= (B + C) + A + D
= (B + D) + A + C provided the matrices are the same order.
Thus for subtraction, A − B − C = [A + (−B) + (−C)] = [A + (−B)] + (−C) or A + [(−B) + (−C)] and so on.
The Associative Law holds for matrix addition for matrices of the same order.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Show that the Commutative Law holds for matrices A and B given below.
⎡ 1 2 −5 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 −4 ⎤ TUTORIAL
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ eles-1426
A= ⎢ 0 −
1 4 ⎥, B = ⎢ 5 3 1 ⎥ Worked example 1
⎢ 2 0 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 0 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎣
THINK WRITE
1 For the Commutative Law to apply, A + B = B + A. Both matrices are (3 × 3) so it is possible for
Both matrices have the same order so it is possible addition to occur.
to add them.
⎡ 1 2 −5 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 −4 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 Find A + B by adding the corresponding A+ B = ⎢ 0 −1 4 ⎥+⎢ 5 3 1 ⎥
elements in each matrix. ⎢ 2 0 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 2 2 −9 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
=⎢ 5 2 5 ⎥
⎢ 2 0 5 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 1 0 −4 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 −5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
3 Find B + A by adding the corresponding B+ A= ⎢ 5 3 1 ⎥+⎢ 0 −1 4 ⎥
elements in each matrix. ⎢ 0 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 0 3 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 2 2 −9 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
=⎢ 5 2 5 ⎥
⎢ 2 0 5 ⎥⎦
⎣
4 Write the answer. The Commutative Law holds for matrices

A and B as A + B = B + A.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
⎡ 1 3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 5 ⎤ ⎡ 5 4 −2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A= ⎢ 0 1 ⎥ , B = ⎢ 1 0 ⎥ and C = ⎢ 7 0 4 ⎥
⎢ 2 −
4 ⎥ ⎢ 2 3 ⎥ ⎢ 3 1 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
Find, if possible:
a A+B
b A−B
c A−C
d the answers to parts a, b and c using a calculator.

THINK WRITE
⎡ 1 3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
a A and B have the same order, so it is a A+ B = ⎢ 0 1 ⎥ + ⎢ −1 0 ⎥
possible to add them. Add the corresponding ⎢ 2 −4 ⎥ ⎢ 2 3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
elements of each matrix.
⎡ 1 8 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
= ⎢ −1 1 ⎥
⎢ 4 −1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ − ⎥
b A and B have the same order, so it is possible b A − B = ⎢ 0 1 ⎥−⎢ 1 0 ⎥
to subtract them. Subtract the corresponding ⎢ 2 −
4 ⎥ ⎢ 2 3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
elements of each matrix.
⎡ 1 −2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
=⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢ 0 −7 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
c Subtraction cannot be performed since the c A – C cannot be calculated because A and C are of
order of A is (3 × 2) and the order of C is different order.
(3 × 3).
⎡ 1 3 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
d 1 Define the matrices using the CAS d⎢ 0 1 ⎥→a
calculator. ⎢ 2 −4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 0 5 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎢ 1 0 ⎥→b
⎢ 2 3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 5 4 −2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 7 0 4 ⎥→c
⎢ 3 1 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 1 8 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
2 Use the CAS calculator to perform the a + b = ⎢ −1 1 ⎥
matrix addition A + B. ⎢ 4 −1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 −2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
3 Use the CAS calculator to perform the a−b= ⎢ 1 1 ⎥
matrix subtraction A − B. ⎢ 0 −
7 ⎥⎦
⎣
4 Use the CAS calculator to perform the ERROR

matrix subtraction A − C. (The two matrices are of different orders.)
Special types of matrices

In life it is convenient to associate shapes with names. Thus we all know what a round shape looks like,
what a pear-shaped person looks like and so on. A similar principle can be applied to describing the
shapes of matrices.

Type Shape Description Order Example Order of example
Column Consists of a There can be any number (2 × 1) ⎡ −1 ⎤ (4 × 1)
matrix single column of rows, but only one (5 × 1) ⎢ ⎥
column. (27 × 1) ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
(m × 1) ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
There can be any number (1 × 2) −1
Row matrix Consists of a [5 3 0 4] (1 × 5)
single row of columns, but only one (1 × 10)
row. (1 × 56)
(1 × n)
Square Consists of an Any number of rows. (1 × 1) ⎡ 2 −5 ⎤ (2 × 2)
matrix equal number of Must have the same (2 × 2) ⎢ ⎥
rows and columns number of columns. (6 × 6) ⎢⎣ 4 0 ⎥⎦
(20 × 20)
Diagonal A diagonal Must be a square matrix (1 × 1) ⎡ 2 0 ⎤ (3 × 3)
0
matrix matrix is a square (3 × 3) ⎢ ⎥
matrix with every (6 × 6) ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥
element, not on the (25 × 25) ⎢ 0 0 −3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
leading diagonal,
equal to 0.
Unit matrix A unit matrix Must be a square matrix (1 × 1) ⎡ 1 0 0 ⎤ (3 × 3)
is a diagonal (2 × 2) ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥
matrix with all the (6 × 6) ⎢ ⎥
elements on the (20 × 20) ⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
leading diagonal
equal to 1.
Zero matrix A zero matrix can Any shape Any
⎡ 0 0 0 ⎤ (2 × 3)
be any shape, but order ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥
all the elements ⎣ ⎦
are 0.
Equal Any shape If matrices Must ⎡ x y ⎤ ⎡ −1 3 ⎤ Both
matrices are equal, then both have ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ (3 × 2)
their shape and all same ⎢ 2 p 3q ⎥ = ⎢ 4 − 9 ⎥
corresponding elements order ⎢ 1 4 ⎥ ⎢ 1 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
must be identical. x = –1, y = 3, p = 2, q = –3
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
⎡ 2x + y ⎤ ⎡ 4 ⎤
Solve for x and y in the following equal matrices. ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 x − 2 y
TUTORIAL
⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 13 ⎥⎦ eles-1427
Worked example 3
THINK WRITE
1 Corresponding elements are equal, so 2x + y = 4
write these as equations. 3x – 2y = 13
2 Solve the simultaneous equations. 2x + y = 4 [1]
3x – 2y = 13 [2]
Multiply equation [1] by 2.
4x + 2y = 8 [3]
Add equations [2] and [3].
7x = 21
x=3
Substitute x = 3 into [1].
y = −2
3 Write the answer. x = 3 and y = −2

Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
As in ordinary arithmetic, multiplication is simply a shorthand method of addition. Rather than 4 + 4 +
4 + 4 + 4 = 20, we say 5 × 4 = 20. Similarly, this method also applies to matrices.
⎡ 2 −5 ⎤ ⎡ 2 −5 ⎤ ⎡ 4 − 10⎤
⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 0 ⎥
⎦
is the same as:
⎡ 2 −5 ⎤ ⎡ 4 − 10⎤
2× ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 0 ⎥
⎦
Thus if A = [a b c], then 3A = [3a 3b 3c].
A scalar is a single (real) number.
When a matrix is multiplied by a scalar, each element of the matrix is multiplied by the scalar.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
⎡ 3 4⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
If A = ⎢ −2
⎥ and B = ⎢ −
⎥ , find :
⎢⎣ 5⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 7 2 ⎥⎦
a 3A b 4B c 3A + 4B d 2(A + B) e 5(B − A) using a calculator.
THINK WRITE
⎡ 3 4 ⎤
a Multiply each element of A by 3. a 3A = 3 ⎢ −2
⎥
⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
⎡ 9 12 ⎤
=⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ 6 15 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤
b Multiply each element of B by 4. b 4B = 4 ⎢ ⎥
−2
⎢⎣ 7 ⎥⎦
⎡ 4 0 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 28 −8 ⎥
⎦
⎡ 9 12 ⎤ ⎡ 4 0 ⎤
c Add the two matrices found in parts c 3A + 4B = ⎢
−
⎥+⎢ ⎥
a and b. ⎢⎣ 6 15 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 28 −8 ⎥
⎦
⎡ 13 12 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 22 7 ⎥⎦
⎡ 3 4 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
d 1 Find A + B by adding the b A+ B = ⎢ −
⎥+⎢ −2
⎥
corresponding elements of A and B. ⎣⎢ 2 5 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 7 ⎥⎦
⎡ 4 4 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 5 3 ⎦
⎡ 4 4 ⎤
2 Multiply each element of the 2( A + B) = 2 ⎢ ⎥
resulting matrix by 2. ⎣ 5 3 ⎦
⎡ 8 8 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 10 6 ⎥⎦

e 1 Define the matrices using your CAS e⎡ ⎤
3 4
calculator. ⎢ −2
⎥→a
⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤
⎢ −2
⎥→b
⎢⎣ 7 ⎥⎦
2 Perform the matrix arithmetic ⎡ − 10 − 20 ⎤

5(b − a) and write the result. 5(b − a) = ⎢ −
⎥
⎢⎣ 45 35 ⎥⎦
If A and B are matrices of the same order and a and b are real numbers, then:
1. aA + bA = (a + b)A
2. aA + aB = a(A + B)
3. (ab)A = a(bA).
If aA = 0, then a = 0, or A is a zero matrix.
Exercise 7A Addition and subtraction of matrices

1 WE1 Show that the Commutative Law holds for matrices A and B given below.
⎡ 1 6 ⎤ ⎡ 3 −5 ⎤
A=⎢ −4 2
⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 5 −
3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 4 ⎤
⎡ 1 3 5 ⎤ ⎡
2 3 0 ⎤ − ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2 WE2 If A = ⎢ −3 −
⎥, B = ⎢⎥, C = ⎢ 1 0 ⎥ and D = ⎢ 2
−3
⎥,
⎢⎣ 2 1 1 2 1 ⎥⎦
⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎢ 4 − ⎥ ⎢ 1 −1 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
find each of the following, if they exist.
a A+B b B–A
c B+D d A+C
e C – D.
3 Find [2 −5 3 0 4] – [−3 4 1 6 −3].
4 WE3 Solve for x and y in the following equal matrices.
⎡ x + 2y ⎤ ⎡ 5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 x − 3 y ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 11 ⎥
⎦
5 State the order of each of the following matrices.
⎡ 2 4 ⎡ 1 ⎤
5 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 3
a ⎢ 0 1 −2 ⎥ b ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 4 −3 6 ⎥ ⎢ −4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
c [−2x + y] d [1 4 5 3]
6 Find the matrix P such that P – [−1 2 −5] = [−3 4 2].
⎡ p ⎤ ⎡ 8 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
7 If 3 ⎢ q ⎥ = ⎢ − 9 ⎥ , find p, q and r.
⎢⎣ r ⎥⎦ ⎢ 10 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
− ⎡ 2 ⎤
8 What does [ 5 4] − ⎢ ⎥ equal?
⎣ 1 ⎦

9 MC 3[2 3 4] – 5[−1 −2 −3] equals:
A [11 −1 27] B [0 19 −3]
C [11 19 27] D [1 19 27]

E [1 −1 27]
⎡ x 3 ⎤ ⎡ 2 y ⎤
10 MC If 2 ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥:
⎢⎣ − 1 2m ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 p 12 ⎦⎥
A x = 1, y = 3, p = −1, m = 3 B x = 1, y = 6, p = −1, m = 3
C x = 1, y = 3, p = −1, m = 6 D x = 2, y = 3, p = −1, m = 3
E x = 2, y = 6, p = −1, m = 12
11 WE4 MC If A = [0 4] and B = [−3 0], what is −4A − 3B?
−16] −19]
A [9 B [5
C [9 −19] D [5 −16]
E [−13 −16]
12 George, Linda and Mary sat two examinations in each of English, Mathematics and Science. In the first
examination they scored 40%, 50% and 60% respectively for English; 62%, 87% and 28% respectively
for Mathematics; and 100%, 14% and 73% respectively for Science.
a Write this information as a (3 × 3) matrix, labelling names on columns and subjects on rows.
In the second examination their results were 50%, 65% and 80% respectively for English; 87%, 76%
and 45% respectively for Mathematics; and 95%, 37% and 89% respectively for Science.
b Write this information as a (3 × 3) matrix, labelling names on columns and subjects on rows.
c Add the matrices together.
d Hence calculate their average mark in each subject.
e Write Mary’s average as a (1 × 3) matrix.
13 At the Queen Victoria market, 5 people each bought 3 apples and 2 oranges, 7 people each bought
1 apple and 6 oranges, and 8 people each bought 4 apples and 2 oranges. Write this information in
matrix form, and use matrix addition to calculate the total number of apples and oranges bought by
the group.
7B Multiplying matrices
Multiplying matrices is a procedure that takes place in two distinct stages:
Stage 1: Identification of the correct conditions for multiplication to occur
Stage 2: The multiplication itself.
Stage 1: We need to establish whether multiplication is possible. This can best be thought of as two tiles,
side by side, in the game of dominoes.
Here we can join the number three in each domino.

A similar principle applies to the multiplication of matrices, if we think of each domino as row–
column. Specifically, only those matrices that have the same number of columns in the first matrix as the
number of rows in the second matrix can be multiplied. Further, if we can join the dominoes (matrices)
as shown, that is by placing a three against a three, not only can we multiply the matrices, but the order
of the resulting matrix is given by the two outside numbers, in this case a (2 × 4) matrix.
In general we can multiply an (m × n) matrix by an (n × p) matrix, because the inside numbers are the
same (both n). These inside numbers are called the inner product. The outer numbers (outer product)
give the order of the resultant matrix (m × p).

Stage 2: We know from our dominoes that we can multiply because the inner product is equal (3 × 3).
The resulting answer matrix is of order (2 × 4). For example:
⎡ 4 2 0 1 ⎤
⎡ 2 5 −1 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥
A=⎢ − ⎥ and B = ⎢ − 1 7 2 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 2 − − ⎥
⎣ 2 3 ⎦
⎡ a b c d ⎤
A × B = AB = ⎢
⎢⎣ e f g h ⎥⎥
⎦
(2 × 3) × (3 × 4) = (2 × 4)
In the answer matrix, the letter a marks the intersection of the first row and the first column. To
calculate the value of a, we multiply the first row of the first matrix by the first column of the second
matrix. (In matrix multiplication we always multiply rows of the first matrix by columns of the second
matrix).
−1
2 5 × –4
× −1
2 5 –1 × –0
a = 2 × 4 + 5 × −1 + −1 ×0
= 8 + −5 + 0
=3
To calculate the value of f, at the intersection of the second row and second column of the answer
matrix, we multiply the second row of the first matrix by the second column of the second matrix.
−1 2 3 2
× 7
2
f = −1 × 2 + 2×7 + 3×2
f = −2 + 14 + 6
f = 18
This process is repeated for each element in the answer matrix,
⎡ 3 37 12 15 ⎤
so A × B = ⎢ ⎥.
⎢⎣ − 6 18 −2 −6 ⎥
⎦
⎡ a11 a12 ⎤ ⎡ b11 b12 ⎤
In general, if A = ⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥,
⎢⎣ a21 a22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ b21 b22 ⎥⎦
⎡ a11 × b11 + a12 × b21 a11 × b12 + a12 × b22 ⎤

then A × B = ⎢ ⎥.
⎢⎣ a21 × b11 + a22 × b21 a21 × b12 + a22 × b22 ⎥⎦
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 4 1 −3 ⎤
P=⎢ ⎥, Q = ⎢ ⎥ TUTORIAL
⎣ 3 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 5 7 ⎥⎦ eles-1428
a Write the order of the two matrices. b Does PQ exist? Worked example 5
c Does QP exist? d Calculate the product(s) that do exist.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Matrix P has two rows and two columns. a P is a (2 × 2) matrix.
2 Matrix Q has two rows and three columns. Q is a (2 × 3) matrix.
b PQ is the product of a (2 × 2) and a b PQ exists.

(2 × 3) matrix, so it exists.

c QP is the product of a (2 × 3) and a c QP does not exist.
(2 × 2) matrix, so it does not exist.
d 1 Multiply the rows of matrix P

⎡
d PQ = ⎢ 1 0 ⎤⎡ 4 1 −3 ⎤
⎥⎢ ⎥
with the columns of matrix Q. ⎣ 3 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 5 7 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1× 4 + 0 × 2 1×1+ 0 × 5 1× −3 + 0 × 7 ⎤
=⎢ −
⎥
⎢⎣ 3 × 4 + 2 × 2 3 × 1 + 2 × 5 3 × 3 + 2 × 7 ⎥⎦
⎡ 4 1 −3 ⎤
2 Simplify PQ. =⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 16 13 5 ⎥⎦
Note: In worked example 5, PQ exists but QP does not exist, indicating that matrix multiplication is
not commutative.
Exercise 7B Multiplying matrices

⎡ 5 −
3 ⎤ ⎡ 0 4 ⎤
⎡ 1 3 5 ⎤ ⎡ −
2 3 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
1 WE5 A=⎢ −3
⎥, B = ⎢ −
⎥, C = ⎢ 1 0 ⎥ and D = ⎢ 2
−3
⎥. Find each of
⎢⎣ 2 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 2 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 4 − ⎥ ⎢ 1 −1 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
the following, if they exist.
a AB b BA c BD d AC e CB
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥
DIGITAL DOC 2 Evaluate ⎡⎣ 2 − ⎤ ×
5 0 3 ⎦ ⎢ − ⎥.
doc-9770 2
WorkSHEET 7.1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 5 0 ⎤
⎡ 1 3 ⎤ ⎡ 5 3 0 ⎤
− ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 0 4 ⎤
3 If P = ⎢ ⎥ ,Q = ⎢ −
⎥R=⎢ 1 4 ⎥ and S = ⎢ − 1 −3
⎥ , evaluate:
⎣ 2 1 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 4 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 −1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
a QR b R(P + S) c R(P + SQ).
⎡ 1 ⎤
−1 ⎡ 0 5 ⎤
4 M=⎢ ⎥ and N = ⎢ − −
⎥.
⎢⎣ 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 3 ⎥⎦
a Show that MN ≠ NM.
b Evaluate M2.
⎛ ⎡ 3 0 ⎤⎞ ⎛ ⎡ 2 0 ⎤⎞
c Find ⎜ 2 N × ⎢ ⎥⎟ ⎜ M+⎢ ⎥⎟ .
⎝ ⎣ 0 3 ⎦⎠ ⎝ ⎣ 0 2 ⎦⎠
5 a Use multiplication to simplify the matrix equation below.
⎡ 1 5 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 11 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
b Write the answer to 5a in a form that does not contain matrices.
c Solve for x and y.
6 A is a (2 × 2) square matrix.
⎡ 2 −1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 3 ⎥⎦
⎡ 4 0 ⎤
a Find A2 − 3 A − ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 0 4 ⎦
b Find A3.

7 Write the simultaneous equations
2x + 5y = 11
−3x+ 2y = 12
as a matrix equation.
⎡ −2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
8 E = ⎡⎣ 2 3 4 ⎤⎦ and F = ⎢ − 3 ⎥ .
⎢ −4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
a Find EF. b Find FE. c Does the Commutative Law hold?
⎡ 1 4 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
9 If A = ⎢ −2
⎥ and I = ⎢ ⎥ , find A + 5A − 3I.
2
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦
⎡ 3 4 ⎤
10 a If P = ⎢ ⎥, find P
3.
⎣ 1 2 ⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤
b Find the (2 × 2) matrix Q such that Q × P = ⎢ ⎥.
⎢⎣ 9 12 ⎥⎦
⎡ 3 0 ⎤ ⎡ −1 1 ⎤
11 MC P=⎢ −2
⎥ and Q = ⎢ −2
⎥ . PQ equals:
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
⎡ −5 3 ⎤ ⎡ −3 8 ⎤ ⎡ −5 3 ⎤ ⎡ −3 3 ⎤ ⎡ −3 8 ⎤
A ⎢ −
⎥ B ⎢ −
⎥ C ⎢ ⎥ D ⎢ −
⎥ E ⎢ − −
⎥
⎢⎣ 3 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 −
11 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 5 9 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 −1 ⎤
12 MC P=⎢ ⎥. P2 equals:
⎢⎣ 3 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 −2 ⎤ ⎡ 7 −2 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −2 ⎤ ⎡ 7 2 ⎤ ⎡ 7 2 ⎤
A ⎢ ⎥ B ⎢ ⎥ C ⎢ ⎥ D ⎢ ⎥ E ⎢ 6 3 ⎥
⎢⎣ 9
−3
⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 6
−
3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 6
−3
⎥⎦ ⎣ 9 3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
13 MC The order of the answer matrix when we multiply a matrix of order (2 × 3) by a matrix of
order (1 × 2) is:
A (1 × 2) B (1 × 3) C (2 × 1) D (3 × 2) E (3 × 1)
14 The three matrices A, B and C have orders (a × b), (a × c) and (b × a) respectively.
a For which pairs of matrices does the product exist? State the order of the answer(s).
b Is it possible to multiply all three matrices together? If so, state the order of the answer.
c For which pairs of matrices does the sum exist? State the order of the answer(s).
⎡ 3 ⎤ 5 ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
15 If M = ⎢ ⎥ and I = ⎢ ⎥ , evaluate M and solve for a and b such that aM − bM − I = 0.
2 2
−2
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 0 ⎣ 0 1 ⎦
16 Fast-food chain McDonuts has outlets in the centre of the city. An overall view of sales is maintained to
monitor demand. Hamburgers, drinks and chips were surveyed.
In January, Store A sold 1200 hamburgers, 2367 drinks and 4219 serves of chips.
a Write this as a (1 × 3) matrix.
b The selling price of each product is $4.50, $1.95 and $2.45 respectively. Write this as a
(3 × 1) matrix.
c Multiply these matrices to calculate the total income from these three items.
17 Mayfleet, the international hotel chain, is building a new hotel in Arcadia Waters South. The guest
accommodation comprises 80 standard rooms, 45 suites and 3 presidential suites. Each standard room
has 1 king-size bed, 1 table, 2 chairs and 1 TV. Each suite has 1 king-size bed, 2 single beds, 2 tables,
5 chairs and 3 TVs. The presidential suites have 2 king-size beds, 6 single beds, 7 tables, 18 chairs
and 6 TVs.
a Set this information out in the form of two matrices.
b Multiply these matrices to calculate the total number of pieces of furniture that Mayfleet must
purchase to fit out the guest rooms.

The multiplicative identity matrix
The unit matrix, previously defined as a significant square matrix, does not alter any other matrix by
which it is multiplied. It is denoted by I and is known as the multiplicative identity matrix.
⎡ 1 0 0 ⎤
I = ⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ is an example of a multiplicative identity matrix.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 3 −1 4 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
If A = ⎢ −4
⎥ and I = ⎢ ⎥, then:
⎢⎣ 0 2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤⎡ 2 3 −1 4 ⎤ ⎡ 2 3 −1 4 ⎤
IA = ⎢ ⎥⎢ −
⎥=⎢ −
⎥.
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 2 4 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 2 4 3 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 3 −1 4 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤
Notice that ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ is not possible.
−
⎢⎣ 0 2 4 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦
Thus, it follows that AI = IA = A, if A is a square matrix.
The inverse matrix

When any square matrix is multiplied by its inverse we obtain the identity, I. The inverse of matrix A is
−
written as A 1. By definition:
A × A 1 = A 1 × A = I.
− −
⎡ 1 0 ⎤
Thus, if A is a (2 × 2) matrix, then A × A 1 = ⎢
−
⎥.
⎣ 0 1 ⎦
Similarly, if A is a (3 × 3) matrix, then:
⎡ 1 0 0 ⎤
=⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥.
−1
A× A
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Calculation of the inverse of a (2 × 2) matrix

⎡ a b ⎤ −1
Only square matrices have inverses. If A = ⎢ ⎥ , then its inverse A equals
⎣ c d ⎦
1 ⎡ d −b ⎤
⎢ ⎥. The number (ad – bc) is called the determinant of the matrix A and is
ad − bc ⎢⎣ − c a ⎥⎦
written as det (A) or | A |. The determinant may be positive, negative or zero.
Notice that if det (A) = 0, the inverse does not exist, as 1 is undefined. In this case, matrix A is called a
0
singular matrix.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
⎡ 1 5 ⎤
If F = ⎢ ⎥ , find F 1 .
−
−2 3
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
THINK WRITE
1 Find det (F ). det (F ) = (1 × 3) − (−2 × 5)

= 13
2 Swap the elements in the main diagonal. ⎡ 3 ⎤

⎢ 1 ⎥⎦
⎣

3 Multiply the elements on the other diagonal by −1. ⎡ −5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
4 Write the inverse of F. −1 1 ⎡ 3 −5 ⎤

F = ⎢ ⎥
13 ⎢⎣ 2 1 ⎥⎦
5 Alternatively, using your CAS calculator, define the ⎡ 1 5 ⎤

matrix f. ⎢ − ⎥→ f
⎣ 2 3 ⎦
6 Use the inverse feature of the CAS calculator to ⎡ 3 −5 ⎤
− − ⎢ ⎥
determine f 1. f 1 =⎢
13 13
2 1 ⎥
Note that this is the same result as in step 4. ⎢⎣ 13 13 ⎥⎦
Use of matrices to solve simultaneous linear

equations
Matrices may be used to solve simultaneous equations of the form:
2x + 5y = 11
−3x + 2y = 12
These simultaneous equations may be expressed as the matrix equation:

⎡ 2 5 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 11 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣ 12 ⎦
⎡ 2 5 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 11 ⎤
If A = ⎢ − ⎥ , X = ⎢ y ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥,
⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 12 ⎦
then AX = B,
− −
A 1AX = A 1B
−
IX = A 1B
−
X = A 1B
det (A) = 2 × 2 − (−5 × 3) = 19
− 1 ⎡ 2 −5 ⎤
A 1= ⎢ ⎥
19 ⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ x ⎤ 1 ⎡ 2 −
5 ⎤ ⎡ 11 ⎤
⎢ y ⎥= ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 19 ⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 12 ⎦
1 ⎡ − 38 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
19 ⎢⎣ 57 ⎦⎥
⎡ −2 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
x = –2, y = 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Solve the simultaneous equations using matrix methods.

3x – y = −7 TUTORIAL
−2x + 5y = 9 eles-1429
Worked example 7
THINK WRITE
1 Write the simultaneous equations as a ⎡ − ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ −7 ⎤

3 1
matrix equation. ⎢ −
⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 5 ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦

2 Calculate the inverse of the coefficient ⎡ −1 ⎤
3
matrix. det ⎢ −
⎥ = 15 − 2 = 13
⎢⎣ 2 5 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ 5 1 ⎤
The inverse is ⎢ ⎥.
13 ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
3 Multiply both sides of the equation by 1 ⎡ 5 1 ⎤⎡ 3 −

1 ⎤⎡ x ⎤ 1 ⎡ 5 1 ⎤⎡ −
7 ⎤
this inverse matrix. ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
13 ⎣ 2 3 ⎦ ⎢⎣ −
2 5 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ 13 ⎣ 2 3 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦
⎡ x ⎤ 1 ⎡ − 26 ⎤
I ⎢ ⎥= ⎢ ⎥
y
⎣ ⎦ 13 ⎣⎢ 13 ⎦⎥
4 Simplify. ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ −2 ⎤
⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
5 Write the answers. x = −2 and y = 1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Solve the simultaneous equations using matrix methods. Interpret your findings.
2x − 4y = 10
3x − 6y = 5
THINK WRITE
1 Write the simultaneous equations as a ⎡ 2 −4 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 10 ⎤

matrix equation. ⎢ −6
⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 −4 ⎤ −
2 Calculate the inverse of the coefficient matrix. det ⎢ −6
⎥ = 12 + 12 = 0
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
The inverse does not exist as this is a
singular matrix.
3 Interpret the result. There is no point of intersection between
the lines. It follows that the lines are
parallel.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Solve the following in terms of r.

rx – y = 1
TUTORIAL
x – ry = 2 eles-1430
Worked example 9
THINK WRITE
1 Write the simultaneous equations as a ⎡ r −1 ⎤⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤

matrix equation. ⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 −r
⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡ r −1 ⎤
2 Calculate the inverse of the coefficient matrix. det ⎢ −r
⎥ = (r × − r ) − (1 × −1) = − r 2 + 1
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ −r 1 ⎤
The inverse is −r2 ⎢ ⎥.
+ 1 ⎢⎣ −1 r ⎥⎦

3 Multiply both sides of the equation by this inverse
⎡ x ⎤ 1 ⎡ −r 1 ⎤⎡ 1 ⎤
matrix. ⎢ y ⎥= − 2 ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ r + 1 ⎢⎣ −1 r ⎥⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
4 Write the answers. Thus

−r −
+2 1 + 2r
x= − 2
,y= − 2
r +1 r +1
or
r−2 1 − 2r .
x= ,y=
1− r2 1− r2
This method can be used to solve a range of problems efficiently.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
A cubic equation is of the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. The points (1, 1), (0, 3), (−1, 3), (2, −1) lie on
the curve. Use matrices to find a, b, c and d.
THINK WRITE
1 Substitute the coordinates given to form equations y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

involving a, b, c and d. 1 = a(1)3 + b(1)2 + c(1) + d
3 = a(0)3 + b(0)2 + c(0) + d
3 = a(−1)3 + b(−1)2 + c(−1) + d
−1 = a(2)3 + b(2)2 + c(2) + d
2 Simplify. 1=a+b+c+d
3=0+0+0+d
3 = −a + b − c + d
−1 = 8a + 4b + 2c + d
3 Set up a matrix equation, AX = B. ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤⎡ a ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤

⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎢ b
⎥=⎢
3 ⎥
⎢ −1 1 −1 1 ⎥⎢ c ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ d ⎥⎦ ⎢ −1 ⎥
⎢⎣ 8 4 2 1 ⎦⎥ ⎣ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
4 Using your CAS calculator, define matrix a. ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤

⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 1 ⎥→a
⎢ −1 1 −1 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 8 4 2 1 ⎥⎦
5 Using your CAS calculator, define matrix b. ⎡ 1 ⎤

⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥→b
⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ −1 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ 1⎤
⎢ 3⎥
6 Using the CAS calculator’s matrix multiplication ⎢ − ⎥
− −1
A B=⎢ 1
and matrix inverse features, calculate X = A 1B. −4
⎥
⎢ ⎥
3
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
1 −4
7 Write the answer. a = 3 , b = − 1, c = 3
,d =3

Exercise 7C Solving matrix equations
1 Find the determinant of each of the following.
⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤
a ⎡ 1 2 ⎤ −2
b ⎢ c ⎢ 1
DIGITAL DOC ⎢ 3 4 ⎥ −
⎥ −4 −3
⎥
doc-9771 ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 6 5 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
WorkSHEET 7.2
d ⎡ 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x 2 ⎤ ⎡ −x x2 ⎤
e ⎢ ⎥ f ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 y ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣
−
6 x ⎥⎦
⎡ x−2 9 ⎤ −
2 A=⎢
1 x + 3 ⎥ and det (A) = 3. Evaluate x.
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 2 −5 ⎤
3 WE6 a Find the inverse of matrix A = ⎢ ⎥.
−
⎢⎣ 3 1 ⎥⎦
b Show that A × A = A × A = I, where I is the multiplicative identity matrix.
− −
1 1
4 If it exists, find the inverse of each of the following matrices.

⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ − ⎤ ⎡ −5 3 ⎤
a ⎢ 2 ⎥ b ⎢ 1 1 ⎥ c ⎢ ⎥
−
⎢⎣ 1 − 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 15
−
9 ⎥
⎦
⎡ − 8 ⎤ ⎡ − 3 ⎤
d ⎢ 3 ⎥ e ⎢ 6 ⎥
− −
⎢⎣ 1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ x +1 2 ⎤
If A = ⎢ , for what values of x is A singular?
x − 1 ⎥⎦
5
⎣ 4
6 WE7, 8 Solve each of the pairs of simultaneous equations by a matrix method.
a 2x – 5y = 6 b −x – 3y = 7 c 2x + 4y = 1 d x – y = −1
−5x + y = − 7
x+y=2 2x + 4y = 0 2x – y = 6
7 WE9 Solve for x and y in terms of p.
2px – y = 3
3x + py = 2
8 Solve for x, y and z, given 3x – 2y + z = 1, −x – y – 2z = 13 and x + 3y – 2z = 9.
⎡ 1 −
2 ⎤
9 MC For what value of p does |D| = 0, where D = ⎢ ⎥?
⎢⎣ p 3 ⎥
⎦
A 30 B 20 C 13
D 16 E None of these
⎡ ⎤
10 MC The inverse of ⎢ 1 3 ⎥ is:
−1 4
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ −1 3 ⎤ ⎡
B ⎢ 4 1 ⎤ 1⎡ 4 −3 ⎤
A ⎢ −
⎥ 3 1 ⎥⎦
C ⎢ −
⎥
7 ⎢⎣ 1 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 7 ⎢⎣ 1 1 ⎥⎦
−1 ⎡ −
1 3 ⎤ 1⎡ 4 −3 ⎤
D ⎢ −
⎥ E ⎢ ⎥
7 ⎢⎣ 1 4 ⎥⎦ 7 ⎢⎣ 1 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ x ⎤
11 MC If −x + y = 4 and 4x + 6y = 5, then ⎢ equals:
y ⎥
⎣ ⎦
1 ⎡ 6 −
1 ⎤⎡ 4 ⎤ 1 ⎡ −
1 1 ⎤⎡ 4 ⎤
− −1 ⎡
6 −
1 ⎤⎡ 4 ⎤
A ⎢ − −
⎥⎢ ⎥ B ⎢ −4
⎥⎢ ⎥ C ⎢ −
⎥⎢ ⎥
10 ⎢⎣ 4 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦ 10 ⎢⎣ 6 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦ 10 ⎢⎣ 4 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦
−
1 ⎡ 6 −
1 ⎤⎡ 4 ⎤ −
1 ⎡ 1 −
1 ⎤⎡ 4 ⎤
D ⎢ − −
⎥⎢ ⎥ E ⎢ −4 −6
⎥⎢ ⎥
10 ⎢⎣ 4 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦ 10 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 5 ⎦

⎡ −2 − 12 ⎤
1⎢ ⎥, find A3 and A−1.
12 If A =
4⎢ 12 −
2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
13 P = ⎢ ⎥ and Q = ⎢ 1 0 ⎥. Show that P and Q do not commute when multiplied.
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ cos (θ ) − sin(θ ) ⎤
14 Find the multiplicative inverse of the matrix ⎢ ⎥.
⎢ sin (θ ) cos (θ ) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤
15 If I = ⎢ ⎥ and J = ⎢ − ⎥ , find the condition for pI + qJ to have a multiplicative inverse.
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2 −1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
16 M = ⎢ ⎥ and N = ⎢ − ⎥ . If MX = XN, show that X = k ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 0 2 ⎦ ⎢
⎣ 1 2 ⎥
⎦ ⎣ 0 0 ⎦
17 The point of intersection of the lines 2x + 3y = a and x – 2y = 5 is (7, 1). Use a matrix method to find a.
18 WE10 The points (1, 3), (2, 5), (−1, −1) and (3, 15) lie on the curve y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d. Establish the
equation of the curve.
19 Solve for x, y and z in terms of r.
rx + y + z = 1, 2x – ry – z = 3, 3x + 4y – rz = 5
20 Solve for a, b, c and d.
a+b+c+d=0
a – 2b + 3c + d = 7
2a + b – 2c – d = −1
3a + 2b + c – 4d = 11
21 Show that the following equations have a unique solution only if b ≠ 1, −2.
x+y+z=3
x + by + z = 3b
−2x + 4y + bz = 2
22 Tercell, the clothing shop in Church Street, sells 15 suits, 45 shirts and 43 ties per week. It has another
branch in High Street that sells 24 suits, 23 shirts and 37 ties per week. If the profit from each sale is
$100 per suit, $18 per shirt and $14 per tie, use a matrix method to calculate the total weekly profit
from the two shops.
23 Slapstick, Brush and Company manufactures four main brands of paint, which they mix up using four basic
ingredients — urg, blog, slug and nog. The four main brands of paint are Quix, Runns, Splash and Thix.
Each litre of Quix requires 0.2 kg of urg, 0.5 kg of blog, 0.3 kg of slug and 1 kg of nog.
Each litre of Runns requires 0.1 kg of urg, 0.4 kg of blog, 0.7 kg of slug and 0.8 kg of nog.
Each litre of Splash requires 0.2 kg of urg, 0.7 kg of blog, 0.1 kg of slug and 1 kg of nog.
Each litre of Thix requires 1.0 kg of urg, 0.5 kg of blog, 0.3 kg of slug and 0.0 kg of nog.
Each week the company uses 2000 kg of urg, 1945 kg of blog, 1800 kg of slug and 3230 kg of nog.
Use a matrix method to find out how many litres of each paint the company produces per week.
7D Matrices and transformations

Matrices can be used to describe transformations (translation, reflection, rotation and dilation) of points or
curves in the x–y plane. The point (x′, y′) is the image of the point (x, y) following a sequence of transformations. INTERACTIVITY
int-0266
Translation Matrices and

transformations
A point P (x, y) is moved to the point P′ (x′, y′) by translating a units in the positive direction of the
x-axis (right) and b units in the positive direction of the y-axis (up). A horizontal translation of a units
and a vertical translation of b units can be represented by:
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ a ⎤
(x′, y′) = (x + a, y + b) or T ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥+⎢ ⎥.
y
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ b ⎦

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
⎡ − ⎤
The point (2, −3) is translated by the matrix ⎢ 4 ⎥ . Find the new coordinates of the point.
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
THINK WRITE
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ a ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎡ −4 ⎤
1 Use the formula T ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢
y ⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥. ⎢ y' ⎥ = ⎢ − ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ b ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
2 Add the matrices to find the image point (x, y).
⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ − 2 ⎤
⎢ y' ⎥ = ⎢ − ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
(x′, y′) = (−2, −1)
Other transformations by matrix multiplication

It is useful to summarise the effects of various transformations as set out in the table below. Here we deal
with (2 × 2) matrices that cause a change in the position of a point. These can be done on calculators or
by hand, using the usual matrix multiplication techniques.
Matrix What it does Calculation Change

Nothing (x′, y′) = (x, y)
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢ 0 1 ⎥ T⎢ ⎥=⎢
y ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ y ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Reflection in the line

⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ y ⎤
⎢ 1 0 ⎥ y=x T⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥ (x′, y′) = (y, x)
y
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦
Reflection in the line

⎡ 0 −1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 0 −1 ⎤⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ −y ⎤
⎢ − ⎥ y = −x T⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ − ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ (x′, y′) = (−y, −x)
y 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎢⎣
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1
−
x ⎥⎦
Reflection in the
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢ ⎥ x-axis T⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥ (x′, y′) = (x, −y)
−1 y −y
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0
−1
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Reflection in the
⎡ −1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ − 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ −x ⎤
⎢ ⎥ y-axis T⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥ (x′, y′) = (−x, y)
y
⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y ⎥
⎦
Dilation by factor k
⎡ k 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ k 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ kx ⎤
⎢ 0 1 ⎥ from the y-axis T⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ y ⎥ (x′, y′) = (kx, y)
y
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Dilation by factor k
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢ 0 k ⎥ from the x-axis T⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ ky ⎥ (x′, y′) = (x, ky)
y
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 k ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Anticlockwise x′ = x cos (A) − y sin (A)

⎡ cos ( A) − sin( A) ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ cos ( A) − sin( A) ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
⎢ ⎥ rotation of A degrees T⎢ ⎥=⎢
y ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ y′ = x sin (A) + y cos (A)
⎢ sin ( A) cos ( A) ⎥ about the origin ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin ( A) cos ( A) ⎥ ⎣ y ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎦

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
⎡ −3 ⎤
The point (−5, 1) is translated by the matrix ⎢ ⎥ and then reflected in the line TUTORIAL
⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
y = x. Find its new coordinates. eles-1431
Worked example 12
THINK WRITE
⎡ −5 ⎤
1 Write the point (−5, 1) in matrix form. (− 5, 1) = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ a ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ − 5 ⎤ ⎡ − 3 ⎤
2 Use the formula T ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢
y ⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥+⎢ ⎥ ⎢ y' ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ b ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
to translate the point.
3 Add the matrices to find the image point (x′, y′). ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ − 8 ⎤
⎢ y' ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 6 ⎥⎦
(x′, y′) = (−8, 6)
⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ − 8 ⎤ ⎡ 6 ⎤
4 The reflection matrix in y = x is ⎢ ⎥ from the ⎢ y' ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
table. ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 6 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ − 8 ⎥⎦
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
Use the formula T ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥
y
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
to reflect the point.
5 Write the answer. The new point is (6, −8).
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Find the image of the point (3, 8) under 30° anticlockwise rotation about the origin.
THINK WRITE
⎡ 3 ⎤
1 Write the point (3, 8) in matrix form. (3, 8) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 8 ⎦
2 Use the rotation formula ⎡
⎡ x' ⎤ ⎢ cos (30! ) − sin(30! ) ⎤⎥ ⎡ 3 ⎤
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ cos ( A) − sin( A) ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎢ y' ⎥ = ⎢ ⎢ ⎥
T⎢ = =⎢
y ⎥ ⎢⎢ y' ⎥⎥ ⎢ sin ( A)
⎥⎢ ⎥, ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ sin (30! ) cos (30! ) ⎥⎥ ⎣ 8 ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ cos ( A) ⎥ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣⎢ ⎦
⎦
where A is 30°.
⎡ 3 −
1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
3 Evaluate using exact values. =⎢
2 2 ⎥⎡ 3 ⎤
⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ 8 ⎥
⎥⎣ ⎦
3
⎢
⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 3 3 ⎤
⎢ −4 ⎥
4 Multiply the matrices. =⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ 4 3+ ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎛3 3 3⎞
5 Write the answer. The new point is ⎜ − 4, 4 3 + ⎟ . As a
⎝ 2 2⎠
decimal approximation, the point is
(−1.40, 8.43).

Exercise 7D Matrices and transformations
1 WE11,12 Find the new coordinates of the point P (3, −2) after the following transformations.
⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ − ⎤ ⎡ − ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
a ⎢ ⎥ b ⎢ 1 0 ⎥ followed by ⎢ 3 ⎥ c ⎢ 1 0 ⎥
⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 2 ⎦
d Reflection in the y-axis
e Translation of 6 units to the left and 4 units upwards, followed by reflection in the x-axis
2 Find the new coordinates of Q (m, −n) after the following transformations.
⎡ 0 1 ⎤
a Reflection by the matrix ⎢ ⎥ followed by reflection in the line y = x
⎣ 1 0 ⎦
⎡ 2n ⎤
b Reflection in the line y = −x followed by a translation of ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ 3m ⎦
3 Two transformations as shown are applied to the point M (x, y).
⎡ 3 0 ⎤⎡ 0 1 ⎤⎡ x ⎤
⎢ 0 1 ⎥⎢ 1 0 ⎥⎢ y ⎥
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦
a Find the single (2 × 2) matrix that can be used to describe the combined transformations.
b If M is the point (−1, 0), find its new coordinates after the transformations.
4 Write the matrices for the following rotations about O.
a 90° clockwise b 180° clockwise c 270° clockwise
d 360° clockwise e 90° anticlockwise f 45° anticlockwise
g 120° clockwise h 150° anticlockwise i 300° clockwise
j 120° anticlockwise
5 MC Consider the point (−3, −5).
a The image of this point after a reflection through the line y = x followed by a rotation of 180°
anticlockwise is:
A (−5, −3) B (−3, 5) C (−5, 3) D (5, 3) E (3, 5)
b The image of the point (−3, −5) after a rotation of 270° clockwise followed by
⎡ 4 ⎤
a translation of ⎢ − ⎥ is:
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
A (1, −3) B (9, −5) C (7, 1) D (−1, 1) E (6, 4)
c The image of the point (−3, −5)
after a reflection in the y-axis, followed by a reflection in the
x-axis and then an anticlockwise rotation of 45° is:
− −
A ( 2, − 2 2) B ( 2, −4 2) −
C (2 2, 2 2)
−
D ( −4 2, 2) E ( 2, 4 2)
6 MC The point (x, y) is dilated by a factor of 3 from the x-axis, then reflected in the line y = x and then
translated 2 units to the left and 1 unit down. The coordinates of the final point are:
A (3x – 2, y – 1) B (3x + 2, y – 1) C (y – 2, 3x + 1)
− −
D ( 2 + 3y, 1 + x) E (y + 2, 3x + 1)
7 a Combine a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis and factor 3 from the y-axis to find the new
coordinates of the square (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (0, 1).
b Write down the single (2 × 2) matrix for the combined dilations.
c Write down the single matrix that would represent dilations of factor n from both the x-axis and
the y-axis.
8 The point P (a, b) is subjected to a sequence of transformations as follows:
r BEJMBUJPOPGBXBZGSPNUIFy-axis
r BUSBOTMBUJPOPGUPUIFMFGUBOEEPXOXBSET
r BSFáFDUJPOJOUIFx-axis
r BSFáFDUJPOJOUIFMJOF y = x.
Find the new coordinates of P after all of the above transformations have been completed in the
given order, using matrix methods.

9 WE13 Find the images of each of the following points under each of the anticlockwise rotations, i–v.
a A (4, 0) b B (5, 4) c C (−3, 6) d D (0, 9)
−60°
i 30° ii 45° iii 90° iv 180° v
10 Find the image of the point (7, −2) after a rotation of 270° anticlockwise followed by a translation
⎡ 2 ⎤
of ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ 4 ⎦
11 The triangle ABC, with vertices A (2, −1), B (−4, 0) and C (5, 2), is rotated by a clockwise rotation of
45° (i.e. an anticlockwise rotation of −45°).
a Find the new coordinates (A′, B′ and C′) of the rotated triangle.
b Compare the area of triangle A′B′C′ to that of triangle ABC.
12 Consider the point A (a, b).
a Is an anticlockwise rotation of 30° equivalent to a reflection in the line y = x followed by a
clockwise rotation of 60°? Give reasons for your answer.
b Is a reflection in the x-axis followed by an anticlockwise rotation of 45° equivalent to a
transformation by the identity matrix? Give reasons for your answer.
13 The point P (3, 4) is transformed to become the point P′ ( − 2 3, 13).
a Prove that this transformation represents an anticlockwise rotation of θ ° about the origin.
b Calculate the value of θ in degrees.

Summary
Addition and Matrix definitions:
subtraction of matrices r A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.
r An m × n matrix has m rows and n columns.
r The individual entries in the matrix are called the elements of the matrix.
Operations with matrices:
r Addition and subtraction of matrices are performed by adding or subtracting corresponding
elements.
r Addition and subtraction can be performed only if the matrices are of the same order.
r Scalar multiplication is performed by multiplying every element of the matrix by the scalar.
⎡ x y ⎤ ⎡ ax ay ⎤
a⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ p q ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ap aq ⎦⎥
r The Commutative Law holds: A + B = B + A
r The Associative Law holds: A + B + C = (A + B) + C = A + (B + C )
Multiplying matrices r Matrices are multiplied in the following way.

⎡ a11 a12 ⎤ ⎡ b11 b12 ⎤
In general, if A = ⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥,
⎢⎣ a21 a22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ b21 b22 ⎥⎦
⎡ a11 × b11 + a12 × b21 a11 × b12 + a12 × b22 ⎤

then A × B = ⎢ ⎥.
⎢⎣ a21 × b11 + a22 × b21 a21 × b12 + a22 × b22 ⎥⎦
r The orders are (m × n) × (n × p) = (m × p).
r Matrix multiplication is not usually commutative. That is, AB ≠ BA.
Solving matrix r I is the multiplicative identity matrix, where AI = IA = A and A is a square matrix.
equations r The multiplicative inverse of matrix A is A 1, and A × A 1 = A 1 × A = I.
− − −
⎡ a b ⎤ 1 ⎡ d −b ⎤
r If A = ⎢ , then its inverse is A 1 =
−
⎥ ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ c d ⎦ ad − bc ⎢⎣ − c a ⎥⎦
The number (ad – bc) is called the determinant of the matrix A and is written as det (A) or |A|.
If det (A) = 0, then A 1 does not exist and A is said to be singular.
−
Matrices and r Matrices can be used to represent transformations of points in the x–y plane.
transformations r A horizontal translation of a units and a vertical translation of b units can be represented by
(x′, y′) = (x + a, y + b)
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ a ⎤
or T ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ y ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥.
y
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ b ⎦
r Pre-multiplying by a (2 × 2) matrix causes a change of the position of a point. For example,
⎡ 0 1 ⎤
pre-multiplying by ⎢ ⎥ causes a reflection in the line y = x.
⎣ 1 0 ⎦
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ y ⎤
T⎢ ⎥=⎢
y ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ x ⎦
r An anticlockwise rotation about the origin can be represented by
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x' ⎤ ⎡ cos ( A) − sin( A) ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
T⎢ ⎥=⎢
y ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ , where A is the angle of rotation.
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ y' ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ sin ( A) cos ( A) ⎥ ⎣ y ⎦
⎦

Chapter review
1 State the order of:
S H O RT
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 ⎤ A N S W ER
1 ⎢ ⎥
a ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 2 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ b ⎢
⎢ 8 ⎥ 4 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢ −5 ⎥
4 ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 4 −1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 3 0 ⎤
2 Find the matrix D such that ⎢ − −2
⎥ ⎢ −4
⎥.
⎢ 1 ⎥− D = ⎢ 5 ⎥
⎢ 2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 0 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎣
⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
3 ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ . Find x and y.
⎢⎣ − 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤⎥
⎢
−2
⎢ ⎥ − −
4 A=⎢ ⎥ and B = [1 0 4 1]. Evaluate: a AB b BA
⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 2 ⎤ −1].
5 P=⎢ ⎥, Q = [0 3] and R = [0 2 Evaluate:
⎣ 1 ⎦
a PQ b QP c PR d P(Q + R)
⎡ 2 −4 ⎤
6 Find the inverse of ⎢ ⎥.
−
⎢⎣ 5 6 ⎥⎦
⎡ x y ⎤
7 For A = ⎢ ⎥, show that AA−1 = I.
⎢⎣ 2 3 ⎥⎦
8 Solve for x, y, and z.
2x – 3y + z = 3
−3x+ y – 2z = 1
x–y–z=6
9 Find the new coordinates of the point R(−p, q) after reflection in the x-axis followed by a translation
of ⎡ a ⎤ .
⎢ b ⎥
⎣ ⎦
10 The point (3, 2) is dilated from the y-axis. Its new coordinates are (6, 2). Write down the (2 × 2) dilation
matrix.
11 The point A (1, 2) is rotated clockwise about the origin through an angle of 60°. Find the new
coordinates of A in exact form.
⎡ 2 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ −
12 M = ⎢ ⎥, N = ⎢ ⎥ . Find MN(NM) 1.
−1 4
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 3 5 ⎦
⎡ 1 4 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 0 0 4 ⎤ . Find (QP)−1.
13 P = ⎢ − 2 0 ⎥ , Q = ⎢ ⎥
− −
⎢ −1 3 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 2 5 1 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 3 ⎤ ⎡ 3 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
14 A = ⎢ −2 0
⎥, B = ⎢ ⎥ , C = ⎢ − ⎥.
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 4 1 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
a Find |A|. b Find the inverse of C if it exists. c Calculate BC.

⎡ 3 0 ⎤
15 If P = ⎢ ⎥ , find P2 – 2P. Hence, express the inverse of P in terms of P.
−1
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 3 5 ⎤ ⎡ 5 c ⎤
16 M = ⎢ ⎥, N = ⎢ ⎥ . M and N commute under multiplication. Evaluate c.
−3
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 3 ⎦
M U LT IP L E
C H OICE ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ −5
−1 ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ − ⎥ equals:
⎢ 2 ⎥−⎢ 3 ⎥
⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ −6 ⎤ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎡ −6 ⎤ ⎡ −4 ⎤
A ⎢ 5 ⎥ B ⎢ −1 ⎥ C ⎢ 5 ⎥ D ⎢ ⎥ E ⎢ −1
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 5 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ − 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ −2 ⎥ ⎢ −2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ x −y ⎤ ⎡
⎥=⎢ 6 9 ⎤
2 If 3 ⎢ −4 ⎥, x, y and z are respectively equal to:
⎢ z ⎥ ⎣ 0 −4
⎦
⎣ 3 ⎦
A 2, 3, 0 B 2, −3, 0 C 6, −9, −4 D 6, −9, 0 E 2, 3, −4
3 2[−5 −6] – 3 [−2 −1] equals:
A [−4 −9] B [−16 −15] C [−4 −15] D [−16 −9] E [4 9]
⎡ 2 ⎤
4 If A = ⎢ ⎥ and B = [3 0], AB equals:
⎢⎣ − 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 6 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 6 0 ⎤
A ⎢ ⎥ B ⎢ 4 ⎥ C [6] D [5] E ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦ −
⎢⎣ 3 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 0 ⎦⎥
⎡ 1 2 ⎤ 2
−
5 If M = ⎢ ⎥ , M – 2M equals:
⎣⎢ 4 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ −2 ⎤ ⎡ −6 ⎤ ⎡ −6 ⎤
A ⎢
7
⎥ B ⎢ 11 ⎥ C ⎢ 7 ⎥
−
⎢⎣ − 12 8 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 12 8 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 4 8 ⎥⎦
⎡ − −6 ⎤ ⎡ 7 −6 ⎤
D ⎢ 3 ⎥ E ⎢ ⎥
−
⎢⎣ 4 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 12 8 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 2
6 P = ⎢ 2 ⎥ , Q = [1 2] and R = ⎢ ⎥. The order of PQR is:
⎢ ⎥ ⎣ 3 4 ⎦
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
A (1 × 2) B (2 × 3) C (3 × 2) D (2 × 1) E (3 × 1)
−1 −2
7 equals:
−3 1
A 7 B −7 C −5 D −6 E −4
⎡ x +1 2 ⎤
8 ⎢ ⎥ is singular if x equals:
⎢ −3 x − 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
A −1, −2 B 1, 2 C 4, −1 D −4, 1 E 1, −2

⎡ −1 2 ⎤
9 The inverse of ⎢ ⎥ is:
⎢⎣ 1 4 ⎥⎦
−1 ⎡
1⎡ −4 2 ⎤ 1⎡ 4 −2 ⎤ C 1 −
2 ⎤
A ⎢ ⎥ B ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
6 ⎢⎣ 1 1 ⎥⎦ 6 ⎢⎣ − 1 −1
⎥⎦ 2 ⎢⎣ − 1 −4
⎥⎦
−1 ⎡
D 4 −
2 ⎤ −1 ⎡
4 −
2 ⎤
⎢ −1 −1
⎥ E ⎢ ⎥
2 ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 6 ⎢⎣ −1 −1
⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤ −2
10 The point (−2, −1) is translated by the matrix ⎢ ⎥. The coordinates of the new point are:
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
A (0, 0) B (−4, 0) C (0, 2) D (−4, −2) E (0, −2)
⎡ −1 ⎤
11 The point (a, b) is reflected in the line y = x and then translated by the matrix ⎢ ⎥ . Its new
coordinates are: ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
A (a − 1, b + 3) B (a + 1, b − 3) C (b + 1, a − 3)
D (b − 1, a + 3) E (−a + 1, −b + 3)
12 Reflection in the line y = −x followed by a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis is equivalent to pre-
multiplying by the single matrix:
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 −2 ⎤
A ⎢ 0 ⎥ B ⎢ 0 ⎥ C ⎢ 0
⎥ D
⎢ 0 2 ⎥ E ⎢ − ⎥
⎣ 2 0 ⎦ −
⎢⎣ 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0
−
2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦
13 The point (2, −1) is reflected in the y-axis followed by an anticlockwise rotation of 90° about the origin.
The coordinates of the image point are:
A (1, −2) B (−1, −2) C (−2, 1) D (1, 2) E (2, −1)
⎡ 1 0 ⎤
14 The coordinates of the image of (3, −4) under the transformation given by ⎢ −1
⎥ are:
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
A (3, 4) B (3, −4) C (−3, 4) D (−3, −4) E (4, 3)
1 A and B are both square matrices. EXTENDED

RES P O N S E
a Show that A2 – B2 = (A – B)(A + B) only if A and B are commutative for multiplication.
⎡ 1 −2 ⎤ ⎡ 7 −2 ⎤
b Use part a above to evaluate A2 – B2, where A = ⎢ ⎥ and B = ⎢ ⎥.
−3 −3
⎢⎣ 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 6 ⎥⎦
2 A and B are both (2 × 2) matrices.
a Show that (A + B)2 = A2 + 2AB + B2 only if A and B are commutative for multiplication.
b Use the matrices in question 1b to prove the result in question 2a numerically.
3 Potatoes cost $p per kg, carrots cost $q per kg, onions cost $r per kg and eggs cost $s per dozen.
George buys 14 kg of potatoes, 10 kg of carrots, 8 kg of onions and 2 dozen eggs for a total cost of $60.
Mary buys 10 kg of potatoes, 11 kg of carrots, 3 kg of onions and 5 dozen eggs for a total cost of $52.
Cindy buys 4 kg of potatoes, 21 kg of carrots, 12 kg of onions and 1 dozen eggs for a total cost of $56.
Amy buys 15 kg of potatoes, 5 kg of carrots, 11 kg of onions and 4 dozen eggs for a total cost of $69.
Establish a matrix equation and hence calculate the values of p, q, r and s.
⎡ a ⎤
4 a The point P (1, −3) is translated by the matrix ⎢ ⎥ . Find its new coordinates.
⎣ b ⎦
b The new point is reflected in the line y = −x. Find the new coordinates.
c This point is now rotated counterclockwise through 90° before being reflected in the x-axis. Find
the new coordinates.
d Find the transformation(s) needed to return the point found in part b to the point (1, −3).

⎡ 4 0 ⎤
5 The triangle O (0, 0), A (2, −3), B (−5, −4) is transformed by the matrix ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 0 1 ⎦
a Find the coordinates of the new vertices, calling them O′, A′ and B′.
b Has the area altered? If so, how?
c The new triangle is now reflected in the line y = −x. Find the coordinates of the new vertices,
calling them O″, A″ and B″.
⎡ −3 ⎤
d Finally, O″A″ B″ is translated by ⎢ ⎥ . Find the final coordinates of the vertices.
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 3i 0 ⎤
6 A=⎢ −i
⎥ , where i2 = −1.
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
a Find A – 2A2.
3
–
b Find A 1.
⎡ 1 0 ⎤
c Show that A2 – A – 2I = (A – 2I)(A + I), where I = ⎢ ⎥ . Note: I = I = I = I etc.
2 3 4
⎣ 0 1 ⎦
7 Use a matrix method to solve the following simultaneous equations.
mx − 3 y = 6
2x + m2 y = 3
8 Use a matrix method to solve the following simultaneous equations.
a+b+c+d = 5
−a + b − c + d = −5
8a + 4 b + 2c + d = 19
−
8a + 4 b − 2c + d = − 25
9 Tickets for a one-way trip on a Melbourne to Sydney passenger train can be purchased as either adult,
child (under 15 years old) or pensioner. The table below shows the number of passengers and the total
takings for three trips.
Number of adult Number of child Number of pensioner
passengers passengers passengers Total takings ($)
145 103 121 20 260
130 110 90 18 400
142 115 80 19 200
a Let x equal the cost of an adult’s ticket. Let y equal the cost of a child’s ticket. Let z equal the cost
of a pensioner’s ticket. Construct three equations in terms of x, y and z.
b Using matrices, express the equations in the form AX = B.
−
c Use your CAS calculator to find A 1.
d Use your CAS calculator to determine the costs of a train ticket for an adult, a child and a
pensioner.
10 Describe the transformation given by the following matrices. It may be helpful to use a graph and
consider the effect of the matrix on the points (a, b).
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ −1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
−1
a ⎢ 0 1 ⎥⎦ b ⎢ −
⎥ c ⎢ −1
⎥ d ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 0 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 −1 ⎤ ⎡ 3 0 ⎤
e ⎢ ⎥ f ⎢ ⎥ g ⎢ ⎥ h ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 0 ⎦ −
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦
−
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 3 ⎦
⎡ −3 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 −1 ⎤
DIGITAL DOC i ⎢ −
⎥ j ⎢ ⎥
doc-9772 ⎢⎣ 0 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦
Test Yourself
Chapter 7

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CHAPTER 7 � Matrices 335
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Answers CHAPTER 7
MATRICES ⎡ − 22 12 ⎤ ⎡ 5 35 ⎤ b
⎡ 2 −5 ⎤ 1 ⎡ −1 5 ⎤
Exercise 7A Addition and subtraction of 3 a ⎢
−
⎥
b
⎢ −
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −
− 1 13
⎥
⎢⎣ 1 15 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 5 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦
matrices ⎢ −1 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ 1
⎡ 13 0 ⎤
⎡ 4 1 ⎤ = 13 ⎢ ⎥ =I
1 A+ B = ⎢ ⎥= B+ A c R ( P + SQ ) does not exist. ⎢⎣ 0 13 ⎥
−
2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎦
⎢⎣
⎡ 4 8 ⎤ ⎡ 10 0 ⎤
4 a MN = ⎢ ⎥ , NM = ⎢ − ⎥ 1 ⎡
−1 5 ⎤ ⎡ 2 −5 ⎤
⎡ − 5 ⎤ ⎡ −
5 ⎤ − ⎢ − ⎥⎢ ⎥
2 a ⎢ 1 6 ⎥ b⎢ 3 0
⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 10 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 10 4 ⎥⎦ 13
⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 − 1 ⎥⎦
− −
⎢⎣ 1 3 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 1 4 ⎥⎦ ⎡ 13 0 ⎤
⎡ 1 − −
1 ⎤ ⎡ 60 60 ⎤ 1
= 13 ⎢ ⎥ =I
c Does not exist. d Does not exist. b ⎢
−
⎥ c ⎢ − ⎥ ⎢⎣ 0 13 ⎥⎦
⎡ 5 −7 ⎤ ⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 108
⎣
− 12 ⎥
⎦
e
⎢ − ⎥
⎢ 1 3 ⎥ ⎡ ⎡ −2 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − 0.5 ⎤
x + 5 y ⎤ ⎡ 11 ⎤ 4 a
−1
⎢ ⎥ b ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 −1 ⎥
5 a ⎢ − ⎥=⎢ ⎥ 4 − −
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 0.5 ⎦⎥
⎢ 3 x + 4 y ⎥ ⎢⎣ 5 ⎥⎦
3 [5 −9 2 −6 7] ⎣ ⎦
4 x = −1, y = 3 b x + 5y = 11, −3x + 4y = 5 ⎡ 1 4 ⎤
c None d ⎢ ⎥
5 a 3×3 b 4×1 c x = 1, y = 2 ⎣ 0.5 1.5 ⎦
c 1×1 d 1×4 ⎡ −6 −2 ⎤ ⎡ 8 − 19 ⎤ ⎡ 1
e 1⎢
3 ⎤
6 [−4 6 −3] 6 a ⎢
−
⎥ b ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
8 10 ⎢⎣ 0 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 27 ⎥⎦ 3
⎣ 3 6 ⎦
7 p = 3 , q = −3, r = 3
5 x = ±3
⎡ 2 x + 5 y ⎤ ⎡11⎤
⎢ 3 x + 2 y⎥ = ⎢⎣12⎥⎦
7 −
⎡ 2 ⎤ 16 −2
8 [ −5 4 ] − ⎢ ⎥ does not exist. 6 a x= 7 ,y= 7 b x = 14, y = −7
⎣ ⎦
⎣ 1 ⎦ 8 a [−29]
9 C 29 − 9
⎡ −4 −
6 −
8 ⎤ c x = 22 , y = 22 d 7, 8
10 B ⎢ ⎥
11 A b ⎢ 6
− −9 − 12 ⎥
⎢ − ⎥ 3p + 2 4p− 9
⎡ 40 50 60 ⎤ ⎢⎣ 8 − 12 − 16
⎥⎦ 7 x= ,y= 2
⎢ ⎥ 2 p2 + 3 2p + 3
12 a ⎢ 62 87 28 ⎥ c No 4 − 5 − 19
8 3, 3,
⎢ 100 14 73 ⎥ ⎡ 15 16 ⎤
3
⎣ ⎦
9 ⎢ ⎥ 9 E
⎡ 50 65 80 ⎤ ⎢⎣ 12 3 ⎥⎦ 10 E
b ⎢ 87 76 45 ⎥ ⎡ 1 −2 ⎤ 11 D
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 59 92 ⎤
10 a ⎢ ⎥ b ⎢ ⎥ ⎡ −1 ⎤
⎢⎣ 95 37 89 ⎥⎦ 3
⎣ 23 36 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
12 I; ⎢ ⎥
⎡ 90 115 140 ⎤ 11 D − 3 −1
⎢ ⎥ 12 C ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
c ⎢ 149 163 73 ⎥ 13 B
⎢ 195 51 162 ⎥ ⎡ 2 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 ⎤
14 a AC, CA, CB b Yes. ACB
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 13 ⎢ ⎥≠⎢ ⎥
c None ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎣1 1 ⎦
⎡ 45 57.5 70 ⎤ ⎡ −1
15 ⎤ ⎡ cos(θ ) sin (θ ) ⎤
d ⎢ 74.5 81.5 36.5 ⎥⎥ 15 ⎢ − ⎥ ; a = − 0.1, b = − 0.3 14 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎢⎣ 6 − 10 ⎥ ⎢ − sin(θ ) cos(θ ) ⎥
⎣⎢ 97.5 25.5 81 ⎥⎦ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 4.50 ⎤
16 a [1200 2367 4219] b ⎢ 1.95 ⎥ 15 p2 + q2 ≠ 0
e ⎡⎣ 70 36.5 81 ⎤⎦ ⎢ ⎥ 16 Check with your teacher.
⎢⎣ 2.45 ⎥⎦
17 a = 17
13 ⎡⎣ 15 10 ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ 7 42 ⎤⎦ + ⎡⎣ 32 16 ⎤⎦ c $20 352.20 18 y = x3 – 2x2 + x + 3
− r 2 − 7r + 2)
= ⎡⎣ 54 68 ⎤⎦ ⎡ 1 0 1 2 1 ⎤ r 2 + 8r + 11 (3
19 x= 3 ,y= ,
17 a ⎡ 80
⎣ 45 3 ⎤⎦ ⎢⎢ 1 2 2 5 3 ⎥⎥ r + 9r + 5 r 3 + 9r + 5
Exercise 7B −
Multiplying matrices ⎢⎣ 2 6 7 18 6 ⎥⎦ 5r + 9r − 7
2
1 a Does not exist. b Does not exist.

z= 3
r + 9r + 5
b [131 108 191 439 233]
⎡ 6 − 17 ⎤ ⎡ 28 − 13⎤ 20 a = 1, b = −1, c = 2, d = −2
c ⎢ ⎥ d ⎢ − ⎥ Exercise 7C Solving matrix equations 10 − 10
⎢⎣ 5
−
11 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥
⎦ 1 a −2 b 8 21 x= , y = 3, z = ; unique solution
b+2 b+2
c 9 d 0
⎡ −7
9 −3 ⎤ if b ≠ 1 or −2.
⎢ ⎥ e xy − 6 f 5x2
e ⎢ −
2 3 0 ⎥ 2 −4, 3 If b = −2, division by 0
⎢ −
6 8 −
2 ⎥⎦ ⎡ −1 5 ⎤ If b = 1, equations 1 and 2 become identical.
⎣ 3 a 1 ⎢ ⎥ 22 $2912 + $3332 = $6244
13 −
2 [−13] ⎢⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦ 23 2834, 120, 1120, 1037

Exercise 7D Matrices and transformations iii (−9, 0)
− 1 ⎡62 − 19 ⎤ 1 ⎡ 5 12 ⎤
− b (−6, 0) c (3, −4) iv (0, −9)
27 ⎢ ⎥
1 a ( 2, 3) 12 13 64 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 257 −
67 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 7 4 ⎦
( )
d (−3, −2) e (−3, −2)
9 3 9
2 a (m, −n) b (3n, −4m) v , 14 a | A | = 6
2 2
b C is not a square matrix. No inverse.
⎡ 0 3 ⎤ 10 (0, −3)
3 a ⎢ 1 0 ⎥ b (0, −1) ⎡ 3 ⎤
c BC = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ −1 ⎤
11 a A' = 1 ,
− 3
(
, B' = (− 2 2, 2 2)
2 2 ) ⎣ 2 ⎦
15 P(P − 2) = 3I
C' = ( )
0 −3
4 a ⎢ ⎥ b ⎢ ⎥ 7
,
−
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0
−
1 ⎥⎦ 2 2 P−2 1⎡ 1 0 ⎤
The inverse of P is = ⎢ ⎥.
b Areas are the same. 3 3 ⎢⎣ 2 − 3 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 −1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ 12 a No. Single matrix ≠ combined matrices.
c ⎢ ⎥ d ⎢ ⎥ 5
b No. Under the identity matrix nothing 16 c = 3
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦
− ⎛ b⎞ MULTIPLE CHOICE
⎡ 0 moves. Only if tan 1 ⎜ ⎟ = 22.5° would
−
1 ⎤ 1 ⎡1 1 ⎤
− ⎝ a⎠
e ⎢ ⎥ f ⎢ ⎥ this be true. 1 C 2 B 3 A 4 E
⎢⎣ 1 0 ⎥
⎦
2
⎢⎣ 1 1 ⎥⎦ 13 a OP = 5 = OP′. The transformation could 5 B 6 C 7 B 8 B
be a rotation (in this case anticlockwise) 9 E 10 B 11 D 12 E
1
⎡ −
1 3 ⎤ 1
⎡ −
3 −
1 ⎤ about the origin. (It could also be a 13 A 14 A
g ⎢ ⎥ h ⎢ ⎥
2
⎢ − 3 −1 ⎥ 2
⎢⎣ 1 − 3 ⎥⎦ translation, but that is not the question.) EXTENDED RESPONSE
⎣ ⎦ b 80.72°
1 a (A − B)(A + B) = A2 + AB − BA − B2 =
⎡ 1 −
3 ⎤ ⎡ −1 −
3 ⎤ A2 − B2 only if AB – BA, i.e., if A and B
i
1
⎢ ⎥ j
1
⎢ ⎥ CHAPTER REVIEW
2
⎢⎣ 3 ⎢⎣ 3 1 ⎥⎦ 2 −1 ⎥ are commutative for multiplication.
⎦ SHORT ANSWER
⎡ − 54 12 ⎤
5 a D c E b B 1 a 4×1 b ⎢ ⎥
− −
6 D b 5×2 ⎢⎣ 42 6 ⎥⎦
7 a (0, 0), (3, 0), (3, 2), (0, 2) ⎡ 2 a (A + B)(A + B) = A2 + AB + BA + B2 =
1 ⎤−3
⎡ 3 0 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ A2 + 2AB + B2 only if AB + BA = 2AB,
b ⎢ 2 ⎢ −6 2 ⎥
⎥ i.e., if A and B are commutative for
⎣ 0 2 ⎦ ⎢ 2 1 ⎥ multiplication.
⎣ ⎦
⎡ n 0 ⎤ 3 x = 3 and y = −1 b Not equal
c ⎢ ⎥ 3 p = 2, q = 1, r = 2 and s = 3
⎣ 0 n ⎦ ⎡ 1 0 −
4 −
1 ⎤ 4 a (a + 1, b − 3)
8 (3 − b, 2a − 5) ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −2 0 8 2 ⎥ b (3 − b, −a − 1)
9 a i (2 3, 2) 4 a ⎢ ⎥ b [−2] c (1 + a, −3 + b)
⎢ 0 0 0 0 ⎥ d Translation by (−a, −b)
ii (2 2, 2 2) ⎢ − 12 −3 ⎥ 5 a O′ (0, 0), A′ (8, −3) and B′ (−20, −4)
iii (0, 4)
⎢⎣ 3 0 ⎥⎦
b Yes, by a factor of four. The new
iv (−4, 0) ⎡ 0 6 ⎤ triangle is now reflected in the line
5 a ⎢ ⎥ b [3] y = −x.
v (2, −2 3) ⎣ 0 3 ⎦ c O″ (0, 0), A″ (3, −8) and B″ (4, 20).
( )
5 3 5
⎡ 0 4 −2 ⎤ d The final coordinates of the vertices are
b i 2
− 2, 2
+2 3 c ⎢
−
⎥ d Impossible (−3, 1), (0, −7) and (1, 21).
⎢⎣ 0 2 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ − 27i + 18 ⎤
ii ( 1
2
, 9
2 ) 6
−1 ⎡ 6 4 ⎤ 6 a A3 − 2A2 = ⎢ −
⎢⎣ 14 − 8i
−
0
⎥
14 − 8i ⎥⎦
8⎢ ⎥
iii (−4, 5) ⎣ 5 2 ⎦
1⎡ 0 ⎤
−
− i
iv (−5, −4) b A 1= ⎢ ⎥
1 ⎡ y ⎤
3 −
7⎡ x y ⎤ − ⎢⎣ 2 3i ⎥⎦
)
3
v ( 5
2
+ 2 3,
−5 3
2
+2 ⎢ ⎥× ⎢
⎢⎣ 2 3 ⎥⎦ 3 x − 2 y ⎢⎣ −
2
⎥=
x ⎥⎦ c A2 − A − 2I
( )
−3 ⎡ − ⎤ ⎡ 3i 0 ⎤ ⎡ 2 0 ⎤
1 ⎡ ⎤
−3 3
c i − 3, +3 3 3x − 2 y 0 = ⎢ 9 0 ⎥−⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥= − 2 −i ⎥ ⎢ 0 2 ⎥
⎣⎢ 4i 1 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣
2 2
3 x − 2 y ⎢⎣ 0 3x − 2 y ⎥ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎦
ii ( − 9
2
,
3
2 ) ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡
= ⎢
− 11 − 3i
0 ⎤
⎥
⎢ 0 1 ⎥=I 4i − 2 i−3 ⎥
iii (−6, −3) ⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎦
− 12 − 37
iv (3, −6) 17
8 x = 11 , y = 11 , z = 11 (A − 2I )(A + I )
v ( −3
2
+ 3 3, 3 3
2
+3 ) 9 (a – p, b – q)
⎡ 2 0 ⎤
⎡ 3i − 2
=⎢ 2 −
0 ⎤ ⎡ 3i + 1
⎥⎢
i−2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 −
0 ⎤
⎥
i +1 ⎥
⎢⎣
d i ( −9
2
, 9 3
2 ) 10 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎡ − 11
− 3i 0 ⎤
⎦⎣ ⎦
ii ( −9
2
, 9
2 ) 11 ( 1
2
+ 3,1 −
1
2
3 )
= ⎢
⎢⎣
⎥
4i − 2 i − 3 ⎥
⎦

−1 d Reflection in the y-axis
⎡ x ⎤ 1 ⎡ 6m 2 + 9 ⎤ ⎡ 145 103 121 ⎤
7 ⎢ ⎥= 3 ⎢ ⎥ e Reflection in the line y = x
y
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ m + 6 ⎢⎣ 3m − 12 ⎥⎦ c ⎢ 130 110 90 ⎥ f Clockwise rotation of 90°
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 142 115 80 ⎥⎦ g Reflection in the line y = −x
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
a h Dilation by a factor 3 from both the
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −1 ⎥ ⎡ 155 − 1135 101 ⎤
b ⎢ 6068 12 136 1517 ⎥ x-axis and the y-axis
8 ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 3 ⎥
c ⎢− − ⎥ i Dilation by a factor 3 from both the
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥
d = ⎢ 119 2791 67 ⎥ x-axis and the y-axis and rotation
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 3034 30 340 1517 ⎥ through 180°
⎢ 67 2049 − 64 ⎥
9 a 145x + 103y + 121z = 20 260 ⎢ ⎥ j Anticlockwise rotation of 90°
130x + 110y + 90z = 18 400 ⎢⎣ 6068 60 680 1517 ⎥⎦
142x + 115y + 80z = 19 200
d $70 for an adult’s ticket, $50 for a
⎡ 145 103 121 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 20 260 ⎤ pensioner’s and $35 for a child’s.
⎢
b 130 110 90
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 10 a None
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ 18 400 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 19 200 ⎥ b Rotation through 180°
⎣ 142 115 80 ⎦ ⎣ z ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ c Reflection in the x-axis

S H O RT
⎡ 3 1 ⎤ A N S W ER
1 Let A = ⎢ ⎥. 20 minutes
−
⎢⎣ 2 2 ⎥⎦
a Determine det (A) 1 mark
−
b Hence, find A 1. 2 marks
⎡ 3 2 ⎤ ⎡ −1 4 ⎤
2 Let B = ⎢ ⎥ and A = ⎢ ⎥ . Determine the following.
−2 0
⎣ 1 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
a B+A 2 marks
b AB 3 marks
1
c
2
A − 2B 3 marks
3 The point P (4, −2) has been dilated by a factor of k from the y-axis to form a new
coordinate P′. The new coordinate of P′ is (4, −4).
a Show that k = 1. 2 marks
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥
b P′ is now translated by the matrix ⎢ ⎥ to form a new coordinate R. The coordinates
−
⎢
⎣ 3 ⎥
⎦
of R are (2a, b − 1). Determine the value of a and b. 2 marks
M U LTIP L E
⎡ 1 −
a ⎤ C HO IC E
1 Let C = ⎢ ⎥ . If C is a singular matrix, then the value of a would be: 10 minutes
⎢⎣ 3 1 ⎥⎦ Each question is worth
− one mark.
1
A −3 B C 0
3
D
1 E 3
3
⎡ a ⎤
2 The point (1, 4) has been translated by the matrix ⎢ −
⎥ . If the coordinates of the new point are
⎢⎣ b ⎥⎦
(−1, 2), then the values of a and b would be:
A a = − 2, b = 1 B a = − 2, b = − 2 C a = − 2, b = 2
2
−
D a = − 1, b = 1 E a = − 1, b = − 2
2
3 A is a matrix of order m × n, B is a matrix of order p × n and C is a matrix of order n × p. Which one of
the following is correct?
A (AB)C would result in a matrix of order m × n.
B A + C would result in a matrix of order (m + n) × (n + p).
C BC would result in a matrix of order n × p.
D (AC)B would result in a matrix of order m × n.
E (BA)C would result in a matrix of order p × (nm) × p.
4 Which one of the following matrix equations would provide a solution to the simultaneous equations
x – 2y = 3, 3y – 2z = 1 and 3x + 4z = 2?
−1 −1
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡1 −2 0 ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡1 − ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡1 −2 ⎤ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
2
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A ⎢ y ⎥=⎢ 1 ⎥= 3
⎢ −2 ⎥ B ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ 0 3 −2 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ C ⎢ y ⎥=⎢ 3
−
2
⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ z ⎥ ⎢3 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 4 ⎥ 4
⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 0 4 ⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
−1 −1
⎡ x ⎤ ⎡1 −
2⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤ ⎡1 −2 0 ⎤
D
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ E ⎢ y ⎥=⎢ ⎥ ⎢ −
⎥
⎢ y ⎥=⎢ 3 2⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢0 3 2 ⎥
⎢ z ⎥ ⎢3 4 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 3 0 4 ⎥
⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Exam practice 3 339

E X TENDED 1 A triangle ABC has been transformed by a factor of 3 from the x-axis and a reflection in the line y = −x.
R E SPONS E The transformed triangle has vertices A′, B′ and C′.
35 minutes
a i Write down the (2 × 2) matrix that can be used to describe a dilation by a factor of 3 from the
x-axis.
ii Write down the (2 × 2) matrix that can be used to describe a reflection in the line y = −x.
iii Hence, write down the (2 × 2) matrix that can be used to describe the combined
transformations. 1+1+1 = 3 marks
b A′ has coordinates (−2, 3). Using your matrix from part a iii, determine the coordinates of A. 2 marks
c The triangle A′B′C′ is rotated anticlockwise by 90° to form three new vertices, A″, B″ and C″.
i Write down the (2 × 2) matrix to describe this transformation.
ii Hence, determine the coordinates of B″ if B′ is (−5, −3). 1+1 = 2 marks
2 Jim owns a garden centre. He sells four varieties of fruit trees: apple, plum, nectarine and cherry. He
recorded the number of each tree he sold over a four-week period during spring.
In the first week, he sold 4 apple trees, 2 plum trees, 3 nectarine trees and no cherry trees. In the
second week, he sold 2 apple trees, 1 plum tree, 3 cherry trees and no nectarine trees. In the third
week, he did not sell any plum or apple trees but he did sell 2 nectarine trees and 1 cherry tree.
During the fourth week, Jim’s assistant did not record the number of plum trees sold. He did
record that he sold 2 apple trees and 3 cherry trees but did not sell any nectarine trees. Let the unit
cost, in dollars, of each type of tree sold be represented by the following variables:
e = cost of an apple tree f = cost of a plum tree g = cost of a nectarine tree h = cost of a cherry tree.
a Write a (1 × 4) matrix to record the number of apple, plum, nectarine and cherry trees sold in the
first week. 1 mark
b The (4 × 1) matrix C below shows the unit price, in dollars, of each type of fruit tree.
⎡ e ⎤
⎢ f ⎥
C=⎢ ⎥
⎢ g ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ h ⎦
Using the matrix above, write the cost of 3 cherry trees. 1 mark
c The matrices W3 and C show the number of trees sold in the third week and the unit cost of each tree.
⎡ e ⎤
⎢ f ⎥
W3 C = ⎡⎣0 0 2 1⎤⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ g ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ h ⎦
i Write the order of the product of W3C. 1 mark
ii In the context of this problem, what would the matrix W3C determine? 1 mark
d The number of trees sold over weeks 2 to 4 can be represented in the following matrix, T.
⎡ 2 1 0 3 ⎤
T = ⎢⎢ 0 0 2 1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 2 p 0 3 ⎥⎦
where p is the number of plum trees sold during the fourth week.
By adding in your matrix from part a, write down the matrix that represents the total number of
fruit trees sold over the four-week period. 1 mark
The unit cost of a plum tree is $16.50. The amount of money Jim earns from selling the fruit trees for
each of the first three weeks is $195.30, $175.35, $74.65 and ($158.85 + the money from the selling
of p plum trees) respectively.
e Write down a matrix, A, that shows the amount Jim earned over the four-week period. 1 mark
f Set up a matrix equation that would determine the unknown values of e, g, h and p. 2 marks
g Using an appropriate method, solve the matrix equation to find the unit cost of an apple
DIGITAL DOC tree, a nectarine tree and a cherry tree. 3 marks
doc-10163
Solutions h The amount of money collected from selling the fruit trees during the fourth week was
Exam practice 3 $208.35. Determine the number of plum trees that were sold during the fourth week. 1 mark

CHAPTER 8
Rates of change
doc-9773
8A Identifying rates 10 Quick Questions
8B Constant rates
8C Variable rates
8D Average rates of change
8E Instantaneous rates
8F Motion graphs (kinematics)
8G Relating the gradient function to the original function
8H Relating velocity–time graphs to position–time graphs
8I Rates of change of polynomials
8A Identifying rates
In any subject dealing with things that move, grow or change it is often important to know the rate
(‘speed’) with which quantities change. An example is the amount of water a city consumes per year.
Knowing this rate is important so that measures can be taken to ensure there are adequate supplies of
water stored in dams or reservoirs.
Rates describe how much one quantity
changes with respect to another.
Example 1. The speed of a car is 70 km/h.
This rate is read as 70 kilometres per
hour, meaning that the car will travel
70 kilometres in an hour.
Example 2. The council rates for a
household are $560 per year.
As with many rates, examples 1 and 2
involve time as the second variable. But this
is not always the case.
Example 3. The price of petrol is $1.129 per
litre. This rate means that the petrol will cost
112.9 cents for every litre purchased.
Rates usually have units associated with
them but not always.
1
Example 4. The gradient of a road is 25 . This rate is read as 1 in 25 and means the road rises one unit
vertically for every 25 units in length (horizontally). This is often expressed as a percentage, i.e. a 4%
grade in this case.
Road
1
25
In general, for two quantities A and B:

Rate of change of A with respect to B = amount of A per B
change in A
= .
change in B
CHAPTER 8 Rates of change 341

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Which of the following represent a rate?

a 20 m/s b 75 ents
c pe
r packet c $13
THINK WRITE
a 20 m/s is a rate as it compares distance and time. A a 20 m/s is a rate.

distance of 20 metres is travelled each second.
b 75 cents per packet is a rate as it compares cost and b 75 cents per packet is a rate.
quantity of items. There is a cost of 75 cents for every
packet.
c $13 is not a rate as there is only one quantity. e $13 is not a rate.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A car travels 259 kilometres using 35 litres of petrol. Express this rate in km/L.
THINK WRITE
distance travelled 259 km

1 Rate = Rate =
amount of petrol used 35 L
7.4 km
2 Divide 259 by 35 to compare the number of kilometres =
travelled for each 1 litre of petrol. 1L
3 Express as a simplified rate. = 7.4 km/L

Note: Petrol consumption is usually expressed in L/100 km.
35
In this case, that would be × 100 = 13.5 L/100 km.
259
Exercise 8A Identifying rates

1 WE1 Which of the following represent a rate?
a 100 km/h b $140 per week c 64%
d 80 beats per minute e $2.75 f $35.90 per m2
g 25 kg h 10 000 litre s i $11.00 per dozen
j 18 degrees k 1.4% per quarter l 33
m 5 per person n A gradient of 0.8 o 3.4
p Cars per hour
2 Match each of the rates you identified in question 1 to the most appropriate description below.
A The rental fee for a house
B The slope of a building’s roof
C The speed of a car
D The number of cards dealt in a game of poker
E The cost of oysters at a restaurant
F The pulse rate of a person walking
G The number of cars entering a car park
H The price of carpet
I The inflation rate one year ago
3 A horseriding school wishes to organise four-day riding treks for a group of twelve people. The
following arrangements are made.
a Each day the group will ride off at 9 am. b They will travel 20 km each day.
c There will be four rest stops per day. d Each person must bring sleeping gear.
e They will sleep two people per tent. f Meals will be supplied.
g The cost will be $200 per person. h Three spare horses will be taken.
Which of these arrangements represent a rate?

4 Find the cost of the following items.
a 5 dozen eggs at $2.12 per dozen b 42.5 litres of petrol at 73.9 cents per litre
c 27 hours of work at $11.25 per hour d 4.9 kg of oranges at $1.14 per kg
e 3.8 m3 of sand at $19.75 per m3 f 55 427 people at $11 per person
5 MC Francis delivers 440 pamphlets in 2 hours and earns $5 per 100 pamphlets delivered.
a The rate of delivery of pamphlets per hour is:
A 220 B 20 C 880 D 440 E 2.5
b How long will it take Francis to earn $55?
A 4 hours B 4 hours, 20 mins C 5 hours
D 6 hours E 3 hours
6 WE2 Express the following as the rate indicated in the brackets.
a Running 100 m in 12 seconds (m/s)
b A rise of 21 °C in 6 hours (°C/h)
DIGITAL DOC
c A meal costing $250 for 10 people ($/person) doc-9774
d 2.34 kg of washing powder added to 9 litres of water (g/L) SkillSHEET 8.1
e 32 m2 of lawn costing $149.50 ($/m2) Introduction to rates of
change
f Losing 12.76 kg in 11 weeks (kg/week)
7 A 100-litre tank filled with water is leaking water at the rate of 2.5 litres per hour.
a How long will it take for the tank to be half full?
Once it is half full, water is added to the tank at the rate of 3 litres per hour.
b How much longer will it take until the tank is full again?
c MC Which of the graphs below correctly shows the volume of water in the tank, v litres, as a
function of time, t hours?
A v B v C v
100 100 100
50 50 50
20 120 t 20 120 t 20 120 t

D v E v
100 100
50 50
100120 t 20 120 t
8B Constant rates
When the rate of change of one quantity with respect to another does not alter, the rate is constant.
For example, if petrol is $1.60 per litre, then every litre of petrol purchased at this rate always costs
$1.60. This means 10 litres of petrol would cost $16.00 and 100 litres of petrol would cost $160.00.
Calculating the gradient from the graph:
rise
Gradient =
run
160
$(160 − 16)
=
(100 − 10) litres
Price ($)
$144
=
90 litres
$1.60
= 16
1litre
10 100
= $1.60/litre Number of litres (L)
= rate
That is, the gradient of this graph represents a rate.
A straight line graph shows that the rate of change between two quantities is constant.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
The graph shown represents the height, H, in metres (m) of a hot

1100
air balloon and time, T, in hours (h) after it is launched from a
mountain top. Use the graph to find:
Height (m)
a the gradient
b the rate of change 500
c the rule for height as a function of time.
5
Time (h)
THINK WRITE
rise 1100 − 500
a Use the gradient of a straight line, m = . a Gradient =
run 5− 0
600
= = 120
5
b Rate of change is the same as the gradient. Include b Rate of change = 120 m/h
appropriate units.
c As the graph is a straight line, express the rule in the c The rule is of the form H = mT + c where
form y = mx + c. m = 20 and c = 500.
Remember that m is the gradient and c is the H = 120T + 500
y-intercept.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
The table below shows the number of people, N, left inside an office building T minutes after the
alarm goes during a fire drill.
a Show that the relationship is linear. T 0 1 2 3 4
b Find the rate of change.
N 140 105 70 35 0
c Express N as a function of T.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Plot the graph of the points given. a N
140
105
70
35
1 2 3 4 T
2 Check whether the points are collinear, that is, A straight-line graph was produced, so
whether they lie on a straight line. the relationship is linear.
0 − 140
b 1 Calculate the gradient, m. bm=
4−0
− 140
= = −35
4
2 Use the gradient to state the rate of change. Include Rate of change = −35 people/min
the appropriate units. The number of people left inside the
building is decreasing at a constant rate.
c Express the rule in the form y = mx + c where m = –35 c The rule is N = −35T + 140.
and c = 140. Use N and T instead of y and x.

Exercise 8B Constant rates
1 Which of the following rates are constant?
a A person’s pulse rate when running 3 km
b The rate of growth of Australia’s population
c A person’s pulse rate when lying down
d The daily hire rate of a certain car
e The rate of growth of a baby
f The rate of temperature change during the day
g The commission rate of pay of a salesperson
h The rate at which the Earth spins on its axis
i The rate at which students arrive at school in the morning
j The rate at which water runs into a bath when the tap is left on
k The number of hours of daylight per day
2 Which of the following graphs show a constant rate of change?
a d b d c d d d
0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t
e d f d g d h d
0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t
i d j d
0 t 0 t
3 For the constant rates of change found in question 2, which of these rates are:
i positive?
ii negative?
iii zero?
4 MC The distance travelled by a car is shown in this graph.
Distance (metres)
The graph shows that the car is:

A slowing down
B speeding up
C travelling uphill
D travelling at constant speed
E stationary 0 Time (hours)
5 MC The volume of water, v litres, in a container is shown as v (litres)
a function of time, t minutes, in the graph. The rate of change of 18
water in the container is:
A 2 L/min 10
B 8 L/min
C −2 L/min
D −8 L/min
0 t (min)
E 0 L/min 4

6 WE3 For each of the functions graphed below, state:
i the gradient
ii the rate of change
iii the rule.
a d (m) b v (litres)
200 260
50
0 t (h)
4 0 t (min)
30
c w (kg) d h (m)
100 75
60
0 0 t (years)
40 t (weeks) 10
e w (g) f w (g)
16 30
10
5
0 0
8 t (min) 20 120 v (litres)
7 MC Water is being pumped out of a swimming pool holding 30 000 litres at a constant rate. It takes
25 minutes to remove 1000 litres of water.
a The rate of change of the volume of water in the pool is:
A 400 L/min B 1200 L/min −1200
C L/min
D −40 L/min E 40 L/min
b The time taken to empty the pool is:
A 12 hours, 5 minutes B 12 hours, 30 minutes C 6 hours, 30 minutes
D 2 days E 18 hours
8 The number of crates of fruit picked by a fruit-picker over the course of a day is shown in the graph.
13
Number of crates
7
6
0
8 am
11 am
12 pm
1 pm
5 pm
Time
If the fruit-picker is paid $12 per crate, answer the following.

a What is the rate of pay per hour in the first 3 hours?
b Explain what probably happened between 12 pm and 1 pm.
c What is the rate of pay per hour in the last 4 hours?
d Suggest two possible reasons why the line is not as steep in the afternoon.
e How much is earned for the day?

9 An athlete runs at a constant speed of 6 m/s for the first 420 m of a race. The next 400 m are run at a
constant speed of 5 m/s and the final 180 m at a constant speed of 6 m/s.
a How far is the race?
b How long does it take to run the first 420 m?
c How long does it take to run the next 400 m?
d How long does it take to run the final 180 m?
e Sketch the graph of distance, D metres, versus time, T seconds.
10 WE4 A spring is stretched a distance x cm beyond its natural length when a weight of W kg is
attached to one end as shown in the following table.
x 0 5 10 15 20 25
DIGITAL DOC
W 0 1 2 3 4 5 doc-9775
Plotting relations
a Show that there is a linear relationship between the variables.
b What is the rate of change of W with respect to x?
c Express W as a function of x.
11 A bucket contains 40 litres of water when it starts leaking through a hole in the bottom, such that the
volume of water, V litres, in the bucket at any time, t hours, is given by the rule V = 40 − 6t.
a At what constant rate, in litres/hour, is the water leaking?
b How long will it take for the bucket to be empty?
12 Water is poured at a constant rate into the vessels a, b, c and d shown below.
a b c d
Match the appropriate graph below, representing height of water, h, at any time, t, with each vessel
above.
i h ii h iii h iv h
0 t 0 t 0 t 0 t
8C Variable rates d
If a rate is not constant (is changing), then it must be a variable rate.
For example, the amount of electricity used per hour by a household
is most likely to be a variable rate as the need for electricity will change
throughout the day.
Graphically, a variable rate will not be linear, because the gradient
(or rate of change) is not constant.
The distance–time graph at right shows a variable rate between t = 0 0 1 2 3 t
and t = 3, because the gradient is changing over this interval. However,
it shows a constant rate between t = 0 and t = 1; t = 1 and t = 2; and t = 2
and t = 3, because the gradient is not changing over these intervals.
Relationships that give curves when graphed show that the rate of
change is continually changing; that is, a variable rate exists.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Consider the graph shown.

B C
For each interval, state whether: TUTORIAL
a the rate of change is constant or variable eles-1432
b the rate of change is positive, negative or zero. Worked example 5
A D
THINK WRITE
a Consider whether the graph is linear for each a Interval AB: variable rate of change
interval. The rate of change is constant if the Interval BC: constant rate of change
graph is linear; otherwise it is variable. Interval CD: constant rate of change
b Since the gradient of the graph gives a measure b Interval AB: positive rate of change
of the rate of change, consider whether the Interval BC: zero rate of change
gradient is positive, negative or zero in each Interval CD: negative rate of change
interval.
Exercise 8C Variable rates

1 List which of the following rates are variable.
a The pulse rate of a person watching a horror movie
b The cost per kilogram of tomatoes at the local greengrocer today
c The speed of a car travelling through the city
d The cost per kilogram of tomatoes at the local greengrocer during the year
e The number of hours of sunlight per day
f The hourly rate of a receptionist
g The hourly rate of a private taxi driver
h The speed of a marble rolling down an incline
2 Which of the following graphs show variable rates of change between points A and B?
a b
B B
A
c d
B
B
A
A
e f
A B B

3 WE5 The graph at right shows how the distance of a
runner from the starting line changes over the duration of E
D
Distance (m)
a race. 100
For the graph shown, state whether: C
a the rate of change is constant or variable 50
b the rate of change is positive or negative. B
A
c MC The rate of change of distance with respect to
time is greatest at point: 6 12
A A B B C C D D E E Time (s)
d The runner is travelling slowest (but still moving) at point:
A A B B C C D D E E
e At point E, the runner is:
A moving very fast B speeding up C slowing down
D not moving E just beginning to move
4 The following table shows how weight, W (kg) varies with time, t (min), for a particular box as it is
filled.
t (min) 0 1 2 3 4
W (kg) 0 3 6 9 12
a Plot a graph of W versus t.
b What do you notice about the plotted points?
c Is the rate of change variable or constant?
d What is the rate of change in kg/min?
5 The following table also shows weight, W (kg), varying with time, t (min).
t (min) 0 1 2 3 4
W (kg) 2 4 7 11 18
DIGITAL DOC
Plot these points on a graph.
a doc-9775
Do these points form a straight line?
b Plotting relations
Is the rate of change variable or constant?
c
What is the rate of change during:
d
i the first minute?
ii the second minute?
iii the fourth minute?
6 The following tables of values show distance travelled, d km, at various times, t hours. Decide
whether the rate of change of distance with respect to time appears constant or variable.
a
t 0 1 2 3 4
d 0 5 10 15 20
b
t 0 1 2 3 4
d 0 15 20 45 80

If a rate is variable, it is sometimes useful to know the average rate of change over a specified interval.
For example, a tree grew from 6.2 m this time last year to 6.75 m now.
change in height
The tree’s average rate of growth =
change in time
(6.75 − 6.2) m
=
1 year
= 0.55 m/year
This means that the tree grew by 0.55 metres over the past year but not necessarily constantly at that
rate during the year.

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the average rate of change between points P and Q marked on the graph.
Q
48
Distance (m)
P
30
0 2 7
Time (s)
THINK WRITE
48 − 30 18
1 Find the gradient of the chord PQ. Gradient of PQ = = = 3.6
7−2 5
2 Use the gradient to state the average rate of Average rate of change = 3.6 m/s
change. Include the appropriate units.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Find the average rate of change of height between t = 1 and t = 3 from the table below.
t (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5
h (m) 20 60 90 130 140 145
THINK WRITE
Calculate the average rate of change of height Average rate of change of height
with respect to time by considering the change change in height
=
in each quantity. When the time changes from change in time
t = 1 min to t = 3 min, the height changes from (130 − 60) m
60 m to 130 m. =
(3 − 1) min
70 m
=
2 min
= 35 m/min
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
Over a period of 6 hours, the temperature of a room is described by the

function T(h) = h2 − 4h + 22, where T is the temperature in degrees TUTORIAL
Celsius after h hours. eles-1433
a What is the initial temperature of the room? Worked example 8
b Sketch the graph of the function over the given time interval.
c Draw a chord between the points where h = 1 and h = 5.
d What is the gradient of this chord?
e What is the average rate of change of temperature between h = 1 and h = 5?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a The initial temperature is the temperature at the a When h = 0, T(0) = 0 − 0 + 22

start of the time period. Substitute h = 0 into the = 22
function to find T(0). The initial temperature is 22 °C.

− −
b b
b 1 To find the turning point, let h = . bh=
2a 2a
4
=
2
=2
2 Evaluate T (2). T (2) = 4 − 8 + 22

= 18
The turning point of the parabola is (2, 18).
c 1 Find the required points: c T (°C)

T(1) = 12 − 4(1) + 22 = 19 27 (5, 27)
T(5) = 52 − 4(5) + 22 = 27.
22 (1, 19)
19
2 Indicate the points (1, 19) and (5, 27) on 18 (2, 18)
the graph and join with a straight line.
1 2 3 4 5 H (hours)
rise 27 − 19
d Use gradient = and the points (1, 19) d Gradient =
run 5−1
and (5, 27).
8
=
4
=2
e Use the gradient to state the average rate of e The average rate of change is 2 °C/h.
change. Include appropriate units.
Exercise 8D Average rates of change

1 WE6 Calculate the average rate of change between the points P and Q marked on each graph.
a y b y P DIGITAL DOC
10 doc-9776
SkillSHEET 8.2
8 Gradient of a
Q
P straight line
6
0 x
2 5
0 x −2 Q
5
2 Which of the following graphs have a straight line drawn that can aid in finding the average rate of
change over a specified interval?
a y b y
0 x 0 x
c y d y
0 x 0 x

3 For each of the distance–time graphs below:
i draw a chord to the graph for the interval t = 1 to t = 3
ii find the gradient of this chord
iii hence, find the average speed from t = 1 to t = 3.
a d (km) b d (km)
70 70
50
10
0 t (h) 0 t (h)
1 3 1 3
c d (km) d d (km)
70 70
60
40
0 0 t (h)
1 3 t (h) 1 3
e d (km) f d (km)
70 90
70
0 t (h) 0 t (h)
1 3 1 3
4 The graph at right represents the weight of a non-uniform beam, W (kg)
W (kg), versus its length, L (m). 32.5
a Find the gradient of the chord to the graph for the interval L = 5 30
and L = 20.
b Find the gradient of the chord from L = 15 and L = 20.
c What is the average rate of change between: 10
i L = 5 and L = 20?
ii L = 15 and L = 20? 0
5 10 15 20 L (m)
d Are these rates the same? Explain your answer.
5 MC Consider the graph at right. The chord with the highest
gradient is the one from point 0 to point number:
4 5
A 4 3
B 3 2
C 2 1
D 1
E 5
0
6 The total number of people at the zoo at various times of the day is shown in the table below.
am pm
T (time of day) 10.00 11.00 12.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00
N (number of 0 200 360 510 540 550 550 550
people at the zoo)
a Plot the graph of N versus T.

b Draw chords to the graph for the interval:
i 10.00 am to 1.00 pm
ii 1.00 pm to 3.00 pm
iii 3.00 pm to 5.00 pm.

c Find the gradient of each of these chords.
d What is the average rate of change from:
i 10.00 am to 1.00 pm?
ii 1.00 pm to 3.00 pm?
iii 3.00 pm to 5.00 pm?
e Briefly describe what these rates suggest about the number of people attending the zoo during the
course of the day.
7 WE7 The height, h metres, reached by a balloon released from ground level after t minutes is
shown in the table below.
t (mins) 0 2 4 6 8 10
h (m) 0 220 360 450 480 490
a Without drawing the graph, find the average rate of change of height with respect to time
between:
i t = 0 and t = 2 ii t = 2 and t = 4
iii t = 4 and t = 6 iv t = 6 and t = 8
v t = 8 and t = 10.
b Is the average rate of change for each 2-minute interval increasing or decreasing?
8 WE8 The temperature of an iron rod placed in a furnace is described by the function T(t) = t2 + 20
between t = 0 and t = 10.
T represents the temperature of the rod in degrees Celsius and t is the time in seconds.
a What is the initial temperature of the iron rod?
b Sketch the graph of the function over the given time interval.
c Draw a chord between the points where t = 2 and t = 8.
d What is the gradient of this chord?
e What is the average rate of change of temperature between t = 2 and t = 8?
9 The weight of a rabbit in its first eight weeks is described by the function W(t) = t3 − 3t2 + 200, where
W represents the weight of the rabbit in grams and t is the time in weeks.
a What is the weight of the rabbit at birth?
b What is the average rate of change of weight of the rabbit between: DIGITAL DOCS
i weeks 1 and 3? doc-9777
ii weeks 1 and 2? Gradient between
two points
iii weeks 2 and 4? doc-9778
iv weeks 2 and 6? WorkSHEET 8.1
If a rate is variable, it is often useful to know the rate of change at any given time or point, that is, the
instantaneous rate of change.
For example, a police radar gun is designed to give an instantaneous reading of a vehicle’s speed. This
enables the police to make an immediate decision as to whether a car is breaking the speed limit or not.
y
P Tangent
0 x
Instantaneous rates can be found from a curved graph by:

1. drawing a tangent to the curve at the point in question
2. calculating the gradient of the tangent over an appropriate interval (that is, between two points whose
coordinates are easily identified).
Note: The gradient of the curve at a point, P, is defined as the gradient of the tangent at that point.

WORKED EXAMPLE 9
a Use the following graph to find the gradient of the tangent W (kg)
at the point where L = 10.
b Hence, find the instantaneous rate of change of weight, W,
with respect to length, L, when L = 10.
10 L (m)
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Draw in the required tangent. Do this ‘by eye’ a W (kg)

(estimation).
12
2 To find the gradient of the tangent, choose a
8
convenient interval (between the points where
L = 5 and L = 15). 4
0
5 10 15 20 L (m)
rise 4−8
3 Use gradient = . Gradient =
run 15 − 5
−4
=
10
= − 0.4
b Use the gradient to state the rate of change. Include b Rate = −0.4 kg/m
appropriate units. The weight is decreasing with respect to length
at a rate of 0.4 kg/m.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
a By plotting the graph of y = x2 − 2, find the instantaneous rate of change

where x = 1.
b Find the instantaneous rate of change of y = x2 − 1 at x = 2 using a calculator.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Plot the graph. a y
2 Draw a tangent to the curve at the point where 2

x = 1. Do this by eye (estimation).
1
−2 −1 0 1 2 x
−1
−2
−3
0 − (− 3)
3 Find the gradient of the tangent. (Use points Gradient =
(1.5 O) and (0, −3) on the tangent line.) 1.5 − 0
3
=
1.5
=2

4 Use the gradient to state the rate of change. Hence, the rate of change is 2.
Note: There are no units to include as the
required rate of change is the gradient.
b 1 Define the function using the CAS calculator. b f1(x) = x2 − 1
2 Use the draw tangent feature of the CAS f1(2) = 22 − 1

calculator to draw a tangent to f1(x) at (2, 3). =3
3 Use the coordinates and equations feature of ytangent = 4x – 5
the CAS calculator to determine the equation
of the tangent line. Point the cursor to (2, 3) on
the graph.
4 Answer the question. The equation of the tangent is ytangent = 4x – 5.
The gradient is 4.
Hence, the instantaneous rate of change at
(2, 3) is 4.
Exercise 8E Instantaneous rates

1 Describe each of the rates below as either an instantaneous rate (I) or an average rate (A).
a Bill walks 12 kilometres in 2 hours.
b An aircraft leaves the runway at 270 km/h.
c A household uses 560 litres of water in one
day.
d The pulse rate of a runner as he crosses the
finish line is 141 beats per minute.
e A gas heater raises the temperature of a
room by 10 °C in half an hour.
f A baby puts on 300 g in one week.
g A road drops 20 m over a distance of 100 m.
h Halfway along a flying fox, Jill is travelling
at 40 km/h.
2 Which of the following graphs have a tangent drawn at the point where x = 4?
a y b y
0 x 0 x
4 4
c y d y
0 x 0 x
4 4
e y f y
0 4 x 0 x
4

g y h y
0 x 0 x
4 4
3 WE9a In each of the following graphs, find an approximate value for the gradient of the tangent at
the point indicated.
a y b y
x=1 20
3 x=2
2
10
1
0 x 0 x
1 2 2 4
c y d y
5 22 x=4
x = 1.7
20
0 x 0 x
1 1.7 4 4 8
4 WE9b Find the approximate value for the instantaneous rate of change of weight with respect to
time at the time indicated on the graph.
a w (g) b w (g)
130 t = 20 160
70
80 t = 10
0 10 20 30 t (min) 0 5 10 15 t (min)
c w (g) d w (g)
140 110
t=4 t=1
50
40
0 2 4 6 t (min) 0 1 5 t (min)
5 The weight of a person over a 40-week period is illustrated in the graph below.
DIGITAL DOC 90
doc-9779
Gradient at a point 80
Weight (kg)
70
60
50
40
0 10 20 30 40
Time (weeks)
a Estimate the maximum weight and the time at which it occurs.

b Estimate the average rate of change of weight between week 10 and week 20.
c Estimate the rate of change of weight at 30 weeks.

6 The change of temperature in a restaurant kitchen over a 12-hour period is illustrated in the graph below.
35
30
Temperature (°C)
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213
Time (hours)
a When is the rate of temperature rise greatest?
b Estimate the rate of temperature rise at 6 hours.
7 a Plot the graph of y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 4.
b Draw tangents at the points where x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
c MC The gradient of the tangent at x = 1 is closest to:
A 0 B −1 C 2 D 3 E 4
d MC The gradient of the tangent at x = 2 is closest to:
A 8 B 6 C 4 D 2 E 0
e MC The gradient of the tangent at x = 3 is closest to:
A 6 B 9 C 3 D 7 −3
E
8 WE10a a Plot the graph of y = 9 − x2 from x = −4 to x = 4.
b Draw tangents at the points x = −2, x = 0 and x = 2.
c Hence, estimate the instantaneous rate of change at the points:
i x = −2 ii x = 0 iii x = 2.
9 WE10b A tank is being filled at a variable rate. The depth of the water, H cm, at any time, t minutes, is
described by the rule H = t2 + 2t. At what rate is the depth of water changing after 2 minutes?

In this section we will consider only objects moving in straight lines, either right and left, or up and down.
Definitions
INTERACTIVITY
1. Position, x, describes the location of an object. int-0267
2. Distance, d, is how far an object has travelled. Motion graphs
3. Displacement, s, describes the change in an object’s position; that is, displacement = change in (kinematics)
position = final position − initial position, or s = xfinal − xinitial.
distance d
4. Speed = or speed = .
time taken t
5. Velocity is the rate of change of position with respect to time, so
change in position displacement s
velocity = = , that is, v = .
change in time time taken t
Consider an object that begins at the –3-metre mark on a number line, moves 5 metres to the right, and
then moves 5 metres to the left, taking 2 seconds to do so.
For this example we have:
1. Position (initially and finally) = −3 m −4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 x
2. Distance = 10 m
3. Displacement = 0 m
10 m
4. Speed = = 5 m/s
2s
0m
5. Velocity = = 0 m/s
2s
Distance and speed are (technically) always positive. Displacement and velocity can be either positive
or negative, depending on the direction of motion.

Note: Some texts use displacement and position interchangeably (perhaps assuming displacement
from a fixed origin).
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Consider a lift starting from the ground floor, moving up to the top floor,
stopping and then coming down to the fifth floor at the times shown TUTORIAL
on the diagram. eles-1434
Find: Worked example 11
Top
a the total distance travelled by the lift t = 14 s t = 20 s
b the displacement of the lift after 25 s
Positive
c the average speed of the lift
d the average velocity of the lift.
100 m
150 m
t = 25 s
(5th floor)
t=0 Ground floor
THINK WRITE
a Add the distance travelled up (150 m) to the a Total distance = 150 m + 100 m
distance travelled down (100 m). = 250 m
b At t = 0 s, the position of the lift is 0 m. b Displacement = change in position

At t = 25 s, the position is +50 m. = +50 – 0
= +50 m
total distance travelled 250 m

c Average speed = c Average speed =
time taken 25 s
= 10 m/s
change in position (+ 50 − 0) m
d Average velocity = d Average velocity =
change in time 25 s
= +2 m/s
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Use the position–time graph at right, which shows the position x (m)
of a particle, x, travelling in a horizontal straight line at any
time, t, to find: 20
a where the journey started 10
b in which direction the particle moved initially 5
c when and where the particle changed direction
d when and where the particle finished its journey. 0 2 4 t (s)
THINK WRITE
a Find x when t = 0. a When t = 0, x = 10 m. The journey started

10 metres from the origin or reference point.
b Compare the position at t = 0 to the position a b As the position changes from 10 m at t = 0 s to
short time after this. Notice that the graph has a 5 m at t = 2 s, the particle was moving towards
negative gradient during this time. the origin or reference point in the negative
x-direction.

c Find x and t where the graph turns or changes c After 2 s at a position of 5 m, the particle changed
direction. The particle changes direction at direction.
t = 2. When t = 2, x = 5.
d Find x and t where the curve stops. d The particle finished its journey at a position of
20 m after 4 s.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Using the graph in worked example 12, consider the interval between t = 2 and t = 4 to decide
whether:
a the velocity of the particle is positive or negative
b the particle is speeding up or slowing down.
THINK WRITE
rise
a 1 For this graph, (or gradient) is the same a
run
as
change in position
(or velocity).
change in time
So the gradient of a position–time graph
gives the velocity.
2 Consider the gradient between t = 2 From t = 2 to t = 4 the gradient is positive, so the
and t = 4. velocity of the particle is positive.
b Consider how the gradient between t = 2 and b The gradient is increasing, so the velocity is
t = 4 is changing. increasing. This means the particle is speeding up.
Similarly, for the interval between t = 0 and t = 2 in worked example 12:

Positive gradient
x (m) getting steeper
Negative gradient
20 getting less steep
10
5
0 t (s)
2 4
1. the velocity is negative because the gradient is negative
2. the magnitude of the velocity is decreasing because the magnitude of the gradient is decreasing. The
negative gradient indicates the direction in which the particle is moving.
3. the speed is decreasing between t = 0 and t = 2 because the magnitude of the gradient is decreasing.
Exercise 8F Motion graphs (kinematics)

1 Match the correct description (A, B, C or D) to each of the quantities (a, b, c or d) below.
Quantity Description
a Distance A Rate of change of displacement with respect to time
b Displacement B Change in position
c Speed C Length travelled
d Velocity D Distance travelled with respect to time
2 State whether each of the following are true or false.
a Speed can be positive or negative.
b Displacement can be positive or negative.
c Distance travelled is positive only.
d Velocity is positive only.

3 WE11 A parachute ride takes people in a basket vertically up in the air from a platform 2 metres
above the ground, then drops them back to the ground. Use the diagram below showing the position of
the parachute basket at various times to find:
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9780 a the total distance travelled by the parachute basket t = 55 s t = 60 s
SkillSHEET 8.3 during a ride
Displacement b the displacement of the parachute basket after 80 s
and distance
c the average speed of the parachute basket during
the ride
d the average velocity of the parachute basket during
the ride.
19 m
t=0
2 m Platform
t = 80 s Ground
4 Consider the position and direction, at various times, of a particle travelling in a straight line as
indicated below.
t=5 t=2
t=0
x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a Where does the particle start?

b Where does the particle finish?
c In which direction does the particle move initially?
d When does the particle change direction?
e MC Which position–time graph below most accurately represents the particle’s motion?
A x (m) B x (m) C x (m)
6 6 6
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
2 5 t (s) −1 2 5 t (s) −1 2 5 t (s)
−1
−2 −2 −2
−3 −3 −3
D x (m) E x (m)
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
−1 2 5 t (s) 2 5 t (s)
−2
−3

f The total distance travelled in the first 5 seconds is:
A 4m B 13 m C 9m
D 14 m E 11 m
g The displacement of the particle after 5 seconds is:
A −3 m B 14 m C 4m
D −4 m E 0m
h The average speed in the first 2 seconds is:
A 3 m/s B −2.5 m/s C 6 m/s
D 2.5 m/s E 1 m/s
i The average velocity between t = 2 and t = 5 is:
A 3 m/s B −2 m/s C −3 m/s
D 2 m/s E 1 m/s
j The instantaneous speed when t = 2 is:
A 2.5 m/s B 0 m/s C 3 m/s
D 2.8 m/s E 1 m/s
5 WE12 The following position–time graphs show the journey of a particle travelling in a straight
line. For each graph, find:
i where the journey started
ii in which direction the particle moved initially
iii when and where the particle changed direction
iv when and where the particle finished its journey.
a x (m) b x (m) c x (m)
12 12
8
10 10
4
0 3
1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
−3 0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 t (s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 t (s)
d x (m) e x (m) f x (m)
18
5 5
4
2
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 t (s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 t (s)
−3
0 −5
1 2 3 t (s)
−5
6 For each position function of a particle given below (a–f ), sketch the position–time graph. In each case
explain:
i where the particle started its journey
ii in which direction it moved initially
iii whether the particle changed its direction and, if so, when and where that happened
DIGITAL DOC
iv where the particle finished its journey. doc-9781
a x(t) = 2t, t ∈ [0, 5] SkillSHEET 8.4
b x(t) = 3t − 2, t ∈ [0, 6] Interval notation
c x(t) = t2 − 2t, t ∈ [0, 5]

d x(t) = 2t − t2, t ∈ [0, 4]
e x(t) = t2 − 4t + 4, t ∈ [0, 5]
f x(t) = t2 + t − 12, t ∈ [0, 5]

7 a Plot the position–time graph for x(t) = 4t − t2.
b Find the gradient at:
i t=0 ii t = 1 iii t = 2
iv t = 3 v t=4
c Hence, give the instantaneous rate of change of position with respect to time (that is,
velocity) at:
i t=0 ii t = 1 iii t = 2
iv t = 3 v t=4
d Sketch the velocity–time graph from t = 0 to t = 5.
8 WE13 For each of the following position–time graphs, determine:
i whether the velocity is positive or negative
ii whether the particle is speeding up or slowing down.
a x b x c x
0 t 0 t 0 t
d x e x
0 t 0 t
9 Match the following position–time graphs (a–f ) with the corresponding velocity–time graphs
(A–F ) on the opposite page.
Position–time graphs
a x (m) b x (m) c x (m)
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s)
−1 −1 −1
−2 −2 −2
−3 −3 −3
d x (m) e x (m) f x (m)

4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s) −1
1 2 3 4 t (s)
−1 −1
−2
−2 −2
−3
−3 −3 −4

Velocity–time graphs
A v (m/s) B v (m/s) C v (m/s)
1
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s)
D v (m/s) E v (m/s) F v (m/s)
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s) 1 2 3 4 t (s)
−1
10 A ball is projected vertically upwards from the top of a building 25 m high. Its position relative to the
ground is given by the equation x = 25 + 20t − 5t2, where t is the time in seconds.
Sketch a position–time graph for the ball and hence find:
a the greatest height reached
b when the ball reaches the ground
c when the velocity of the ball is zero
d an estimate for the velocity at which the ball is initially projected.
11 The diagram at right shows the distance–time graph of two
swimmers in a 200-metre race.
Distance (metres)
a Who won the race? 200

b Who was in front after 150 metres? 150
Alan
c What was the approximate winning margin (in metres)?
100
d What was the average speed of the winner?
e For approximately how many seconds did Bill lead 50 Bill
the race?
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
f How many times did the lead change?
Time (seconds)
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9782
WorkSHEET 8.2

Relating the gradient function to the
8G
original function
Earlier we considered gradients calculated at a single point on a graph. However, if the gradients are
calculated at every point within the domain of the function, the results can be graphed. This is the graph
of the gradient function.
The gradient of the function below has been calculated at several points as shown, and a table of
gradient values has been constructed.
Graph of
original function
y
6 y = x3 − 2x2 + 2
4
Gradient = 7 2
0 1 x
−2 −1 2
−2
x −1.0 −0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.3 1.5 2.0

Graph of
Gradient 7 2.75 0 −1.25 −1 0 0.75 4 gradient function
y
The table of values above may by be used to sketch a gradient function such
8
as that at right. 6
4 4
Note: The gradient function is zero at x = 0 and x = 3 , which corresponds to
2
the zero gradient (turning points) of f (x). The gradient function is negative in x
4
the interval 0 < x < 3 , as is the gradient of f (x). The gradient function is positive −2 −1−2 0 1 2
elsewhere, which corresponds to the positive gradient of f (x).
Relating the gradient function to the

Exercise 8G
original function
1 Select several points (at least 6) on each of the graphs below and construct a table of gradient values.
Use each table to plot the gradient function in each case. You may use a CAS calculator to work
through these problems.
DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9779
a y y = x2 − 4 b y c y
Gradient at a point 4 4 6
doc-9775 y = 2x + 3
Plotting relations 2 2 4
x x 2
−2−1 01 2 −3−2−1 0 1 2 3
−2 −2
−3−2−1 01 2 x
−4 −4 −2
y = x3 + 3x2 + 2
d y e y f y
6 2 πx 40
y = sin —–
4 32
4 1 24
16 y = x4
2 y = ex 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8x
x
x −1 −2−1 01 2
−3−2−1 0 1 2 3
2 What do you notice about the gradient function of the quadratic function in question 1a?
3 Investigate other quadratic functions and their related gradient functions. What do you notice?

4 Investigate the gradient functions of other cubics besides that shown in question 1c. What types of
functions are the gradient functions of cubics?
5 Which functions have a gradient function similar to the original function?
6 What do you notice about the original functions at x-values where the gradient function intersects the
x-axis?
7 When the gradient function is negative, what do you notice about the original function?
Relating velocity–time graphs to

8H
position–time graphs
The gradient of a position–time graph gives the velocity, because velocity is the rate of change of
position with respect to time.
Therefore, by measuring the gradient of a position–time graph at various points, a velocity–time graph
can be derived.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
The position–time graph for a particle moving in a straight line is shown below.
x
3
2
1 Gradient = 2
Gradient = −2
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
Gradient = 1
−2
Gradient = 0
Gradient = −1
The gradient of the curve at various times is indicated on the graph.

Use this information to draw a velocity–time graph for the particle.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Set up a table of corresponding velocity and t 0 1 2 3 4

time values from the graph. −2 −1
v 0 1 2
2 Use the table of values to plot the velocity– v

time graph.
3
2
1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
Similarly, a position–time graph can be derived from a velocity–time graph.

The value of the velocity at a given time is equal to the gradient of the position–time graph at that
time. By obtaining several of these values and knowing the initial position of a particle, the general
shape of the position–time graph can be produced.
The following example demonstrates the steps involved.

WORKED EXAMPLE 15
The velocity–time graph for a particle moving v

in a straight line and starting at the origin is 4
TUTORIAL
shown in the diagram. Sketch the corresponding 3 eles-1435
position–time graph. 2 Worked example 15
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
−3
−4
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Set up a table of corresponding velocity and

t 0 1 2 3 4
time values. (These velocity values represent
v 4 2 0 −2 −4
the gradient of the position–time curve at the
given times.)
x
2 Set up the axes for the position–time graph.
3 Draw in a curve starting at (0, 0) with a

gradient of 4 decreasing to a gradient of 0
at t = 2 (the turning point). From t = 2 to
t = 4, the gradient changes from 0 to −4. This
means the curve will become steeper but
0 t
with a negative slope. 1 2 3 4 5
Relating velocity–time graphs to

Exercise 8H
position–time graphs
1 WE14 For each position–time graph for a particle moving in a straight line, draw a velocity–time
graph. The gradient of the curve at various times is indicated on each of the graphs.
a x b x
Gradient = 0
Gradient = −3 Gradient = 3
Gradient = −2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 t
Gradient = 2 0 t
1 2
Gradient = −2 Gradient = 1 Gradient = 2
Gradient = −1 Gradient = 0
2 MC Gradients are shown at various points on a position–time graph.

m=0
x
m = −6
m=6
m = 12 m = −12
0 t
1 2 3 4

The velocity–time graph obtained from this position–time graph is:
A v B v C v
12 12 12
0 0 0
1 2 3 4 t 1 2 3 4 t t
1 2 3 4
−12 −12
D v E v
12 12
0
1 2 3 4 t
0 t
1 2 3 4
−12
3 Sketch the velocity–time graph for each of the following position–time graphs.
x x x x
a b c d
5 4 1 8
4 7
3 2 6
0 t
2 1 2 5
1 −1 4
0 t
1 2 3 4 3
0 t
−1 1 2 3 −2 2
−2 1
−3 −4
0 t
−4 −1 1 2 3 4
−5 −6 −2
−3
−8 −4
−5
−6
−7
−8
4 WE15 For each velocity–time graph shown below, sketch a position–time graph, given that the
particle starts at the origin.
a v b v c v
3 −3
0 t 0 t 0 t
4 4 −1 1 4
−2

d v e v f v
8 3
3
0 t 0 t 0 t
−1 3 4 2 4 1 2 3 4
−8 −3
5 A particle starting at the origin moves with velocity v(t) = 2t − 4.

a Complete the table below.
t 0 1 2 3 4
v −4 −2 0 2 4
Gradient of x–t graph
b Sketch the position–time graph.

6 The velocities for a particle starting at the origin are given as a function v
of time.
Sketch a position–time graph for each using t ∈ [0, 4]. 3
a v=t+2
b v=2−t
0
c v = 3t 1 2 3 4 t
d v = −t
7 MC A position–time graph is obtained from the velocity–time −3
graph shown at right. For a particle starting at the origin, this
position–time graph will look like:
A x B x C x
0 0 0
2 4 t 2 4 t 2 4 t
D x E x
2
0 0
2 4 t 2 4 t
−1
8 Briefly describe the motion of a car during the first 30 seconds for each of the velocity–time
graphs below.
a v (m/s) b v (m/s) c v (m/s)
25
20 18
0 0 0
30 t (s) 15 30 t (s) 10 25 30 t (s)

9 Sketch a velocity–time graph for each car described below for its first 20 seconds of motion.
a A car, initially at rest, increases its speed at a constant rate until it reaches a speed of 35 m/s after
10 s. It then maintains this speed.
b A car is travelling at a constant speed 30 m/s. After 15 s the brakes are applied, decreasing its
speed at a constant rate until it stops after another 5 s.
10 A parachutist jumps from an aircraft and freefalls
for 6 seconds.
a If a parachutist falls y metres in t seconds where
y = 5t2, find the average speed of the parachutist
between:
i t = 0 and t = 3 ii t = 3 and t = 6.
b What is the speed of the parachutist after 6 seconds
of freefall?
c When the parachute is released (after 6 seconds of
freefall), the speed of the parachutist is reduced by
2 m/s every second until a speed of 4 m/s is reached.
How long after jumping from the aircraft does it take
the parachutist to reach a speed of 4 m/s?
8I Rates of change of polynomials

We have seen that instantaneous rates of change can be found from a graph by finding the gradient of the
tangent drawn through the point in question. The following method uses a series of approximations to
find the gradient.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
a Plot the graph of y = 2x2, x ∈ [0, 4].

b Draw a line through the following points on the curve and find the gradient of each line.
i x = 2 and x = 3 ii x = 2 and x = 2.1
iii x = 2 and x = 2.01 iv x = 2 and x = 2.001
c Hence, predict the gradient of the tangent at the point on the curve where x = 2.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Use a table of values or a CAS calculator. a x 0 1 2 3 4

y 0 2 8 18 32
2 Plot the points using graph paper. y

32
i
ii
18 iii
iv
0 x
1 2 3 4
b i 1 Mark the points on the curve where x = 2 and b i Line i

x = 3 and rule a line through them.
18 − 8
2 Select suitable values to calculate the Gradient =
rise 3− 2
gradient using . 10
run =
When x = 2, y = 8; when x = 3, y = 18. 1
= 10

ii 1 Again, mark the points and rule a line ii Line ii
through them.
2 Select suitable points to calculate the When x = 2.1, y = 2(2.1)2 = 8.82
gradient. Calculate the y-value for 8.82 − 8
x = 2.1 using the rule y = 2x2. Gradient =
2.1 − 2
0.82
=
0.1
= 8.2
iii 1 Again, mark the points and rule a line iii Line iii
through them.
2 Select suitable points to calculate the When x = 2.01, y = 2(2.01)2 = 8.0802
gradient. This may be difficult, so select an 8.0802 − 8
Gradient =
x-value and calculate the y-value using the 2.01 − 2
rule y = 2x2. 0.0802
=
0.01
= 8.02
iv 1 Again, mark the points and rule a line iv Line iv
through them.
2 Select suitable points to calculate the When x = 2.001, y = 2(2.001)2
gradient. Calculate the y-value for = 8.008 002
x = 2.001 using the rule y = 2x2. 8.008 002 − 8
Gradient =
2.001 − 2
0.008 002
=
0.001
= 8.002
c Continue to bring the second x-value closer and c The gradient of the tangent at the point on
closer to 2. As the second x-value becomes closer to the curve where x = 2 appears to be 8.
2, the gradient of the line is becoming closer to 8.
Notice that the slope of each line has progressively
become closer to the slope of the tangent at x = 2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Consider the function f (x) = 2 x2.

a Using a CAS calculator, calculate the gradients of the chords connecting two points on the curve
with the following coordinates:
i x = 3 and x = 4
ii x = 3 and x = 3.1
iii x = 3 and x = 3.01
iv x = 3 and x = 3.001.
b Hence, predict the gradient of the curve at x = 3.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Using the average rate of change a i avgRC(2x2, x, 1) | x = 3

function of the CAS calculator, ii avgRC(2x2, x, 0.1) | x = 3
complete the function entry lines as: iii avgRC(2x2, x, 0.01) | x = 3
avgRC(2x2, x, 1) | x = 3 iv avgRC(2x2, x, 0.001) | x = 3
avgRC(2x2, x, 0.1) | x = 3
avgRC(2x2, x, 0.01) | x = 3
avgRC(2x2, x, 0.001) | x = 3

2 Record the results. i Between x = 3 and x = 4, the gradient is 14.
ii Between x = 3 and x = 3.1, the gradient is 12.2.
iii Between x = 3 and x = 3.01, the gradient is 12.01.
iv Between x = 3 and x = 3.001, the gradient is 12.002.
b As the interval becomes smaller and b The gradient of f (x) = 2x2 approaches 12 as the interval
the two points come closer together, the decreases. So, the gradient of f (x) = 2x2 at x = 3 is 12.
chord approximates the tangent. The
gradient of this tangent is the gradient of
the curve at x = 3.
The previous example demonstrates that the gradient of a tangent to a function at a given point, x = a,
can be approximated by finding the gradient of a line joining the point x = a and another point as close
as possible to x = a.
Hybrid functions
A hybrid function is one that has different rules over different sections of its domain. For example:
⎧⎪ x + 2, x ≤ 0
f (x) = ⎨ 2
⎪⎩ x , x>0 y
The graph of f (x) is shown at right.
This is a discontinuous function because there is a break (or jump) in 2
y = x2
the graph at x = 0. There is also no defined gradient at the point x = 0 on y=x+2
this graph, because at x = 0 two different values of the gradient can be
obtained. 0 x
−2 2
If the rate of change of y at x = 0 is calculated using points just to the
left of x = 0, and then calculated using points just to the right of x = 0,
different values are obtained:
rise 2
Straight line: m = = =1
run 2
y
Parabola: At the turning point (x = 0), gradient = 0.
Gradient of straight
Not all hybrid functions have a break in them. For
line is 1 at x = 0. 2 y = x2
example:
⎧⎪ x , x ≤ 0
f (x) = ⎨ 2
⎪⎩ x , x > 0 0 x
−2
The graph of f (x) is shown at right. Gradient of parabola
y=x is 0 at x = 0.
However, even for this graph, there is no defined gradient
at x = 0.
The gradient of the tangent approaching x = 0 from the left is equal to the gradient of the straight line,
that is, 1. The gradient of the tangent to the parabola approaching x = 0 from the right, is equal to zero.
Therefore the gradient (or instantaneous rate of change) does not exist at x = 0.
If the hybrid function is ‘smooth’ at the point where the combined functions meet, then the gradient
does exist.
A function is smooth at a given point if the left-hand gradient equals
the right-hand gradient at that point.
For example:
⎪⎧2 x , x ≤1 y
f (x) = ⎨ 2
⎪⎩ x + 1, x > 1
y = x2 + 1
The left-hand gradient of f (x) at x = 1 is the gradient of the line
y = 2x, which equals 2.
The right-hand gradient of f (x) at x = 1 is the gradient of the Both gradients
2
parabola y = x2 + 1, which also equals 2. So the left-hand gradient are 2 at x = 1.
equals the right-hand gradient. Therefore, this hybrid function 0 x
1
is smooth at x = 1, and the gradient (or the instantaneous rate of y = 2x
change) at x = 1 is equal to 2.

In summary, for a hybrid function to have a gradient (or instantaneous rate of change) at the point in
the domain where the rule changes:
1. the function must be continuous at that point
2. the left-hand gradient must equal the right-hand gradient at that point. This makes the curve smooth.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Verify that the rate of change of the hybrid function

⎧⎪ 2 x, x≤2
f ( x) = ⎨ 2
x , x>2
⎩⎪
does not exist at x = 2, using a CAS calculator.
THINK WRITE
⎧⎪2 x x ≤ 2
1 Define a hybrid function using your CAS Define f ( x ) = ⎨ 2
calculator. ⎩⎪ x x > 2
2 Set f 1(x) = f (x) for graphing. f 1(x) = f (x)
3 Using the CAS calculator’s draw tangents Gradient = 2
feature, draw the tangent to y = 2x at x = 2.
4 Draw the tangent to y = x2 at x = 2. Gradient = 4
5 Since the left-hand gradient and right-hand The left-hand gradient is 2 and the right-hand
gradient are not equal, the rate of change gradient is approximately 4 around the point
does not exist at x = 2. Write the answer. x = 2. As the two results are not the same, the rate
of change of the hybrid function
⎧⎪ 2 x , x≤2
f (x) = ⎨ 2
⎪⎩ x , x>2
does not exist at x = 2.
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
⎧ 4 − 2 t, t ∈ [0, 1]
⎪
For the displacement function x( t ) = ⎨ find:
⎪⎩ 3 − t , t ∈(1, 6]
2
a the starting position
b the finishing position
c the displacement between t = 0 and t = 2 seconds
d the instantaneous velocity at t = 1, if it exists.
THINK WRITE
a Evaluate x(0). a x(t) = 4 – 2t

x(0) = 4 – 2 × 0
=4
The starting position is 4 units.
b Evaluate x(6). b x(t) = 3 – t2
x(6) = 3 − 62
= 3 – 36
= −33
The finishing position is −33 units.
c Evaluate x(2) − x(0). Note that x(0) = 4 from c x(2) – x(0) = (3 – 22) – [4 – 2(0)]
part a; x(2) = 3 − t2 at t = 2. =3–4–4
= −5
The displacement is −5 units.

d 1 Velocity is the rate of change of displacement, d
therefore find the instantaneous rate of change
of x at t = 1, if it exists.
2 To evaluate the left-hand gradient at t = 1, use Left-hand gradient = −2
the line x = 4 – 2t. Note that m = −2 in this
rule.
3 To evaluate the right-hand gradient at t = 1, x(t) = 3 – t2
use the line x = 3 – t2. Calculate values for x x(1) = 3 – 12
when t = 1 and t = 1.001. =2
x(t) = 3 – t2
x(1.001) = 3 – (1.001)2
= 1.998
1.998 − 2
4 Evaluate the right-hand gradient at t = 1. Right-hand gradient ≈
1.001 − 1
−
0.002 −
Right-hand gradient ≈ = 2.001
0.001
Right-hand gradient ≈ −2
5 The left-hand gradient equals the right-hand The instantaneous velocity at t = 1 is −2 units
gradient, so the gradient exists and equals −2. per second.
Exercise 8I Rates of change of polynomials

1 WE16 a Plot the graph of y = x2, x ∈ [0, 4].
b Draw a line through the following points on the curve and find the gradient of each line.
i x = 2 and x = 4
DIGITAL DOC
ii x = 2 and x = 3 doc-9779
iii x = 2 and x = 2.5 Gradient at a point
iv x = 2 and x = 2.1
c Hence, predict the gradient of the tangent at the point on the curve where x = 2.
d Use a CAS calculator to find the average rates of change for the intervals in part b. Does this
change your prediction for the gradient?
2a Plot the graph of y = x3, x ∈ [0, 2].
b Draw a line joining the following points on the curve and find the gradient of each line.
i x = 1 and x = 2
ii x = 1 and x = 1.5
iii x = 1 and x = 1.1
iv x = 1 and x = 1.01
c Hence, predict the gradient of the tangent to the curve where x = 1.
d Use a CAS calculator to find the average rates of change for the intervals in part b.
Does this change your prediction for the gradient?
3 WE17 a If y = x2 − x + 1, copy and complete the following table of values.
x 3 2 1.5 1.1 1.01 1

y
b Hence, find the gradient of a line joining the points on the curve where x = 1 and:
i x=3 ii x = 2 iii x = 1.5
iv x = 1.1 v x = 1.01.
c Predict the gradient of the tangent at the point on the curve where x = 1.
4 MC The gradient of a tangent to a curve at the point where x = 3 is best approximated by the
gradient of the line joining the points on the curve where:
A x = 3 and x = 4 B x = 2 and x = 4 C x = 3 and x = 3.2
D x = 3 and x = 3.001 E x = 3 and x = 3.01

5 MC The rate of change at a point P on a curve is best approximated by finding the gradient of a
line joining the point P and another point that is:
A furthest from it
B closest to it
C anywhere on the curve
D the origin
E on the x-axis
6 Use a CAS calculator to find the gradient of the following functions at the point indicated.
a f (x) = x2 at x = 1
b f (x) = 3x2 at x = 2
c f (x) = x2 + 2x at x = 2
d f (x) = x3 + x at x = 1
e f (x) = 2 − 3x − x2 at x = 2
f f (x) = x3 − 2x + 3 at x = 1.5
g f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2x at x = 3
h f (x) = 12 x2 − 3x + 5 at x = 0.5
7 Hailstones fall x metres in t seconds where x = 4.9t2. Estimate the speed of a hailstone after:
a 2 seconds
b 3 seconds.
8 The height, h metres, of a roller-coaster is given by h (m)
−
1 3 3 2 50
h= d + d
80 8
where d is the horizontal distance from 0, in metres.
Estimate the gradient of the curve describing the path of the roller-
coaster, accurate to 2 decimal places, at the point where d is:
0 20 d (m)
a 10 metres
b 15 metres
c 20 metres
d 0 metres.
9 WE18 Verify that the rate of change of the function
⎧⎪ 2 x , x ≤1
f (x) = ⎨
⎪⎩ 2 x 2
, x >1
does not exist at x = 1.
10 WE18 Verify that the rate of change of the function
⎧⎪ − 2 x , x<2
f (x) = ⎨ − 2
x , x≥2
⎩⎪
does not exist at x = 2. ⎧⎪ 5 − 4t , t ∈[0, 1]
11 WE19 For the displacement function x (t ) = ⎨ , find:
⎪ 3 − 2t ,
2 t ∈(1, 6]
a the starting position ⎩
d the instantaneous velocity at t = 1, if it exists.
⎧⎪ 4t , t ∈[0, 2]
12 For the displacement function x (t ) = ⎨ , find:
⎪ 4+t , 2 t ∈(2, 6]
a the starting position ⎩
d the instantaneous velocity at i t = 2 and ii t = 3, if it exists.

Summary
Identifying rates r A rate describes how much one quantity changes with respect to another.
r For two quantities A and B:
change in A
The rate of change of A with respect to B = amount of A per B = .
change in B
Constant rates r The gradient of a graph represents the rate of change. v

r A positive gradient shows a positive rate of change or increasing function.
r A negative gradient shows a negative rate of change or decreasing function.
r A linear or straight line graph shows that the rate of change is constant.
t
r A variable rate exists when the rate of change is not constant.

Variable rates
r On a graph, a variable rate of change can be seen when the points do not lie on a straight line.
d
0
1 2 3 t
Average rates of r Over a specified interval:

change in A
change 1. Average rate of change of A with respect to B = . y
change in B
2. Average rate of change of a function f (t) over the time interval t = a Rise
to t = b is: Run
change in f (t ) f (b) − f (a)
= 0 x
change in t b−a
⎛ rise ⎞
r When using a graph, find the gradient ⎜ ⎟ of the chord formed between the end points of the
interval. ⎝ run ⎠
r When using a table of values or rules, find the change in each quantity over the specified interval.
Instantaneous rates r The instantaneous rate of change is the rate of change at a particular instant y
rather than over an interval.
r The instantaneous rate of change can be found by calculating the gradient P Tangent
of the tangent drawn to the curve at the required point.
0 x
Motion graphs r Position, x, describes where an object is or was.

(kinematics) r Distance, d, is how far an object has travelled.
r Displacement, s, describes the change in an object’s position; that is,
x
s = xfinal – xinitial.
distance d
r Speed = , or speed = .
time taken t
s
r Velocity = displacement , or v = . 0 t
time taken t
r The gradient of a position–time graph for an object gives the velocity of that object.
r Distance and speed are always positive. Displacement and velocity can be either positive or
negative depending on the direction of motion.

Relating velocity–time r To draw a velocity–time graph (or gradient function) from a position–time graph (or original
graphs (the gradient function):
function) to position– 1. Calculate the gradient of the graph at given time values. For an x–t graph this gives the velocity.
time graphs (the 2. Construct a table of values showing the velocity (or gradient) at given time values (or x-values).
original function) 3. Use this table to plot the velocity–time graph (or gradient function).
r To draw a position–time graph (or original function) from a velocity–time graph (or gradient
function):
1. Set up a table of corresponding velocity (gradient) and time values (x-values) from the graph.
2. On a set of axes, plot a point for the initial position. Starting from this point, use the values in
the table to estimate the appropriate relative slope at each given time (or x-value) to produce a
curve.
Rates of change of r The gradient of a tangent to a function at a given point, x = a, can be approximated by finding the
polynomials gradient of a line joining the point x = a and a point as close as possible to x = a. The closer the two
points are, the more accurate the estimate of the gradient.
r For a hybrid function to have a gradient (or instantaneous rate of change) at the point in the domain
where the rule changes:
1. the function must be continuous at that point
2. the left-hand gradient must equal the right-hand gradient at that point.

Chapter review
1 A car manufacturer claims a vehicle uses 12 litres of fuel per 100 km.
S H O RT
a Express this rate in km/litre. A N S W ER
b How far could the car travel using 35 litres?
c How many litres are required to travel 765 km?
2 a Determine the rate at which water is leaking from a tank, using the graph below.
w (m3)
840
600
0 8 t (hours)
b How long does it take the tank to empty?
3 a Use the table below to plot the graph of M versus t.
t 0 1 2 3 4
M −9 −7 −1 9 23
b Is the rate of change of M constant or variable? Explain your answer.
c Estimate the gradient when t = 2.
4 The amount of substance, A kg, in a container at any time, t hours, is A = t2 − 3t + 4, t ∈ [0, 5].
a Find the average rate of change during the first 4 hours.
b At what rate is the amount changing after 4 hours?
π π
5 Calculate the average rate of change of y = tan (x) between x = and x = 3 .
4
6 A particle is moving in a straight line according to the position–time function x(t) = t2 − 2t + 5, where
t ∈ [0, 5] and t is given in seconds.
a Sketch the position–time graph.
b Where did the journey start?
c When and where did the particle change direction?
d What was the distance travelled in the first 4 seconds? x (m)
7 From the position–time graph at right, find: 200
a the initial position
b how long the object was not moving
c the velocity during the first 5 seconds
d the velocity during the last 4 seconds 30
e the total distance travelled
0 5 8 12 t (s)
f the average speed for the journey.
8 For the velocity–time graph below, sketch a position–time graph, given that the object starts at the origin.
v
2
0 3 6 t
−2
9 The height, h metres, of a projectile above the ground at any time, t seconds, is given by the function
h(t) = 5 + 12t − t2.
a Find the rate of change of height when t equals:
i 4 econds
s ii 6 econds
s iii 10 seconds.
b Briefly describe the change of height of the projectile within the first 12 seconds.
⎧⎪ 2 x , x ≤ 2
10 Verify that the rate of change of the function f ( x ) = ⎨ 2 does not exist at x = 2.
⎪⎩ x , x > 2

⎧⎪ 2t , t ∈[0, 1]
11 For the displacement function x (t ) = ⎨ , find:
a the starting position ⎪⎩ 1 + t ,
2 t ∈(1, 6]
c the displacement between t = 0 and t = 2
d the instantaneous velocity at
i t = 1 and ii t = 2, if it exists.
M U LT IP L E 1 Which one of the following is not a rate?

C H OICE A 35 km B 18 breaths per minute C $2.50 per kg
D 50 km/h E −8 °C/hour
2 Which one of the following is a constant rate?
A The number of people entering the zoo per hour
B The number of days it rains in Sydney per year
C The hourly rate of pay of a tutor
D The number of crates of fruit picked per hour by a fruit-picker
E The number of patients visiting a doctor per day
3 The graph below shows the weight, w kg, of a tank of water t minutes after water is poured into it.
w (kg)
70
20
0
40 t (min)
The rate of change of w in kg/min is:
A 1.75 B 0.8 C 2.25 D 1.25 E 2
4 The graph below has a negative rate of change in the interval:
A OP B PQ C QR D RS E OQ
y
P S
R
O x
5 The gradient of the chord PQ below is:

1
A 3 B 12 C D 6 E 2
3
y
21 Q
9 P
0 x
5 9
6 From the table below, the average rate of change of H between t = 2 and t = 5 is:
A 20 m/h B 38 m/h C 30 m/h D 190 m/h E 50 m/h
t(h) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
H(m) 0 20 40 70 120 190 280

7 The instantaneous rate of change of v at t = 4 on the graph below is:
A 13.75 L/min B 12.5 L/min C 6.25 L/min D 55 L/min E 8 L/min
v (L)
80
55
30
0
4 8 t (min)
8 Which one of the following describes an instantaneous rate?
A The temperature dropped 15°C in 2 hours.
B Harry was caught doing 85 km/h.
C Jill ran 5 km in 28 minutes.
D Jenny earned $80 in 7 12 hours.
E A balloon rose 600 metres in 90 minutes.
9 The following diagram shows the position of a particle (x metres) travelling in a straight line at various
times (t seconds).
t=5 t=2
t=0
x
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
a The displacement after 5 seconds is:

A −2 m B 11 m C 7m D −3 m E 5m
b The average speed in the first 5 seconds is:
− −
A 11 5
m/s B 75 m/s C 11
5
m/s D 7
5
m/s E 1 m/s
c The average velocity in the first 5 seconds is:
− −
A 115
m/s B 35 m/s C 35 m/s D 11
5
m/s E 1 m/s
10 The graph of a gradient function is shown below.

y
2
Gradient
function
0 x
The graph of the original function could be:

A y B y C y
4
0 x
4
0 x −2 0 x
2
D y E y
2
1
0 x 0 x
1 1

11 A position–time graph is shown below.
x
0 t
2
Which one of the following diagrams represents its velocity–time graph?

A v B v C v
0 2 t 0 t
0 t 2
2
D v E v
0 2 t 0 t
2
12 The velocity–time graph of a particle travelling in a straight line and starting at the origin is shown
below.
v
3
0 t
3 4
−1
Which one of the following represents its position–time graph?

A x B x C x
0 t
3 4
0 3 4 t 0 t
3 4
D x E x
0 t
3 4
0 4 t

13 The rate of change of a polynomial f (x) when x = 3 is closest to:
f (3.1) − f (3) f (3.001) − f (3) f (3.5) − f (3)
A B C
3.1 − 3 3.001 − 3 3.5 − 3
f (3) − f (0) f (3.00 001) − f (3)
D E
3− 0 3.00 001 − 3
14 The rate of change of y = x2 + x when x = 2 is:
A 2 B 3 C 4
D 5 E 6
1 A soft-drink vending machine at a railway station dispenses cans of soft drink. It has a capacity of EXTENDED
600 cans when full. R ES P O N S E
On a particular day:
r the machine is half full at 6.00 am
r in the next four hours drinks are dispensed at a constant rate of 15 per hour
r at 10.00 am the machine is filled
r in the next four hours the machine dispenses an average of 60 cans per hour at a steadily
increasing rate
r finally, from 2.00 pm to 6.00 pm an average of 30 cans per hour are dispensed at a steadily
decreasing rate.
a Sketch a graph showing the number of cans in the machine over the period from 6.00 am to
6.00 pm. Use the graph to:
b find the number of cans in the machine at 6.00 pm
c estimate at what time in the afternoon the machine is half full
d estimate the rate at which cans are dispensed at 1.00 pm.
2 The concentration (x mg/L) of a tranquilliser in a patient’s bloodstream at any time, t hours, after it is
administered is given by the following rule:
2t
x= ,t≥0
t2 + 1
The tranquilliser is only effective if the concentration is at least 0.5 mg/L.
a Determine the concentration at:
i t= 0 ii t = 1 iii t = 2 iv t = 4.
b With the aid of a CAS calculator, sketch the graph for the concentration function.
c Find the exact length of time that the tranquilliser is effective.
d Determine the average rate at which the tranquilliser is absorbed into the bloodstream from t = 1 to
t = 3 hours. Explain why the rate is negative.
e Determine the instantaneous rate at which the tranquilliser is absorbed into the bloodstream at
t = 0.5 and t = 2 hours. (Give answers to 2 decimal places.)
f Verify that the rate at which the tranquilliser is absorbed into the bloodstream is 0 at t = 1. Hence,
give the time and concentration when the concentration is at a maximum.
3 The position (x centimetres from the origin, 0) of an object travelling in a straight line at any time,
t seconds, is given by:
⎧⎪ 2t + 1, t ∈[0, 2]
x=⎨
⎪⎩ t − 2t + 5,
2 t ∈(2, 5]
a Determine the initial and final position of the object.

b Sketch the position–time graph.
c Verify that the velocity exists at t = 2 and determine this velocity.
d Find the displacement from t = 1 to t = 4.
e The average velocity from t = 1 to t = b is 2.9 cm/s. Find the value of b.
f Determine the time, t = c, for which the displacement from t = 0.5 to t = 2 is equal to the
displacement from t = 2 to t = c.
g Sketch the velocity–time graph for this object.

4 A skateboarder starts on a 1 m long flat section before coming down on an inclined ramp. When
he reaches the top of the ramp a stopwatch is started. The distance he travels is known to follow an
exponential curve d = at for the first 2 seconds of motion, where d is in metres and t in seconds. If his
speed initially (at t = 0) is 1 m/s, find his equation of motion; that is, find a. Use the following steps
to help.
a Using a CAS calculator, find the gradient of d = 2t at t = 0.
b Using a CAS calculator, find the gradient of d = 3t at t = 0.
Clearly the value of a must be between 2 and 3.
c Using trial and error, find the value of a correct to 2 decimal places.
d Show that the accurate value is a = 2.718 281 8 (correct to 7 decimal places).
e Find the value of 2.718 281 82 (correct to 5 decimal places).
f Find the gradient of d = 2.718 281 8t at t = 2 (correct to 5 decimal places).
DIGITAL DOC
g What do you notice?
doc-9783
Test Yourself Note: 2.718 281 8 . . . is a very important transcendental number in mathematics and has the
Chapter 8 symbol e. You will find it on your calculator.

ICT activities
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CHAPTER 8 � Rates of change 383
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Answers CHAPTER 8
RATES OF CHANGE Exercise 8C Variable rates d i d (km)
P
1 a, c, d, e, g, h 70
Exercise 8A Identifying rates 60 Q
2 b, d, e, f
1 a, b, d, f, i, k, m, n, p
3 a The rate of change is variable
2 a C bA d F
throughout the time interval, except at
f H i E k I t (h)
the region E. E shows a constant rate of 0 1 3
mD n B p G
change. ii −5 iii −5 km/h
3 b, c, e, g
b The rate of change is positive e i d (km)
4 a $10.60 b $31.41
throughout the time interval, except at P Q
c $303.75 d $5.59 70
region E. E has a zero rate of change.
e $75.05 f $609 697
c D
5 a A bC
d A
6 a 8.33 m/s b 3.5 °C/h
e D 0 t (h)
c $25 per person d 260 g/L 1 3
4 a W (kg)
e $4.67/m2 f 1.16 kg/week ii 0 iii 0 km/h
12
7 a 20 h b 100 h f i d (km)
9
c C P
6 90
Exercise 8B Q
Constant rates 3 70
1 c, d, g, h, j
0 1 2 3 4 t (min)
2 b, d, e, g, h, j
3 i b, e, h ii g, j b The points form a straight line.
iii d c A constant 0 1 3 t (h)
4 D d 3 kg/min
ii −10 iii −10 km/h
5 C 5 a W (kg) 4 a 1.5 b 0.5
6 a i 50 ii 50 m/h 20 c i 1.5 kg/m ii 0.5 kg/m
iii d = 50t 16 d No, because it is a variable rate of
b i 7 ii 7 L/min 12 change.
iii v = 7t + 50 8 5 D
c i −1 ii −1 kg/week 4
6 a, b N
iii w = 100 − t 0 600
1 2 3 4 t (min)
d i 0 ii 0 m/year 500
iii h = 75 b No 400
e i 0.75 ii 0.75 g/min c Variable 300
d i 2 kg/min 200
iii w = 0.75t + 10
ii 3 kg/min 100
f i −0.25 ii −0.25 g/L
iii 7 kg/min 0
iii w = −0.25v + 35 0 10 am 11 am 12 pm 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm T
6 a Constant
7 a D b B c i 170 ii 20 iii 0
b Variable
8 a $24/h b Rest d i 170 people/h ii 20 people/h
c $18/h Exercise 8D Average rates of change iii 0 people/h
2
d The picker is tiring a little or fruit is 1 a e Most people arrive in the morning, few
5
scarcer. b −4 in the middle of the day and none later
e $156 2 a, c in the afternoon.
9 a 1000 m b 70 s 7 a i 110 m /min ii 70 m/min
3 a i d (km)
c 80 s d 30 s iii 45 m/min iv 15 m/min
70 Q
e d (metres) v 5 m/min
1000 b Decreasing
P 8 a 20 °C
820 10
0 t (h) b, c T (°C)
1 3
420 120
ii 30 iii 30 km/h
(8, 84)
0
b i d (km)
70 150180 t (s) Q
70
10 a w (kg) P
50
5 20 (2, 24)
4 0 2 4 6 8 10 t (s)
3 0 1 3 t (h)
2
d 10
1
ii 10 iii 10 km/h e 10 °C/s
c i d (km) 9 a 200 g
0 5 10 15 20 25 x (cm) 70 b i 1 g/week ii −2 g/week
Q
b 0.2 kg/cm P iii 10 g/week iv 28 g/week
40
c W = 0.2x Exercise 8E Instantaneous rates
2
11 a 6 L/h b 6 h 1 a A b I c A d I
3
0 1 3 t (h)
12 a iv b i e A f A g A h I
c ii d iii ii 15 iii 15 km/h 2 a, c, d, h

3 a 1 b 2.5 6 a x 7 a x
c −1 d 0.25 10
4
4 a 2.5 g/min 8
b 16 g/min 6
c −25 g/min 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
d 12 g/min 2
5 a 85 kg after 35 weeks t −5
0 1 2 3 4 5
b Approx. −1 kg/week
i x=0 ii Right b i 4 ii 2 iii 0
c Approx. 2.0 kg/week −2 −4
iii No iv x = 10 iv v
6 a Approx. 6 hours
b x c i 4 m/s ii 2 m/s iii 0 m/s
b Approx. 3.5 °C/hour −2 −4 m/s
y 16 iv m/s v
7 a, b
d x
16 4
12 2
8 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−2
4 0 6 t −4
−2
−6
0 x −2
1 2 3 4 i x= ii Right
8 a i Positive
iii No iv x = 16
c C d C e A x ii Speeding up
c
8 a, b y 15 b i Negative
9 ii Slowing down
c i Negative
ii Speeding up
5
d i Positive
ii Slowing down
e i Positive
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x 0 t ii Neither — velocity is constant.
1 2 3 4 5
−2 −1 9 a C b E
c B d F
i x=0 ii Left
e A f D
iii Yes, t = 1, x = −1 iv x = 15
−7 10 x (m)
d x
c i 4 ii 0 iii −4 45
1
9 6 cm/min 25
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Exercise 8F Motion graphs (kinematics)
1 a C b B 0 1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
c D d A
2 a False b True
a 45 m
c True d False
b t=5
3 a 40 m −8 c t=2
−2 m (or 2 m below the platform) d 20 m/s
b i x=0 ii Right
11 a Alan b Bill
c 0.5 m/s iii Yes, t = 1, x = 1 iv x = −8
d −0.025 m/s (or 0.025 m/s downwards) x c 12 metres d 2.0 m/s
e
4 a x=1 b x = −3
e 40 s f Twice
9 Exercise 8G Relating the gradient
c Right d t=2
e C f D function to the original function
g D h D 4 1 a y
i C j B 12
5 a i x=0 ii Right 0 1 2 3 4 5 t 8
iii t = 2, x = 8 iv t = 5, x = −3 4
b i x=4 ii Right i x=4 ii Left
iii t = 4, x = 12 iv t = 6, x = 10 iii Yes, t = 2, x = 0 iv x = 9 −4 −2 0 2 4
x
f x −4
c i x=0 ii Right
18
iii t = 3, x = 12 and t = 6, x = 3 Gradient function
iv t = 8, x = 10
d i x=0 ii Left b y
iii t = 1, x = −5 iv t = 3, x = 18 12
e i x = −3 ii Left 0 1 2 3 4 5 t 8 Gradient
1 function
iii t = 1 , x = −6 iv t = 5, x = 5 4
2
f i x=2 x
−12 −4 −2 0 2 4
ii Left −4
iii t = 3, x = −5 and t = 5, x = 5 i x = −12 ii Right
iv t = 6, x = 4 iii No iv x = 18

c y 3 a v 5 a t
12
0 1 2 3 4
5
V − − 0 2 4
8 Gradient
4 2
4 function Gradient of −4 −2 0 2 4
0 2 x x–t graph
−4 −2 4
−4 0 1 2 3 t b x
b v
8
d y 0 1 2 3 4 t
4
8
6 0 1 2 3 4 t
Gradient 4 −4 6 a x
(and original)
function 2 −8
x
c v
−2 −1 0 1 2
2
e 0 4 t
y Gradient 0 1 2 t
π
function b x
–
4 −2
0 2 x
4 6 8 d
− π– v
4
12
f y
0 2 4 t
5
3 c x
4
3 0 t
1 2 3 4
2
4 a x
1
12
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
0 4 t
−2
−3 0 t d x
4
−4 b x 0 4 t
−5
2 It is a straight line. 0 4 t
3 The gradient functions of quadratic
functions are always linear. −8
4 Quadratic functions c x 7A
5 The gradient function of sin (x) is cos (x); 8 a It travels at a constant velocity of
x
the gradient function of e is ex. 20 m/s.
6 There are stationary (turning) points there. b It starts at rest, increasing its velocity
7 The original function will also be negative at a constant rate for 15 seconds when
or inverted. it reaches 18 m/s. It then maintains this
Exercise 8HRelating velocity–time
0 1 2 3 4 5 t velocity.
graphs to position–time graphs d x c It starts from rest, increasing its velocity
1 a v at a constant rate for 10 seconds when it
3 reaches 25 m/s. It maintains this velocity
for a further 15 seconds, then decreases
its velocity at a constant rate for
0 0 4 t
5 seconds, bringing it back to rest.
3 6 t 1 2 3
9 a v (m/s)
e x
−3 35
b v
2 0
0 1 2 3 4 t 10 20 t (s)
f x b v (m/s)
0 1 2 t
30
−2 0 1 2 3 4 t
2 C 0 15 20 t (s)

10 a i 15 m /s ii 45 m/s CHAPTER REVIEW EXTENDED RESPONSE
b 60 m/s 1 a
c 34 seconds SHORT ANSWER
Exercise 8I 1 a 8.33 km/L 600

Rates of change of
b 291.6 km 540
polynomials
c 91.8 L 480
1 a y
i 2 a 30 m3/h 420
Number of cans
16 (4, 16) b 28 hours 360
ii
3 a M
300
iii 23
12 240
iv 180
(3, 9) 120
8
(2.5, 6.25) 9 Tangent 60
at t = 2 0
(2.1, 4.41) 8.00 am 10.00 am12.00 pm 2.00 pm 4.00 pm 6.00 pm
4 (2, 4)
t Time
(1, 1) 0 1 2 3 4 5
b 240 c Approx. 3 pm
0 x d Approx. 84 cans/hour
1 2 3 4 −9
2 a i 0 ii 1
b Variable, as the graph is not a straight iii 0.8 iv 0.471 mg/L
b i 6 ii 5 iii 4.5 iv 4.1
line. b x (mg/L)
c 4
2 a y i c Approx. 8.5 1
8 (2, 8) 4 a 1 kg/h
b 5 kg/h
7 ii 12( 3 − 1) 0.5
5 Average gradient =
6 π
5 6 a x
20 0 1 2 3 4 t (hours)
4
(1.5, 3.375) 15
3 iii
c 2 3 hours
iv 10
2 (1.1, 1.331) x (t) d −0.2 mg/L; it is negative because the
5
1 (1, 1) (1.01, 1.030301) 4 concentration is decreasing.
0 t e 0.96 mg/L at t = 0.5, −0.24 mg/L at t = 2
0 x 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 f The maximum concentration is 1 mg/L
b x=5m after 1 hour.
b i 7 ii 4.75 iii 3.31 iv 3.0301 c t = 1 s and x = 4 m 3 a Initial position is 1 cm, final position is
c 3 d 10 m 20 cm.
d i 7 ii 4.75 iii 3.31 iv 3.03, no 7 a x = 30 m b x (cm)
3 a b 3s x = t2 − 2t + 5
x 3 2 1.5 1.1 1.01 1 c 34 m/s
20
(5, 20)
d −50 m/s
y 7 3 1.75 1.11 1.0101 1 15
e 370 m (4, 13)
b i 3 ii 2 iii 1.5 f 30.83 m/s 10 x = 2t + 1
iv 1.1 v 1.01 8 x (3, 8)
c 1 5
(2, 5)
4 D 1
5 B 0 3 6 t
0 1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
6 a 2 b 12
c 6 d 4 c 2 cm/s d 10 cm
e −7 f 4.75 9 a i 4 m/s ii 0 m/s iii −8 m/s e b = 3.5 f c=3
g 31 h −2.5 b The height of the projectile increases g v (cm/s)
during first 6 seconds then decreases
7 a 19.6 m/s 8
after that. 7
b 29.4 m/s 6
10 Teacher to check.
8 a 3.75 5
11 a 0 4
b 2.81 3
b 37 2
c 0
c 5 1
d 0
d i 2 ii 4 1 2 3 4 5 t (s)
9 Teacher to check.
10 Teacher to check. MULTIPLE CHOICE 4 a loge (2) b loge (3)
11 a 5 b −69 1 A 2 C 3 D c a = 2.72, correct to 2 decimal places
c −10 d −4 m/s 4 B 5 A 6 E d loge (2.7182818) = 1 e 7.389 06
12 a 0 7 C 8 B f 7.389 06; 2.718 281 82
b 40 9 a D b C c B d
= (2.718 281 8 x ) x = 2
c 8 10 D 11 A 12 C dt
d i 4 ii 6 13 E 14 D g The gradient is the same as 2.71828182.

CHAPTER 9
Differentiation
doc-9784
9A Introduction to limits 10 Quick Questions
9B Limits of discontinuous, rational and hybrid functions
9C Differentiation using first principles
9D Finding derivatives by rule
9E Rates of change
9F Sketching graphs containing stationary points
9G Solving maximum and minimum problems
9A Introduction to limits
In mathematics it is important to understand the concept of a limit. This concept is especially
important in the study of calculus. In everyday life we use the term limit to describe a restriction
put on a quantity. For example, the legal blood alcohol concentration limit for a driver is normally
0.05 g/100 mL. As the number of standard alcoholic drinks consumed in 1 hour approaches 2,
the average adult’s blood alcohol concentration approaches 0.05. Likewise, some time after a
celebration, a person who has been drinking heavily at an earlier time may have a blood alcohol
concentration that is approaching the legal limit of 0.05 from a higher level, as the number of
drinks not yet metabolised by their body approaches 2. We could say that as the number of standard
drinks remaining in the body approaches 2, the blood alcohol concentration approaches 0.05. In
essence the blood alcohol concentration is a function, say f (x), of the number of drinks, x, remaining
in the body.
CHAPTER 9 Differentiation 389

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Add the following series of numbers and state what value it is approaching. 12 + 14 + 18 + 16
1 1
+ 32 +...
THINK WRITE
3
1 Add the first 2 terms. The sum of the first 2 terms is 4 (= 0.750).
7
2 Add the first 3 terms. The sum of the first 3 terms is 8 (= 0.875).
15 (≈ 0.938).
The sum of the first 4 terms is 16
3 Add the first 4 terms.
31
4 Add the first 5 terms. The sum of the first 5 terms is 32 (≈ 0.969).
63
5 Add the first 6 terms. The sum of the first 6 terms is 64 (≈ 0.984).
6 Give the upper limit. The sum is approaching 1.
Expressing limits in mathematical language, we say that a limit can be used to describe the behaviour
of a function, f (x), as the independent variable, x, approaches a certain value, say a. In some cases
the function will not be defined at a. Using the correct notation for the example on blood alcohol
concentration, we would write:
lim f ( x ) = 0.05
x→2
This is read as ‘the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 is equal to 0.05’.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
By investigating the behaviour of the function f (x) = x + 3 in the vicinity of x = 2, show that
lim f ( x ) = 5: a by hand b using a CAS calculator.
x→ 2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Create a table of values for x and f (x) in a x 1.95 1.99 1.995 2 2.005 2.01 2.05
the vicinity of x = 2.
f(x) 4.95 4.99 4.995 5 5.005 5.01 5.05
2 Consider the values taken by f (x) as x As x approaches 2 from the y
approaches 2. left and the right, f (x)
5 f(x)
approaches a value of 5.
So lim f ( x ) = 5. 3
x→2
0 x
−3 2
b 1 Using the Lists and Spreadsheets b 1.95
feature of the CAS calculator, enter the 1.99
x-values into column A (a[ ]). 1.995
2
2.005
2.01
2.05
2 Enter a second column as a[ ] + 3. 1.95 4.95
1.99 4.99
1.995 4.995
2 5
2.005 5.005
2.01 5.01
2.05 5.05
3 Find the left- and right-hand limits as x The left- and right-hand limits are equal, so
approaches 2. when f (x) = x + 3, lim f ( x ) = 5 .
x→2

Limits of continuous functions
A continuous function has a graph that forms a continuous line; that is, it has no breaks. If a function is
continuous at the point where a limit is being found, then the limit always exists and can easily be found
by direct substitution.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find lim( x 2 + 2): a by hand b using a CAS calculator.

x→ 2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 To consider whether the function is continuous, a y

f(x)
sketch the graph of y = x 2 + 2 in the vicinity of 6
x = 2.
2
0 2 x
2 As the graph is continuous, substitute x = 2 The function is continuous at x = 2.

(from lim ) into x2 + 2 to evaluate the limit. lim( x 2 + 2) = 22 + 2
x→2 x→2
=6
b 1 Using the limit feature of the CAS calculator, b lim( x 2 + 2)
x→2
determine the required limit.
2 Record the result. 6
3 Write the answer. lim( x 2 + 2) = 6
x→2
In general if a function, f (x), is continuous when x = a, then lim f ( x ) = f ( a).

x→ a
Theorems on limits
Theorem 1
For the constant function f where f (x) = c, then lim f ( x ) = c .
x→a
If lim f ( x ) = A and lim g( x ) = B , then the following theorems apply.
x→a x→a
Theorem 2
For example: lim[ f ( x ) + g( x )] = lim f ( x ) + lim g( x ) = A + B
x→a x→a x→a
lim[ f ( x ) − g( x )] = lim f ( x ) − lim g( x ) = A − B
x→a x→a x→a
lim( x 2 + 2x) = lim x 2 + lim 2 x = 1 + 2 = 3

x →1 x →1 x →1
Theorem 3
For example: lim[ f ( x ) × g( x )] = lim f ( x ) × lim g( x ) = A × B
x→a x→a x→a
lim [ x 2 (3 x )] = lim ( x 2 ) × lim (3 x ) = 1 × −3 = −3
x→− 1 x → −1 x → −1
Theorem 4
For example:
⎡ f ( x ) ⎤ xlim f (x) A
lim ⎢ ⎥ = →a = if B ≠ 0
x → a ⎣ g( x ) ⎦ lim g( x ) B
x→a
x + 4 xlim(
2 x 2 + 4)
→5
lim =
x →5 x + 1 lim( x + 1)
x →5
29
=
6

These theorems on limits can be expressed in word form:
1. The limit of a sum equals the sum of the limits.
2. The limit of a difference equals the difference of the limits.
3. The limit of a product equals the product of the limits.
4. The limit of a quotient equals the quotient of the limits.
Exercise 9A Introduction to limits

1 WE1 Add the following series of numbers and state what value it is approaching.
4 + 2 + 1 + 12 + 14 + . . .
2 The diagram at right shows regular polygons with 3, 4 and 5 sides.
As the number of sides gets very large (→ ∞), what shape emerges?
n=3 n=4 n=5
3 MC If n represents the number of sides of a regular polygon, then which of the following correctly
describes the situation given in question 2 above?
A n B lim C lim
n→∞ n→ 0
D n→0 E n→5
1
4 a Find the value of as n gets infinitely large.
n
b Write this using limit notation.
5 a If S = 1 + 12 + 14 + 81 + 16
1 + … and n represents the number of terms to be summed in the series,
copy and complete the following table:
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 10
S 1 1 12
b MC Which of the following is equal to lim S?

n→∞
A 1.75 B 1.95 C 2
D 1 E 0 y
f(x)
6 WE2 By investigating the behaviour of the function f (x) = x + 5 in the vicinity of
x = 3, show that lim f ( x ) = 8. 3
x →3 2
7 MC From the graph at right it can be seen that the lim f ( x ) is equal to: 1
x→2
A 2 B −1 C 3 0 x
−1 2
DIGITAL DOC D 1 E 0
doc-9785
SkillSHEET 9.1 8 For each of the functions graphed below, find lim f ( x ).
Substituting into a x→4
function a y b y c y
f(x) f(x)
30
0 4 x
2
14 f(x)
−3 0 x
4
0 x
4
d y e y f y
f(x) f(x)
21 4
15
10
f(x)
5 1
x 0 x
0 4 4 0 x
4

9 WE3a Evaluate the limits below.
a lim(2 x + 5) b lim(10 − 2 k ) c lim(49a + 1) d lim( x 2 + 2)
x→2 k →4 a→1 x→0
e lim(h 2 + 3h) f lim(8 − 5 x 2 ) g lim (3 p2 − 2 p + 3) h lim( x 3 + 2 x )

h→ 5 x→2 p→ − 2 x→0
10 MC WE3b If f (x) = 3x − 2, then the value of lim f ( x ) is equal to:

x→0
A 0 B 3 C 2 D −2 E 1
11 MC The lim ( x 2 − 5) is equal to:
x→ − 3
A 4 B −5 C 9 D −4 E 0
12 Find the values of the following limits. DIGITAL DOC
doc-9786
x +32
2 x − 3x
2 6x − 2 x + 3x − 2
2
Investigation
a lim b lim c lim d lim
x→2 x x→0 x +1 x→ − 2 x x →3 x−2 Sneaking up on a limit
9BLimits of discontinuous, rational

and hybrid functions
Limits of discontinuous functions
If a function is discontinuous at the point where the limit is being investigated, then
the limit will exist only if the function is approaching the same value from the left y
as from the right. Consider the discontinuous functions graphed below.
1. From the left, lim f ( x ) = 1. (The symbol x → 1− indicates that we are 1
x →1−
letting x approach 1 from the left side.)
From the right, lim f ( x ) = 1.
x →1+ 0 x
1
Left limit = right limit. Therefore, lim f ( x ) = 1.
x →1
y
f(x)
2. From the left, lim f ( x ) = 2.
x →1−
4
From the right, lim f ( x ) = 4.
x →1+
Left limit ≠ right limit. Therefore, lim f ( x ) does not exist. 2

x →1
0 1 x
2
Limits of rational functions
Finding the limit of a rational function involves simplifying the function before direct substitution can
take place and recognising any values of x for which it is discontinuous.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
x2 − x
a Find lim :
x→1 x − 1
i by hand ii using a CAS calculator.
x2 − x
b Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = , stating the value of x for which it is discontinuous.
x−1
THINK WRITE/DRAW
x2 − x x ( x − 1)
a i 1 We cannot substitute x = 1 directly as we will get 00 , a i lim = lim
x →1 x − 1 x →1 x − 1
which is undefined, so we factorise the numerator.

2 Cancel (x – 1) from the numerator and x, x ≠ 1
= lim
x →1
denominator.
3 Now substitute x = 1 (from lim) and evaluate. =1

x →1
⎛ x 2 − x⎞
ii 1 Using the limit feature of the CAS calculator, enter ii lim ⎜
x→1 ⎝ x − 1 ⎠
⎟ =1
the function and the value of x for the limit.
⎛ x 2 − x⎞
3 Write the answer. lim ⎜
x→1 ⎝ x − 1 ⎠
⎟ =1
x2 − x y
b The graph of f ( x ) = is the same as the graph b
x −1 f(x)
of f (x) = x, except where the point (1, 1) does not exist.
1
0 x
1
The function is discontinuous at x = 1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
a By first factorising the numerator, simplify the rational function

x2 + 5 x + 6 TUTORIAL
f ( x) = , stating the value for which the function does not exist
x+3 eles-1437
(that is, is discontinuous). Worked example 5
b Find lim f ( x ), where a is the value at which f (x) is discontinuous.

x→ a
THINK WRITE
x 2 + 5x + 6
a 1 Factorise the numerator. a f (x) =
x+3
( x + 3)( x + 2)
=
( x + 3)
2 Cancel (x + 3) from the numerator and f ( x ) = x + 2, x ≠ − 3
denominator. so f (x) is discontinuous at x = –3
b Write an expression for lim f ( x ) and evaluate by b lim x + 2 = − 3 + 2
−3. x→a x→ − 3
substituting x =
= −1
Limits of hybrid functions

Hybrid functions are functions that have different rules for different parts of the domain.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
⎧⎪x 2 , x ∈( − ∞ , 2]
a Sketch the graph of the hybrid function f ( x ) = ⎨ .
⎪⎩x − 1, x ∈(2, ∞ )
b Find i lim f ( x ) ii lim f ( x ) iii lim f ( x ) if it exists.
x→ 2 − x→ 2 + x→ 2
c Find solutions to parts a and b using a CAS calculator.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Sketch f (x) = x2 over the domain (−∞, 2]. a y
4 f(x)
2 Sketch (on the same axes) f (x) = x − 1 over the
domain (2, ∞).
1
0 x
2
b i Substitute x = 2 into f (x) = x 2. b i lim f ( x ) = lim x 2
x → 2− x → 2−
=4
ii Substitute x = 2 into f (x) = x − 1. ii lim f ( x ) = lim ( x − 1)
x → 2+ x → 2+
=1
iii Are these limits equal? iii lim f ( x ) does not exist
x→2
(as left limit ≠ right limit).
2 −
⎪⎧x ∞ < x ≤ 2
c 1 Using the hybrid function feature of the CAS Define f ( x ) = ⎨
calculator, define the functions and their domains. ⎪⎩x − 1 2 ≤ x < ∞
2 Plot the function using a suitable window on the y

CAS calculator.
4 f(x)
1
0 x
2
3 Use the limit feature of the CAS calculator to lim ( x 2 )
x → 2−
find the limit from the left.
5 Use the limit feature of the CAS calculator to lim ( x − 1)

find the limit from the right. x → 2+
7 Write the answers. c i lim ( f (x)) = 4

x → 2−
ii lim ( f (x)) = 1
x → 2+
iii lim( f (x)) does not exist as the left

x→2
limit does not equal the right limit.
Limits of discontinuous, rational

Exercise 9B
and hybrid functions
1 Which of the following graphs are discontinuous?
a y b y c y
3 0 x
0 x 0 x
3 4

y y y
d e f
4
0 x
−1
0 x
0 x 3
2
2 For each discontinuous function above, state the value of x for which it is discontinuous.
x2 − 4x
3 WE4 a Find lim .
x →4 x − 4
x2 − 4x
b Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = , stating the value of x for which it is discontinuous.
x−4
x2 + x
4 a Evaluate f (x) when x = 0 if f ( x ) = . Comment on this result.
x
b For what value of x is f (x) discontinuous?
c Factorise the numerator of f (x).
d Now simplify f (x).
e Sketch the graph of f (x).
f Evaluate lim f ( x ) if it exists.
x →0
5 WE5a By first factorising the numerator, simplify the following rational functions, stating the value
for which the function does not exist (is discontinuous).
x 2 + 3x 6 x − 18 x 2 − 5x x 2 + 5x + 4
a f (x) = b f (x) = c f (x) = d f (x) =
x x−3 x x+4
x 2 − 7x + 6 x3 + 8 x 2 + 3x − 4 x 3 − 27
e f (x) = f f (x) = g f (x) = h f (x) =
x−6 x+2 x −1 x−3
6 WE5b For each rational function in question 5, find lim f ( x ), where a is the value at which f (x) is
x →a
discontinuous.
7 WE6a Sketch the graphs of the following hybrid functions.
⎧x + 3, x ∈(−∞ , 2) ⎧⎪4 − x , x ∈(−∞ , −1]
a f (x) = ⎨ b g( x ) = ⎨
⎪⎩4, x ∈[2, ∞ ) −
⎩⎪3 x + 1, x ∈( 1, ∞ )
−
⎧⎪2 x , x ∈(−∞ , 0) ⎪⎧x + 1, x ∈( ∞ , 1]
2
c h( x ) = ⎨ d p( x ) = ⎨
⎩⎪x , x ∈[0, ∞ )
2 ⎪⎩x + 2, x ∈(1, ∞ )
8 WE6b For each of the corresponding functions in question 7, evaluate the following.
a i lim f ( x ) ii lim f ( x ) iii lim f ( x )
x → 2− x → 2+ x →2
b i lim g( x ) ii lim g( x ) iii lim− g( x )

x→ 1 − −
x→ 1 − +
x→ 1
c i lim h( x ) ii lim h( x ) iii lim h( x )

x →0− x →0+ x →0
d i lim p( x ) ii lim p( x ) iii lim p( x )

x →1− x →1+ x →1
9 WE6c Investigate whether the following limits exist. For those that do exist, state the limit.
⎧x + 2, x ∈(− ∞ , 2) ⎧x − 4, x ∈(− ∞ , 0]
a lim ⎨ b lim ⎨
x → 2 ⎪3, x ∈[2, ∞ ) x → 2 ⎪x − 4, x ∈ (0, ∞ )
⎩ ⎩
⎧5 − x , x ∈(− ∞ , 3) ⎧2 x − 3, x ∈(− ∞ , 1]
c lim ⎨ d lim ⎨
x →3 ⎪2 x + 1, x ∈[3, ∞ ) x →1 ⎪2 x + 1, x ∈ (1, ∞ )
⎩ ⎩
− −
⎪⎧4 − x , x ∈( ∞ , 2)
− 2
⎪⎧x , x ∈( ∞ , 2]
2
e lim ⎨ f lim ⎨
x →1 ⎪x + 2, x ∈ (2, ∞ ) x → 2 ⎪x + 2, x ∈[ − 2, ∞ )
−
⎩ ⎩

10 Evaluate the following.
14 x + 7
a lim( x 2 + 3 x + 2) b lim
x →2 x→ − 1
2 2x + 1
⎧⎪3 x + 1, x ∈(− ∞ , 1) x 2 − 9 x − 10
c lim ⎨ d lim−
x →1 ⎪x 2 + 3, x ∈[1, ∞ )
⎩
x→ 1 x +1
⎪⎧x − 2 x + 1, x ∈(− ∞, 0]
2
e lim(12 − 3 x − 2 x 2 ) f lim ⎨
x →2 x→ 0 ⎪x + 3, x ∈(0, ∞ )
⎩
x 2 + 3x + 2
g lim− h lim( x 3 + x 2 − 5 x )
x→ 1 x+2 x →1
( x + 3)( x − 3) ( x + 2)(2 x − 3)
i lim j lim
x →3 x−3 x→ − 2 x+2
x 2 + 7x + 6 x 2 − 6x + 8
k lim l lim
x→ − 1 x +1 x →4 x−4
9C Differentiation using first principles

The gradient function is the rule for the instantaneous rate of change of a given function at any point.
The gradient at any point (x, y) can be found by substitution into the gradient function.
Consider the secant PQ drawn to the curve f (x) at right. The coordinates of P are [x, f (x)] and the
coordinates of Q are [x + h, f (x + h)]. So the gradient of the secant
rise y y = f(x)
PQ =
run Q
f(x + h)
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
=
x+h−x Tangent at P
f(x) P
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
=
h
0 x x+h x
As h approaches zero, that is, as Q draws as close as possible to P along the curve, PQ effectively
becomes a tangent to the curve at P.
We can therefore say that the gradient of the tangent at P is
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) y
lim or
h→ 0 h Q
Q moves closer to
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) P as h approaches 0.
f ′( x ) = lim , h ≠ 0, Q
h→ 0 h
P Q
where f ′(x) denotes the gradient of a tangent at any point,
x, on the graph of f (x). 0 h x
That is, f ′(x) is the gradient function of f (x).
The process of finding the gradient function
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
lim
h→ 0 h
is called differentiation from first principles.
Two different forms of notation are commonly used to represent a function and its derivative.
1. The European notation of Leibniz is: 2. The alternative notation is:
(a) y for the function (a) f (x) for the function
dy d
(b) for the derivative. (b) f ′(x) or [ f (x)] or Dx ( f ) for the derivative.
dx dx

WORKED EXAMPLE 7
Find the derivative of x2 − 2 x from first principles:

a by hand
b using a CAS calculator.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Define f (x). a f (x) = x2 − 2x
2 The derivative is equal to: f ( x + h) − f ( x )

f ( x + h) − f ( x ) f ′(x) = lim
lim . h→ 0 h
h→ 0 h
3 Find f (x) and f (x + h). f (x) = x2 – 2x
f (x + h) = (x + h)2 – 2(x + h)
4 Simplify the numerator f (x + h) − f (x). f (x + h) − f (x)
= (x + h)2 − 2(x + h) − (x2 − 2x)
= x2 + 2xh + h2 − 2x − 2h − x2 + 2x
= 2xh + h2 − 2h
5 Factorise the numerator f (x + h) − f (x). = h(2x + h − 2)
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
6 Simplify lim by lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
cancelling the common factor of h. h(2 x + h − 2)
= lim
h→ 0 h
= lim(2 x + h − 2), h ≠ 0
h→ 0
7 Evaluate the limit by substituting h = 0. = 2x − 2
b 1 Using the CAS calculator, define the function. b Define f (x) = x2 − 2x
2 Define the formula used to evaluate the f ( x + h) − f ( x )

derivative. h
3 Record the result. 2x + h − 2
4 Determine the limit as h → 0. lim(2 x + h − 2)
h→ 0
5 Record the result. 2x − 2

f ( x + h) − f ( x )⎞
6 Write the answer. f ′( x ) = lim ⎛⎜ ⎟⎠
h→ 0 ⎝ h
f ′( x ) = 2 x − 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
If g (x) = 2 x2 + 5x − 2, find:
a g ′(x) using first principles TUTORIAL
b the value(s) of x where the gradient equals 0. eles-1438
Worked example 8
THINK WRITE
a 1 Let g (x) = 2x 2 + 5x − 2. a g(x) = 2x2 + 5x − 2
2 The derivative is equal to: g( x + h) − g( x )

g ′(x) = lim
g( x + h) − g( x ) . h→ 0 h
lim
h→ 0 h
3 Find g(x) and g(x + h). g(x) = 2x2 + 5x – 2
g(x + h) = 2(x + h)2 + 5(x + h) – 2

4 Simplify the numerator g(x + h) − g(x). g(x + h) − g(x)
= 2(x + h)2 + 5(x + h) − 2 − (2x2 + 5x − 2)
= 2(x2 + 2xh + h2) + 5x + 5h − 2 − 2x 2 − 5x + 2
= 2x2 + 4xh + 2h2 + 5x + 5h − 2 − 2x2 − 5x + 2
= 4xh + 2h2 + 5h
5 Factorise. = h(4x + 2h + 5)
g( x + h) − g( x ) g( x + h) − g( x )
6 Simplify lim by cancelling lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
the common factor of h. h(4 x + 2h + 5)
= lim
h→ 0 h
= lim(4 x + 2h + 5), h ≠ 0
h→ 0
7 Evaluate the limit by substituting h = 0. = 4x + 5

So g ′(x) = 4x + 5.
b Solve g ′(x) = 0. b g ′(x) = 0
4x + 5 = 0
4x = −5
−
x = 45
So the gradient equals 0 when x = − 45 .
Note: For any polynomial function, f (x), when the expression f (x + h) − f (x) is simplified, all of its
terms have h as a factor.
Exercise 9C Differentiation using first principles

1 WE7a Find the derivative of the following from first principles.
DIGITAL DOCS
a 5x − 7 b x2 + 10x c x2 − 8x d x3 + 2x doc-9787
dy SkillSHEET 9.2
2 WE7b Use first principles to find . Differentiating from
dx first principles
a y=x+3 b y = x2 − 3x + 1 c y = 4x2 doc-9788
WorkSHEET 9.1
d y = 9 − x2 e y = 6x − 2x2 f y = x3 + 5x − 4
3 WE8 If g(x) = x2 − 6x, find:
a g ′(x) using first principles.
b the value(s) of x where the gradient equals 0.
4 a If f (x) = x3 − 8, find f ′(x) using first principles.
b Hence, determine the value(s) of x where the gradient function is equal to 12.
5 By first deriving the gradient function f ′(x), evaluate f ′(3) when f (x) is equal to:
a 7x + 5 b x2 + 4x c x2 − 3x + 2 d x3 − 5.
6 MC Which of the following do not denote the gradient at any point on a graph? (One or more answers
may be correct.)
f ( x + h) − f ( x ) f ( x + h) − f ( x )
A f ′(x) B lim C lim
h→ 0 h h→∞ h
dy f ( x + h) − f ( x )
E
D
dx h
7 MC The most accurate method for finding the gradient when x = 3 for the function f (x) = x2 + 2x is by:
A sketching the graph and drawing a tangent at x = 3 to find the gradient
B finding the gradient of the secant to the curve joining the points where x = 3 and x = 3.1
C finding f ′(x) using first principles and evaluating f ′(3)
D guessing
E finding the gradient of the line from the origin to the point (3, 15)
8 MC Given that f ′(x) = 4x if f (x) = 2x2 and g ′(x) = 3x2 + 1 if g(x) = x3 + x, then the derivative
3 + 2x 2 + x must be equal to:
of x
A 3x2 + 4x + 1 B 12x3 + 4x C 3x2 + 4x D 2x5 + 2x3 E 5x2 + 1

Fortunately, the tedious process of finding derivatives from first principles need not be applied once rules
are established. For polynomial functions, the following rules apply.
Rule 1. If f (x) = x n, then f ′(x) = nx n − 1.
Rule 2. If f (x) = ax n, then f ′(x) = nax n − 1.
Rule 3. If f (x) = c, then f ′(x) = 0 (where c is constant).
Rule 4. If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f ′(x) = g ′(x) + h′(x).
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Differentiate each of the following.

a y = x8 b y = 3 x2 c y = 7x + 3 d y = 2 x5 + 3
x2 − 6 x
5
THINK WRITE
a Write the expression for y. Apply rule 1 a y = x8

to find the derivative. dy
= 8 x 8−1
dx
= 8x 7
b Apply rule 2. b y = 3x2
dy
= 2(3 x 2−1 )
dx
= 6x
c Apply rules 2, 3 and 4. Remember that x0 = 1. c y = 7x + 3
dy
= 7 x1−1 + 0
dx
= 7x 0 = 7
d Differentiate the 3 terms separately (that is, d y = 2x5 + 35 x2 – 6x
apply rules 2 and 4).
dy
= 5(2 x 5−1 ) + 2( 35 x 2−1 ) − 1(6 x1−1 )
dx
= 10 x 4 + 65 x − 6 x 0
= 10 x 4 + 65 x − 6
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find f ′(x) if f (x) = 3x(x − 2).

THINK WRITE
1 Write down f (x). f (x) = 3x(x − 2)

2 Expand the brackets. f (x) = 3x2 − 6x
3 Differentiate by rule. f ′(x) = 6x − 6
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
4 x3 + 3 x2
If g( x ) = , find g ′(x): a by hand b using a CAS calculator.
x
THINK WRITE
a g( x ) = 4 x + 3 x
3 2
a 1 Factorise the numerator, because at this
stage we can only differentiate a constant x
denominator. x x + 3)
2 (4
=
x

2 Simplify g(x). = x(4x + 3), x ≠ 0
3 Expand the brackets. = 4x2 + 3x
4 Differentiate g(x) by rule. g ′(x) = 8x + 3
4 x 3 + 3x 2
b 1 Using the CAS calculator, define the function. b Define g( x ) =
x
d
2 Use the differentiation feature of the CAS ( g( x ))
calculator to find g′(x). dx
3 Record the result. 8x + 3

4 x 3 + 3x 2
4 Write the answer. Given g(x) = , g ′(x) = 8x + 3
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Differentiate each of the following. Express all answers with a positive index.
1 1 4
a f ( x) = x 3
−
b f ( x) = 7 c f ( x) = x 3 d f ( x) = .
x x
THINK WRITE
–3
a 1 Write down f (x). a f ′(x) = x
−3 − 1
f ′(x) = −3x
−4
2 Differentiate by rule 1. = −3x
−3
3 Express the answer with a positive index. =
x4
1
b 1 Write down f (x). b f (x) =
x7
−7
2 Bring the x-term to the numerator using the index = 1x
laws, as we can only differentiate a constant
denominator.
−7 − 1
3 Differentiate by rule 1. f ′(x) = −7(1x )
−
= −7x 8
− 7
4 Express the answer with a positive index. =
x8
1
c 1 Write down f (x). c f (x) = x 3
1 −1
2 Differentiate by rule 1. f ′(x) = 13 (x 3 )
−2
x 3
=
3
1
3 Express the answer with a positive index. = 2
3x 3
4
d 1 Write down f (x). d f (x) =
x
4
2 Convert x to index form. f (x) = 1
x2
−1
3 Bring the x-term to the numerator using the f (x) = 4 x 2
index laws.

4 Differentiate by rule 2. f ′(x) =
−1
2 (4 x − 12 − 1)
−3
= − 2x 2
−2
5 Express with a positive index. = 3
x2
−
2
6 Express the power of x back in surd form. =
x3
To evaluate the gradient of a curve at a given point, substitute the given value of x into the gradient
function or derivative. For the function f (x), the gradient at the point (a, f (a)) is found by evaluating
f ′(a). This gives the gradient of the tangent at x = a, which equals the gradient of the curve only at that
point.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
For the function f (x) = 13 x3 − x2 − 5x + 3, evaluate f ′(−1), f ′(0) and f ′(4).

THINK WRITE
1
1 Write the original function and then find f (x) = 3 x3 – x2 – 5x + 3
the gradient function, f (x). f ′(x) = x2 − 2x − 5
2 Substitute x = −1 into the gradient function. f ′(−1) = (−1)2 − 2(−1) − 5

=1+2−5
= −2
∴ f ′( 1) = −2
−
3 Substitute x = 0 into the gradient function. f ′(0) = (0)2 − 2(0) − 5

= −5
∴ f ′(0) = −5
1
4 Using the CAS calculator, define the function. Define f ( x ) = 3 x 3 − x 2 − 5 x + 3
d
5 Differentiate f (x) and evaluate the derivative ( f ( x )) | x = 4
at x = 4. dx

7 Write the answer. f ′(4) = 3
Tangents and normals

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the derivative f ′(x) is actually y
the gradient function. This means that the value of the gradient at
any particular point on a curve is equal to the numerical value of the Normal
derivative at that point. Tangent
Recall that if the gradient of a tangent to a curve at point P is m T, P
then the normal, mN, is a straight line perpendicular
− 1
(at right angles) to the tangent such that mN = and passing 0 x
through the point P as shown at right. mT
Also recall that the equation of a straight line is given by y − y1 = m(x − x1) where (x1, y1) is the point P,
above, and m is the gradient.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14
a Find the equation of the tangent to the curve f (x) = x2 + 6x − 8 at the point where the gradient
has a value of 8.
b Hence, find the equation of the normal at this point.
c Find the equation of the tangent at this point using a CAS calculator.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Find the gradient function of the curve, a f (x) = x2 + 6x – 8

f ′(x). f ′(x) = 2x + 6
2 Find x1, the value of x where f ′(x) = 8; For gradient = 8

that is, solve 2x + 6 = 8. 2x + 6 = 8
2x = 2
x= 1 So x1 = 1.
⎛ dy ⎞
Alternatively, use the solve and solve ⎜ ( x 2 + 6 x − 8) = 8, x⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
differentiation features of a CAS
calculator to find x1 when f ′(x1) = 8.
Record the result. x=1
3 Find f (x1) to determine the value of y1. y1 = f (x1)

= f (1)
= (1)2 + 6(1) − 8
= −1
4 Simplify the equation y − y1 = mT The equation of the tangent at the point (1, −1)
(x − x1) to find the equation of the is y − −1 = 8(x − 1)
tangent. y + 1 = 8x − 8
y = 8x − 9
−1
b 1 Find the gradient of the normal using b mN = 8
−1
mN = .
mT
2 Simplify the equation y − y1 = mN The equation of the normal at the point (1, −1)
(x − x1) to find the equation of the is y − −1 =
−1
(x − 1)
8
normal.
− ( x − 1)
y+1=
8
8y + 8 = −x + 1
x + 8y + 7 = 0
c 1 The gradient is 8 at the point (1, −1). c solve(y − −1 = 8(x − 1), y)

Substitute these values into the
equation y − y1 = m(x − x1) and solve
for y.
2 Record the result. y = 8x − 9
3 Write the answer. The equation of the tangent to the curve

f (x) = x2 + 6x − 8, at the point (1, −1) with a
gradient of 8 is:
yT = 8x − 9.

WORKED EXAMPLE 15
For the function f (x) = x3 − x2 + 1, find the coordinates of the points where
the gradient is perpendicular to the line y = −x + 3. Hence, find the equations of TUTORIAL
the tangents and normals at these points. eles-1440
Worked example 15
THINK WRITE
1 Find the derivative. f (x) = x3 − x2 + 1

∴ f ′(x) = 3x2 − 2x.
−
2 Find the gradient of the tangent. As the m1 = 1 where m2 = −1
tangent is perpendicular to the line m2
y = −x + 3, the product of their gradients −1
is −1, that is, m1m2 = −1. =
(− 1)
Let m1 equal the gradient of the tangent
=1
and let m2 equal the gradient of the line
∴ mtangent = 1
y = −x + 3.
3 Put f ′(x) = 1 and solve for x to find the 3x2 − 2x = 1

point where the gradient of f(x) = 1. − 2x − 1 = 0
3x2
(3x + 1)(x − 1) = 0
−1
∴x= 3 or x = 1
4 Substitute x = 1 and x = − 13 into f (x) to find f (1) = (1)3 − (1)2 + 1 = 1

their y-coordinates, and state the points. −1⎞ ⎛ −1⎞
3
⎛ −1⎞
2
f ⎛⎝⎜ ⎟ = ⎝⎜ ⎟ – ⎝⎜ ⎟ +1=
23
3⎠ 3⎠ 3⎠ 27
−1 23⎞
∴ (1, 1) and ⎛⎜⎝ , ⎟ are the coordinates of the points.
3 27⎠
5 Find the equations of the tangent lines. The equation of the tangent at the point (1, 1) is
y − 1 = 1(x − 1)
y=x−1+1
∴ y=x
−
The equation of the tangent at the point ⎛⎜⎝ 1 , 23⎞⎟⎠ is
3 27
y– 23
27
= x( −
− ⎛⎜⎝ 1⎞⎟⎠
3 )
1 23
y=x+3+ 27
32
y=x+ 27
−
1
6 Find the equations of the normal lines. mnormal =
−1 1
Use mnormal = to find the gradient = −1
mtangent The equation of the normal at the point (1, 1) is
of the normal. y − 1 = −1(x − 1)
y = −x + 1 + 1
∴ y = −x + 2
⎛− ⎞
The equation of the normal at the point ⎜⎝ 1 , 23⎟⎠ is
3 27
y– 23
27
= x
−
( −
− ⎛⎜⎝ 1⎞⎟⎠
3 )
y = −x – 13 + 23
27
14
y = −x + 27

WORKED EXAMPLE 16
a Graph the function f (x) = x3 − 2x and f ′(x) on the same set of axes.
b How can f (x) be used to predict the location and nature of the stationary points of f (x)?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Using the CAS calculator, define f (x) a f1(x) = x3 − 2x

and f ′(x). d
f2 ( x ) = ( f1 ( x ))
dx
2 Plot f (x) and f ′(x) on the same axes. y

f '(x) f(x)
b The x-intercepts of f ′(x) predict the location b At x = −0.816, f ′(x) goes from positive to negative
and nature of the stationary points of f (x). (left to right), indicating a maximum turning point for
f (x) = x3 − 2x. At x = 0.816, f ′(x) goes from negative
to positive (left to right), indicating a minimum
turning point for f (x).
Exercise 9D Finding derivatives by rule

1 WE9 Differentiate each of the following.
a y = x6 b y = 7x2 c y = 5x + 2 d y = 4x4 + 23 x2 − 5x
dy
2 Find if y is:
dx
a 3x4 b 8x7 c 5x 5 d −4x6
− 3 −
e 2x f 7x.
3 Match the correct derivative from the set A to G below to each of the following.
a x8 b x4 + x 2 c 2x3 − 4x + 7 d x 2 + 6x − 5
e x4 + 2x3 −3 f x5 + 6x3 − 4x g xp
A 5x4 + 18x 2 − 4 B 4x 3 + 2x C px p −1 D 8x7

E 6x2 − 4 F 2x + 6 G 4x3 + 6x 2
4 Differentiate the following.
a y = x6 + 3x 2 − 4 b y = 5x4 − 7x3 + 6x c y = x11 − 3x6 + 4x5 + 3x 2
d y = 10x5 − 3x4 + 2x3 − 8x e y=6 f y = 3x4 + 5x4
5 Find f ′(x) if f (x) is:
2 x4 −5 2 6 x7
a 3
b 8
x c 7
d 3 x3
4
+ 12 x 2 − 3x e 2 x + 3 x4
5
5
4
+ 16 x3 f 4x3 − 47 x 2 − 65 x + 8.
6 WE10 Find f ′(x) if f (x) is:

a f (x) = x(x + 3) b f (x) = 3x(2x − 5) c f (x) = (x + 4)2
d f (x) = 9(8 − 3x)2 e f (x) = (x + 2)3 f f (x) = (2x − 5)3.
7 WE11 Find g ′(x) by first simplifying g (x).
x 3 + 5x 8x3 − 6x 3x 3 + 2 x 2 − 5x 5x 4 + x 3 + 7 x 2
a g( x ) = b g( x ) = c g( x ) = d g( x ) =
x 2x x x2

8 WE12 Differentiate each of the following. Express all answers with a positive index.
− −7 −4 −8
a x4 b x c 3x d 5x
−4x−6 −3x−5 1 1
e f g h
x4 x9
10 1 2
i
5 j k 2x 2 l x3
x3 x6
1 2
m 4x 4 n 3x 5 o x p
1
x
q 4 x r 3
x s
2
3
x
9 WE13 Evaluate i f ′(1) ii f ′(−2) and iii f ′(0) for each of the following.
a f (x) = 5x2 + 3x − 1
b f (x) = 13 x3 + 2x 2 − 4
c f (x) = 3x 2 − 2x + 6
d f (x) = x3 + 7x − 8
10 WE13 a Find the x-intercepts of the parabola y = x 2 − 5x + 6.
b Find the gradient of the parabola at the points where it crosses the x-axis.
c Determine the value of x for which the gradient of the parabola is:
i 0 ii 7 iii −3.
11 a Find the x-intercepts of the curve y = 2x 2 + 5x − 3.
b Find the gradient of the curve at these points.
c Find the coordinates of the point where the gradient is 0.
DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9779 12 Find the coordinate(s) of the points on the curve x 3 − 3x2 where the tangent:
Gradient at a point a is parallel to the x-axis
doc-9789
Tangent and normal b is parallel to the line y = −3x + 2.
13 WE14 Find the equations of the tangent and normal for each of the following curves.
a f (x) = 5x2 + 3x − 1 at the point (1, 7)
b f (x) = 13 x3 + 2x2 − 4 at x = −2
c f (x) = 3x2 − 2x + 6 at x = 2
d f (x) = x3 − 7x − 8 at the point (0, −8)
e f (x) = x2 + 2 at x = a
f f (x) = 3x2 − 4x at the point (2a, 12a2 − 8a)
14 WE14 a Find the equation of the tangent at the point on the curve x 2 + 4x − 1 where the gradient is 6.
b Hence, find the equation of the normal at this point.
15 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = 2x 2 − 2x + 5 at the point where the curve crosses the
y-axis.
16 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = −x2 + 4x at:
a x=2
b x = 1.
17 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x3 + 2x2 − 3x + 1 at x = −2.
18 If the equation of the normal to the curve y = 2x2 + 4.5x + 1 is y = −2x + c, find:
a the coordinates at the point of tangency
b the value of c.
19 WE15 Find the equations of the tangents to the curve f (x) = 2 x3 + 5 x2 − x + 2 that are parallel to the
3 2
line y − 2x = 4.
20 Find the coordinates of the points on the curve f (x) = 2x3 − x2 + 6 where the tangents are parallel to
the line −5x + 2y = 12. Hence, find the equation of the tangents at these points.
21 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve f (x) = 2x2 − 4x + 4 that is perpendicular to the line
−1
y= 4
x + 4.
22 WE15 Find the coordinates of the points where the tangents to the curve f (x) = x3 − 3x − 1 are
perpendicular to the line x + 3y = 3. Hence, find the equations of the normals at these points.

23 The tangent to the curve y = ax2 + bx + c at the point (−2, −8) is parallel to the line −7x + y = 10. If the
curve also passes through the point (−1, −3.5), find the values of a, b and c. Hence, find the equation of
the tangent at the point (−2, −8).
24 a Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2x2 − 2 at x = 2a.
b Hence find the x-intercept of the tangent line in terms of a.
c A straight line with equation y = 2x − 2 passes through the x-intercept of the tangent line. Find the
value of a.
d What is the equation of the tangent line?
25 WE16 Sketch the graphs of:
a f (x) = 4 x − 2
b f (x) = x 2 − 4 x + 2
c f ( x ) = x 3 + 3x 2 + 3
and the graph of f ′(x) for each on the same set of axes.
How can f ′(x) be used to predict the location and nature of the stationary points of f (x) in each
case?
9E Rates of change
The rate of change of a function refers to its gradient.
For linear functions the gradient is constant; however, the gradient for other functions such as quadratic
or cubic polynomials is continually changing.
The rate of change of position with respect to time is The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is
velocity. acceleration.
Differentiation provides us with a tool to describe the gradient of a function and hence determine
its rate of change at any particular point. In essence, while average rates of change can be determined
from the original function, differentiation of this function provides a new function that describes the
instantaneous rate of change.
y y = f(x2)
Note: The term instantaneous rate of change is often referred
to as rate of change.
If P(x1, f (x1)) and Q(x2, f (x2)) are two points on the graph Q (x2, f(x2))
of the function with rule y = f (x), then the average rate of
change of y with respect to x over the interval x ∈ [x1, x2] is
equal to the gradient of the straight line PQ.
change in f ( x )
Average rate of change = P (x1, f(x1))
change in x
f ( x 2 ) − f ( x1 ) 0 x1 x2 x
=
x 2 − x1
The instantaneous rate of change finds the rate of change at a specific point.
dy
The instantaneous rate of change of y ( f (x)) with respect to x is given by the derivative ( f ′ (x)).
dx

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
If f (x) = x2 − 2x + 4, determine:
a the average rate of change between x = 2 and x = 4
b a new function that describes the rate of change at any point x
c the instantaneous rate of change when x = 4
d parts a, b and c using a calculator.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the function. a f (x) = x2 − 2x + 4

change in f ( x ) f (4) − f (2)
2 Average rate of change = Average rate of change =
change in x 4−2
12 − 4
=
2
=4
b Differentiate f (x). b f ′(x) = 2x − 2
c Substitute x = 4 into f ′(x). c f ′(4) = 2(4) − 2 = 6

So the rate of change when x = 4 is 6.
d 1 Define the function on your CAS calculator. d Define f (x) = x2 − 2x + 4
2 Determine f (4) and f (2), and hence the f (4) − f (2)

expression f (4) − f (2) . 4−2
4−2
4 Use the differentiation feature of the CAS d

( f ( x ))
calculator to find the derivative of f (x). dx
5 Record the result. 2x − 2
d
6 Evaluate the derivative at x = 4. ( f ( x )) x = 4
dx
8 Write the answers. a The average rate of change between x = 2 and
x = 4 is 4.
b f ′(x) = 2x − 2
c The instantaneous rate of change when x = 4 is 6.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
A javelin is thrown so that its height, h metres, above the ground is given by the rule
h(t) = 20t − 5t2 + 2, where t represents time in seconds.
a Find the rate of change of the height at any time, t.

b Find the rate of change of the height when i t = 1 ii t = 2 iii t = 3.
c Briefly explain why the rate of change is initially positive, then zero and then negative over the
first 3 seconds.
d Find the rate of change of the height when the javelin first reaches a height of 17 metres.

THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the rule. a h(t) = 20t − 5t2 + 2
2 Differentiate h(t). h′(t) = 20 − 10t
b 1 Evaluate h′(1). b i h′(1) = 20 − 10(1)

= 10 m/s
2 Evaluate h′(2). ii h′(2) = 20 − 10(2)
= 0 m/s
3 Evaluate h′(3). iii h′(3) = 20 − 10(3)
= −10 m/s
c For rates of change: c The javelin travels upwards during the first
Positive means increasing. 2 seconds.
Zero means neither increasing nor decreasing. When t = 2 seconds, the javelin has reached
Negative means decreasing. its maximum height.
When t > 2 seconds, the javelin is travelling
downwards.
d 1 Find the time at which the javelin is 17 m above d 20t − 5t2 + 2 = 17
the ground by substituting h = 17 into h(t).
−5t2
2 Make RHS = 0. + 20t − 15 = 0
3 Divide both sides by −5. t2 − 4t + 3 = 0
4 Factorise, then solve for t. (t − 1)(t − 3) = 0
Note: The quadratic formula could also be used t = 1 or 3
to solve for t.
5 The first time it reaches 17 m is the smaller The javelin first reaches 17 m when t = 1 s.
value of t.
6 Evaluate h′(1). h′(1) = 20 − 10(1)
= 10 m/s
The rate of change of height is 10 m/s.
It is worth noting that there are two common ways of writing the derivative as a function. For
example, the derivative of the function P(x) = x2 + 5x − 7 may be written as P′(x) = 2x + 5
dP
or as = 2 x + 5.
dx
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
The shockwave from a nuclear blast spreads

out at ground level in a circular manner.
a Write down a relationship between the area
of ground, A km2, over which the shockwave
passes and its radius, r km.
b Find the rate of change of A with respect to r.
c Find the rate of change of A when the
radius is 2 km.
d What is the rate of change of A when the area
covered is 314 km2?

THINK WRITE
a State the formula for the area of a circle. a A(r) = πr 2
b Differentiate A(r). b A′(r) = 2πr
c Substitute r = 2 into A′(r). c A′(2) = 2π(2)

Note: The units for the rate of change of A (km2) = 12.57
with respect to r (km) are km2 per km or km2/km. The rate of change of A when the radius is
2 km is 12.57 km2/km.
d 1 Substitute A = 314 into the area function A(r) d A(r) = πr2
and solve for r. 314 = πr2
314
r2 =
π
= 99.95
r = 10 since r > 0
2 Find the rate of change when r = 10. A′(10) = 2π (10)
= 62.8
The rate of change of A when area is 314 km2 is
62.83 km2/km.
Exercise 9E Rates of change

1 WE17 If f (x) = x2 + 5x + 15, find:
a the average rate of change between x = 3 and x = 5
b a new function that describes the rate of change
c the instantaneous rate of change when x = 5.
2 A balloon is inflated so that its volume, V cm3, at any time, t seconds, is:
−8 3
V= 5
t + 24t 2 , t ∈ [0, 10]
DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9793
a What is the volume of the balloon when:
SkillSHEET 9.3
Average rate i t = 0? ii t = 10?
of change b Hence, find the average rate of change between t = 0 and t = 10.
doc-9777
c Find the rate of change of volume when:
Gradient between
two points on a graph i t=0 ii t = 5 iii t = 10.
3 MC The average rate of change between x = 1 and x = 3 for the function y = x2 + 3x + 5 is:
A 1 B 9 C 5 D 3 E 7
4 MC The instantaneous rate of change of the function f (x) = x − 3x + 4x when x = −2 is:
3 2
A 2 B −2 C 28 D 3 E 12
dy
5 MC If the rate of change of a function is described by = 2 x 2 − 7 x , then the function
could be: dx
A y = 6x3 − 14x B y = 23 x 3 − 7 x
C y = 23 x 3 − 72 x 2 + 5 D y = x 3 − 72 x 2 + 2
E 2x2 − 7x + 5
6 WE18 In a baseball game the ball is hit so that its height above the ground, h metres, is
h(t) = 1 + 18t − 3t2, t seconds after being struck.
a Find the rate of change, h′(t).
DIGITAL DOC b Calculate the rate of change of height after:
doc-9794 i 2 seconds ii 3 seconds iii 4 seconds.
SkillSHEET 9.4
Instantaneous c What happens when t = 3 seconds?
rate of change d Find the rate of change of height when the ball first reaches a height of 16 metres.

7 The position, x metres, of a lift (above ground level) at any time, t seconds, is given by
x(t) = −2t2 + 40t.
a Find the rate of change of displacement (velocity) at any time, t.
b Find the rate of change when:
i t=5 ii t = 9 iii t = 11.
c What happened between t = 9 and t = 11?
d When and where is the rate of change zero?
8 The number of seats, N, occupied in a soccer stadium t hours after the gates are opened is given by:
N = 500t2 + 3500t, t ∈ [0, 5]
a Find N when:
i t=1 ii t = 3.
b What is the average rate of change between t = 1 and t = 3?
c Find the instantaneous rate when:
i t=0 ii t = 1 iii t = 3 iv t = 4.
d Why is the rate increasing in the first 4 hours?
9 The weight, W kg, of a foal at any time, t weeks, after birth is given by:
W = 80 + 12t − 103 t 2 where 0 ≤ t ≤ 20.
a What is the weight of the foal at birth?
b Find an expression for the rate of change of weight at any time, t.
c Find the rate of change after:
i 5 weeks ii 10 weeks iii 15 weeks.
d Is the rate of change of the foal’s weight increasing or decreasing?
e When does the foal weigh 200 kg?
3
10 The weekly profit, P (hundreds of dollars), of a factory is given by P = 4.5n − n 2, where n is the number
of employees.
dP
a Determine .
dn
b Hence, find the rate of change of profit, in dollars per employee, if the number of employees is:
i 4 ii 16 iii 25.
c Find n when the rate of change is zero.
11 Gas is escaping from a cylinder so that its volume, V cm3, t seconds after the leak starts, is described
by V = 2000 − 20t − 100
1 2
t .
a Evaluate the rate of change after:
i 10 seconds ii 50 seconds iii 100 seconds.
b Is the rate of change ever positive? Why?
12 WE19 Assume an oil spill from an oil tanker is circular and remains that way.
a Write down a relationship between the area of the spill, A m2, and the radius, r metres.
b Find the rate of change of A with respect to the radius, r.
c Find the rate of change of A when the radius is:
i 10 m ii 50 m iii 100 m.
d Is the area increasing more rapidly as the radius
increases? Why?
13 A spherical balloon is being inflated.
a Express the volume of the balloon, V m3, as a function
of the radius, r metres.
b Find the rate of change of V with respect to r.
c Find the rate of change when the radius is:
i 0.1 m
ii 0.2 m
iii 0.3 m.
14 A rectangular fish tank has a square base, with its height being
equal to half its base length.
a Express the length and width of the base in terms of its height, h.
b Hence, express the volume, V m3, in terms of the height, h, only.
c Find the rate of change of V when:
i h=1m ii h = 2 m iii h = 3 m.

15 For the triangular package shown, find:
a x in terms of h 6
b the volume, V, as a function of h only
c the rate of change of V when: x
i h = 0.5 m 30°
ii h = 1 m. h
16 A new estate is to be established on the side of a hill.
80
200 x
Regulations will not allow houses to be built on slopes where the gradient is greater than 0.45. If the
equation of the cross-section of the hill is y = −0.000 02x3 + 0.006x2, find:
dy
a the gradient of the slope
dx
b the gradient of the slope when x equals:
i 160 ii 100 iii 40 iv 20
c the values of x where the gradient is 0.45
d the range of heights for which houses cannot be built on the hill.
17 A bushfire burns out A hectares of land, t hours after it started, according to the rule A = 90t2 − 3t3.
a At what rate, in hectares per hour, is the fire spreading at any time, t?
b What is the rate when t equals:
i 0? ii 4? iii 8? iv 10? v 12? vi 16? vii 20?
c Briefly explain how the rate of burning changes during the first 20 hours.
d Why isn’t there a negative rate of change in the first 20 hours?
e What happens after 20 hours?
f After how long is the rate of change equal to 756 hectares per hour?
9FSketching graphs containing

stationary points
The derivative of a function gives its gradient function — that is, it gives the gradient of a tangent to the
curve for any specified value of the independent variable. When the derivative equals zero, the tangent is
horizontal. The point or points on the curve where this occurs are called stationary points.
In other words, a function f (x) has stationary points when f ′(x) = 0.
Stationary points can take the form of:
1. a local minimum turning point
2. a local maximum turning point
3. a stationary point of inflection.
y
Local minimum turning point

Just to the left of a, the gradient is negative; that is, if x < a, but close f '(x) < 0 f '(x) > 0
to a, then f ′(x) < 0.
At the point where x = a, the gradient is zero; that is, at x = a,
f '(a) = 0
f ′(x) = 0.
Just to the right of a the gradient is positive; that is, if x > a, but 0 a x
close to a, f ′(x) > 0.

In other words, for a stationary point at x = a, if the gradient changes from negative to positive as we
move from left to right in the vicinity of a, it is a local minimum.
Local maximum turning point

At x < a, but close to a, f ′(x) > 0.
y
At x = a, f ′(x) = 0.
At x > a, but close to a, f ′(x) < 0. f '(a) = 0
In other words, for a stationary point at x = a, if the gradient
changes from positive to negative as we move from left to right in the f '(x) < 0
vicinity of a, it is a local maximum. f '(x) > 0
The term local maximum or local minimum implies that the
function has a maximum or minimum in the vicinity of x = a. This is 0 a x
important because some functions can have more than one stationary
point.
Stationary point of inflection

y y
f '(x) > 0
f'(x) < 0
f '(a) = 0 f '(a) = 0
f '(x) > 0
0 a x
f '(x) < 0
0 a x
At x < a, but close to a, f ′(x) > 0. At x < a, but close to a, f ′(x) < 0.
At x = a, f ′(x) = 0. At x = a, f ′(x) = 0.
At x > a, but close to a, f ′(x) > 0. At x > a, but close to a, f ′(x) < 0.
In other words, for a stationary point at x = a, if the gradient remains positive or negative in the
vicinity of a, it is a stationary point of inflection.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
If f (x) = x3 − 6x2 − 15x, find:

a the value(s) of x where the gradient is zero b the stationary point(s).
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the function. a f (x) = x3 − 6x2 − 15x
2 Differentiate f (x) to find the gradient function f ′(x). f ′(x) = 3x2 − 12x − 15
3 Solve f ′(x) = 0 to find the x-values of each For stationary points: f ′(x) = 0
stationary point. 3x2 − 12x − 15 = 0
3(x2 − 4x − 5) = 0
x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
(x − 5)(x + 1) = 0
x = 5 or x = −1
b 1 Substitute each value of x into f (x) to find the b f (5) = (5)3 − 6(5)2 − 15(5)
corresponding y-values. = −100
f (−1) = (−1)3 − 6(−1)2 − 15(−1)
=8
2 Write the coordinates of each stationary point. Stationary points occur at (5, −100)
and (−1, 8).

WORKED EXAMPLE 21
Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = 5 + 4x − x2, labelling all intercepts and stationary points.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Write the function. f (x) = 5 + 4x − x2
2 Find the y-intercept by letting x equal 0. y-intercept: x = 0,

f (0) = 5 + 4(0) − (0)2
=5
so y-intercept is (0, 5).
3 Find the x-intercepts by letting f (x) = 0. x-intercepts: if f (x) = 0,

5 + 4x − x2 = 0
x2 − 4x − 5 = 0
(x + 1)(x − 5) = 0
x = −1 or x = 5
so x-intercepts are (−1, 0) and (5, 0).
4 Differentiate f (x) to find the gradient function f ′(x). f (x) = 5 + 4x – x2

f ′(x) = 4 − 2x
5 Solve f ′ (x) = 0 to find the x-value(s) of each For stationary points: f ′(x) = 0
stationary point. 4 − 2x = 0
−2x = −4
x=2
6 Substitute this value of x into f (x) = 5 + 4x − x2 to f (2) = 5 + 4(2) − (2)2

find the corresponding y-value. =9
so there is a stationary point at (2, 9).
7 Determine the nature of the stationary point at x < 2: f ′(1) = 4 − 2(1)

x = 2 by evaluating f ′ (x) to the left and right, say at =2
x = 1 and x = 3. ∴ f ′(x) > 0
x > 2: f ′(3) = 4 − 2(3)
= −2
∴ f ′(x) < 0
8 Complete a gradient table. Since the gradient

changes from positive to negative as we move from x 1 2 3
left to right in the vicinity of x = 2, the stationary
point (2, 9) is a local maximum.
Sign of f ′(x) + 0 −
Slope
(2, 9) is a local maximum.

(2, 9)
9
f(x)
5
−1 0 2 5 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 22
a Find the stationary points and determine their nature for the function
f(x) = x3 − x2 − 8x + 8.
b Find the coordinates of all intercepts.
c Sketch the graph of f (x) showing all stationary points and intercepts.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Write the rule for f (x). a f (x) = x3 − x2 − 8x + 8
2 Differentiate f (x) to find f ′(x). f ′(x) = 3x2 − 2x − 8

3 Solve f ′(x) = 0 to find the x-values of each For stationary points, solve f ′(x) = 0 for x.
stationary point. 3x2 − 2x − 8 = 0
(3x + 4)(x − 2) = 0
x = − 43 or x = 2
4 Substitute each value of x into f (x) to find the f ( − 43 ) = ( − 43 )3 − ( − 43 )2 − 8( − 43 ) + 8 = 392

27 = 14 14
27
y-coordinates of the stationary points.
∴ ( − 43 ,14 14
27 ) is one stationary point.
f (2) = (2)3 − (2)2 − 8(2) + 8 = −4

∴(2, −4) is another stationary point.
5 Alternatively, all of this working can be done Define f (x) = x3 − x2 − 8x + 8
on a CAS calculator. First, define f (x).
Set f ′(x) = 0 and use the solve and ⎛d ⎞
6 solve ⎜ ( f ( x )) = 0, x⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
differentiation features of the CAS calculator.
−4
7 Record the result. x= 3
or x = 2
− −4
8 Evaluate f ( 43) and f (2). f ⎛⎝⎜ ⎞
⎟,
3⎠
f (2).
392 −
9 Record the results. 27
, 4
−
10 Determine the nature of the stationary point x < 43 : f ′( − 2) = 3( − 2)2 − 2( − 2) − 8 = 8
at x = − 43 by evaluating f ′(x) to the left and ∴ f ′(x) > 0
right. Choose x = −2 and x = −1. −
x > 43 : f ′( − 1) = 3( − 1)2 − 2( − 1) − 8 = − 3
∴ f ′(x) < 0
11 Complete a gradient table and state the x −2 −4 −1
3
type of stationary point. Since the gradient
changes from positive to negative as we move Sign of f ′(x) + 0 −
from left to right in the vicinity of x = − 43 ,
the stationary point ( − 43 , 14 14 Slope
27 ) is a local
maximum. ∴ ( − 43 , 14 14
27 ) is a local maximum turning point.
12 Determine the nature of the stationary point x < 2: f ′(1) = 3(1)2 − 2(1) − 8 = −7
at x = 2 by evaluating f ′(x) to the left and ∴ f ′(x) < 0
right. Choose x = 1 and x = 3. x > 2: f ′(3) = 3(3)2 − 2(3) − 8 = 13
∴ f ′(x) > 0
13 Complete a gradient table and state the
x 1 2 3
type of stationary point. Since the gradient
changes from negative to positive as we move Sign of f ′(x) − 0 +
from left to right in the vicinity of x = 2, the
stationary point (2, −4) is a local minimum. Slope
∴ (2, −4) is a local minimum turning point.

b 1 To find the x-intercepts, factorise f (x) by long b f (x) = x3 − x2 − 8x + 8
division, or use another appropriate method. )= x2(x − 1) − 8(x − 1)
)= (x − 1)(x2 − 8)
= ( x − 1)( x − 2 2)( x + 2 2)
2 Solve f (x) = 0 for x-intercepts. ( x − 1) ( x − 2 2) ( x + 2 2) = 0
x = 1 or x = 2 2 or x = − 2 2
The coordinates of the x-intercepts are
(1, 0), (2 2, 0) and ( − 2 2, 0).
3 Evaluate f (0) to find the y-intercept. f (0) = (0)3 − (0)2 − 8(0) + 8 = 8
∴ (0, 8) is the intercept.
c Sketch the graph of f (x) showing all stationary c y
points and axes intercepts. (− —43 , 14 14
—)
27
(0, 8)
(−2 2, 0) (1, 0) (2 2, 0)
0 x
(2, −4)
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
The curve with equation y = ax2 + bx + 7 has a stationary point at (−2, 10). Find the values of a and b.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the rule. y = ax2 + bx + 7

2 Differentiate y to find the gradient function. dy
= 2ax + b
dx
dy
3 Put = 0 and substitute x = −2 into 2a(−2) + b = 0
dx ∴ −4a + b = 0 [1]
dy
, as x = − 2 is a stationary point.
dx
4 Substitute x = −2 into y and put y = 10 to get a(−2)2 + b(−2) + 7 = 10
another equation with a and b. ∴ 4a − 2b = 3 [2]
−2b
5 Solve the simultaneous equations [1] and [2]. +b=3
Add equations [1] and [2] to eliminate a and −b = 3
solve for b. ∴ b = −3
6 Substitute b = −3 into equation [1] to find a. −4a −3=0
−4a=3
∴ a = − 43
7 Write the values of a and b. ∴ a = − 43 and b = − 3
8 Alternatively, all of this working can be done Define f (x) = ax2 + bx + 7
on a CAS calculator. First, define f (x).
d
9 Use the solve and differentiation features of the solve ⎛⎜ f (− 2) = 10 and ( f ( x )) = 0 x = − 2, a⎞⎟
⎝ dx ⎠
CAS calculator to find a and b.
−3
10 Record the result. a= 4
and b = −3

Sketching graphs containing
Exercise 9F
stationary points
1 WE20a For each of the following functions, determine the value(s) of x where the gradient is zero.
a f (x) = + 2x
x2 b f (x) = x2 − 8x + 5
DIGITAL DOCS
c f (x) = x − 3x
3 2 d f (x) = 2x3 + 6x2 − 18x + 1
doc-9721
e y = (x + 6)(x − 2) f y = x2(x − 1) Quadratic
y = 10 + 4x − x 2 graphs
h y = 3 x − 3x + 5x − 2
g 1 3 2
doc-9730
Cubic graphs
2 WE20b For each function in question 1, determine all of the stationary points.
3 If f (x) = x2 − 8x + 1:
a show that there is a stationary point when x = 4
b evaluate f ′(3) and f ′(5)
c state which type of stationary point it is.
4 For the function f ′(x) = 5 − x2:

a find x when f ′(x) = 0
b state which type of stationary point it has.
5 If f (x) = x3 − 4 then:
a show that there is a stationary point when x = 0 only
b find f ′ (−1) and f ′(1)
c state which type of stationary point it is.
6 If f ( x ) = 13 x 3 − x 2 − 3 x + 5:
a show there are stationary points when x = −1 and x = 3
b evaluate f ′(−2), f ′(0) and f ′(4)
c state which type of stationary points they are.
7 MC When x = 1, the curve y = 2x2 − 3x + 1:

A is decreasing B has a local maximum
C has a local minimum D is increasing
E does not exist
8 MC When x = −1 the function y = x3 − 2x2 − 7x:

A is decreasing B has a local maximum
C has a local minimum D is increasing
E does not exist
9 MC The graph below that best represents a function with f ′(−2) = 0, f ′(x) < 0 if x < −2, and f ′(x) > 0
−2
if x > is:
A y B y y
C
f(x)
0 x
−2 0 x
f(x)
0 x −2
f(x) −2
y E y
D f(x)
f(x)
0 x
−2 0 x
−2

10 MC f ′(1) = f ′(4) = 0 and f ′(x) < 0 if 1 < x < 4 and f ′(x) > 0 if x < 1 and x > 4. The graph that
satisfies these conditions is:
A y B y
f(x)
f(x)
0 x
1 4
0 x
1 4
C y D y
f(x)
0 x 0 x
1 4 1 4
f(x)
E y
f(x)
0 x
1 4
11 WE21 For each of the following, find the stationary points and determine their nature.
a y = x2 + 6x + 2 b y = 8x − 2x2 c y = x3 − x2
d y = x + x −3
3 1 2
e y = x − x − 2x
1 3 1 2 f y = (x − 1)3
2 3 2
g y= x3 +3 h y= x3 − 27x + 5
12 WE22 Use a CAS calculator to help sketch the graphs of the following functions, labelling all
intercepts and stationary points.
a f (x) = x2 − 2x − 3 b f (x) = x3 − 3x − 2 c f (x) = x3 − 2x2 + x
DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9795 d f (x) = x (3 − x)
2 e f (x) = x + 4x + 4x
3 2 f f (x) = x3 − 4x2 − 11x + 30
SkillSHEET 9.5 g f (x) = (x + 2)3 h f (x) = 24 + 10x − 3x − x
2 3 i f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − x + 2
Review of discriminant j f (x) = 8 − x3
doc-9796
SkillSHEET 9.6 13 For the functions y = −2x2 − 5x + 8 and y = 2x3− x2 − 4x + 5:
Solving cubic a use a CAS calculator to sketch the graph of each function, showing all coordinates of stationary
equations points
b hence, find the x-values for which:
dy dy dy
i =0 ii >0 iii < 0.
dx dx dx
14 The curve with equation y = 2x2 + bx + 8 has a turning point at x = 3. Find the value of b.
15 WE23 The curve with equation y = ax2 + bx has a stationary point at (3, 9). Find the values of a and b.
16 The curve with equation y = ax2 + bx + c passes through the point (2, −4) and has a stationary point at
(1, − 32 ). Find the values of a, b and c.
17 The curve with equation y = ax3 − x2 + bx + 2 has turning points at x = 1 and x = −2. Find the values of a and b.
9GSolving maximum and

minimum problems
There are many practical situations where it is necessary to determine the maximum or minimum value
of a function. For quadratic functions, differentiation makes this a relatively simple task because, as we
saw in the previous section, setting the derivative equal to zero allows us to solve an equation to obtain
the value(s) of x for which the local maximum or minimum values (turning points) occur.

When solving maximum or minimum problems, it should be verified that the value is in fact a
maximum or minimum by checking the sign of the derivative to left and right of the turning point.
y Local f(x)
maximum Absolute
maximum in
the interval
[a, b]
0 a b x
In the case of cubic and higher order polynomials, the local maximum (or minimum) may or may not
be the highest (or lowest) value of the function in a given domain.
An example where the local maximum, found by solving f ′(x) = 0, is not the largest value of f (x) in
the domain [a, b] is shown above. Here, b is the point where f (x) is greatest in this domain, so it is called
the absolute maximum for the interval.
Case 1. The function is known

WORKED EXAMPLE 24
A baseball fielder throws the ball so that the equation of its path is:
y = 1.5 + x − 0.02 x2
where x (metres) is the horizontal distance travelled by the ball and y (metres) is the vertical height
reached.
a Find the value of x for which the maximum height is reached (verify that it is a maximum).
b Find the maximum height reached.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write the equation of the path. a y = 1.5 + x − 0.02x2

dy dy
2 Find the derivative . = 1 − 0.04 x
dx dx
dy dy
3 Solve the equation = 0 to find the value For stationary points: =0
dx 1 − 0.04x = 0 dx
of x for which height is a maximum. −0.04x = −1
x = 25
4 Determine the nature of this stationary When x = 24,
dy dy
point at x = 25 by evaluating to the left = 1 − 0.04(24)
dx dx
and right, say, at x = 24 and at x = 26. = 0.04
When x = 26,
dy
= 1 − 0.04(26)
dx
= − 0.04.
5 Complete a gradient table and state the
type of stationary point. The gradient x 24 25 26
changes from positive to negative as we Sign of f ′(x) + 0 −
move from left to right in the vicinity of
x = 25. Slope
∴ x = 25 is a local maximum.
b Substitute x = 25 into y = 1.5 + x − 0.02x2 to b When x = 25,
find the corresponding y-value (maximum y = 1.5 + 25 − 0.02(25)2
height). = 14
So the maximum height reached is 14 m.

Case 2. The rule for the function is not given
If the rule is not given directly, then the steps below should be followed:
1. Draw a diagram if necessary and write an equation linking the given information.
2. Identify the quantity to be maximised or minimised.
3. Express this quantity as a function of one variable only (often this will be x).
4. Differentiate, set the derivative equal to zero and solve.
5. Determine, in the case of more than one value, which one represents the maximum or minimum value.
6. For some functions, a maximum or minimum may occur at the extreme points of the domain, so check
these also.
7. Answer the question that is being asked.
8. Sketch a graph of the function if it helps to answer the question, noting any restrictions on the domain.
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
A farmer wishes to fence off a rectangular paddock on a straight stretch of

river so that only three sides of fencing are required. Find the largest possible TUTORIAL
area of the paddock if 240 metres of fencing is available. eles-1446
Worked example 25
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a diagram to represent the situation, using River Let w = width

labels to represent the variables for length and l = length
width, and write an equation involving the P = perimeter
given information. w Fence Fence w
Fence
l
P = l +P 2w
= l += 2w
240= 240 [1]
2 Write a rule for the area, A, of the paddock in A=l×w [2]
terms of length, l, and width, w.
3 Express the length, l, of the rectangle in terms l + 2w = 240
of the width, w, using equation [1]. l = 240 − 2w [3]
4 Express the quantity to be maximised, A, as a Substituting [3] into [2]:
function of one variable, w, by substituting [3] A(w) = (240 − 2w)w
into [2]. = 240w − 2w2
5 Solve A′(w) = 0. A′(w) = 240 − 4w
For stationary points: A′(w) = 0
240 − 4w = 0
240 = 4w
w = 60
6 Test to see if the stationary point at w = 60 will When w = 59,
produce a maximum or minimum value for the A′(59) = 240 − 4(59) = 4
area by evaluating A′(w) to the left and right, When w = 61,
say, at w = 59 and at w = 61. A′(61) = 240 − 4(61) = −4
7 Complete a gradient table and state the type
x 59 60 61
of stationary point. The gradient changes from
positive to negative as we move from left to Sign of f ′(x) + 0 −
right in the vicinity of w = 60. Slope
∴ The stationary point is a local maximum.
The area of the paddock is a maximum when w = 60.
8 Find the maximum area of the paddock by A(60) = (240 − 2 × 60) × 60
substituting w = 60 into the function for area. = 7200 m2

Solving maximum and
Exercise 9G
minimum problems
1 WE24 A golfer hits the ball so that the equation of its path is:
y = 1.2 + x − 0.025x2
where x (metres) is the horizontal distance travelled by the ball
and y (metres) is the vertical height reached.
a Find the value of x for which the maximum height is reached
(and verify that it is a maximum).
b Find the maximum height reached.
2 If the volume of water, V litres, in a family’s hot water tank t minutes
after the shower is turned on is given by the rule
V = 200 − 1.2t2 + 0.08t3, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 15:
a find the time when the volume is minimum (that is, the length of
time the shower is on)
b verify that it is a minimum by checking the sign of the derivative
c find the minimum volume
d use a CAS calculator to find the value of t when the tank is full
again.
3 A ball is thrown into the air so that its height, h metres, above the ground at time, t seconds, after being
thrown is given by the function:
h(t) = 1 + 15t − 5t2 DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9721
a Find the greatest height reached by the ball and the value of t for which it occurs. Quadratic graphs
b Verify that it is a maximum. doc-9730
Cubic graphs
4 WE25 A gardener wishes to fence off a rectangular vegetable patch against her back fence so that only
three sides of new fencing are required. Find the largest possible area of the vegetable patch if she has
16 metres of fencing material available.
5 The sum of two numbers is 16.
a By letting one number be x, find an expression for the other number.
b Find an expression for the product of the two numbers, P.
c Hence, find the numbers if P is a maximum.
d Verify that it is a maximum.
6 The rectangle at right has a perimeter of 20 centimetres. Length
a If the width is x cm, find an expression for the length.
b Write an expression for the area, A, in terms of x only.
Width = x
c Find the value of x required for maximum area.
d Find the dimensions of the rectangle for maximum area.
e Hence, find the maximum area.
7 A farmer wishes to create a rectangular pen to contain as much area as possible using 60 metres of
fencing.
a Write expressions for the dimensions (length and width) of the pen.
b Hence, find the maximum area.
8 The cost of producing a particular toaster is $(250 + 1.2n2), where n is the number produced each day.
If the toasters are sold for $60 each:
a write an expression for the profit, P dollars
b find how many toasters should be produced each day for maximum profit
c hence, find the maximum daily profit possible.
9 A company’s income each week is $(800 + 1000n − 20n2), where n is the number of employees. The
company spends $760 per employee for wages and materials.
a Write an expression for the company weekly profit, $P.
b Determine the number of employees required for maximum profit and hence calculate the
maximum weekly profit.
10 The sum of two numbers is 10. Find the numbers if the sum of their squares is to be a minimum.

11 A square has four equal squares cut out of the corners as shown at right. It is then 12 cm
folded to form an open rectangular box. x
a What is the range of possible values for x?
b In terms of x find expressions for the: 12 cm
i height
ii length
iii width of the box.
c Write an expression for the volume, V (in terms of x only).
d Find the maximum possible volume of the box.
12 The base and sides of a shirt box are to be made from a rectangular sheet of cardboard (measuring
50 cm × 40 cm) with the corners cut out. Find:
a the dimensions of the box required for maximum volume
b the maximum volume.
(Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.)
13 The volume of the square-based box shown at right is 256 cm3.
a Find h in terms of l.
If the box has an open top, find:
b the surface area, A, in terms of l only h
c the dimensions of the box if the surface area is to be a minimum l
1
d the minimum area. (Hint: = l .)
−
1 l
l
14 A closed, square-based box of volume 1000 cm3 is to be constructed using the minimum amount of
sheet metal possible. Find its dimensions.
15 A cylindrical can, open at one end, is to be made out of aluminium.
Use a CAS calculator if required to help answer the following.
a If the surface area of the can is to be 200 cm2, find an expression for the height, h, of the can in
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9790 terms of the radius, r.
WorkSHEET 9.2 b Find a function for the volume, V, of the can in terms of the radius, r.
dV
c Find .
dr
d Hence, find the exact value of the radius that gives the maximum volume of the can.
Give the radius correct to 2 decimal places.
e Find the volume of the can both in exact form and to the nearest cm3.
16 A window is to be made with dimensions as shown in the diagram.
It will consist of a semi-circle and a rectangle. 2x
Use a CAS calculator to help answer the following.
22 − 8 x
a If the perimeter of the window is 11 metres, show that y = .
π +2 y
b Hence, find an expression for the area, A, of the window in terms of x.
DIGITAL DOC dA
doc-9798 c Find .
Investigation dx
When is a maximum d Hence, find the exact values of x and y such that the area of the window is a maximum.
not a maximum? e Find the exact maximum area of the window.

Summary
Introduction to limits r If a function, f (x), is continuous when x = a, then lim f ( x ) = f (a).
x→a
r For the constant function f where f (x) = c, lim f ( x ) = c.
x→a
r lim[ f ( x ) + g( x )] = lim f ( x ) + lim g( x )
x→a x→a x→a
r lim[ f ( x ) − g( x )] = lim f ( x ) − lim g( x )

x→a x→a x→a
r lim[ f ( x ) × g( x )] = lim f ( x ) × lim g( x )

x→a x→a x→a
lim f ( x )
⎡ f ( x ) ⎤ x→a
r xlim =
→a ⎢
⎣ g( x ) ⎥⎦ lim g( x )
x→a
Limits of r If a function is discontinuous at the x-value where the limit is being investigated, then the limit will
discontinuous, rational exist only if the function is approaching the same value from the left as from the right.
and hybrid functions r Finding the limit of a rational function involves simplifying the function before direct substitution
can take place and recognising any values of x for which it is discontinuous.
r Hybrid functions are functions that have different rules for different parts of the domain.
Differentiation using Deriving the gradient function:

first principles
y y = f(x)
Q
f(x + h)
Tangent at P
f(x) P
0 x x+h x
rise
r Gradient of a secant =
run
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
=
h
r f ′(x) is the gradient function of f (x).
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
r f ′(x) = lim ,h≠0
h→ 0 h
Differentiation using first principles:
y
Q
Q moves closer to
Q P as h approaches 0.
P Q
0 h x
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
r The process of finding the gradient function lim is called differentiation from first
principles. h→ 0 h
dy
r Differentiating y gives .
dx
r Differentiating f (x) gives f ′(x).

Finding derivatives r If f (x) = xn, then f ′(x) = nxn − 1.
by rule r If f (x) = axn, then f ′(x) = naxn − 1.
r If f (x) = c, then f ′(x) = 0 (where c is constant).
r If f (x) = g(x) + h(x), then f ′(x) = g ′(x) + h′(x).
r Equation of tangent: y − y1 = mT (x − x1) −1
r Equation of normal: y − y1 = mN (x − x1), where mN =
mT
change in y
Rates of change r Average rate of change = .
change in x
dy
r The derivative of a function, f ′( x ) or , is needed in order to calculate the (instantaneous) rate of
dx
change at a particular point. The rate of change of a function, f (x), at x = a is given by f ′(a).
Sketching graphs r Stationary points occur when f ′(x) = 0.

containing stationary r When sketching graphs of polynomial functions, four main features should be indicated:
points 1. the y-intercept (found by calculating y when x = 0)
2. the x-intercept(s) (found by solving the equation for x when y = 0)
dy
3. the stationary point(s) (found by solving the equation = 0)
dx
4. the type of stationary point(s) (found by checking the sign of the gradient y Local
to the left and right of the stationary point). maximum
r Three types of stationary point exist, and by testing the sign of the gradient
to the left and right of a stationary point, the nature (type) of the stationary
point can be determined:
1. local maximum turning points (f ′(x) changes from + to − moving left to 0 x
right)
2. local minimum turning points (f ′(x) changes from − to + moving y

left to right)
Local
minimum
0 x
3. stationary points of inflection (the sign of f ′(x) remains the same y

on both sides moving left to right).
Stationary point
of inflection
0 x
Solving maximum and r By solving the equation f ′(x) = 0 and substituting the solutions into the original function, the
minimum problems maximum or minimum value of a quantity may be found. When the function is not provided, it
is necessary to formulate a rule in terms of one variable using the information given. Drawing a
diagram to represent the situation is often useful.
rAlways test to determine if a stationary point is a maximum or a y Local f(x)
minimum by checking the sign of the gradient to the left and right maximum
Absolute
of the point. maximum in
r Check whether or not the local maximum or minimum is the the interval
absolute maximum or minimum. The absolute maximum or [a, b]
minimum may be the value of the function at one end of a 0 a b x
specified interval.

Chapter review
1 Evaluate lim(3 x − 12). S H O RT
x→2
A N S W ER
2 If f (x) = x3 − 3x + 3, find lim f ( x ).
x→0
x 2 + 7 x + 12
3 a By first factorising the numerator, simplify the rational function f ( x ) = , stating
x+3
the value for which the function does not exist (that is, is discontinuous).
b Find lim f ( x ), where a is the value at which f (x) is discontinuous.
x→a
⎧x + 1, x ∈(− ∞ , 0)
4 a Sketch the graph of the hybrid function f ( x ) = ⎨ .
b Find lim f ( x ). ⎩⎪2, x ∈[0, ∞)
x→0
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
5 Find lim ; that is, find f ′(x) for f (x) = 2x + 3.
h→ 0 h
6 Differentiate f (x) = 5 + 4x − 3x2 using first principles.
7
7 If g(x) = 13 x3 − 2 x2 − 8x + 1:
a find g ′(x)
b evaluate: i g ′(3) ii g ′(−2)
c find the coordinates when the gradient is 0.
8 Find the coordinates where the gradient of the tangent to y = 2x2 − 5x + 2 is:
a parallel to the x-axis
b parallel to the line 1 − 3x
c equal to the gradient of the function g (x) = 13 x3 − x2 for the same value(s) of x.
9 Find the equations of the tangent and normal for f (x) = 2x2 − 3x + 4 at the point (3, 13).
10 If the position of a particle moving in a straight line is given by the rule x (t) = −2t2 + 8t + 3, where x is
in centimetres and t is in seconds, find:
a the initial position of the particle
b the rate of change of displacement (that is, the velocity) at any time, t
c the rate of change when t = 4
d when and where the velocity is zero
e whether the particle is moving to the left or to the right when t = 3
f the distance travelled in the first 3 seconds.
11 For the function f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2:
b find the x-intercepts
c find the stationary points and state their type
d sketch the graph of f (x).
12 The curve with equation y = ax2 + bx + c passes through the point (0, −35) and has a zero gradient at the
point (5, 40). Find the values of a, b and c.
13 If the volume of liquid in a vat, V litres, during a
manufacturing process is given by V = 6t − t2,
where t ∈ [0, 6], find:
a the rate of change 2 hours after the vat starts to
fill up
b when the vat has a maximum volume.
14 If a piece of wire is 80 cm long:
a find the area of the largest rectangle that can be
formed by the wire
b determine whether a circle would give a larger
area.
15 Find the maximum possible volume of a fully enclosed cylindrical water tank given that the total internal
surface area of the tank is 600π square units.

M U LT IP L E 1 The lim(3 x − 7) equals:
x →5
C H OICE
A −7 B undefined C 15 D −2 E 8
2 The lim ( x 2 − 2 x + 5) is equal to:

x →− 3
A 20 B undefined C 5 D 8 E 0
x 2 + 3 x − 10
3 The lim is equal to:
x→2 x−2
A 1 B 7 C 0 D −3 E 5
Questions 4 to 6 refer to the function f (x) graphed below.
y f(x)
2
1
0 1 x
−1 2
4 The lim f ( x ) equals:

x→0
A 1 B ∞ C 4 D 0 E −1
5 The lim f ( x ) is:
x→ − 1
A 1 B 2 C undefined D 0 E −1
6 The lim f ( x ) equals:
x →1
A 1 B 2 C undefined D 0 E −1
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
7 If f (x) = x2 − 2x, then lim equals:
h→ 0 h
A 2x − 2 B 2x + h C 2x D −2 E x2
8 If f (x) = x 2 + 7x, then f ′(2) is equal to:
f (2 + h) − f (2) f (2 + h) − f (2) f ( x + h) − f (2)
A B lim C
h h→ 0 h h
f (2 + h) f (h)
D lim E lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
9 The gradient of the tangent to the curve f (x) at x = 5 is:
f ( x + h) − f (5) f (5) f (5 + h) − f ( x )
A lim B lim C lim
x→0 h h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
f (5 + h) − f (5) f (h)
D lim E lim
h→ 0 h h→ 0 h
10 If g(x) = 18 − 3x − 7x 2, then g ′(x) equals:
A 15 − 4x B −3 − 7x C 3 − 14x D 18 E −3 − 14x
dy
11 If y = x3 + 10x2 − 7x + 2, then is equal to:
dx
10
A 12 x2 + 3 x − 7 B x 2 + 10x − 7 C 3x2 + 10x − 7 D 3x2 + 20x − 7 E 20x − 7
12 The function f (x) = (x − 3)(x + 5), so f ′(x) equals:

A x+5 B 2x + 2 C x−3 D 1 E 2x + 5

dy
13 If y = x3 − 10x 2, then equals:
dx
3 x 2 − 20 x
A 3x2 − 20x B x − 10 C
2x
D 1 − 20x E x 2 − 10x
−
14 The derivative of 2x 3 is:
−
6 −
A 6x2 B C −6x 4
x2
−
D −6x 2 −
E 6x
3
15 When differentiated, 5 x is equal to:
−2 −1 1
5
A x 3x B 15 x 2 C 15 x 3
3
2 2
D x3 E 5x 3
16 Given that f (x) = 2x 2 + 7x − 1, f ′(−1) equals:
A 7 B −11 C −1
−4 E 3
D
17 The gradient of y = x 2 − 7x − 5 equals 3 when x is:
A 8 B 5 C −1
D 0 E −5
18 The gradient of the normal to the curve y = −x2 + 2x + 4 at x = 3 is:
A 4 B −4 C 0
−1 1
D 4 E 4
−3x 2
19 If the tangent to the curve y = + 5x is parallel to the line y = 3x + 4, then the x-coordinate at the
point of tangency is:
1
A 3 B 3 C −3
−1
D 3 E −6x + 5
20 The rate of change of f (x) = 2x3 − 5x2 + 7 when x = 2 is:

A −4 B 7 C −36
D 0 E 4
−3t2
21 If V = + 7t + 50, then the average rate of change between t = 1 and t = 4 is:
−
A 10 2
3 B −10 C −6
D −8 E 0
22 If f (x) = 5 + 15x + 6x2 − x3, then the gradient is zero when x equals:
A 1 or −5 B 1 or 5 C −1 or 5
−1 −5 −1
D or E 0 or
23 The curve y = x2 − 10x + 21 has:
A a local maximum at (5, 0)
B a local minimum at (5, −4)
C a stationary point of inflection at (5, 0)
D a local maximum at (5, −4)
E a stationary point of inflection at (5, −4)
24 When x = −2, the graph of y = 2x2 + 3x − 5:
A is increasing
B has a local maximum
C has a stationary point of inflection
D has a local minimum
E is decreasing

25 For a particular function g (x), g (1) = 0 and g ′(x) < 0 if x ≥ 1. The graph that could represent g (x) is:
A y B y C y g(x)
g(x) g(x)
0 1 x
1
0 1 x
0 x
D y E y
1
0 1 x
0 x
g(x) g(x)
26 The maximum value of f (x) = −2x2 + 8x is:

A 40 B 0 C 4 D −24 E 8
1 3
27 The local minimum value of h(x) = 3x +
− 28x − 3 occurs when x equals:
6x2
A 2 B −4 C 0 D −3 E 1
dy
28 For the function y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x − 4, the values of x for which < 0 are:
dx
A x<1 B 1 < x < −4 C 1<x<3 D x < 1∪ x > 3 E x>3
29 The function g (x) = (x + 3)3
has:
A a local maximum when x = −3
B a stationary point of inflection when x = −3
C a local minimum where x = −3
D a local minimum where x = 3
E a stationary point of inflection where x = 3
30 A curve with a local maximum and a local minimum is:
A y = x3 + 2x2 − 7x + 1 B y = x2 − 3x + 1 C y = x3 + 7
D y = (x − 2)3 E y = x2 + 6x
E XTENDED 1 On the graph of the function f (x) = x2 − x, a secant is drawn from the point A (2, 2) to a point B where
R E S P ONS E
x = 2 + a.
a Find the coordinates of the point B in terms of a.
b Write an expression for the gradient of the secant.
c Find the limit, k, for the above expression as a → 0.
d Write the derivative function f ′(x).
e Show that f ′(2) = k.
2 For the function f (x) = x2 − 5x + 2:
a write an expression for the gradient of the secant QR connecting the points Q(x, f (x)) and
R(x + h, f (x + h))
b write an expression for the gradient of the secant PQ connecting the points P(x − h, f (x − h)) and
Q(x, f (x))
c write an expression for the gradient of the secant PR connecting the points P(x − h, f (x − h)) and
R(x + h, f (x + h))
gradient PQ + gradient QR
d show that gradient PR =
2
e state the relationship between the gradient of the secant PR and the gradient at the point Q(x, f (x)).
3 Find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the tangents to the curve y = x at the points where
x = 14 and x = 1.

4 A giant park slide is made from a straight section of metal sheet joined to a curved section of metal
sheet such that its profile is modelled by the hybrid function
⎪⎧10 − 2 x , x ∈[0, 4)
f ( x ) = ⎨1
⎩⎪2 ( x − 6) , x ∈[4, 5]
2
where x is the horizontal distance in metres from the start of the slide.
a Find the height of the slide at the start.
b Find the height of the slide at the end.
c Sketch the graph of f(x).
d Given that the two sections are joined at a horizontal distance of 4 metres from the start of the
slide, find the exact length of the straight section.
e Show that the slide is smoothly joined so that children will not experience a bump.
5 A mountain trail can be modelled by the curve with equation y = 1.8 + 0.16x − 0.005x4, where x and y
are, respectively, the horizontal and vertical distances measured in kilometres, 0 < x < 3.
a Find the gradient at the beginning and end of the trail.
b Calculate the point where the gradient is 0.
c Verify that this point represents the maximum gradient within the given domain by tracing the
function with a CAS calculator.
d Hence, state the maximum height of the path.
e Find the point where the path is lowest and hence state the minimum height.
6 A ball is thrown vertically up so that its height above the ground, h
metres, at any time, t seconds, after leaving the thrower’s hand is given
by the function h(t ) = 83 t − 89 t 2 + 2.
a Find the height of the ball as it leaves the thrower’s hand.
b Find when and where the ball reaches its greatest height.
c Find when the ball returns to the same level that it left the thrower’s
hand.
d If the ball isn’t hit, find when the ball hits the ground to the nearest
thousandth of a second.
e Hence, state the domain and range of h(t).
f Sketch the graph of h versus t.
7 A piece of wire 100 cm long is to be cut so that one piece is used to form
a square and the other is used to form a circle. If the edge length of the
square is x cm:
a find, in terms of x:
i the radius of the circle
ii the area of the circle
iii the total area of the two shapes.
b show that, when x = 14, the total area is minimum.
8 An observer on the ground initially sights an aircraft at an altitude of approximately 2 km, diving
towards the Earth. The aircraft’s altitude in metres is given by the equation
f (t ) = − 11
8 t + 50t − 560t + 2200
3 2
where t is the time in seconds after the aircraft is first sighted. (Give answers to 1 decimal place.)
a Find the actual altitude of the aircraft when it is first sighted.
b Calculate the average rate of change of the aircraft’s altitude over the first 3 seconds.
c Write an expression for the derivative f ′(t).
d Calculate the instantaneous rate of change of the aircraft’s altitude after 3 seconds.
e Based on your answers to parts b and d, is the aircraft pulling out of the dive, or is its situation
worsening?
f After several seconds the pilot manages to stabilise the aircraft and its altitude begins to increase.
At what time does this occur, and how far is the aircraft above the ground?

g Despite stabilising the aircraft, the pilot decides to eject, but the minimum altitude at which this
can be safely attempted is 400 m above the ground. What is the maximum altitude achieved before
the aircraft goes back into a downward path?
h The pilot actually ejects at t = 16 s. Explain whether or not the aircraft has sufficient altitude to
make this safe.
i Using a CAS calculator, find how soon after ejection the aircraft will crash.
9 The Pantheon is an ancient building located in Rome, Italy. The main structure consists of a
hemispherical dome that has an 8.7 m oculus (hole) at the top and is supported by a 6 m thick
cylindrical wall. It is known that the volume of the structure is the maximum possible given its internal
surface area.
a Ignoring the oculus, write an expression for the surface area of the structure (including a circular
base) in terms of the radius of the dome, r, and the height of the cylindrical wall, h.
b If the internal surface area of the structure is 7362 m2, express h in terms of r.
c Write an expression for the volume of the structure in terms of r.
d Show that the height of the Pantheon’s cylindrical wall is the same as the diameter of its base.
a b
10 The function y = x 3 − x 2 + 6 x + c has turning points at x = 1 and x = −1.
3 2 dy
a Write an expression for the derivative .
dx
b Determine the values of a and b.
dy
c Find the equation of the derivative .
dx
d Determine the nature of the turning point at x = 1.
e Determine the nature of the turning point at x = −1.
f If the original function touches the x-axis at x = 1, find the value of the constant, c, and hence
determine the equation of the original function.
11 The function given by f (x) = a3x2 − a2x3, where a ≠ 0, has a turning point at the point T (b, c), where
b ≠ 0.
a Find f ′(x).
b Show that b = 23 a.
c Express c in terms of a, and hence state the coordinates of T.
d If a = 32 , find the coordinates of the turning point and explain why it is a local maximum.
12 The local council has decided to connect two parallel
y
bicycle paths 30 m apart with a curved bitumen path B Road
30
between A and B. A keen amateur mathematician decides (40, 30)
that the path should consist of two connected parabolas 20
(with turning points at (0, 0) and (40, 30) respectively)
with a smooth connection (same gradient) at the point of 10 (20, 10)
intersection. The axes are placed as shown in the diagram. Road 0
The lower parabola needs to cross a bridge over a creek at A 10 20 30 40 x
(20, 10), so this part of the path cannot change.
a Find the equation for the lower parabola.
b Show that the upper parabola has the equation y = a(x − 40)2 + 30.
c Find the equation of the upper parabola, assuming the two parabolas meet at the bridge (20, 10).
d Show that the connection is not smooth.
e For a smooth connection the two parabolas must meet elsewhere. Show that, for the paths to meet at
x2 x 2 − 1200
( x , y), = a( x − 40)2 + 30 where a is as defined in part b; hence, a = .
40 40( x − 40)2
x
f Show that a = if the connection is to be smooth.
DIGITAL DOC 40( x − 40)
doc-9791
Test Yourself g Solve the two simultaneous equations with or without technology and show that the paths meet
Chapter 9 at (30, 22.5) when a = −0.075.

ICT activities
Chapter opener 9E Rates of change
10 Quick Questions doc-9784: Warm-up with ten quick questions on SkillSHEET 9.3 doc-9793: Practise calculating average rates of
differentiation (page 389) change (page 410)
doc-9777: Investigate gradients between two points on a graph
9A using a spreadsheet (page 410)
Introduction to limits SkillSHEET 9.4 doc-9794: Practise calculating instantaneous rates of
DIGITAL DOCS change (page 410)
SkillSHEET 9.1 doc-9785: Practise substituting values into a function
(page 392)
9F Sketching graphs containing stationary points
Investigation doc-9786: Investigate evaluating and approaching a
limit (page 393) DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9721: Investigate quadratic graphs using a spreadsheet
9B Limits of discontinuous, rational and (page 417)
doc-9730: Investigate cubic graphs using a spreadsheet
hybrid functions (page 417)
TUTORIAL SkillSHEET 9.5 doc-9795: Review of discriminant (page 418)
WE5 eles-1437: Watch a tutorial on simplifying a rational function SkillSHEET 9.6 doc-9796: Solving cubic equations (page 418)
and then calculating the limit of the function at the point for which it is
discontinuous (page 394) 9G Solving maximum and minimum problems
TUTORIAL
9C Differentiation using first principles WE25 eles-1446: Find the largest possible area of a paddock
TUTORIAL given 240 metres of fencing (page 420)
WE8 eles-1438: Watch a tutorial on how to find the gradient DIGITAL DOCS
equation using first principles and the x-values for which the gradient doc-9721: Investigate quadratic graphs using a spreadsheet
equation equals zero (page 398) (page 421)
DIGITAL DOCS doc-9730: Investigate cubic graphs using a spreadsheet
SkillSHEET 9.2 doc-9787: Practise finding the derivative using first (page 421)
principles (page 399) WorkSHEET 9.2 doc-9790: Use first principles and the rule to find
WorkSHEET 9.1 doc-9788: Evaluate limits and determine derivates of the derivative (page 422)
polynomials using first principles (page 399) Investigation doc-9798: Investigate the nature of stationary points
(page 422)
TUTORIAL
Chapter review
WE15 eles-1440: Watch a tutorial on how to find the equations of DIGITAL DOC
the tangent and normal at a particular point on a cubic (page 404) Test Yourself doc-9791: Take the end-of-chapter test to test your
progress (page 430)
DIGITAL DOCS
doc-9779: Investigate the gradient at a point using a spreadsheet
(page 406) To access eBookPLUS activities, log on to www.jacplus.com.au
doc-9789: Investigate a tangent and normal using a spreadsheet
(page 406)

Answers CHAPTER 9
DIFFERENTIATION b y
4 a
dy
= 6x5 + 6x
Exercise 9A Introduction to limits
g(x) dx
5
1 8 2 Circle 3 B dy
b = 20 x 3 − 21x 2 + 6
1 dx
4 a 0 b lim =0
x→∞ n dy
5 a −1 0 1 x c = 11x10 − 18 x 5 + 20 x 4 + 6 x
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 −2 dx
c dy
S 1 11 13 17 115 131 1511 y d = 50 x 4 − 12 x 3 + 6 x 2 − 8
2 4 8 16 32 512 h(x) dx
b C 1 dy
e =0
6 dx
−1 0 x
x 2.95 2.99 2.995 3 3.005 3.01 3.05 dy
f = 32 x 3
dx
f (x) 7.95 7.99 7.995 8 8.005 8.01 8.05 −2
8 −
5 a 3x 3 b 5x
4
7 C d y 9
8 a 14 b −3 c 0 p(x) c 6x6 d x2 + x − 3
4
d 5 e 4 f 15 e 2x4 + 3x 3 + 1 x 2
8 5
f 12 x 2 − 7 x − 6
9 a 9 b 2 c 50 3 2
d 2 e 40 f −
12
2 6 a 2x + 3 b 12x − 15
1 c 2x + 8 d −432 + 162x
g 19 h 0
10 D 11 A
0 1 x e 3x2 + 12x + 12 f 24x 2 − 120x + 150
1 7 a 2x, x ≠ 0 b 8x, x ≠ 0
12 a 3 2 b 0 c 7 d 16 8 a i 5 ii 4 iii Does not exist.
c 6x + 2, x ≠ 0 d 10x + 1, x ≠ 0
b i 5 ii −2 iii Does not exist. − −
Exercise 9B Limits of discontinuous, 4 7
c i 0 ii 0 iii 0 8 a b
rational and hybrid functions d i 2 ii 3 iii Does not exist. x5 x8
−2 − −
1 b, c, d, f 9 a Does not exist. b 12 40
2 b 4 c 0 d −1 f 3 c d
c Does not exist. d Does not exist. x5 x9
3 a 4 e 1 f 0 24 15
b y 10 a 12 b 7 e f
− x7 x6
c 4 d 11 − −
e −2 f Does not exist. 4 9
g h
f (x) = x discontinuous at 4 g 0 h −
3 x5 x10
−7 − −
i 6 j 15 60
0 4 x i j
k 5 l 2 x4 x7
4 a Undefined because you cannot divide Exercise 9C Differentiation using first 1 2
by 0. k l 1
principles x
b x=0 3x 3
1 a 5 b 2x + 10
c x(x + 1) 1
c 2x − 8 d 3x 2 + 2 6
d f (x) = x + 1 m 3 n
2 a 1 b 2x − 3 3
e y f (x) − x4 5x 5
c 8x d 2x
−
e 6 − 4x f 3x 2 + 5 1 1
1 o p
3 a 2x − 6 b x=3 2 x 2 x3
0 x 4 a 3x2 b x = −2 or 2 2 1
−1 q r
5 a 7 b 10 2
c 3 d 27 x
f 1 3x 3
5 a f (x) = x + 3, x ≠ 0 6 C, E − 2
b f (x) = 6, x ≠ 3 7 C s 4
c f (x) = x − 5, x ≠ 0 8 A 3x 3
d f (x) = x + 1, x ≠ −4 Exercise 9D 9 a i 13 ii −17 iii 3
Finding derivatives by rule
e f (x) = x − 1, x ≠ 6 b i 5 ii −4 iii 0
f f (x) = x 2 − 2x + 4, x ≠ −2 dy dy
1 a = 6x5 b = 14 x c i 4 ii −14 iii −2
g f (x) = x + 4, x ≠ 1 dx dx d i 10 ii 19 iii 7
h f (x) = x 2 + 3x + 9, x ≠ 3 dy dy 4 10 a x = 2, x = 3
6 a 3 b6 c −5 d −3
c =5 d = 16 x 3 + 3 x − 5
dx dx b At x = 2, gradient = −1; at x = 3,
e 5 f 12 g5 h 27 2 a 12x3 b 56x6 gradient = 1.
7 a y 1
c 25x4 d −24x5 c i x = 22 ii x = 6 iii x = 1
5 e −6x2
f −7 1
4 11 a x = −3, x = 2
3 f (x) 3 a D b B 1
b At x = −3, gradient = −7; at x = 2 ,
c E d F
gradient = 7.
0 2 x e G f A 1 1
−3
g C c (− 1 4 , − 6 8 )

12 a (0, 0) and (2, −4) c f(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3 y 12 a A = π r 2
b (1, −2) dA
b = 2π r
13 a ytan = 13 x − 6 b ytan = −
4 x − 20 f'(x) = 3x2 + 6x dr
3 2
−1 92 c i 20π m2/m ii 100π m2/m
ynor = x + 13 1 11
13 ynor = 4
x+ 6 iii 200π m2/m
c ytan = 10 x − 6 − 7x − 8 −2 −1 0 1 x dA
d ytan = d Yes, because is increasing.
−1 dr
ynor = 10
x + 71
5 ynor = 17 x − 8
4
13 a V = 3 π r
3
e ytan = 2ax − a 2 + 2 dV
b = 4π r 2
−
x 5 There is a maximum turning point at dr
ynor = + a2 + 2 x = −2 as f ′(x) goes positive to negative c i 0.04π m3/m or 0.13 m3/m
2a
when f ′(x) crosses x-axis. ii 0.16π m3/m or 0.50 m3/m
f ytan = (12a − 4) x − 12a 2 iii 0.36π m3/m or 1.13 m3/m
There is a minimum turning point at
−x 144 a3 − 144 a 2 + 34 a x = 0 as f ′(x) goes from negative to 14 a Length = 2h, width = 2h
ynor = + b V = 4h3
12a − 4 12a − 4 positive when f ′(x) crosses x-axis.
f ′(x) = 0 signifies the x-values where c i 12 m3/m ii 48 m3/m
14 a y = 6x − 2 b x + 6y = 25 iii 108 m3/m
f (x) has stationary points.
1
15 y = x + 5 or 2y = x + 10 Exercise 9E Rates of change 15 a x = 3h b V = 6 3h 2
2
−1 7 1 a 13 dV dV
16 a x = 2 b y= 2
x+ 2 c i =6 3 ii = 12 3
17 y = −x + 5 b f ′(x) = 2x + 5 dh dh
18 a (−1, −1.5) b c = −3.5 c f ′(5) = 15 dy −
31 29 2 a ii V = 0 cm3 ii V = 800 cm3 16 a = 0.000 06 x 2 + 0.012 x
19 y = 2 x + and y = 2 x + dx
2 24 b 80 cm3/s
b i 0.384 ii 0.6
5 x 27 5 x 473 c i 0 cm3/s ii 120 cm3/s iii 0 cm3/s
20 y = + and y = + iii 0.384 iv 0.216
2 4 2 108 3 E
c x = 50 and x = 150
4 C
21 y = 4x − 4 d 12.5 < y < 67.5
5 C
22 ( 2, − 2 − 1) and (− 2, 2 − 1) dA
6 a h ′(t) = 18 − 6t 17 a = 180t − 9t 2 hectares per hour
x + 3 y + 2 2 + 3 = 0 and b i 6 m/s ii 0 m/s iii −6 m/s dt
c The ball stops rising, that is, it reaches b i 0 ii 576 iii 864
x + 3y − 2 3 + 3 = 0 iv 900 v 864 vi 576
its highest point.
23 a = −2.5, b = −3, c = −4, y = 7x − 6 d 12 m/s vii 0 (all hectares per hour)
24 a a = (2a, 8a2 − 2) y = 8ax − 8a2 − 2 dx − c The fire spreads at an increasing rate in
4a2 + 1 1
7 a = 4t + 40 the first 10 hours, then at a decreasing
b x= c a= dt
2 rate in the next 10 hours.
4a b i 20 m/s ii 4 m/s iii −4 m/s
d The fire is spreading; the area burned
d y = 4x − 4 c The lift changed direction.
out by a fire does not decrease.
25 a y d t = 10 s and x = 200 m
e The fire stops spreading; that is, the
8 a i 4000 ii 15 000
8 fire is put out or contained to the area
b 5500 people per hour
6 f'(x) = 4 already burned.
c i 3500 people per hour
f t = 6 and t = 14 hours.
4 ii 4500 people per hour
iii 6500 people per hour Exercise 9F Sketching graphs containing
2 f (x) = 4x − 2 iv 7500 people per hour
stationary points
d More people arrive closer to starting time.
−4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
x 1 a x = −1 b x=4
9 a 80 kg
−2 c x = 0 and x = 2 d x = −3 and x = 1
dW
b = 12 − 0.6t 2
−4
dt e x = −2 f x = 0 and x =
3
−6 c i 9 kg/week g x=2 h x = 1 and x = 5
ii 6 kg/week 2 a (−1, −1) b (4, −11)
There are no stationary points as iii 3 kg/week c (0, 0) and (2, −4) d (−3, 55) and (1, −9)
f ′(x) ≠ 0. d Decreasing 2 −4
b y f(x) = x2 − 4x + 2 e 20 weeks e (−2, −16) f (0, 0) and ( 3 , 27 )
1 1 −10 1 )
dP g (2, 14) h (1, 3 ) and (5,
10 a = 4.5 − 1.5n 2 3
dn 3 a Teacher to check.
1 b i $150 b f ′(3) = −2, f ′(5) = 2
x ii −$150 c Local minimum
−1 0 2
iii −$300 4 a x=0
f '(x) = 2x − 4 c n=9 b Local maximum
11 a i −20.2 cm3/s dy
−4 5 a = 3 x 2 = 0 for stationary points.
ii −21 cm3/s dx
There is a minimum turning point at iii −22 cm3/s If 3x2 = 0, x = 0.
x = 2 as f ′(x) goes from negative to b No, because the volume is always b f ′(−1) = 3, f ′(1) = 3
positive when f ′(x) crosses x-axis. decreasing. c Point of inflection

dy g f(x) Exercise 9G Solving maximum and
6a = x 2 − 2 x − 3 = 0 for stationary points.
dx minimum problems
If x2 − 2x − 3 = 0, x = 3, x = −1. 8 (0, 8) 1 a x = 20 m, y′(19) > 0 and y′(21) < 0 (a
b f ′(−2) = 5, f ′(0) = −3, f ′(4) = 5 maximum)
c At x = −1 there is a local maximum and (−2, 0) b y = 11.2 m
at x = 3 there is a local minimum. −2 0
x 2 a t = 10 min
7 D b V ′(5) = −6 and V ′(15) = 18 (a minimum)
f(x)
8 B c V = 160 litres
9 C f(x) (1.08, 30.04) d t = 15 min
h
10 B 3 a h = 12.25 m (when t = 1.5 s)
11 a (−3, −7), a local minimum 24 b h′(1) = 5 and h′(2) = −5 (a maximum)
(0, 24)
b (2, 8), a local maximum 4 32 m2
2 −4
c (0, 0), a local maximum, and ( 3 , 27 ), a 5 a 16 − x
local minimum (−4, 0) (−2, 0) (3, 0) b A = x(16 − x)
−1 53
d (0, −3), a local minimum, and ( 3 , − 2 54 ) , −4 −2 1 2 3
x c Both numbers are 8.
−6 d P ′(7) = 2, P ′(9) = −2, (a maximum)
a local maximum (−3.08, −6.04) f(x)
1 1 6 a 10 − x
e (− 1, 1 6 ) , a local maximum, and (2, − 3 3 ),
i f(x) b A = x(10 − x)
a local minimum (−0.215, 2.11)
2 (0, 2) c x=5
f (1, 0), a stationary point of inflection
d Length and width = 5 cm
g (0, 3), a stationary point of inflection
e 25 cm2
h (−3, 59), a local maximum, and (3, −49),
(−1, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0) 7 a Length and width = 15 m
a local minimum
−1 1 2
x b 225 m2
12 a f(x)
f(x) (1.55, −0.63) 8 a P = 60n − 250 − 1.2n2
−1
b 25
(−1, 0) (3, 0) c 500
x j f(x)
−1 0 1 2 3 9 a P = 800 + 240n − 20n2
(0, −3) f(x) b n = 6, p = 1520
−3
−4 (0, 8) 10 Both numbers are 5.
(1, −4) 8
11 a x ∈(0, 6) or 0 < x < 6
b f(x) f(x) b i x ii 12 − 2x iii 12 − 2x
(2, 0)
0 x c V = x(12 − 2x)(12 − 2x)
(−1, 0) (2, 0) 2
d 128 cm3
−1 0 1 2 x
−2 (0, −2)
12 a 7.36 cm by 25.28 cm by 35.28 cm
b 6564.23 cm3
−4
13 a y
(1, −4) 256 1024
(−1.25, 11.125) 13 a h = 2 b A = l2 +
c l l
f(x)
f(x) c 8 cm × 8 cm × 4 cm d 192 cm2
8
1 ( 1– , 4– )
3 27 14 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm
6
(0, 0) (1, 0) 200 − π r 2
0 x 4 15 a h =
1 2π r
2
πr3
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 x b V = 100r −
d f(x)
2
4
(2, 4) dV 3π r 2
y
c = 100 −
dr 2
(−0.67, 6.63)
(3, 0) 10 2
6 d r= cm ≈ 4.61 cm
(0, 0) 0 3 x 3 π
f(x) 4 2000 6
e V= = 307 cm3
e f(x) 2 9 π
f(x)
3 (1, 2) 22 − 8 x
x
16 a y =
(−2, 0)
−2 −1 1 2 π +2
(0, 0)
0 x 1 ⎛− 121π ⎞
{ }
−2 b A= ⎜ 8(4 + π ) x + 88 x +
−1 2
−
2 ⎟
(− 2–3, −127 (π + 2)2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
5– )
−2 b i x = −1.25 i x= ,1
3
f f(x) f(x) −2 dA −16(π + 4) x + 88
ii x < −1.25 ii x <
c =
(−1, 36) 3 ∪ x >1 dr (π + 2)2
30 (0, 30) −2 11 22
iii x > −1.25 iii 3 < x <1 d x= m, y = m
14 b = −12 2(π + 4) π +4
(−3, 0) (2, 0) (5, 0) 15 a = −1, b = 6 π
x a =−−2.5, b = 5, c = −4 242 ⎛ 1 + ⎞
−3 −1 0 2 5 16 ⎝ 4 ⎠ m2
(3 2–3, −1422
—) 17
2
a = 3, b = 4 e A=
27 (π + 4)2

CHAPTER REVIEW 17 B 18 E 19 B 20 E
7 a i
50 − 2 x
21 D 22 C 23 B 24 E π
SHORT ANSWER
25 D 26 E 27 A 28 C
1 −6 2 3 29 B 30 A (50 − 2 x )2
ii
3 a f ( x) = x + 4, x ≠ −3 b 1 π
4 a b No limit exists. EXTENDED RESPONSE
f (x)
1 a (2 + a, a2 + 3a + 2)
(π + 4) x 2 − 200 x + 2500
2 iii
π
1 a 2 + 3a b Check with your teacher.
b = a+3
a 8 a f (0) = 2200 m
−1 0 x c k=3 b −422.4 m/s
d f´(x) = 2x − 1 − 33 2
5 2 6 4 − 6x e f´(2) = 2(2) − 1 = 3 = k c f '(t ) = 8 t + 100t − 560
7 a g′( x) = x2 − 7x − 8 2 a 2x + h − 5 d −297.1 m/s
b i −20 ii 10 b 2x − h − 5 e The aircraft is pulling out of the dive,
1 1
c (− 1, 5 ) and (8, −116 ) c 2x − 5 because the gradient of the dive is less
6 3
5 −9 2x + h − 5 + 2x − h − 5 negative at the end of the 3-second
8 a (4 , 8) b
1
( 2 , 0) d = 2x − 5
2 interval.
c (1, −1) and (5, 27) e They are the same (equivalent). f t = 8.8 s, f (8.8) = 207 m
9 ytan = 9x − 14 1 3
3 The point of intersection is ( 2 , 4 ). g 412.2 m
−1
ynor = 9 x + 3
40
4 a 10 m h f (16) = 408 metres. The ejection at this
b 0.5 m altitude is safe, because it exceeds the
10 a 3 cm
c minimum requirement of 400 m.
dx − f (x)
b v= = 4t + 8 cm/s i 4s
dt 10 9 a 3πr2 + 2π r h
dx − 3681 3r
c v= = 8 cm/s
dt b h= −
πr 2
d t = 2 s and x = 11 cm 5
e Left c V(r) = 3681r – 6 π r3
2 (5, 0.5)
f 10 cm 0.5 d Teacher to check.
11 a (0, 2) 4 5 x dy
b (−2, 0) and (1, 0) 10 a = ax 2 − bx + 6
d 4 5m dx
c (−1, 4), a local maximum, and (1, 0), a e For x < 4, f ′(x) = −2
local minimum. b a = −6, b = 0
For x = 4, f ′(x) = x − 6 dy − 2
d f(x) f ′(4) = 4 − 6 = −2 c = 6x + 6
(−1, 4) 4 5 a The gradient is 0.16 at the beginning dx
and −0.38 at the end. d Local maximum
2 (0, 2) b (2, 2.04) e Local minimum
(1, 0) d The maximum height is 2.04 km. f y = −2x3 + 6x − 4
(−2, 0)
x e (0, 1.8); the minimum height is 11 a f ′(x) = 2a3x − 3a2x2
−2 −1 0 1
1.8 km. 2 54
c T ( 3 a, 27 a )
f(x) 6 a 2 metres
12 a = −3, b = 30, c = −35 b t = 1.5 seconds and h = 4 metres d T (1, 8 )
9
Since f ′(x) > 0 when x < 1 and
13 a 2 litres/hour c t = 3 seconds 9
d t = 3.621 seconds f ′(x) < 0 when x > 1, T (1, 8 ) is a local
b 3 hours maximum.
14 a 400 cm2 e Domain t ∈ [0, 3.621] and range
h ∈ [0, 4] x2
b Yes, a circle of circumference 80 cm has 12 a y =
an area of approx. 509.3 cm2. f h (t) (metres)
40
15 2000π cubic units 4 b Teacher to check.
−
( x − 40)2
MULTIPLE CHOICE c y= + 30
2
20
1 E 2 A 3 B 4 A d Lower parabola gradient = 1; upper
5 B 6 C 7 A 8 B parabola gradient = 2; therefore the
9 D 10 E 11 D 12 B 0
conection is not smooth.
1.5 3 t (seconds)
13 A 14 C 15 A 16 E e, f & g Teacher to check.

CHAPTER 10
Antidifferentiation (integration)
doc-9792
10A Antidifferentiation 10 Quick Questions
10B Deriving the original function from the gradient function
10C Approximating areas enclosed by functions
10D The fundamental theorem of integral calculus
10E Applications of antidifferentiation
10A Antidifferentiation
As we have seen, the process of differentiation enables us to find the gradient of a function. The reverse INTERACTIVITY
process, antidifferentiation (or integration), will find the function for a particular gradient. int-0268
Integration has wider applications including calculation of areas, volumes, energy, probability and Antidifferentiation
many more quantities in science and business.
dy d
Note that f (x) means differentiate f (x) with respect to x; that is, f ( x ) = f ′(x).
dx dx
So f (x) is the antiderivative of f ′(x), denoted as f (x) = ∫ f ' ( x ) dx where means antidifferentiate,
∫
integrate or find an indefinite integral, and dx indicates that the integration of the function is with
respect to x.
d
Since (ax + c) = a, where a and c are constants
dx
then ∫ a dx = ax + c.
d ⎛ ax n +1 ⎞
Since = ax n
dx ⎜⎝ n + 1 ⎟⎠
ax n+1
then ∫ ax n dx = n + 1 + c, n ≠ −1.
Note: We must add a constant, c, when we are finding general antiderivatives.
However, if we have to find an antiderivative, the c is to be allocated an actual number, and for
convenience the number chosen is zero. That is, an antiderivative means ‘let c = 0’, or ‘do not add on the c’.
For example, the antiderivative of 3x2 + 4x + 5 is x3 + 2x2 + 5x + c.
An antiderivative of 3x2 + 4x + 5 is x3 + 2x2 + 5x.
The antiderivative of f (x) is denoted by F(x).
F (x) = ∫ f ( x ) dx
Properties of integrals
d
Since is a linear operator, so too is its inverse, ∫ . Therefore,
dx
∫ [ f ( x) ± g( x)] dx = ∫ f ( x) dx ± ∫ g( x) dx
That is, each term can be integrated separately, and
∫ k f ( x) dx = k ∫ f ( x) dx
That is, a ‘constant’ factor of the function can be taken to the front of the integral.
CHAPTER 10 Antidifferentiation (integration) 437

WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Find the antiderivative of x2 + 4.

THINK WRITE
x3
Antidifferentiate each term by rule and add a constant. The antiderivative is + 4 x + c.
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
dy
If = 2 x2 + 5x − 7, find the antiderivative, y.
dx
THINK WRITE
dy dy
1 Write down . = 2x2 + 5x – 7
dx dx
2 Antidifferentiate each term by rule and add a y = ∫ (2 x 2 + 5 x − 7) dx
constant.
2 x 3 5x 2
= + − 7x + c
3 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Find f (x) if f ′(x) = (2 x + 3) 2 .

THINK WRITE
1 Write down f ′(x). f ′( x ) = (2 x + 3)2

2 Expand the brackets. f ′( x ) = 4 x 2 + 12 + 9
3 Antidifferentiate each term by rule and f ( x ) = ∫ (4 x 2 + 12 x + 9) dx

add a constant.
4x3
= + 6x 2 + 9x + c
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Find ∫ x( x 2 − 4 x + 5) dx.
THINK WRITE
1 Expand the brackets to express in basic ∫ x ( x 2 − 4 x + 5) dx

polynomial form so it can be antidifferentiated.
= ∫ ( x 3 − 4 x 2 + 5 x ) dx
x 4 4 x 3 5x 2
2 Antidifferentiate each term by rule and = − + +c
add a constant. 4 3 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Find an antiderivative of:

a f (x) = 2x2 + 5x − 7 b f (x) = (2 x + 3) 2 .
THINK WRITE
a 1 Use the integration feature of a CAS calculator a ∫ (2 x 2 + 5x − 7) dx

to antidifferentiate the function.

2 x 3 5x 2
2 Record the result. + − 7x
3 2
2 x 3 5x 2
3 Write the answer. ∫ (2 x 2 + 5x − 7) dx = 3
+
2
− 7x + c
Note: The calculator does not include the constant c. It
is important that you include it in your answer.
b 1 Use the integration feature of the CAS calculator to b ∫ (2 x + 3)2 dx
antidifferentiate the function.
(2 x + 3)3
2 Record the result.
6
⎛ (2 x + 3)3 ⎞
3 Use the expand feature of the CAS calculator to expand ⎜ ⎟⎠
expand the bracketed version. ⎝ 6
4x3 9
4 Record the result. + 6x 2 + 9x + 2
3
5 Note: Replace 92 with the constant c, indicating the
original equation can have any constant, not just 92 ,
until more information is known.
4x3
Write the answer. ∫ (2 x + 3)2 dx = 3
+ 6x 2 + 9x + c
Exercise 10A Antidifferentiation

1 a Copy and complete the following table.
Derivative (gradient function)

Function f (x) f ′(x)
i x2 2x
ii x2 + 3
iii x2 – 4
iv x3
v 2x4
vi 20x3
vii 21x6
1 4
viii 2
x
1 9
ix 3
x
1 10
x 5
x
xi 2x2
xii 6x7
xiii x2 + 3x + 5
xiv 2x – 7
xv 4x3 – 7x2
xvi 8x3 + 3x2
xvii 12x2 + 4x – 7
xviii 16x – 3x3
b Explain in words how to find the original function from the derivative (gradient function).

2 WE1 Find the antiderivative of each of the following.
a 9x2 b 8x + 5 c x2 + 4x − 11 d 8x3 + 3x2 + 5
e 7 + 6x − x2 f x9 + x2 − 3 g −8x + 2x2 + 5x4 h 1 + x + x2 + x3
dy
3 WE2 If = 4 x 2 − 5 x − 10, find the antiderivative, y.
dx
4 WE3 Find f (x) if f ′(x) is:
a 5(2x + 7) b x(3x − 4) c −3x(x + 5)
d (x + 7)(x + 5) e (2x − 3)(x + 2) f (x − 1)(x + 1)
g (x + 2)2 h (2x − 3)2 i (x − 2)3
j (x + 2) (x2 − 2x + 4).
5 MC If f ′(x) = 2x(x − 5), then the antiderivative f (x) is:
A x2( 12 x2 − 5x) + c B 23 x3 − 5x2 + c C −10
D 23 x3 − 5x2 + x E x3 − 5x
dy
6 MC If= ( x + 3)( x − 5), then the antiderivative is:
dx
1 1 3
A x3 − 4x2 − 15x + c B 2x − 2 C x + x2 − 15x + c
3 3
1 3 1 4
D x − x2 − 15x + c E 4x − 15x + c
3
7 WE4 Find the following.
a ∫ (4 x 3 + 10 x − 7) dx b ∫ (6 + 4 x − x 2 ) dx c ∫ x (6 x − 5) dx
4 x2 + 7x −2
d ∫ ( x − 10)( x + 10) dx e ∫ x
dx f ∫ (x 2 + 4 + 2x ) dx
8 MC If f ′(x) = 6x 2 − 10x + 1, which one of the following cannot be f (x)?

A 2x3 − 5x2 + x + 5 B 2x3 − 5x2 + x − 4 C 2x3 − 5x2 + 3x
D 2x3 − 5x2 + x E 2x3 − 5x2 + x + 12
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9797
9 WE5 Find the antiderivative of:
WorkSHEET 10.1 a 3(x − 3)2 b (3x − 5)3.
10B Deriving the original function from

the gradient function
The process of antidifferentiation identifies a ‘family’ y f(x) = 2x + 3
of original functions from a given gradient function. f(x) = 2x + 2
For example if f ′(x) = 2, then the antiderivative would be f(x) = 2x + 1
3
f(x) = 2x
given as f (x) = 2x + c. Therefore, f (x) could be 2x, 2x + 1, 2 f(x) = 2x − 1
2x + 2, 2x + 3, 2x − 1, 2x − 2 and so on. 1 f(x) = 2x − 2
That is, the constant, c, could take any real value.
0 x
In fact we have an infinite number of possibilities that −1
form a family of straight lines translated up or down, −2
depending on the value taken by c.
Consider the example of f (x) = x. In this case the
antiderivative would be given as: y f (x) = 1–2 x2 + 3–2
F (x) = 1 x2 + c f (x) = 1–2 x2 + 1
2 3–
2
f (x) = 1–2 x2
1 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2
F(x) could be x, x + 1, x + 2, 2 x − 1, x − 3 and so on. 1 f (x) = 1–2 x2 − 1
2 2 2 2
Again, there are an infinite number of possibilities that 0 x
form a family of parabolas translated up or down, depending −1 f (x) = 1–2 x2 − 3
on the value taken by c.
−3

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
If f ′(x) = 2, then one possible graph for f (x) is shown at right. f(x)
On the same set of axes, sketch three more possibilities for the graph 4 f(x) = 2x
of f (x).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 f (x) is the antiderivative of f ′(x). f ( x ) = ∫ 2 dx 0 x

2
= 2x + c
2 The function f (x) is a straight line with c being the When: f(x) c = 2
y-intercept. Choosing 3 different values for c will c = 1, f (x) = 2x + 1. c=1
c=0
provide more possibilities for f (x). c = 2, f (x) = 2x + 2. c = −1
c = −1, f (x) = 2x − 1.
2
x
2
In the examples above it is possible to find one particular member of the family of curves from
the gradient function when special conditions called boundary conditions are given. These help us
to identify which member of the family we are dealing with by providing clues about the original
function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
The graph of a gradient function is shown at right. y

a From the graph, write down: f'(x) TUTORIAL
i the value of x where the gradient is 0 2 eles-1443
ii the sign of the gradient to the left of this point Worked example 7
iii the sign of the gradient to the right of this point.
b i State the shape of the graph of f (x). 0 1 x
ii If f (0) = 1, sketch the graph of f (x).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a i The gradient is 0 where the gradient function a i The gradient is 0 when x = 0.

graph crosses the x-axis.
ii To the left, the gradient function is below ii If x < 0, the gradient is negative.
the x-axis.
iii To the right, the gradient function is above iii If x > 0, the gradient is positive.
the x-axis.
b i If the graph of the derivative is linear, then its b i The graph of f (x) will be a parabola.
antiderivative, f (x), will be quadratic.
ii Since f (0) = 1, the graph of f (x) passes through ii y
f (x)
the point (0, 1).
Negative Positive
gradient gradient
1
Zero gradient
0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 8
dy
If = 3x and y = 4 when x = 1, determine the rule for y: a by hand b using a CAS calculator.
dx
THINK WRITE
dy dy
a 1 Antidifferentiate by rule to obtain an expression for y, a = 3x
dx dx
remembering to add a constant. y = 32 x 2 + c
2 Substitute x = 1 and y = 4 into the equation. Substituting (1, 4) into the equation:
4 = 32 (1)2 + c
3 Solve the equation for c. 4= 3

2 +c
c=4− 3
2
5
c= 2
3 5
4 Write the rule for y. y = 2 x2 + 2
b 1 Using the antidifferentiation feature of the CAS b ∫ (3x ) dx

calculator, integrate 3x.
2 Record the result. 3x 2
2
3x 2
3 Define the result, adding the constant of integration. Define f ( x ) = +c
2
4 Use the solve feature of the CAS calculator to determine solve (f (1) = 4, c)
the value of c by entering the given information that
f(1) = 4.
5
5 Record the result. c= 2
dy
6 Write the answer. If = 3 x and y = 4
dx
3 5
when x = 1, then y = 2 x 2 + 2 .
Deriving the original function from

Exercise 10B
the gradient function
1 WE 6 If f ′(x) = 1, one possible graph for f (x) is shown at right. y
On the same set of axes, show three more possibilities f(x)
for f (x).
1
0 x
1
dy y
2 An original function for the gradient function = 8x is shown at right.
On the same axes, show four others. dx
4
0 1 x

3 WE 7 The graph of a gradient function is shown at right. y
f'(x)
a From the graph, write down:
3
i the value of x where the gradient is 0
ii the sign of the gradient to the left of this point
iii the sign of the gradient to the right of this point.
b i State the shape of the graph of f (x). x
0 1
ii If f (0) = 2, sketch the graph of f (x).
4 On the same axes sketch four curves with a gradient described as f ′(x) = 2x + 1.
5 For each gradient function graph below, give:

i the value of x where the gradient is 0
ii the sign of the gradient (positive or negative) left of this point
iii the sign of the gradient right of this point.
a y Gradient b y
function
x 4 Gradient
0 1 function
−1 0 x
−2
c y d y
Gradient
3 Gradient function
function
0 x
−4
0 x −1
3
6 MC Examine the gradient function, f ′(x), sketched at right. Then y

f'(x)
choose the correct answer to the following questions about its original 3
function.
a f (x) has a gradient of 0 when x equals:
A 2 B −2 and 2 C 1 and 3 D 0 and 3 E 4
0 1 x
b f (x) has a negative gradient when: 3
A x<1 B 1<x<3 C x>3 D x<3 E x>0
−2
c f (x) has a positive gradient when:
A x < 1 and x > 3 B x > 1 and x < 3 C x > 1 and x > 3
D x = 1 and x = 3 E x=0
7 For the gradient function sketched at right, state all values of x where the y
gradient is: Gradient
a zero function
b negative
c positive.
−6 0 2 x
8 Questions a to g relate to the following figures, A to G.

A y B y C y
h'(x)
f'(x) 0 x 2
3
−2 g'(x)
0 x
0 1 x

D y E y F y
f'(x)
f'(x) g'(x)
2 1
0 x 0 x
1
−1
0 x
G y
h'(x)
0 x
−2 2
−4
a Examine the gradient function f ′(x) in figure A. Sketch the graph of f (x), given that f (0) = 1.
b Examine the graph of g ′(x) in figure B. Sketch the graph of g(x), given that g(1) = 1.
c Examine the graph of h′(x) in figure C. Sketch h(x) if h(0) = −1.
d Examine the graph of f ′(x) in figure D. Sketch f (x) if f (0) = 1.
e For g ′(x) graphed in figure E, sketch g(x) if g (0) = 3.
f If f ′(x) is graphed as in figure F, sketch the function f (x), given that f (−3) = −9, f (0) = 0 and f (3) = 9.
g If h′(x) is graphed as in figure G, sketch h(x), given that h(−2) = 5 13 , h(0) = 0 and h(2) = −5 13 .
dy
9 If = 4x − 5 and y = 0 when x = 1, find the rule for y.
dx
10 WE 8a Find the equation of the curve with a gradient function 2x − 3 and passing through the point
(2, −2).
dy
11 WE 8b If = 3x 2 + 2x and the point (2, 2) belongs to the curve, find the equation for y.
dx
12 If f (x) = (x + 1)2 and F(1) = 2, find F(x).
10C Approximating areas enclosed by

functions
The Werisie River problem
A farmer living along the Werisie River wants to draw water from it to irrigate his crops, and he applies
to the local council for permission. The council sends a technical officer to measure the flow of water in
the river so that an informed decision can be made about the farmer’s application for a water allocation.
The technical officer begins by measuring the speed of the water and forming a profile of the cross-
section of the river.
The speed of the river is 2.5 m/s and it is 4 metres wide.

It is found that the cross-section of the river can be modelled by the equation
1
y= x ( x − 4).
2
If the technical officer can find the area of the cross-section, then he can find the volume of water
carried by the river each second, because the volume would be given by:
Volume per second = area of cross-section × speed of flow.

In this section we shall consider this problem and examine different methods for finding the area of
shapes bounded by curves. The problem of calculating an area bounded by a curve is difficult (except in
the case of the circle) and is usually solved by approximating the curved shape by constructing a number
of smaller figures made from straight lines.
Approximating areas
There are several ways of finding an approximation to the area between
a graph and the x-axis. We shall look at three methods:
1. the lower rectangle method INTERACTIVITY
2. the upper rectangle method int-0254
3. the trapezoidal method. Approximating areas
enclosed by functions
The lower rectangle method y f(x)

Consider the area between the curve f (x) shown at right,
the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 5.
If the area is approximated by ‘lower’ rectangles whose width is 1 unit, then
the top of each rectangle lies below the graph but touches the curve at one
point. (In this case the left-hand corner of the rectangle touches the graph.) R1 R2 R3 R4
So, the height of rectangle R1 is f (1) units
and the area of R1 = 1 × f (1) square units (area of a rectangle 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
= height × width).
Similarly, the area of R2 = 1 × f (2) square units,
the area of R3 = 1 × f (3) square units
and the area of R4 = 1 × f (4) square units.
Therefore, the approximate area under the graph between the curve f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = 1
to x = 5 is 1[f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4)] square units (the sum of the area of the four rectangles).
If the same area was approximated using rectangle widths of 0.5, there would be 8 rectangles and the
sum of their areas would be:
0.5[f (1) + f (1.5) + f (2) + f (2.5) + f (3) + f (3.5) + f (4) + f (4.5)] square units.
From the diagram it can be seen that the lower rectangle approximation is less than the actual area.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
Find an approximation for the area between the y f(x)

curve f(x) shown and the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 3 TUTORIAL
using lower rectangles of width 0.5 units. eles-1605
f(x) = 0.2x2 + 3 Worked example 9
3
0 x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
THINK WRITE
1 Write the number of rectangles and their width. There are 4 rectangles of width 0.5 units.
2 Find the height of each rectangle (left) by h1 = f (1) = 0.2(1)2 + 3 = 3.2
substituting the appropriate x-value into the f(x) h2 = f (1.5) = 0.2(1.5)2 + 3 = 3.45
equation. h3 = f (2) = 0.2(2)2 + 3 = 3.8
h4 = f (2.5) = 0.2(2.5)2 + 3 = 4.25
3 The area equals the width multiplied by the sum Area = width × (sum of heights of 4 rectangles)
of the heights. = 0.5(3.2 + 3.45 + 3.8 + 4.25)
= 0.5(14.7)
4 Calculate this area. = 7.35
5 State the solution. The approximate area is 7.35 square units.

The upper rectangle method y f(x)
Consider the area between the curve f (x) shown at right, the x-axis and the
lines x = 1 and x = 5.
If the area is approximated by ‘upper rectangles’ that are 1 unit wide, then
the top of each rectangle is above the graph and touches the curve at one point.
(In this case the top right-hand corner of the rectangle touches the graph.) R1 R2 R3 R4
So, the height of R1 is f (2) units
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
and the area of R1 is 1 × f (2) square units.
Similarly, the area of R2 = 1 × f (3) square units,
the area of R3 = 1 × f (4) square units
and the area of R4 = 1 × f (5) square units.
Therefore, the approximate area between the curve f (x), the x-axis and the lines x = 1 to x = 5 is
(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4) = 1[ f (2) + f (3) + f(4) + f(5)] square units.
If the same area was approximated with upper rectangle widths of 0.5 units, the sum of their areas
would equal:
0.5[f (1.5) + f (2) + f (2.5) + f (3) + f (3.5) + f (4) + f (4.5) + f (5)] square units.
From the diagram it can be seen that the upper rectangle approximation is greater than the actual area.
Lower rectangle approximation ≤ actual area ≤ upper rectangle approximation
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Find an approximation for the area in the diagram in worked example 1 using upper rectangles
that are 0.5 units wide. f (x) = 0.2x2 + 3
THINK WRITE
1 Find the number of rectangles and the height of There are 4 rectangles:
each one (from left to right). h1 = f (1.5) = 0.2(1.5)2 + 3 = 3.45
h2 = f (2) = 0.2(2)2 + 3 = 3.8
h3 = f (2.5) = 0.2(2.5)2 + 3 = 4.25
h4 = f (3) = 0.2(3)2 + 3 = 4.8
2 The area is the width of the interval multiplied by Area = 0.5(3.45 + 3.8 + 4.25 + 4.8)
the sum of the heights.
3 Calculate this area. = 0.5(16.3)
= 8.15
4 State the solution. The approximate area is 8.15 square units.
It can be seen that the lower rectangle approximation (7.35 units) is less than the upper rectangle
approximation (8.15 units).
If the area is divided into narrower strips, the estimate of the area would be closer to the true value.
The trapezoidal method

h
Recall that the area of a trapezium = (a + b). The trapezoidal method involves making
2
a series of straight line approximations to the curve to generate strips in the shape of
trapeziums.
b
Consider the area under the graph of f (x) between the x-axis and the lines x = 1 to x = 5. a
For each trapezium the width, or height, h = 1 unit. h
For T1, a = f (1) and b = f (2). y
For T2, a = f (2) and b = f (3). f(x) f(2)
For T3, a = f (3) and b = f (4).
For T4, a = f (4) and b = f (5). f(1)
T1 T2 T3 T4
The area of T1 = 12 [ f (1) + f (2)].
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
The area of T2 = 12 [ f (2) + f(3)] and so on.

The total area of the trapeziums is:
1
2
[ f(1) + f (2) + f (2) + f (3) + f (3) + f (4) + f (4) + f (5)]
= 12 [ f (1) + 2f (2) + 2f (3) + 2f (4) + f (5)] square units.
The first and last terms are counted only once, but all others are counted twice.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Find an approximation for the area enclosed by the graph of f(x) = 0.2 x2 + 3, the x-axis and the
lines x = 1 to x = 3 using interval widths of 0.5 units and using the trapezoidal method by hand.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Sketch the graph of f(x). y

2 Draw trapeziums of width 0.5 units from x = 1 to 3
x = 3.
−2 0 1 2 3 4 x
3 Evaluate the height of each vertical side of the f (1) = 0.2(1)2 + 3 = 3.2
trapeziums by substituting the appropriate x-value f (1.5) = 0.2(1.5)2 + 3 = 3.45
into f (x). f (2) = 0.2(2)2 + 3 = 3.8
f (2.5) = 0.2(2.5)2 + 3 = 4.25
f (3) = 0.2(3)2 + 3 = 4.8
4 Calculate the area by using the formula for the Total area of trapeziums
area of a trapezium where h is the width of the 0.5
= 2 (3.2 + 2 × 3.45 + 2 × 3.8 + 2 × 4.25 + 4.8)
interval.
= 0.25 × 31
= 7.75
Therefore, the area under the curve is
approximately 7.75 units.
Note that the lower rectangle approximation found in worked example 9 was 7.35 units and the
upper rectangle approximation found in worked example 10 was 8.15 units. The average of these two
7.35 + 8.15
approximations is or 7.75 units, which is the same as the trapezoidal approximation for the
2
area.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Employ width intervals of 1 unit to calculate an approximation for the area between the graph of
f(x) = x2 + 2 and the x-axis from x = −2 to x = 3. Use:
a lower rectangles b upper rectangles c averaging of the lower and upper rectangle areas.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Sketch the graph of f(x) over a domain y y = x2 + 2

that exceeds the width of the required area.
2 Draw the lower and upper rectangles.
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 x
= Upper rectangles
= Lower rectangles

a 1 Calculate the height of the lower rectangles a Lower rectangle heights:
by substituting the appropriate values of x f(−1) = (−1)2 + 2
into the equation for f(x). Note that the two =3
rectangles to the right and left of the origin have f(0) = 02 + 2
the same height and are equal in area. =2
f(0) = 2
f(1) = 12 + 2
=3
f(2) = 22 + 2
=6
2 Find the area by multiplying the width Area = 1(3 + 2 + 2 + 3 + 6)
by the sum of the heights. = 16
Using lower rectangles, the approximate area
is 16 square units.
b 1 Calculate the height of the upper rectangles b Upper rectangle heights:
by substituting the appropriate values of x f(−2) = (−2)2 + 2
into the equation for f(x). =6
f(−1) = 3 (from above)
f(1) = 3
f(2) = 6
f(3) = 32 + 2
= 11
2 Find the area by multiplying the width by Area = 1(6 + 3 + 3 + 6 + 11)
the sum of the heights. = 29
Using upper rectangles, the approximate area
is 29 square units.
16 + 29
c Find the average by adding the areas of the upper c Average of the areas =
rectangles and the lower rectangles, and then 2
dividing by 2. = 22.5
The approximate area is 22.5 square units
when averaging the upper and lower
rectangle areas and using widths of 1 unit.
Note that this average is between the area of the upper rectangles and the area of the lower rectangles
and is closer to the actual area.
Exercise 10C Approximating areas enclosed by

functions
1 WE9 Find an approximation for the area between the curve f (x) at right and y
f(x)
the x-axis from x = 1 to x = 5. Use lower rectangles with widths of 2 units.
2 Find an approximation for the area between the curves below and the
x-axis, from x = 1 to x = 5, by calculating the area of the shaded rectangles. (3, 3)
a y b 3
f(x) y (1, 2)
2
(5, 4)
4
19 (4, 19) x
(1, 2) 0 1 3 5
2
12 (3, 12)
0 x f(x)
1 5 7 (2, 7)
4
3 (1, 4)
0 1 2 3 4 5x

3 MC Consider the graph of y = x2 from x = 0 to x = 4 (at right). y y = x2
a The width of each rectangle is:
A 1 unit B 2 units
C 3 units D 4 units
E varying
b The height of the right-hand rectangle is: 0 x
1 2 3 4
A 9 units B 4 units
C 16 units D 12 units
E 1 unit
c The area between the curve y = x2 and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 4 can be approximated, by the
area of the lower rectangles, as:
A 20 sq. units B 14 sq. units
C 18 sq. units D 15 sq. units
E 30 sq. units
4 WE10 a Find an approximation for the area in the diagram at right using upper y y = x2
rectangles 1 unit wide.
b A better approximation for the area under this curve can be found by
averaging the upper and lower rectangle areas. State this approximate
value.
0 x
1 2 3 4
5 WE11 Find an approximation for the area enclosed by the graph of f(x) = x2, y
the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 3 with interval widths of 1 unit. Use y = x2
the trapezoidal method.
0 x
1 2 3
6 Find the approximate area between the curves below and the x-axis, over the interval indicated, by
calculating the areas of the shaded trapeziums.
a y f(x) b y f(x)
5 (4, 5) 5 (6, 5)
(2, 3) (4, 3)
3 3
(2, 2)
2
0 x 0 x
2 4 2 4 6
7 Find an approximation for the area between the curves below and the x-axis, from x = 1 to x = 5, by
calculating the area of the shaded rectangles.
a y b y c y d y
(2, 11)
(1, 8) (1, 8) (3, 8) 11 (3, 10) (5, 5)
8 8 10 5
6 7 (3, 3) f(x)
8 (4, 7) 3
7
0 1 x 0 1 x
5 f(x) 0 1 3 5 f(x)
x f(x) 3 5
0 x
1 2 3 4 5

e y f y g y
(4, 10) (1, 4) f(x) (1, 7) (4, 7)
10 4 7
9 (3, 9)
f(x) (2, 5)
(3, 2) 5
6 (2, 6) 2 4
4
(1, 4)
f(x)
0 x
0 x 1 3 5 0 x
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
8 WE12 With width intervals of 1 unit, calculate an approximation y

for the area between the graph of f(x) = x2 + 4 and the x-axis from y = x2 + 4
x = 1 to x = 4 using:
a lower rectangles
b upper rectangles
c averaging of the lower and upper rectangle areas.
0 x
1 2 3 4
9 In the figures below, find the approximate area between the curves and the x-axis over the interval
indicated by calculating the area of the shaded rectangles. Give exact answers.
a y b y y = ex c y y = logex d y
y = −x2 + 3x + 8 y = (x − 4)2
x
−1 0 1 2
x = −1 to x = 2 0 x
0 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 x = 2 to x = 6
x = 1 to x = 4 x = 1 to x = 5
y y g y x = 2 to x = 6
e f f(x) = −x2 − 4x
f(x) = 1– 3
3x − 3x2 + 8x 2 3 4 5 6
0 x
x y = x3 − 6x2
−3 −2.5−2 −1.5−1 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
x = −3 to x = −1
x = 1 to x = 5
10 In the figures below, find an approximation for the area between the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = 1
and x = 5. Use interval widths as shown. Give exact answers.
a y b y c y
(3, 15) y = −x2 + 6x − 5
15 (2, 14) y = —12 x3
14
13 (4, 13)
10
(1, 10)
0 x
f(x) −1 1 2 3 4 5 0 x
1 2 3
0 x
1 2 3 4

d y y = 10 − x2 e y y = ex
−1 1– 01– 1 x
−2 2
0 x
1 2 3
11 Calculate approximations for the area between the graph of y = x(4 − x), the x-axis and the lines x = 1
and x = 4 using interval widths of 1 unit and:
a lower rectangles b upper rectangles c averaging the lower and upper rectangle areas.
12 Calculate approximations for the area under the graph of y = x2 − 4x + 5 to the x-axis between x = 0 and
x = 3 using interval widths of 0.5 units and:
a lower rectangles b upper rectangles c averaging the lower and upper rectangle areas.
13 Find an approximation for the area under the graph of y = 2x between x = 0 and x = 3, using interval
widths of 1 unit, by averaging the lower and upper rectangle areas.
14 Find approximations for the area between the graph of f (x) = ( x − 1)3 and the x-axis, between x = 1 and
x = 4, using the trapezoidal rule and:
a interval widths of 1 unit b interval widths of 0.5 units.
Give answers correct to 1 decimal place.
1
15 Calculate approximations for the area under the graph of y = between x = 0.5 and x = 2.5 using the
trapezoidal rule and: x
a interval widths of 1 unit b interval widths of 0.5 units c interval widths of 0.25 units.
Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
16 Calculate an approximation for the area under the graph of y = 2 loge (x − 1) between x = 2 and x = 6
using the trapezoidal rule and interval widths of 1 unit.
17 At the back of a rectangular block of land 100 metres long is a park
and a river. The distance to the river from the top of the rectangular r Park
Rive
block is shown in the table below. 20 40 60 80
Distance across 0 100
metres
rectangular block in 0 20 40 60 80 100
metres Block of land
Distance of river from
0 30 20 40 60 50
the block in metres
Calculate approximations for the area of parkland between the rectangular block and the river by:
a using the area of the ‘upper’ rectangles
b using the trapezoidal rule (use intervals of width 20 metres).

18 Calculate an approximate area under the graph of f (x) = sin x, between x = 0 and x = π, using the
π
trapezoidal rule and interval widths of 6
units. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
19 The graph below shows the velocity of a cyclist (in metres V
per second) at time t seconds after commencing a race. (25, 14) (30, 15)
a What does the shaded area represent?
Velocity (m/s)
(15, 12) (20, 13)
b Find the approximate distance travelled by the cyclist in the
first 30 seconds using the trapezoidal rule and interval widths of (10, 10)
5 seconds.
(5, 5)
0 t
10 20 30 40
Time (s)
20 Answer the following statements concerning approximate areas under graphs as True or False.
a An approximation for the area can be found quickly if very small interval widths are used.
b The smaller the interval width used, the more accurate the approximation for the area.
c The upper rectangle method is always more accurate than the lower rectangle method.
d Averaging the upper rectangle area and the lower rectangle area is more accurate than using the
upper or lower approximations on their own.
10D The fundamental theorem

of integral calculus
This section is included as preparation for VCE Mathematical Methods CAS Units 3 and 4. It is not part
of the VCE Mathematical Methods CAS Units 1 and 2 course.
The Werisie River problem — a model

Let us return to the problem posed at the beginning of this chapter: finding an approximation to the area
of a cross-section of the Werisie River; that is, finding the area enclosed by a curve.
The technical officer was able to develop a model for the curve of the river bed. He found that the
1
equation y = 2 x ( x − 4 ) fitted the
curve closely. The river is 4 metres
wide.
Using the trapezoidal rule, we can
find a close approximation to the area A
of the cross-section.
Using trapeziums that are 1 unit
wide, we calculate: y
Area of T1 = 12 × 1 × (0 + 32 ) = 43
1 7
Area of T2 = × 1 × ( 32 + 2) = 1 2 3 4
2 4 A
3 T1 T2 T3 T4 x
1 7
Area of T3 = 2
× 1 × (2 + 2
) = 4
1 3
Area of T4 = 2
× 1 × ( 32 + 0) = 4
20
Total area = 4
= 5 square units (or in this case, 5 m2).

Thus the rate of flow water in the river is 5 × (speed of flow) m3/s
= 5 × 2.5 m3/s
= 12.5 m3/s.
The local council is now in a position to decide whether, given this flow of water in the river, the
farmer’s application for a water allocation is reasonable.
Integral calculus can be used to calculate the exact area of the cross-section of the Werisie River.
Consider the region under the curve f (x) between x = a and x = b, where f (x) ≥ 0 and is continuous for
all x ∈ [a, b].
y y = f(x)
F(x)
F(x + h) − F(x)
0 x
a x x+h b
Let F (x) be the function that is the measure of the area under the curve between a and x.
F (x + h) is the area under the curve between a and x + h, and F (x + h) − F (x) is the area of the
strip indicated on the graph.
The area of the strip is between the areas of the left and right rectangles; that is,
f (x)h < F (x + h) − F (x) < F (x + h)h
F ( x + h) − F ( x )
or f ( x ) < < f ( x + h), h ≠ 0 (dividing by h).
h
As h → 0, f (x + h) → f (x)
F ( x + h) − F ( x )
or lim = f (x)
h→ 0 h
that is, F ′(x) = f (x) (differentiation from first principles).
Therefore, F (x) = ∫ f ( x ) dx
that is, F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x)
or ∫ f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c
but when x = a,
∫ f ( x ) dx = F (a) + c
= 0 (as the area defined is zero at x = a)
or c = −F (a).
Therefore, ∫ f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) − F (a)
and when x = b, ∫ f ( x ) dx = F (b) − F (a).
That is, the area under the graph of f (x) between x = a and x = b is F (b) − F (a).
∫ f ( x ) dx is the indefinite integral, which represents the general antiderivative of the function being
integrated.
This is the fundamental theorem of integral calculus, and it enables areas under graphs to be
calculated exactly. It applies only to functions that are smooth and continuous over the interval [a, b].
b
It can be stated as area = ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
= [ F ( x)]
x ba [do not add c as F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x)]
= F (b) − F (a)
a and b are called the terminals of this definite integral and indicate the domain over which the integral
is taken.
b
∫a f ( x ) dx is called the definite integral because it can be expressed in terms of its terminals a and b,
which are usually real numbers. In this case the value of the definite integral is a real number and not a
function.
The function being integrated, f (x), is called the integrand.

Properties of definite integrals
Definite integrals have the following five properties.
DIGITAL DOC a b c b
doc-10200
Investigation
1. Úa f ( x ) dx = 0 2. Úa f ( x ) dx = Úa f ( x ) dx + Úc f ( x ) dx , a < c < b
Definite integrals b b b b b
3. Úa k f ( x ) dx = k Úa f ( x ) dx 4. Úa [ f ( x ) + g( x )] dx = Úa f ( x ) dx + Úa g( x ) dx
b a
5. Úa f ( x ) dx = -
Úb f ( x ) dx
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
Evaluate the following definite integrals.

3 2 4 TUTORIAL
a Ú (3 x + 4 x - 1) dx b Ú
2
dx eles-1606
0 1 (2 x + 1) 3
Worked example 13
THINK WRITE
3
a 1 Antidifferentiate each term of the integrand and a Ú0 (3x 2 + 4 x - 1) dx
write in the form [ F ( x )]ba.
=
= [ x 3 + 2 x 2 - x ]30
2 Substitute values of a and b into F (b) F (a). =
= [33 + 2(3)2 - 3] - [03 + 2(0)2 - 0]
3 Evaluate the integral. = 42 0
= 42
2Ê 4 ˆ 2 -3
b 1 Express the integrand with a negative power. bÚ Á
1 Ë (2 x + 1)3 ˜
¯
dx = Ú1 4(2 x + 1) dx
2
È 4(2 x + 1) -2 ˘
2 Antidifferentiate by rule. =Í - ˙
ÍÎ 2 ¥ 2 ˙˚ 1
-2 2
= ÈÎ (2 x + 1) ˘˚ 1
-
2
È -1 ˘
3 Express the integral with a positive power. =Í 2˙
Î (2 x + 1) ˚ 1
È -1 ˘ È -1 ˘
4 Substitute the values of a and b into F (b) F (a) = Í 2 ˙-Í 2 ˙
where a = 1 and b = 2. Î5 ˚ Î3 ˚
-1 1
5 Evaluate the definite integral. = +
25 9
16
=
225
Signed areas
When calculating areas between the graph of a function f (x) and the x-axis using the definite integral
b
Úa f ( x ) dx , the area is signed; that is, it is positive or negative. If f (x) > 0, the region is above the x-axis;
if f (x) < 0, it is below the axis. We shall now examine these two situations and y y = f(x)
look at how we calculate the area of regions that include both.
Region above axis

If f (x) > 0, that is, the region is above the x-axis, then
b
Úa f ( x ) dx > 0, so the value of the definite integral is positive.
b x
0
For example, if f (x) > 0, then the area = Úa f ( x ) dx. a b
5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_10.indd 454 8/05/13 3:20 PM

Region below axis y
b y = f(x)
If f (x) < 0, that is, the region is below the x-axis, then ∫a f ( x ) dx < 0, so the
value of the definite integral is negative. a b
− b b 0 x
For example, if f (x) < 0, then the area = ∫ f ( x ) dx or ∫ f ( x ) dx , as the
a a
a
region is below the x-axis, or area = ∫b f ( x ) dx (reversing the terminals changes
the sign).
Therefore, for areas below the x-axis, ensure that the area has a positive value.
(Areas cannot be negative.)
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
Given f : R → R, where f(x) = 2x + 3, calculate the area of the region bounded by the graph of f(x),
the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 5.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a diagram to represent the situation. y

(5, 13)
(1, 3)
0 1 x
5
5
2 Express the area in definite integral notation. Area = ∫1 ( 2 x + 3) dx
3 Antidifferentiate the integrand. = ⎡⎣ x 2 + 3 x ⎤⎦ 15
4 Evaluate the answer. = (25 + 15) − (1 + 3)
= 36
5 State the solution. Area = 36 square units
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
Calculate the shaded area. y

y = x2 − 4x
0 1 3 4 x
THINK WRITE
3
1 Express the area in definite integral notation, Area = − ∫ ( x 2 − 4 x ) dx
1
with a negative sign in front of the integral as
the region is below the x-axis.
2 Antidifferentiate the integrand. = − [ 13 x 3 − 2 x 2 ]13
− 1
= [( 3 (3) − 2(3) ) − ( 3 (1) − 2(1) )]
3 2 1 3 2
3 Evaluate.
−
= [(9 − 18) − ( 3 − 2)]
1
− − − 2
= [ 9 − ( 1 3 )]
= − [− 9 + 1 3 ]
2
= − (− 7 3 )
1
= 7 13
4 State the solution. The area is 7 13 square units.

The fundamental theorem of
Exercise 10D
integral calculus
1 WE13 Evaluate the following definite integrals.
1 3 4
a ∫0 x 2 dx b ∫0 x 3 dx c ∫3 ( x 2 − 2 x ) dx
6 1 4 1
∫2 x 2 dx ∫1 (3x 2 + 2 x 2 ) dx
2
d e ∫0 ( x 3 + 3 x 2 − 2 x ) dx f
1 −2 9
g ∫−1 (6 − 2 x + x 2 ) dx h ∫− 4 ( x 3 + x − 4) dx i ∫4 3 x dx
2 3 2
j ∫1 (4 x −2 + 2 x − 6) dx k ∫0 2( x + 4)4 dx l ∫ 1 3(5x − 2)4 dx
−
2 WE14 Find the area of the triangle at right: y

a geometrically y=x
b using integration.
0 4 x
3 Find the area of the triangle at right: y

a geometrically 3
b using integration.
0 x
3
y=3−x
4 Express the following shaded areas as definite integrals.
a y b y c y
y = 2x y = x2
4
0 x 0 x
01 x 4 1 2
3 y=4−x
d y e y f y
y = 3x2 y = x3 − 9x2 + 20x
0 x
−2
x
−3 −1 0 0 1 3
x
y = −x3 − 4x2 − 4x
5 Evaluate each of the definite integrals in question 4 to find the shaded area. Give your answer as an
exact value.
6 WE15 Calculate each of the shaded areas below.
a y b y c y y = x2 − 4
y = −4 − 2x
y=x−2
−1 0 x
0 x −2
2 0 2 x
−2
d y e y f y
y = x3
−2 −1 0 x x 0 1 x
−2 0 −1
y = 1− x2 y = x3 + 2x2 − x −2

10E Applications of antidifferentiation
Previously we learned that when the rate of change of a function (the derivative or gradient function) is INTERACTIVITY
known, we can determine the original function by a process called antidifferention. int-0269
If f ′(x) = xn, n ∈ N, then Areas under curves
1
f (x) = x n +1 + c
n +1
where c represents a constant.
This can be verified by differentiating
1
x n +1 + c
n + 1
The result is xn.
Similarly, if f ′(x) = axn, a ∈ R, n ∈ N, then
a
f (x) = x n+ 1 + c
n +1
dy dy
We saw previously that an alternative expression for the derivative was . Likewise, if = x n, then
1 dx dx
y= x n +1 + c
n +1
The value of c can be found if boundary conditions and given. Antidifferentiation can often be used to
solve problems.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
Find the rule for the function f (x) if f ′(x) = 3 + 4x − x2 and f (0) = 7.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the given expression. f ′(x) = 3 + 4x − x2

x3
2 Antidifferentiate f ′(x) to obtain the general rule for f (x). f ( x ) = 3x + 2 x 2 − +c
3
(0)3
3 Substitute x = 0 and f (x) = 7 into f (x) and solve to find the 7 = 3(0) + 2(0)2 − +c
value of the constant, c. 3
c=7
x3
4 Write the rule for f (x). f ( x ) = 3x + 2 x 2 − + 7
3
The pieces of information used to find the value of the constant that is generated following
antidifferentiation are called boundary conditions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
The rate of change of the volume, V litres, of a balloon at any time, t seconds, after it is inflated
beyond 6 litres is given by:
dV
= 3 t 2 − 8 t + 1 t ∈ [0, 3]
dt
a Express V as a function of t.
b What is the volume of the balloon when t = 1?
THINK WRITE
dV
a 1 Write the given expression. a = 3t 2 − 8t + 1
dt
2 Find the general rule for volume by antidifferentiation. V (t) = t3 − 4t2 + t + c
3 Find the value of the constant, c, by substituting t = 0 and 6 = (0)3 − 4(0)2 + (0) + c
V = 6 into V (t). c=6
Write the rule for V (t).
4 V (t) = t3 − 4t2 + t + 6
b Substitute t = 1 into the volume function V (t). b V (1) = (1)3 − 4(1)2 + (1) + 6
=4
So the volume of the balloon at t = 1
is 4 litres.

An important application of antidifferentiation is in the study of kinematics (motion graphs). We
will assume that all motion is along a straight line. The velocity can be antidifferentiated to find the
displacement (distance or location from the origin) of the object. This process can be carried out by hand
or using a CAS calculator (see worked example 8).
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
The velocity of a model train starting from 1 m to the right of the origin is
given by v(t) = 6 – 2t, where t is in seconds and v is in m/s, for t ∈ [0, 5]. TUTORIAL
a When does it stop? eles-1447
Worked example 18
b What is its displacement at any time, t?
c How far is it from the starting point when t = 5?
d Where is the train when it stops?
e How far does it travel in the first 5 seconds?
THINK WRITE
a The train stops when the velocity v (t) = 0. a v (t) = 0

Solve for t when v (t) = 0. 6 − 2t = 0
⇒ 2t = 6
⇒ t = 3 s
b 1 To find an equation for the displacement, b Displacement, x (t ) = ∫ v(t ) dt
find the antiderivative of the velocity. x (t ) = ∫ (6 − 2t ) dt
x (t ) = 6t − t 2 + c
2 We know that the model train begins 1 m to the (0,1) ⇒ x (0) = 6(0) − (0)2 + c = 1
right of the origin, which implies a displacement c =1
of 1 m or the point (0, 1). To calculate c, substitute
this point into the equation for displacement.
3 Write the equation for displacement. x(t) = −t2 + 6t + 1
c The distance can be calculated by substituting c x(5) = −(5)2 + 6(5) + 1
t = 5 into the equation for displacement. x(5) = 6
After 5 s the train is 6 m to the right of the
origin.
d From part a, the train stops at 3 s. Substitute the value d x(3) = −(3)2 + 6(3) + 1
t = 3 into the equation for displacement. x(3) = 10
The train stops 10 m to the right of the
origin.
e The train starts 1 m to the right of the origin. It continues e In the first 3 s, the train moves from 1 m
moving to the right until it stops 10 m to the right. It then to the right to 10 m to the right, that is,
moves back towards its starting position, but after 5 s, it 9 m. In the next 2 s, the train moves from
is at 6 m to the right of the origin. 10 m to the right back to 6 m to the right,
Since distance has no direction, add the distances. which is 4 m.
The total distance is 9 + 4 = 13 m.
This example emphasises the difference between displacement and the distance actually travelled.
The CAS calculator really becomes important when the functions are more difficult to
antidifferentiate.
In the next example the CAS calculator is used for the antidifferentiation. But the rest of the working
has been completed without technology because in this case it is quicker and easier to do so. The CAS
calculator method (see worked example 8) is included for comparison. It will be important in formal
assessment, when time is restricted, to decide the quickest and best approach. CAS should be used in
situations when it is the better (or the only) option.

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
6
The velocity of a toy car is given by v( t ) = + 1, where t is in seconds and v(t) is in m/s for
( t + 3) 2
t ∈ [0, 4]. If the car starts at x = 0, use a CAS calculator to help you answer the following.
a What is its displacement at any time t?
b How fast was the car moving at the start?
c How far is the car from the starting point when t = 2?
d Show that the car did not stop.
THINK WRITE
⎛ 6 ⎞
a 1 Use the integration feature of the CAS calculator to a ∫ ⎜⎝ (t + 3)2 + 1⎟⎠ dt + c
find the antiderivative, remembering to allow for c, the
constant of antidifferentiation.
−6
2 Record the result. x (t ) = +t+c
t+3
−
6
3 The toy car begins its journey at the origin, (0, 0). x (0) = +0+c
Therefore x(0) = 0. Substitute this into the equation for 0+3
displacement. 0 = −2 + c
c=2
−6
4 Write the equation for displacement. x (t ) = +t+2
t+3
6
b To find the velocity at the start, substitute t = 0 into the b v(0) = +1
equation for velocity.
(0 + 3)2
= 1 23 m/s
−6
c The distance travelled can be calculated by substituting c x(2) = +2+2
t = 2 into the equation for displacement. 2+3
= 2.8
After 2 s the toy car is 2.8 m to the
right of the origin.
⎛ 6 ⎞
d 1 If the car did not stop, then its velocity ≠ 0. Show that d solve ⎜ + 1 = 0, t⎟
v(t) ≠ 0 for t ∈ [0, 4]. ⎝ (t + 3)2 ⎠
Use the solve feature of the CAS calculator.
2 Record the result. False. This means that v(t) ≠ 0 for

any interval including [0, 4].
Exercise 10E Applications of antidifferentiation

1 WE16 Find the rule for the function f (x) if f ′(x) = 3x2 − 2x and f (2) = 0.
2 If f ′(x) = 3 + 5x − 2x2 and the y-intercept is 7, find f (x).
dy
3 The y-intercept of a curve is 10 and = ( x + 1) ( x − 3). Find the value of y when x = 3.
dx
4 MC If the gradient function of a curve that passes through the point (2, 2) is
f ′(x) = 2x − 5, then the function f (x) is:
A x2 − 5x + 8 B x2 − 5x − 1 C x2 − 5
D x2 − 5x E x2 − 2

5 MC If f ′(x) = 4x + 1 and the y-intercept is −3, then f (x) equals:
A x2 + 2x − 3 B 2x2 + x − 1 C 2x2 + x − 3
D 2x2 + 2x − 1 E x2 + x
6 MC A curve passes through the point (2, 1) and has a gradient function f ′(x) = x(3x − 5). The function
must be:
A f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 5 B f ( x ) = x 3 − 52 x 2 + 2 C f (x) = 3x2 − 5x − 1
D f (x) = x − 2 x + 3
3 5 2
E f ( x ) = 43 x 4 − 52 x 3 + 9
7 WE17 The velocity (v) of an aircraft is changing as it accelerates. Its acceleration (rate of change of
velocity) at any time, t, after it begins accelerating from rest along a runway is
dv
given by = 6t 2 − 4t + 5 , where v is in km/h and t is in seconds.
dt
a Express v as a function of t.
b Find the velocity after 5 seconds.
8 The rate of change of position (velocity) of a particle travelling in a straight line is given by
dx 2
= t − 6t + 2, where x is in metres and t is in seconds. If the particle starts at x = 1, find its position
dt
when t = 3.
9 The rate of increase of volume per unit increase in depth for a particular container is given by:
dV
= 2(h + 5)2
dh
where V cm3 is the volume and the depth is h cm.
a If V = 0 when h = 0, express V as a function of h.
b Find the volume at a height of 7 cm.
10 The weekly rate of change of profit with respect to the number of employees, n, in a factory is:
dP 3
= 3.182 − n
dn 4
where P is in thousands of dollars.
a Find the number of employees for maximum profit (assume P = 0 when n = 0).
b Hence find the maximum profit.

11 The rate of deflection from the horizontal of a 2 m long diving board when a 70 kg person is
x m from its fixed end is:
dy −
= 0.06( x + 1)2 + 0.06
dx
0 x
Deflection
a What is the deflection, y, when x = 0?

b Find the equation that measures the deflection at any point on the board.
c Find the maximum deflection. (Be careful.)
dh
12 The rate of change of height of a hot-air balloon is given by = 4t − 1, where h is the height above
the ground in metres after t seconds. dt
a Write h as a function of t.
b Find the height after 4 s.
c How long does it take the balloon to reach a height of 60 m?
13 WE18 The velocity of an object starting from 3 m to right of the
origin is given by v(t) = 12 − 6t, where t is in seconds and v(t)
is in metres per second for t ∈ [0, 6].
a When does it stop?
b What is its displacement at any time t?
d Where is the object when it stops?
e How far does it travel in the first 4 s?
14 WE19 The velocity of a train starting from 2 km to left of the
origin is given by v(t) = 10 − 4t, where t is in hours and v(t) is in
kilometres per hour for t ∈ [0, 3].
a What is its displacement at any time t?
b How far is it from the starting point when t = 3?
c When and where is the train when it stops?
d How far does it travel in the first 3 s?
15 The velocity upwards of a hot-air balloon starting 2 m above the ground is given by v(t) = 4t − t2,
where t is in seconds and v(t) is in metres per second for t ∈ [0, 5].
a When was it stationary?
b What was its displacement at any time t?
c How far was it from the starting point when t = 5?
d Where was the balloon when it stopped?
e How far did it travel in the first 5 s?
dv
16 The acceleration, , of a skier starting from 6 m to right of the origin with a velocity of 7.5 metres per
dt
second is given by a(t) = 6 − 3t, where t is in seconds and a is in metres per second squared for t ∈ [0, 10].
a What is its velocity at any time t?
d When and where is the skier stationary?
e How far did the skier travel in the first 7 seconds?
4
17 The velocity of a jogger is given by v (t ) = , where t is in seconds and v(t) is in metres per
(t + 2)2
second for t ∈ [0, 5]. After 2 s the jogger is 4 m to the right of the origin. Use a CAS calculator to help
you answer the following.
a What was the jogger’s displacement at any time t?
b Where did the jogger start from?

c How fast was the jogger running at the start?
d How far was the jogger from the starting point when t = 3?
e Show that the jogger did not stop.
f How far did the jogger travel in the first 3 s?
6
18 The velocity of a toy remote-controlled racing car is given by v (t ) = − 6, where t is in seconds
(t + 1)2
and v(t) is in metres per second for t ∈ [0, 4]. At the start it was 5 m to the left of the origin. Use a CAS
calculator to help you answer the following.
a What was its displacement at any time t?
b How fast was the car moving at the start?
c How far was the car from the starting point when t = 4?
d Show that the car did not stop.
e How far did the car travel in the first 4 seconds?
⎛ π (t − 2) ⎞ ,
19 The velocity of a walker is given by v (t ) = 10 cos ⎜ where t is in seconds and v(t) is in
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
metres per second for t ∈ [0, 5]. At t = 0, x = −2 m. Use a CAS calculator to help you answer the
following.
a What was the walker’s displacement at any time t?
b How fast was the walker moving at the start?
c How far (correct to 2 decimal places) was the walker from the starting point when t = 5?
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9799 d Where (correct to 2 decimal places) and when did the walker stop?
WorkSHEET 10.2 e How far did the walker travel in the first 5 s?

Summary
Antidifferentiation r Antidifferentiation, or integration, is the reverse process of differentiation.
x n +1
r If f ′(x) = x n, then the antiderivative is f ( x ) = + c , n ≠ −1, where c is a constant.
n +1
ax n + 1
r If f ′(x) = ax n, then the antiderivative is f ( x ) = + c , n ≠ −1, where c is a constant.
n +1
r If f ′(x) = g ′(x) + h′(x), then the antiderivative is f (x) = g(x) + h(x) + c.
r The antiderivative of f (x) is denoted by F(x).
F ( x ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx
dy
r The antiderivative of is y + c, where c is a constant.
dx
Deriving the original r Antidifferentiation of the gradient function, f ′(x), gives a family of functions f (x) + c, which can be
function from the sketched as a family of curves.
gradient function For example, if f ′(x) = 2, then the antiderivative is f (x) = 2x + c. This produces a family of curves
as shown.
y f(x) = 2x + 3
f(x) = 2x + 2
3 f(x) = 2x + 1
f(x) = 2x
2
f(x) = 2x − 1
1
f(x) = 2x − 2
0 x
−1
−2
r It is possible to find one particular member of the family of curves from the gradient function when
special conditions, called boundary conditions, are given.
Approximating areas r An approximation to the area between a curve and the x-axis can be found by dividing the area
enclosed by functions into a series of rectangles or trapeziums that are all the same width. The approximation is found by
finding the sum of all the areas of the rectangles or trapeziums.
r Lower rectangle approximation ≤ actual area ≤ upper rectangle approximation
r Trapezoidal approximation =
lower rectangle approximation + upper rectangle approximation
2
r The trapezoidal rule is:
The area between a curve, y = f(x), and the x-axis from
x = a to x = b ≅ h2 [ f (a) + 2f (a + h) + 2f (a + 2h) + . . . + 2f (b − h) + f (b)]
where h is the interval width.
The fundamental b
theorem of integral r ∫ f ( x ) dx = [ F ( x )]ba = F (b) − F (a) where F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x).
a
calculus
b
r ∫ f ( x ) dx is the definite integral.
a
b b
r ∫a kf ( x ) dx = k ∫a f ( x ) dx
b c b
r ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫a f ( x ) dx + ∫c f ( x ) dx , a < c < b
a

b b b
r ∫a [ f ( x ) ± g( x )] dx = ∫a f ( x ) dx ± ∫a g( x ) dx
b a
r ∫a f ( x ) dx = ∫b f ( x ) dx
−
b
r Area = ∫a f ( x ) dx , if f ( x ) > 0 for x ∈[a, b]
y y = f(x)
0 a b x
b b
r Area = − ∫a f ( x ) dx , if f ( x ) < 0, or ∫ a f ( x ) dx , for x ∈ [a, b]
y
y = f(x)
a b
0 x
Applications of r When the derivative of a function is known, antidifferentiation can provide the original function.
antidifferentiation Because the original function may have contained a constant, this must be allowed for; the constant
can be found using the boundary conditions provided in the question.
r Antidifferentiation can be applied to kinematics (motion graphs), especially when calculating
distances travelled.

Chapter review
1 Find the antiderivative of each of the following using the rule.
S H O RT
a 6x2 b 5x + 4 c x2 + 8x − 14 A N S W ER
d 5x3 + 4x2 + 5 e (x − 3)(x + 7)
2 Find the following.
a ∫ (2 x 3 + 8 x − 7) dx b ∫ (1 + 6 x − x 2 ) dx c ∫ x (5x − 3) dx d (x − 7)(x + 7)dx
dy
3 Find the rule of the original function if its gradient function is = (2 x + 1)(3 x − 1) and y = 16 when
dx
x = 2.
4 The graph of g ′(x) is shown at right. If g (0) = 6 and g (3) = 0, sketch the y
graph of g(x).
5 Use the method of left rectangles to approximate the area under 0 x
3
the curve y = x2 + 1, from x2 + 1 to x = 4, using interval widths of 1 unit.
6 The rate of increase of height, h metres, of an ascending helicopter at
dh 2 g'(x)
any time, t minutes, after it takes off is = t − 14t + 45.
dt
a Find an expression for the height at any time.
b Find the height 6 minutes after takeoff.
c Find the maximum height reached in the first 9 minutes.
7 A particle travels such that its velocity at any time, t, is given by v = 2t + 1.
a Given that velocity represents the rate of change of position, x, write down the relationship
between v and x.
b If x = 3 when t = 2, write an expression for x in terms of t.
c Find the position of the particle when t = 10.
8 A robot moves in a straight line, starting 14 m to the right of the origin. Its velocity at any time,
t ∈ [0, 5], is given by v (t) = 6t2(2 − t), where v(t) is in metres per second and t is in seconds.
a What is the starting velocity of the robot?
c When and where is the robot stationary?
d What is its location at t = 3?
e How far does it travel in the first 3 seconds?
dy M U LTIP L E
1 If = 3x2 − 20x + 7, then y could be: C HO IC E
dx
A 6x − 20 B x3 − 10x2 C x 3 − 40x 2 + 7x
D x − 10x + 7x
3 2 E x3 + 7x
3
2 The antiderivative of is:
x3 3 − 9
A 9x2 + c B − +c C
2x 2 x2
−1 −3
D E
x2 2x 4
3 The antiderivative of (3x − 1)(x + 5) is:
A x3 + 7x2 − 5x + c B 32 x 2 (x + 5) + c C 43 x4 + c
D x3 − 5x + c E x3 + 8x2 − 5x + c
⎛ x 3 + 6 x 2 − 10 x ⎞
4 The expression ∫ ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ dx is equal to:
1
1
B 3 x3 + 6x2 − 10x + c C 13 x3 + 3x2 − 10x + c
A 4 x4 + 2x3 − 5x 2 + c
D 14 x4 + 3x2 − 10x + c E 1 x3
3 + 3x2 + c

5 The function g(x) graphed at right has a negative gradient when: y
g(x)
A 0<x<4
−1 < x < 2
B
C x < −1 and x > 2
x
D x<2 −1 0 2 4
E x > −1
6 From the gradient function f ′(x) graphed at right, it can be deduced y

that f (x) has a gradient of 0 when:
A x=1
B x>4
C x < −2
D x = −2 and x = 4 x
−2 0 1 4
E x = −4
f'(x)
7 The graph of g ′(x) is shown below.

y g'(x)
0 x
2
−1
If g(2) = 0, then the graph of g(x) is best represented by:

A y B y C y
1 g(x) 4
0 x
2 g(x) 0 x
0 x 2 g(x)
2
D y E y
1
2
0 x
2 0 x
g(x) 2 g(x)
8 For a particular function g (x), g (1) = 0 and g ′(x) < 0 if x ≥ 1. The graph that could represent g (x) is:
A y B y C y g(x)
g(x) g(x)
0 1 x
1
0 1 x
0 x
D y E y
1
0 1 x
0 x
g(x) g(x)

9 The antiderivative of 12x + 3 is:
A 6x2 + 3x B 24x2 + 3x + c C 24x2 + 3x
D 6x2 + 3x + c E 6x2
dy
10 If the gradient of a curve is = ( x − 2) ( x + 5) and its y-intercept is −3, then its rule is:
dx
A y = 13 x 3 + 32 x 2 − 10 x − 3 B y = 13 x 3 + 32 x 2 − 5 x − 3 C y = x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 3
D y = 13 x 3 + 32 x 2 − 10 x − 10 E y = 14 x 4 − 10 x 2
EXTENDED
1 The position of a particle at any time, t, is represented by the antiderivative of its velocity, v, with R ES P O N S E
respect to time; that is, x = ∫ v dt . If its velocity is given by the rule v = 4t − 5 and the initial position
of the particle is 2 cm left of the origin, find:
a the rule for its position, x, at any time, t
b the position of the particle after 4 seconds.
dC
2 From past records it has been found that the cost rate of maintaining a certain car is = 75t 2 + 50t + 800,
dt
where C is the accumulated cost in dollars and t is the time in years since the car was first used. Find:
a the initial maintenance cost
b C as a function of t
c the total maintenance cost during the first 5 years of use of the car
d the total maintenance cost from 3 to 5 years
e the maintenance cost for the second year.
3 An infection is transferred such that the rate of the number of people infected, N, can be modelled by
dN
= 0.16t , where t is the number of days after exposure to the infection.
dt
In a school of 800 students, how many students will not be infected after 20 days?
4 A mothball, assumed to be a sphere with diameter 20 mm, evaporates at such a rate that the radius
decreases by 0.2 mm per day.
a Find an expression for the radius of the mothball t days after manufacture.
b Hence find an expression for the volume of the mothball t days after manufacture.
c Find the rate at which the volume decreases 30 days after it was manufactured.
5 Determine an approximation for the area between the curve and the y
x-axis over the interval indicated in the diagram at right using the (1, 4)
average of the upper and lower rectangles. 4 (3, 3.5)
6 An oil slick is found to radiate outwards at a rate modelled by 2
dr 5
= , t ≥ 1, where t is the time measured in hours and r is the 0 x
dt t 1 2 3 4
radius of the slick in metres. If the slick is 16 metres wide after one −2
hour, how long, to the nearest hour, will it take to be 100 metres −4
wide?
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9800
Test Yourself
Chapter 10

ICT activities
Chapter opener 10D The fundamental theorem of integral calculus
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TUTORIAL
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5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_10.indd 468 8/05/13 3:28 PM

Answers CHAPTER 10
ANTIDIFFERENTIATION 7 a x4 + 5x2 − 7x + c 8 a y
f(x)
(INTEGRATION) b 6x + 2x2 − 3 x3 + c
1
1
Exercise 10A Antidifferentiation c 2x3 − x2 + c
5
2
1 −1–3 0 x
Derivative d 1 x 3 − 100 x + c
Function (gradient 3
f(x) function) f ′(x) e 2x2 + 7x + c b y

1 3 −1
i x2 2x f x + 4x − 2 x +c g(x)
3
3
ii x2 + 3 2x 8 C
9 a x3 − 9x2 + 27x + c 1
iii x2 − 4 2x 27 x 4 225 x 2 0 1 2 x
b − 45 x 3 + − 125 x + c
iv x3 3x2 4 2
c y
h(x)
v 2x4 8x3 Exercise 10B Deriving the original
vi 5x4 20x3 function from the gradient function
1 y f (x) = x + 3
vii 3x7 21x6 −1 0 1 x
3 f (x) = x + 1
1 f (x) = x −1
viii 2
x4 2x3 2 f (x) = x − 1
1 d y f(x)
1
ix x9 3x8 0 1 x
3
−1
1 10
x x 2x9 1
5
2
xi x3 2x2 2 y
y = 4x2 + 4 −1 0 x
3
3 y = 4x2 + 2
xii x8 6x7 4 e y
4
xiii x2 + 3x + 5 2x + 3 2 3
xiv x2 − 7x 2x − 7 y = 4x2 − 2
xv 4x3 − 7x2 12x2 − 14x −1 0 1 x

0 x
y = 4x2 − 4 1 2
g(x)
xvi 2x 4 + x3 8x3 + 3x2 −2
xvii 4x3 + 2x2 − 7x 12x2 + 4x − 7 f y

−4 f(x)
9
xviii 16x − 3x3 16 − 9x2 3 a i 0
ii Negative
2 a 3x3 + c iii Positive
b 4x2 + 5x + c b i Parabolic −3 0 3 x
c
1 3
x + 2x2 − 11x + c ii y
3
d 2x + x3 + 5x + c
4
−9
1
e 7x + 3x2 − x3 + c
3
1 10 1 g y
h(x)
10 x + 3 x − 3 x + c
f 3
(0, 2) 5
−4x2 + 2 x3 + x5 + c
g 0 x
3
1 1 1
h x + 2 x2 + 3 x3 + 4 x4 + c y −2 0 2 x
4
4 5 f (x) = x2 + x + 1
3 y = 3 x 3 − 2 x 2 − 10 x + c
−5
4 a 5x + 35x + c
2
f (x) = x2 + x
f (x)
b x3 − 2x2 + c 1 9 y = 2x2 − 5x + 3
15 f (x) = x2 + x − 1
c −x3 − x2 + c 10 y = x2 − 3x
2
1 f (x) = x2 + x − 2 − 1–2 0 x 11 y = x3 + x2 − 10
d 3 x3 + 6x2 + 35x + c 1 1
−1 12 F ( x ) = 3 x 3 + x 2 + x − 3
2 3 1 2
3 x + 2 x − 6x + c
e
−2 Exercise 10C Approximating areas
1 3
f x −x+c enclosed by functions
3
1 3 5 a i 1 ii Negative iii Positive All answers for areas in questions 1 to 15 are
g x + 2x2 + 4x + c b i −2
ii Negative iii Positive
3 in square units.
h
4 3
x − 6x2 + 9x + c c i 3 ii Positive iii Negative 1 10
3 −4
d i ii Positive iii Negative 2 a 8 b 42
1 4
i x − 2x3 + 6x2 − 8x +c 6 a C b B c A 3 a A b A
4
1 4 7 a x = −6, x = 2 4 a 30 b 22
j x + 8x + c
4 b x < −6, and x > 2 5 9
5 B 6 D −6 < x < 2 6 a 8 b 13
c

7 a 32 b 32 3 c v=1
c 39 d 16
e
∫1 ( x 3 − 9 x 2 + 20 x ) dx d x = 45
1
0
e 29 f 12 f ∫−2 (− x 3 − 4 x 2 − 4 x ) dx e Since (t + 2)2 > 0,
g 26 4
5 a 8 b8 > 0; i.e. v ≠ 0
8 a 26 b 41 (t + 2)2
c 73 d 26
c 33 2
1 f Distance = 1 15 m
− e 22 f 1 13 −
6
9 a 28 b e1 +1+e 18 a x= − 6t + 1
c loge24 d6 6 a 2 b1 t +1
e 23 3
1
f 7.25 c 53
1
d 3
4 b v = 0, stationary
c x = −24.2
g 100 e 4 f 23
2
1 d v = 0 at t = 0, −1 (not defined), i.e. no
10 a 40 2 b 10 stops
1 1 Exercise 10E Applications of e Distance = −19.2 m
c 11 4 d 19 4
antidifferentiation 40 40 πt
1 f (x) = x3 − x2 − 4
19 a x= − 2 − cos ⎛ ⎞
1 + 2e + 2e 2 + e3 π π ⎝ 4⎠
e
2
5 2
2 f ( x ) = 7 + 3x + 2 x 2 − 3 x 3 b Stationary, v = 0
11 a 6 b 11 c 19.74 m
3 1
c 8.5 d (0, 0), i.e. at the start and (4, 23.46)
4 A
7
C e 29.18 m
12 a 4 8 or 4.875 5
6 D
3
b 7 or 7.375
8 7 a v = 2t3 − 2t2 + 5t CHAPTER REVIEW
1 b v = 225 km/h SHORT ANSWER
c 68 or 6.125
8 −11 m
13 10.5 1 a 2x3 + c
2
14 a 22.5 9 a V = 3 h 3 + 10 h 2 + 50 h b 5 x 2 + 4x + c
2
b 20.8
b V = 1068 2 cm 3 1 3
15 a 1.87 3 c x + 4x2 − 14x + c
b 1.68 10 a 18 3
b $19 092 5 4
c 1.63 d 4 x 4 + 3 x 3 + 5x + c
16 loge 2880 or approx. 7.97 (2 d.p.) 11 a 0
1 3
17 a 4400 sq. metres b y = −0.02x3 − 0.06x2 e x + 2x2 − 21x + c
3
b 3500 sq. metres c 0.4 m or 40 cm
1 4
12 a h = 2t2 − t 2 a x + 4x2 − 7x + c
π (2 + 3) b 28 m
2
18 or approx. 1.95 sq. units 1 3
6 c 5.7 s b x + 3x2 − x +c
3
19 a Distance travelled by the cyclist in the 13 a t=2 5 3 3
first 30 seconds. c
3x − x2 +c
b x = 12t − 3t2 + 3 2
b 307.5 metres c x=3 d
1 3
x − 49 x + c
20 a False b True d x = 15
3
c False d True e Distance = 24 m
1
3 y = 2x3 + x2 − x
2
14 a x = 10t − 2t2 − 2 4
Exercise 10D The fundamental theorem y
b x = 10
of integral calculus c t = 2.5, x = 10.5
1 a 13 b 20 14 d Distance = 13 km 6
1 15 a t = 0, 4
c 5 13 d 3 t3
e 8 f 56 b x = 2t 2 − +2
3 0 x
3
g 12 23 h − 74 c x =83
1
i 38 j −1
d x = 2, 12 2 g(x)
3
k 6313.2 l 5949
e Distance = 13 m 5 17 square units
The answers to all area questions are in square 1
units. 3t 2 6 a h = t 3 − 7t 2 + 45t
16 a v = 6t − + 7.5 3
2 a 8 b8 2 b 90 m c 91.67 m
3 a 4.5 b 4.5 t3 dx
3 b x = 3t 2 − + 7.5t + 6 7 a v= b x = t2 + t − 3
4 a ∫1 2 x dx c x = 34
2 dt
4 c x = 107 units
t = 5, x = 56
b ∫0 (4 − x ) dx d
e Distance = 72 m
8 a 0 m/s
2 b Displacement: x(t) = 4t3 − 1.5t4 + 14
c ∫1 x 2 dx 17 a x = 5−
4 c t = 0 and t = 2 seconds, x = 0 and x = 22
−1
(t + 2) d 0.5 m to the right
d ∫−3 3x 2 dx b x=3 e 29.5 m

MULTIPLE CHOICE EXTENDED RESPONSE 3 768 students are not infected.
1 D 2 B 1 a x = 2t2 − 5t − 2 4 a r = 10 − 0.2t
b 10 cm to the right of the origin (x = 10) 4
b V = π (10 − 0.2t)3
3 A 4 C
2 a $0 3
5 B 6 D b C = 25t3 + 25t2 + 800t c −12.8π mm3/day
7 A 8 D c $7750 d $4450 5 10.5 square units
9 D 10 A e $1050 6 27 hours

1 A function f is defined as f : R → R, where f (x) = 2x2 + 3x. S H O RT
a Determine f (2 + h). 2 marks A N S W ER
25 minutes
b Hence, determine the gradient of the tangent at x = 2 using first principles. 3 marks
2 The distance, d, in metres, over time, t, in seconds, a battery-powered toy car travelled is shown in the
graph below.
d
50
20
0 30 75 t
a Describe the car’s speed during the first 30 s. 1 mark

b Determine the exact average speed in m/s between t = 30 s and t = 75 s. 2 marks
c Using your answer from part b, determine the car’s instantaneous speed in m/s at t = 50 s. 1 mark
3 The function g(x) is shown below.

(−2, 4) y
g(x)
0 x
(1, −5)
On the same set of axes, sketch g′(x). 3 marks
4 A function, f, passes through the point (1, 5) and has a gradient function f ′(x) = 4. Determine the
function f (x). 2 marks
M U LTIP L E
3 dy C HO IC E
1 If y = 27 x 2 , then equals:
dx 10 minutes
6
A 9x B 18x C 1 Each question is worth
one mark.
x3
2 4
D 1 E 2
x3 3x 3
2 The equation of a tangent touching the curve y = x2 + 3 at point (a, 1) is y = 2ax + 1 − 2a2. The gradient
of the normal passing through the point (a, 1) would be:
−1 −1 1
A B C
2a a 2 a
D 2a E −2a
3 The hybrid function f (x) is shown below.
y
f(x)
3
0 2 x
Which one of the following statements is incorrect for f (x)?

A The domain of f (x) is R.
B f (x) is discontinuous at x = 2.
C f ′(x) for x > 2 is increasing.
D f ′(x) > 0 for x ≤ 2.
E The limit of f (x) exists at x = 2.
Exam practice 4 473

4 When a soccer ball is kicked, the path it travels, in metres, is found by the equation h(x) = ax − bx2.
The soccer ball reaches a maximum height of 40 metres when the ball is 20 metres from its original
position. The values of a and b are:
A a = 0 and b = 0.1 B a = 1 and b = 0.01 C a = 4 and b = 0.1
D a = 20 and b = 40 E a = 40 and b = 20
5 The equation of the tangent to the curve f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 3x + 2 at the point where the curve crosses the
y-axis is:
A y = −4.28x + 2.26 B y = −3.52x + 2.04 C y = 7.78x + 10.45
D y = 9.49x − 26.71 E y = 2x2 − 4x − 3
dv
6 A water tank is being filled with water at a constant rate of litres/minute. Water is removed from the
dt
tank at the rate of 10 litres/minute. Which one of the following will determine the volume of water in
litres, V, in the tank at any time, t, in minutes?
⎛ dV − 10 ⎞ dt
A V = ∫ V dt − 10 B V = ∫⎜ ⎟⎠
⎝ dt
⎛ dV ⎞ ⎛ dV ⎞
C V=
∫ ⎜⎝ dt dt ⎟⎠ + 10 D V=
∫ ⎜⎝ dt dt ⎟⎠ − 10
⎛ dV ⎞
E V= ∫ ⎜⎝ 10 − ⎟ dt
dt ⎠
E X TENDED
R E S P ONS E 1 A cross-section of the Black Range is shown in the diagram below.
35 minutes
h(x)
Peak
340.60
Ridge
150
Valley
0 40.73 x
382.60 550
The shape of the ridge can be described by the cubic equation h(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where x is
the horizontal distance in metres and h(x) is the height in metres about sea level.
a Show that d = 150. 1 mark
b Determine the equation for h′(x) in terms of a, b and c. 1 mark
c Two stationary points exist at x = 40.73 and 382.60. Using your answer from part b, write
two equations in terms of a, b and c. 2 marks
d The point (550, 150) lies on the ridge. Write an equation that would enable a third
simultaneous equation to be used to find the values of a, b and c. 2 marks
e The value of a is −0.000 01. Using any two equations found in previous parts, determine
the values of b and c correct to 4 decimal places. 3 marks
2 A circular enclosure of radius r, in metres, and a square enclosure are made from a 300 m length
of fencing wire. To form the circular enclosure a length of x m is cut from the 300 m length. All
of the wire is used to form the two enclosures.
x
a Show that r = . 1 mark
2π
300 − x
b The remaining wire is made into a square of side length m. Determine the area of the
square enclosure in terms of x. 4 1 mark
c Write the equation that determines the total area, A, of the two enclosures. 2 marks
d In the context of this problem, write the feasible domain. 2 marks
dA
DIGITAL DOC e Write the equation for . 2 marks
doc-10164
dx
Solutions f Determine the exact value of x so that the area of both enclosures will be a minimum. 2 marks
Exam practice 4 g Using your answer from part e, show that the area is a minimum. 3 marks

CHAPTER 11
Introductory probability
doc-9801
11A Introduction to experimental probability 10 Quick Questions
11B Calculating probabilities
11C Tree diagrams and lattice diagrams
11D The Addition Law of Probabilities
11E Karnaugh maps and probability tables
11F Conditional probability
11G Transition matrices and Markov chains
11H Independent events
11I Simulation
11AIntroduction to experimental
probability
Tossing a fair coin or rolling a standard 6-sided die will result in a range of outcomes. The coin can land
Heads or Tails, and the number appearing uppermost on the die will be one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4,
5 or 6. Probability involves assigning a numerical value to the likelihood of such events occurring.
DIGITAL DOCS
In this respect, certain events will clearly be more probable than others; for example, getting only 1 of doc-9802
the required 6 numbers in Tattslotto is more likely than obtaining all 6 winning numbers. Long run proportion
A numerical value for the probability of an event can be established in a number of ways. It can doc-9803
One die
be based on results arising from experiments; alternatively, a reasoned estimate of the likelihood doc-9804
of the event can be provided on the strength of personal experience and knowledge (the subjective Two dice
probability). A third way is to consider the ‘symmetry’ of the situation where the activity has
equiprobable or equally likely outcomes. For example, if we toss a coin 50 times and note how
many times it lands ‘Heads’ (a Head facing up), we may conclude (based on the experiment) that the
probability of a coin landing Heads up is half. We may also reason that a tossed coin has two equally
likely outcomes (a Head and a Tail), of which Heads is one possibility, so there is 1 chance in 2, or 1,
2
of a Head. However, deciding what the chances are of a runner winning her race will be subjective and
dependent on considerations such as the runner’s past performances, her current state of fitness and the
abilities of the other competitors.
Random outcome experiments

What is the probability of a fair coin landing Tails? For a single trial of this experiment (one toss of the
coin), we know the coin will land either Heads or Tails, but we cannot be sure the toss will produce a
favourable outcome (that is, a Tail). The result is a random outcome. (Closing one’s eyes and taking
out a marble from a box containing different coloured marbles, or shuffling a pack of playing cards and
choosing the topmost card, are also activities that produce random outcomes.)
For our example of the coin, if many trials are conducted we will observe that the ratio
number of Tails
, which is the experimental probability for the favourable outcomes, converges
total number of trials
(‘gets closer’) to a particular value. This particular value is known as the long-run proportion.
CHAPTER 11 Introductory probability 475

number of Heads
Similarly, we observe that the ratio , the experimental probability for a Head,
converges to a particular value. total number of trials
For a coin tossed many times the long-run proportion of a Head is 0.5 and the long-run proportion of a
Tail is 0.5.
Experimental probability and expected number

of outcomes
In general, the experimental probability is given by:
number of favourable outcomes observed

experimental probability =
The number of times an outcome of an activity is expected to occur is given by:
expected number of favourable outcomes
= experimental probability (long-run proportion) × number of trials
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
A 6-sided die (not necessarily a fair one) was rolled 12 times and the number showing uppermost
was noted each time. The numbers uppermost on the die were:
2, 4, 1, 1, 5, 6, 4, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1.
Estimate the probability of rolling a 5 with this die.
THINK WRITE
1 There are 2 favourable outcomes.

2 There are 12 outcomes altogether.
2
3 Use the formula: experimental probability Experimental probability =
12
= = 1
total number of trials 6
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A fair 6-sided die is rolled 48 times. How many times is an even number expected to show
uppermost?
THINK WRITE
1 There are 6 equally likely outcomes for the Experimental probability of an even number
roll of the die and 3 favourable outcomes = 36
corresponding to an even number.
= 12
2 There are 48 trials. Use the formula Expected number of even numbers
expected number of favourable outcomes = = 12 × 48
experimental probability × number of trials.
= 24
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Inside a bag are 18 marbles, some white and the rest green. One marble is taken out without
looking, its colour is noted and the marble put back inside the bag. When this is done 30 times it
is found that a green marble was taken out 5 times. Estimate how many marbles of each colour
are in the bag.

THINK WRITE
1 A green marble was taken out 5 times and Experimental probability of green marble = 5
30
a white marble 25 times. Work out the
1
experimental probabilities. = 6
25
Experimental probability of white marble =
30
5
= 6
2 Calculate the expected number of each colour Expected number of green marbles = 1 × 18
6
marble. Use the formula
expected number of favourable outcomes = =3
experimental probability × number of trials. Expected number of white marbles = 56 × 18
= 15
Estimated number of each type of marble:
3 green, 15 white
Exercise 11A Introduction to experimental probability

1 WE 1 A coin was tossed 10 times and the outcomes noted as H, T, H, H, T, T, T, T, H, T, where H is a
Head and T is a Tail. Find the experimental probability of a Tail.
2 Twenty letters were chosen at random from the alphabet and recorded as either consonant, c,
or vowel, v. The results were c, c, v, c, v, c, c, c, c, v, c, v, v, c, c, c, c, v, c, c. Calculate the
experimental probability of choosing a consonant.
3 A biased coin is tossed 50 times. The results were 33 Tails and 17 Heads.
a What is the experimental probability of tossing a Tail with this coin?
b What is the experimental probability of tossing a Head with this coin?
4 WE2 A die is tossed 96 times. How many times is an odd number expected to appear uppermost on
the die?
5 A coin is tossed 500 times. What is the expected number of Heads?
6 A die is rolled 300 times. How many odd numbers or the number 2 are expected to turn up?
7 MC A die is tossed 102 times. The number of times a number between 1 and 3 inclusive is expected to
appear uppermost on the die is:
A 51 B 34 C 20 D 64 E 68
8 MC A box contains 2 blue beads, 3 green beads and 1 yellow bead. One bead is taken out, its colour
is noted and it is put back in the box. This is repeated 246 times. The number of times a bead that is not
yellow is expected to be taken out of the box is:
A 41 B 82 C 205 D 123 E 164
9 WE3 Inside a box are 42 plastic shapes. Some of the shapes are squares and the remainder are circles.
One shape is taken out at random, its shape is noted and it is put back in the box. After this is repeated
84 times it is found that a square was taken out 36 times. Estimate how many squares and how many
circles are in the bag.
10 A closed box with a hole in one corner contains coloured marbles: 4 are red, 2 are blue, 3 are white and
1 is green. The box is shaken and 1 marble falls out. Its colour is recorded and it is placed back in the
box. This is done 200 times.
a How many times is a red or blue marble expected to fall out of the box after 200 trials?
b How many times is a marble that has a colour other than white expected to fall out of the box after
200 trials?
11 MC A moneybox contains 128 coins. There are 5-cent and 10-cent coins. The box is shaken, a coin
falls out, the value of the coin is noted and it is placed back inside the box. After this is repeated
96 times it is noted that a 5-cent coin fell out 60 times. The estimated number of 10-cent coins in the
moneybox is:
A 24 B 64 C 60 D 36 E 48

12 During a period of one week 190 people telephoned Hot-Shot
Electrics with enquiries. During the same period Zap Inc
received 305 enquiries. Based on this information, how many
enquiries did Hot-Shot and Zap Inc each expect during a week
where the total number of phone calls made to the two
businesses was 650 (to the nearest call)?
13 The probability that the Last Legs football team can win a match
is 27. If the team is to play 35 matches during the season, how
many wins should it expect?
14 In a 9-game chess tournament, Adam won 6 games, lost 2 games
and drew 1 game.
a Based on this information, if Adam is to play 108 games next
year, how many games should he expect to:
i win? ii lose? iii draw?
b Based on the fact that Adam won 81 of the 108 games, how
many games does he expect to lose or to draw in a tournament
comprising 16 games?
15 MC Inside a bag are red, blue and black marbles. Sally takes out one marble, notes its colour and puts
it back in the bag. When she has taken out a marble 360 times, she finds that a red marble was taken
out 140 times and a black marble 200 times. If Sally takes out a marble 270 times, the number of blue
marbles expected is:
A 15 B 90 C 105 D 150 E 125
16 A post-office has two letterboxes, Domestic and Overseas. Letters to be delivered within Australia are
placed in the Domestic box, and letters intended for overseas destinations are deposited in the Overseas
box. During the month of January there were 980 Domestic and 310 Overseas letters handled.
DIGITAL DOC
a Estimate the probability of a particular letter having an Australian destination.
doc-9805
WorkSHEET 11.1 b Estimate the probability of a particular letter having an overseas destination.
c During February there were 1580 letters posted in total. How many of these would you expect to
have been delivered: i within Australia? ii overseas?

Many of the methods arising from a study of probability can be investigated by using set theory. A
review of the basic work on sets is provided in your eBookPLUS.
This section describes how to calculate exact theoretical probabilities rather than use experimental results
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9810 to estimate probabilities. We know that the theoretical probability of a fair coin coming up Heads is exactly 12.
Extension We must remember that this does not mean that exactly half the tosses of the coin will be Heads, but rather
Sets and Venn that the long-run proportion of Heads will approach 12 as the number of tosses becomes very large.
diagrams
If n is the number of trials, then as n → ∞ (→ means ‘approaches’, or ‘gets closer to’): the proportion
of successes → the theoretical probability of a ‘success’.
Before describing how to calculate theoretical probability (and avoid the need to perform a large
number of trials), we need to discuss the ideas of event space and favourable outcome in more detail.
Event space
The event space (or sample space) consists of all possible outcomes of an experiment. The event space is
the universal set and is denoted by ξ.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A 6-sided die is rolled. List the elements of the event space and state the cardinal number.
THINK WRITE
1 List the elements of the event space. ξ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

2 Count the number of elements in the event space. n(ξ) = 6

WORKED EXAMPLE 5
A coin and a die are tossed.

a List the elements of the event space.
b List the elements of the event E = ‘Head and a number greater than 4’.
THINK WRITE
a What are the different outcomes using a a Let H be Head, T be Tail and H4 mean ‘Head
coin and a die together? on the coin and a 4 on the die’.
Then ξ = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3,
T4, T5, T6}.
b List all the possible ways of obtaining event b Event E consists of 2 sample points:
E = ‘Head and a number greater than 4’. E = {H5, H6}.
Probabilities
The game of ‘Zilch’ involves tossing a fair 6-sided die and scoring points for rolling a 6 or a 1.
The events ‘rolling a 6’ and ‘rolling a 1’ are called ‘favourable outcomes’.
The total number of outcomes is 6 (a result of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 could be rolled). Each outcome is
equally likely for a fair die.
Intuition may lead us to assert that the probability of scoring by rolling a die in a game of Zilch is 26 = 13.
More formally, for equally likely outcomes:
number of favourable outcomes
probability of a favourable outcome =
total number of possible outcome
or
Pr(favourable outcome) =
So in our Zilch example,
Pr(scoring) =
Pr(scoring) = 26
= 13 as before.
There are other, equivalent expressions for calculating probability, including
number of favourable outcomes in E
Pr(E) =
total number of possible outcomes
Or, using set notation,
n(E )
Pr(E) =
n(ξ )
where Pr(E ) is the probability of event E, n(E ) is the cardinal number of event E and n(ξ ) is the cardinal
number of the event space. The above Zilch example may be illustrated as follows, where E = getting a
6 or a 1.
ξ
E
2 5
6 1 4
3
Notice that Pr(E ′) + Pr(E ′) = 26 + 46

= 1.
In general, if E and E ′ are complementary events,
Pr(E) + Pr(E′) = 1
and
Pr(E′) = 1 − Pr(E)

WORKED EXAMPLE 6
A number is randomly chosen from the first 12 positive integers. Find the probability of:
a choosing the number 8
b choosing any number except 8.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Pr(favourable outcome) a
=
1
2 There is one favourable outcome (choosing an 8) Pr(8) =
12
and 12 possible outcomes.
1
b We require the complementary probability. b Pr(not 8) = 1 −
12
Pr(E ′ ) = 1 − Pr(E ).
= 11
12
Range of probabilities
If there is no favourable outcome for event E, then n(E ) = 0, so:
n(E )
Pr(E) =
n(ξ )
0
=
n(ξ )
=0
We interpret this to mean that impossible events have a probability of zero.
If every outcome in the event space for E is a favourable outcome, then
n(E ) = n(ξ) and
n(E )
Pr(E) =
n(ξ )
n(ξ )
=
n(ξ )
= 1.
We interpret this to mean that events certain to happen have a probability of 1. Thus the range of
values for the probability of an event is given by 0 ≤ Pr(E ) ≤ 1. The probability line below illustrates the
range of probabilities and the likelihood of the event occurring.
1– 1– 3–
0 4 2 4 1
Impossible Unlikely Equally Likely Certain
likely
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
A fair cubic die with faces numbered 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10 is rolled. Determine the probability that the
number appearing uppermost will be:
a even b odd c less than 1 d greater than or equal to 1.
THINK WRITE
a 1 There are 6 possible outcomes when rolling the die. a n(ξ ) = 6
2 Four of the outcomes correspond to an even Pr(even number) = 4

6
number.
=2
3

2
b Two of the outcomes correspond to an odd number. b Pr(odd number) = 6
Also 1 − 23 = 13 since = 1
3
Pr(odd number) + Pr(even number) = 1
0
c None of the outcomes correspond to a number c Pr(number is less than 1) =
6
less than 1. =0
6
d All 6 outcomes correspond to a number greater d Pr(number is greater than or equal to 1) =
6
than or equal to 1. =1
In worked example 7, notice that if A is the event ‘even number’ then the complement (A′) of A is the
event ‘odd number’ and
Pr(A) + Pr(A′) = 46 + 26
= 1.
Similarly, if B is the event ‘a number less than 1’ then B′ is the event ‘a number greater than or equal to 1’
so that
Pr(B) + Pr(B′) = 0 + 6
6 6
=1
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
One letter is randomly selected from the letters in the sentence LITTLE MISS MUFFETT. Calculate
the probability that the letter is:
a a vowel
b a consonant other than a T
c a consonant.
THINK WRITE
a 1 Pr(favourable outcome) a
=
2 A vowel is a favourable outcome. There are
17 possible outcomes (letters), of which 5
are vowels.
5
3 Substitute this information into the probability Pr(vowel) =
17
formula.
b 1 There are 8 consonants other than T. b
8
2 Use the probability formula. Pr(consonant other than T) =
17
c 1 There are 12 consonants. c
2 Write the probability. Pr(consonant) = 12

17
Exercise 11B Calculating probabilities

Red Blue
1 WE4 A spinner is divided into 4 equal sections as shown at right.
For one spin:
Yellow Green
a list the elements in the event space
b state the cardinal number of the event space.

2 A numberplate is made up of 3 letters followed by 3 numbers. What is the event space for the first
position on the numberplate?
3 A card is chosen from a pack of 52 playing cards. What is the cardinal number of the event space?
4 WE5 A card is chosen from a pack of 52 playing cards and its suit noted, then a coin is tossed.
a List the elements in the event space.
b List the elements in the event S = ‘a spade is chosen’.
5 A coin is tossed twice. List the elements in the event space.
6 A student is chosen at random from a class of 12 girls and 14 boys, then a chocolate bar is chosen from
a bag containing a Time Out, a Mars Bar and a Violet Crumble.
a List the elements in the event space.
b List the elements in the event M = ‘a Mars Bar is chosen’.
7 WE6 One player is chosen at random from the senior netball team to be the captain. If there are
7 players in the team, what is the probability the person who plays goal attack is:
a chosen? b not chosen?
8 One Year 11 student must be chosen to represent the year level at a staff meeting. If all 81 girls’ and
73 boys’ names are put into a container and one name is chosen at random, find the probability that:
a a Year 11 student is chosen
b any particular Year 11 student is chosen
c a boy is chosen.
9 One card is chosen from a pack of 52 playing cards.
What is the probability that the card is:
a a queen? b a heart?
c a picture card (J, Q, K)? d not a picture card?
e red or black?
10 Four hundred thousand tickets are sold in a raffle. The winner of the
raffle will toss the coin at the AFL grand final. If you bought
10 tickets, what is the probability that you will win?
11 WE7 A standard die is rolled. What is the probability of rolling:
a an even number?
b a 5?
c a number from 2 to 4 inclusive?
d a number less than 7?
12 A bag has 20 marbles numbered 1, 2, 3, . . . , 20. One marble is randomly drawn. Find the probability
that the number on the marble is:
a even b greater than 4 c a multiple of 4 d not even.
13 WE8 One letter is randomly selected from the letters of the palindrome ‘Madam, I’m Adam’.
Calculate the probability that the letter is:
a a vowel b a consonant other than a D.
14 What is the probability of randomly choosing a consonant other than P from the letters of the
palindrome ‘A man, a plan, a canal, Panama’?
15 One letter is randomly selected from the words Mathematical Methods. What is the probability of
randomly selecting:
a the letter m?
b a vowel?
c a consonant?
d a letter from the first half of the alphabet?
16 A lolly shop has 85 different types of lollies
including Smarties in clear plastic containers.
Forty of the lollies contain chocolate. If one
container is chosen at random, what is the
probability it contains:
a a lolly containing chocolate?
b Smarties?
c a biscuit?

Tree diagrams
A useful way of representing all possible outcomes for sequential activities is by means 1st coin
of a tree diagram. A tree diagram consists of paths formed from branches. Each sample
H
point (possible outcome) corresponds to a unique path that is found by following the
branches. For example, a tree diagram could be drawn to show all possible outcomes
when a coin is tossed twice. T
The first set of branches shows the possible outcome of the first activity, in this case
tossing the coin the first time.
The second set of branches is then joined onto the ends of the first
set to show all outcomes of both tosses of the coin. 1st coin 2nd coin Outcome
Note that the outcomes are written at the end of each path through H HH
the tree diagram.
H
The cardinal number of the sample space is the total number of
T HT
end branches at the end of each path. If all outcomes are equally H TH
likely, the probability can then be determined as before by using T
n(E )
Pr(E ) = . T TT
n(ξ )
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
A card is chosen from a pack of 52 playing cards and its suit noted; then
it is returned to the pack before another card is chosen. TUTORIAL
a Draw a tree diagram showing all possible suit outcomes. eles-1448
Worked example 9
b Calculate the probability of choosing:
i two hearts ii a diamond then a spade iii a heart and a club.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a Draw a tree diagram. a 1st card 2nd card Outcome

S SS
S — spade H SH
S D SD
C SC
H — heart S HS
H HH
H D HD
D — diamond
C HC
S DS
C — club H DH
D
D DD
C DC
S CS
C H CH
D CD
C CC
1
b i Use the probability formula with one b i Pr(HH) = 16
favourable outcome (heart, heart) out of
16 possible outcomes.
1
ii Use the probability formula with one ii Pr(DS) =
16
favourable outcome (diamond, spade) out of
16 possible outcomes.
2
iii Use the probability formula with two iii Pr(HC or CH) =
16
favourable outcomes (heart then club or club 1
then heart) out of 16 possible outcomes. = 8

WORKED EXAMPLE 10
Two letters are selected from the word BIRD.

a Draw a tree diagram to illustrate the event space.
b What is the probability that the second letter is a vowel or that the first letter is D?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 There are 4 letters to choose from as the first a 1st letter 2nd letter Outcomes
letter of the pair of letters. I BI
B R BR
2 For each letter chosen as the first letter, there
D BD
are 3 letters remaining to choose from.
B IB
I R IR
D ID
B RB
R I RI
D RD
B DB
D I DI
R DR
b There are 5 favourable outcomes {BI, RI, DI, DB b Pr(second letter is a vowel or first letter is D)
and DR} and 12 outcomes altogether. 5
= 12
Lattice diagrams
When showing all possible outcomes of two activities such as ‘a die is rolled twice’, a tree diagram can
become very large. An alternative method of showing all possible outcomes in this situation is a lattice
diagram.
A lattice diagram is a graphical representation in which the axes show the possible outcomes of each
activity. The ‘coordinates’ or points inside the graph show the possible outcomes from the combination
of both activities, for example a total. These can be written as dots, as totals or by using a symbol for
each outcome.
6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 T T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Coin
5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 H H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6
4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Die 2
Die 2
3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 3 5 7 8 Die
4 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Die 1 Die 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 11
A die is rolled twice.

a Draw a lattice diagram to show all of the possible outcomes.
b Find the probability of rolling a 2, then a 1.
c Find the probability of getting a total of 7.

THINK WRITE/DRAW
a The possible outcomes from each roll are a

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. 6
Put these numbers on each axis. 5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
b The probability of obtaining a 2 on the first die and b Pr(2, 1) =
36
a 1 on the second is shown by one outcome only.
There are 36 total possible outcomes.
c 1 The question asks for the probability of c
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
2 numbers and the probability of a total of 7, so
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
write totals on the diagram to show the possible
outcomes of both events. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Die 2
There are 6 ways of getting a total of 7 from 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
a total of 36 possible outcomes. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
{1 and 6, 2 and 5, 3 and 4, 4 and 3, 5 and 2, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 and 1}
1 2 3 4 5 6
Die 1
2 Write the answer. Pr(total = 7) = 6

36
= 16
Exercise 11C Tree diagrams and lattice diagrams

1 WE9 A psychic powers test kit contains 10 blue, 10 red and 10 green cards, each without any
markings. In one particular test session, ‘Mental Mal’ selects a card, replaces it, and selects a card
again.
DIGITAL DOC
a Draw a tree diagram showing the possible colour outcomes at each stage. doc-9806
b Calculate the probability of Mal choosing: Stirling’s formula
i two blue cards
ii a red card, then a green card
iii a green and a red card.
2 A coin is tossed together with a disc that is red on one side and white on its other side.
a Show all possible outcomes on a tree diagram.
b Calculate the probability that the coin lands Tails and the disc lands red.
3 Two letters from the word CAT are chosen.
b Calculate the probability that the letter A is chosen first and the letter T is chosen second.
4 Two coins are tossed.
b Find the probability that one head and one tail turned up.
5 The two spinners shown are spun and the colour on which each stops is noted.
Find the probability that the spinners land on:
a red and green
b yellow and blue
c yellow and green. Spinner 1 Spinner 2

6 MC A coin is tossed and a wheel that is coloured blue, white and
yellow is spun.
The probability of getting Tails and the colour yellow is:
5 1 4
A B C
6 6 5
1 3
D E
2 4
7 A pentagonal solid whose faces are numbered 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 is rolled and a disc that is red
on one side and blue on its other side is tossed. Draw a tree diagram and calculate the
probability that a number greater than 4 is rolled and the colour showing uppermost on the
disc is red.
8 WE 10 An integer from 2 to 3 inclusive is chosen from one hat and an integer from 4 to 6 inclusive is
chosen from another hat.
Draw a tree diagram showing the possible outcomes and determine the probability of selecting:
a two even numbers
b two odd numbers
c two even numbers or two odd numbers.
9 Peter chooses to wear a jacket and tie from the available
jackets and ties on his clothes rack, which is shown in
the photo at right. Use the photo to draw a tree diagram
showing the possible jacket and tie choices. Calculate the
probability of choosing the darker brown jacket with the red
and yellow tie.
10 Each of the smaller triangles formed by the intersection of
the diagonals of a square is painted using either red, green or
blue before covering each one with a low-sheen or full-gloss
varnish. If the colour of each triangle is chosen at random,
draw a suitable tree diagram and find the probability that the
triangle is not coloured red or green and is covered with full-
gloss varnish.
11 A coin is tossed three times.
b Find the probability of getting Head, Tail, Tail.
c What is the probability of getting at least two Tails?
12 Johnny wishes to try all combinations of a supercone ice-cream that has three
scoops of different flavours chosen from chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, lime
Chocolate
and banana. The middle scoop must be chocolate.
If Johnny randomly chooses his supercone ice-cream, show all possible
outcomes on a tree diagram.
13 Alan, Bjorn and Carl each toss a coin at the same time. Draw an appropriate tree
diagram and use it to find the probability that Alan’s and Carl’s result will both be Tails.
14 A consonant is selected from each of the words MATHS IS FUN.
a Show the possible outcomes on a tree diagram.
b Find the probability that the letters H and S will appear in the selection.
15 Two coins are tossed and a die is rolled. One of the coins is double-headed. Find the probability that
you get:
a two Heads and an even number
b a Head, a Tail and an odd number
c a Head, a Tail and a number less than 4.
16 Find the probability of obtaining an odd number and at least one Tail when a die and two coins are
tossed.
17 MC Three coins are tossed once. The probability that at least one coin shows Heads is:
3 3 2
A B C
4 8 3
7 1
D E
8 4

18 Four coins are tossed.
b Find the probability of obtaining Head, Tail, Head, Tail in that order.
c Find the probability of obtaining two Heads and two Tails.
d Find the probability of obtaining at least two consecutive Tails.
19 WE 11 a Draw a lattice diagram to show all possible outcomes when two dice are rolled.
b Use the lattice diagram to find the probability that both the numbers appearing uppermost are odd
numbers.
c Find the probability of getting a total of 9.
20 A die is rolled and a coin is tossed.
a Draw a lattice diagram to show all of the possible outcomes.
b Find the probability of obtaining a 3 and a Tail.
c Find the probability of obtaining an even number and a Head.
21 Two dice are rolled. Find the probability:
a of obtaining two 6s
b of rolling a 3 and a 4
c that the sum of the numbers appearing uppermost is
less than 10
d that the first number is a 3 and the sum of the numbers
appearing uppermost is less than 8
e of rolling two multiples of 2.
22 A die labelled with the letters T, O, M, A, T, O and a die numbered 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 are rolled together.
Determine the probability that the first die shows a vowel and the second die shows a number greater
than 6.
23 A diner orders an entree, main course and dessert from a lunch menu that offers 3 different entrees,
2 different main courses and 2 different desserts. Show these choices on a tree diagram and find the
probability that the diner orders a particular entree and main course.
11D The Addition Law of Probabilities

Recall from our review of set theory that:
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) [1]
We also know that:
n(A ∪ B)
Pr(A ∪ B) = [2]
n(ξ )
Substituting [1] into [2], we get:
n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)
Pr(A ∪ B) =
n(ξ )
n(A) n(B) n(A ∩ B)
= + −
n(ξ ) n(ξ ) n(ξ )
So, Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B).

Since we may equate ∪ with OR and ∩ with AND, we can say:
Pr(A or B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A and B)
This is known as the Addition Law of Probabilities.
Mutually exclusive events

If A ∩ B = ϕ, then A and B are mutually exclusive. That is, events A and B cannot happen at the same
time. If A and B are mutually exclusive, Pr(A ∩ B) = 0, the Addition Law becomes:
Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B)
or
Pr(A or B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B)

WORKED EXAMPLE 12
If A and B are events such that Pr(A) = 0.8, Pr(B) = 0.2 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.1, calculate Pr(A ∪ B).
THINK WRITE
Substitute the values for Pr(A), Pr(B) and Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A ∩ B) in the Addition Law to find Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.8 + 0.2 − 0.1
Pr(A ∪ B). Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.9
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
If A and B are events such that Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.55, Pr(A) = 0.2 and Pr(B) = 0.45, calculate
Pr(A ∩ B).
THINK WRITE
1 Substitute the values for Pr(A ∪ B), Pr(A) Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
and Pr(B). 0.55 = 0.2 + 0.45 − Pr(A ∩ B)
2 Rearrange the expression to find Pr(A ∩ B). 0.55 = 0.65 − Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.1
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
If Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.2 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.9, calculate Pr(A) and Pr(B) if events A and B are equally
likely to occur.
THINK WRITE
1 Use the Addition Law. Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)

2 If events A and B are equally likely to occur, Let x represent Pr(A) and hence Pr(B).
then Pr(A) = Pr(B).
3 Substitute the information into the 0.9 = x + x − 0.2
Addition Law and solve. 0.9 = 2x − 0.2
1.1 = 2x
so x = 0.55
Pr(A) = 0.55, Pr(B) = 0.55
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
A box contains 16 marbles numbered 1, 2, 3, . . . , 16. One marble is

randomly selected. TUTORIAL
Let A be the event ‘the marble selected is a prime number greater than 3’ and eles-1449
let B be the event ‘the marble selected is an odd number’. Worked example 15
a Evaluate:
i Pr(A) ii Pr(B) iii Pr(A ∩ B) iv Pr(A ∪ B).
b Are A and B mutually exclusive events?
THINK WRITE
a 1 Write down the elements of A, B, a A = {5, 7, 11, 13}

A ∩ B and A ∪ B. B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}
A ∩ B = {5, 7, 11, 13}
A ∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}
2 What is n(ξ)? n (ξ) = 16

4
3 Calculate the probability of A, B, i Pr(A) =
16
A ∩ B and A ∪ B.
=1
4
8
ii Pr(B) =
16
1
=
2
4
iii Pr(A ∩ B) =
16
1
=
4
8
iv Pr(A ∪ B) =
16
1
=
2
1
b Since Pr(A ∩ B) ≠ 0, it follows that A and B b From iii above, we see that Pr(A ∩ B) = .
4
are not mutually exclusive. As Pr(A ∩ B) ≠ 0, A and B are not mutually
exclusive.
Note: The Addition Law could also be used to determine any one of Pr(A ∪ B), Pr(A), Pr(B) or
Pr(A ∩ B) when the other three quantities are known.
For example, to find Pr(A ∪ B) we have:
Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
4 8 4
= + 16 − 16
16
1
= 2
The Venn diagram below left may be adapted to show probabilities rather than outcomes and used to
solve problems (below right).
ξ (A ∪ B)′ or A′ ∩ B′ ξ Pr(A ∪ B)' or Pr(A' ∪ B')
A B
A B
A ∩ B′ A∩B A′ ∩ B Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A ∩ B') Pr(A' ∩ B)
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
An 8-sided die (numbered from 1 to 8) is rolled once. Find the probability that the number
appearing uppermost is: a an even number b an even number or a multiple of 3.
THINK WRITE
n(E )
a 1 Let E = even number = {2, 4, 6, 8}. a Pr(E ) =
The probability of getting an even n(ξ )
n(E )
number = .
n(ξ )
2 n(E) = 4, n(ξ ) = 8 Pr(E) = 4
8
= 12
b 1 M = multiple of 3 = {3, 6}. The probability b Pr(E ∪ M) = Pr(E) + Pr(M ) − Pr(E ∩ M )
of an even number or a multiple of
3 = Pr(E ∪ M ).
2 Pr(E ) = 12, Pr(M ) = 28 = 14, Pr(E ∪ M ) = 12 + 14 − 18
E ∩ M = {6} so Pr(E ∩ M ) = 18. = 58

WORKED EXAMPLE 17
If Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.45 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.7, show this information on a Venn diagram and
calculate Pr(A ∪ B)′.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a 2-set Venn diagram with an overlapping

region.
2 Calculate the probability of the overlap, Pr(A ∩ B), Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
using the Addition Law. 0.7 = 0.6 + 0.45 − Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A ∩ B) = 1.05 − 0.7
= 0.35
3 Complete the Venn diagram using the available ξ (A ∪ B)'
information. A B
0.25 0.35 0.1
4 Calculate Pr(A ∪ B)′. Pr(A ∪ B) + Pr(A ∪ B)′ = 1

Pr(A ∪ B)′ = 1 − Pr(A ∪ B)
= 1 − 0.7
= 0.3
Exercise 11D The Addition Law of Probabilities

1 WE12 If Pr(A) = 0.4, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.2, what is Pr(A ∪ B)?
2 If Pr(A) = 0.65, Pr(B) = 0.25 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.22, what is Pr(A ∪ B)?
3 If A and B are mutually exclusive events and Pr(A) = 0.38, Pr(B) = 0.51, what is Pr(A ∪ B)?
4 WE13 If A and B are events such that Pr(A) = 0.4, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.6, calculate Pr(A ∩ B).
5 For events X, Y, if Pr(Y) = 0.44, Pr(X ∩ Y) = 0.16 and Pr(X ∪ Y) = 0.73, what is Pr(X)?
6 For events D and E, if Pr(D) = 0.76, Pr(D ∪ E) = 0.82 and Pr(D ∩ E) = 0.35, what is Pr(E)?
7 WE14 If Pr(A) = 2 × Pr(B), Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.23 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.94, determine the values of Pr(A)
and Pr(B).
8 If Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.75, Pr(A) = 0.28 and Pr(B) = 0.47, what can be concluded about the relationship
between A and B?
9 If Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A), what is the relationship between A and B?
10 WE15 A card is chosen at random from a pack of 52 playing cards. Let H be the event ‘choosing a
heart’ and P be the event ‘choosing a picture card (J, Q, K)’.
a Evaluate:
i Pr(H)
ii Pr(P)
iii Pr(H ∩ P)
iv Pr(H ∪ P).
b Are H and P mutually exclusive events?
11 A box of chocolates contains 12 with hard centres and 8 with soft centres. One chocolate is chosen
at random. Let H be the event ‘choosing a hard centre’ and S be the event ‘choosing a soft centre’.
a Evaluate:
i Pr(H)
ii Pr(S)
iii Pr(H ∩ S)
iv Pr(H ∪ S).
b Are H and S mutually exclusive events?

12 From a group of 100 people, 25 said they drink tea, 40 said they drink coffee and 15 said they drink
both beverages. If one member of the group is randomly chosen, what is the probability that the person:
a drinks only tea?
b drinks neither tea nor coffee?
c drinks tea and coffee?
d drinks tea or coffee?
13 WE16 A box contains 20 marbles numbered 1 to 20. Find the probability of obtaining:
a an even number
b a multiple of 3
c a multiple of 2 or 3.
14 Find the probability of an odd number or a multiple of 4 appearing uppermost when a die is rolled.
15 Find the probability that a number divisible by 4 or 5 is drawn from a ‘lucky dip’ containing the first
50 natural numbers.
16 From a standard pack of 52 playing cards, one card is randomly drawn. State the probability that the card is:
a a ten
b a diamond
c a king or a jack
d a diamond, a spade or the ace of hearts.
17 A mixed bag of lollies contains 8 peppermint twists, 10 red jelly beans, 10 caramels, 18 chocolates,
4 peppermint twirls, 5 yellow jelly beans and 25 toffees. If Tara randomly selects one lolly, what is the
probability that it is:
a a peppermint or a jelly bean?
b not a toffee, a caramel or a jelly bean?
c a peppermint, given that the jelly beans are stuck together and cannot be selected?
18 Sarah is competing in a 400-metre race against 13 other runners. If each contestant has the same
probability of winning, find the probability that Sarah:
a wins the race
b comes first or second
c finishes in the top four
d does not qualify for the final 5.
19 A moneybox containing eight $1 coins, five $2 coins, nine 50c coins and two 20c coins is shaken and
one coin falls out. Assuming that each coin is equally likely to fall out, calculate the probability that the
coin’s value is:
a between 10c and $2 (not including 10c or $2)
b not 50c
c $1 or $2
d less than $1.
20 Inside a dresser drawer are 4 ties, 10 socks, 4 handkerchiefs and 2 towels. If Tony randomly takes out
one item, find the probability that it is:
a something to be worn
b not a towel and not a sock
c either a sock or not a sock
d either a towel or not a handkerchief.
21 A patron in a restaurant is presented with a fruit platter consisting of 6 whole apples, 8 slices of orange,
5 sliced pear pieces, 11 whole strawberries, 6 whole plums and 4 sliced apricot halves. The waiter
accidentally trips and a piece of fruit falls off the platter. Assuming that each piece of fruit was equally
likely to fall, state the probability that the fallen fruit is:
a not a plum and not an apricot
b not sliced
c sliced or is not a strawberry
d either a pear or an orange that has not been sliced.
22 The games Alotto, Blotto and Clotto involve guessing a number from 1 to 100 inclusive. To win Alotto
the number guessed must be a multiple of 3. To win Blotto the number must be a multiple of 5 or a
multiple of 8. To win Clotto the guessed number is to be between 10 and 20 or greater than 77.
Decide which game is easier to win.

23 WE17 If Pr(A) = 0.3, Pr(B) = 0.4 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.65, show this information on a Venn diagram and
find Pr(A′ ∪ B).
24 Of 20 people interviewed, 7 stated that they use both a tram and a train to get to work, and
2 said they drive their own car. No other form of transport or combination of transport is
used. If 5 people travel only by train, find the probability that a person selected at random travels
by tram only.
25 The unusual dartboard shown below consists of 10 concentric circles, with 1024 points given for a dart
landing within the first (smallest) circle, 512 points for a hit within the area bounded by the first and
second circle, 256 points if the dart lands within the area bounded by the second and third circles, and so
on. The area bounded by any two consecutive circles is the same.
Area 1
1024 points
Area 2
512 points
Area 3
256 points
Area 4
128 points
a Find the probability that a dart randomly hitting the board will score:
i 64
ii a multiple of 128
iii a number from 16 to 256 inclusive
iv a number from 17 to 1023 inclusive or a number less than 256.
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9807 b Why is it necessary to state that the areas bound by any two consecutive circles are
WorkSHEET 11.2 the same?
11EKarnaugh maps and probability

tables
We have seen how Venn diagrams provide a visual representation of sets and probabilities. Another effective
approach is to display the information by means of a Karnaugh map. Consider a Venn diagram for two
sets A and B.
ξ
A B
A ∩ B' A ∩ B A' ∩ B
A' ∩ B'
Notice that the Venn diagram consists of four mutually exclusive regions, A ∩ B′, A ∩ B, A′ ∩ B and
A′ ∩ B′. These four subsets of ξ can be presented as a Karnaugh map.
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
B B′
Row 1 A A∩B A ∩ B′
Row 2 A′ A′ ∩ B A′ ∩ B′
Row 3

Comparing the table entries with the Venn diagram provides equality relationships across rows and
down columns. That is, in terms of regions we can see that for column 1, (A ∩ B) ∪ (A′ ∩ B) = B, and
for column 2, (A ∩ B′) ∪ (A′ ∩ B′) = B′.
Similarly, for row 1, (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ B′) = A, and for row 2, (A′ ∩ B) ∪ (A′ ∩ B′) = A′. The third row
and column can be used to check the sum totals of each row and column. This type of verification can be
useful in practical problems.
The probability table

We can present a Karnaugh map in terms of the probability of each of the four subsets A ∩ B′, A ∩ B,
A′ ∩ B and A′ ∩ B′ of ξ.
B B′
A Pr(A ∩ B) Pr(A ∩ B′) Pr(A)
A′ Pr(A′ ∩ B) Pr(A′ ∩ B′) Pr(A′)
Pr(B) Pr(B′) 1
Note the value of 1 at the bottom right of the table. This is the sum of the probabilities across the last
row and the sum of the probabilities down the last column.
That is, Pr(B) + Pr(B′) = 1 and Pr(A) + Pr(A′) = 1.
Consider the following example. A survey of 1000 taxi drivers revealed that 450 of them drive
Falcons and 500 drive Commodores. It was also found that 350 taxi drivers have occasion to use
both types of car. This information can be represented as a Venn diagram, a Karnaugh map or a
probability table.
ξ
C C′ C C′
F C
Row 1 F 350 100 450 F 0.35 0.1 0.45
100 350 150
Row 2 F′ 150 400 550 F′ 0.15 0.4 0.55
400
Row 3 500 500 1000 0.5 0.5 1.0
Venn dia
gram Karnaugh m
ap Probability able
t
The Karnaugh map provides the following information:

1. 350 drivers drive both a Falcon and a Commodore (row 1, column 1: F ∩ C ).
2. 100 drivers drive only a Falcon (row 1, column 2: F ∩ C ′).
3. The total number of Falcon drivers is 450 (350 + 100).
4. 150 drivers drive only a Commodore (row 2, column 1: F ′ ∩ C ).
5. 400 drivers do not drive either a Falcon or a Commodore (row 2, column 2: F ′ ∩ C ′).
6. There are 500 Commodore drivers altogether (350 + 150).
7. There are 1000 drivers in total (row 3, column 3).
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
Complete the probability table shown below and represent the information
as a Venn diagram. TUTORIAL
eles-1450
Worked example 18
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
B B′
Row 1 A 0.3
Row 2 A′ 0.25
Row 3 0.65 1

THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Find the value for row 2, column 3 and B B′

for row 3, column 2.
A 0.3
A′ 0.25 0.7
0.65 0.35 1
2 Find the value for row 2, column 1 and for row 1, B B′

column 2. A 0.1 0.3
A′ 0.45 0.25 0.7
0.65 0.35 1
3 Find the value for row 1, column 1. B B′

A 0.2 0.1 0.3
A′ 0.45 0.25 0.7
0.65 0.35 1
4 Represent the information as a Venn diagram. ξ

A B
0.1 0.2 0.45
0.25
WORKED EXAMPLE 19
Complete a probability table, given that Pr(A′ ∩ B) = 0.24, Pr(A) = 0.32 and Pr(B) = 0.35.
THINK WRITE
1 Place the known information in the B B′

appropriate cells of the probability table.
A 0.32
A′ 0.24
0.35 1
2 Build up the table using the given information B B′

and the fact that the probability totals 1.
A 0.11 0.21 0.32
B B′ A′ 0.24 0.44 0.68
A 0.11 0.32 0.35 0.65 1
A′ 0.24 0.68
0.35 0.65 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
A group was surveyed in relation to their drinking of tea and coffee. From the results it was
established that if a member of the group is randomly chosen, the probability that that member
drinks tea is 0.5, the probability that they drink coffee is 0.6, and the probability that they drink
neither tea nor coffee is 0.1.
a Use the information to complete a probability table.
b Calculate the probability that a randomly selected person of the group:
i drinks tea but not coffee
ii drinks tea and coffee.

THINK WRITE
a 1 Let T and C be the set of people who drink a C C′

tea and coffee respectively. Place the given
information in the table. T 0.5
T′ 0.1
2 Build up the table as shown.
0.6 1
C C′
T 0.5
T′ 0.1 0.5
0.6 0.4 1
C C′ C C′
T 0.3 0.5 T 0.2 0.3 0.5
T′ 0.4 0.1 0.5 T′ 0.4 0.1 0.5
0.6 0.4 1 0.6 0.4 1
b 3 Use the appropriate probability from the b i Pr(T ∩ C′ ) = 0.3

table. ii Pr(T ∩ C ) = 0.2
Exercise 11E Karnaugh maps and probability tables

1 WE 18 Complete each Karnaugh map and represent the information as a Venn diagram.
a B B′ b B B′
A 17 25 A 33
A′ 13 A′ 27 72
15 114
c B B′ d B B′
A 0.3 0.57 A 0.03
A′ 0.4 A′ 0.22 0.36
2 MC Decide which of the following statements is true.

B B′
A 0.31 Y 0.75
A′ X U Z
V 0.58 W
A U = 0.15 B V + W = 0.42 C X + Y = 0.55
D V − X = W − 0.58 E U+Z=W−Z
3 Complete a Karnaugh map given that n(A ∩ B) = 87, n(A′ ∩ B) = 13, n(A ∩ B′) = 63 and
n(ξ ) = 218.
4 Complete a Karnaugh map given that n(A ∩ B) = 35, n(A ∩ B′) = 29, n(A′ ∩ B′) = 44 and
n(A′ ∩ B) = 56.
5 Draw a Karnaugh map representing each Venn diagram.
a ξ b ξ
A B A B
0.14 0.45 0.3 0.27 0.61 0.12
0.11

c ξ d ξ
A B A B
10 6 4 15 7 18
5
6 Determine the probability values and complete a probability table using the given information.
a ξ = {letters of the alphabet from a to k}, A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, B = {e, f, g, h}
b ξ = {first 20 natural numbers}, A = {natural numbers less than 11}, B = {natural numbers from 8
to 15 inclusive}
7 MC If A = {2, 7, 8, 10}, B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 10} and ξ = {1, 2, . . . , 10}, then A ∩ B′ will contain the set:
A {3, 5, 7} B {1, 4} C {2, 6, 9}
D {6, 7, 10} E {2, 8}
8 A survey of students revealed that 30 of them like football, 26 like soccer, 6 like both sports and 10
prefer a sport other than football or soccer. Represent this information as a:
a Venn diagram b Karnaugh map.
9 Complete a probability table for the information in question 8.
10 MC Of a group of 200 people, 48% drink coffee (C ) each day and 39% drink tea (T ). If 38% of the
people do not drink tea or coffee, the probability table is:
A B
T T′ T T′
C 0.25 0.23 C 0.23 0.14
C′ 0.14 0.38 C′ 0.38 0.25
C D
T T′ T T′
C 0.25 0.35 C 0.39 0.38
C′ 0.48 0.38 C′ 0.48 0.23
E
T T′
C 0.38 0.10
C′ 0.01 0.51
11 WE 19 Complete a probability table, given:

a Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.3, Pr(A′ ∩ B′) = 0.2 and Pr(A) = 0.6
b Pr(B ∩ A′) = 0.7, Pr(B) = 0.8 and Pr(B′ ∩ A) = 0.1
c Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.5, Pr(A′ ∩ B′) = 0.1 and Pr(B′) = 0.4
d Pr(A′ ∩ B) = 14, Pr(A ∩ B′) = 14 and Pr(B′) = 34.
12 Two hundred and eighty children were asked to indicate their preference for ice-cream flavours. It was
found that 160 of the children like chocolate flavour, 145 like strawberry and 50 like both flavours. Use
this information to complete a Karnaugh map.
13 WE20 An examination of 250 people showed that of those in the group who are less than or equal
to 20 years of age, 80 wear glasses and 55 do not. Also, 110 people over 20 years of age must wear
glasses.
a Represent the information as a probability table.
b Calculate the probability that a randomly selected person of the group:
i does not wear glasses and is over 20 years of age
ii is 20 years of age or younger.
14 For the probability table shown, A is the event ‘no more than
B B′
15 years of age’ and B is the event ‘smoker’.
a Complete the probability table. A 0.08
b What is the probability that: A′ 0.6
i a person older than 15 years of age does not smoke? 0.67
ii a person is a smoker and is older than 15 years of age?
iii the person is a smoker over the age of 15 or is a non-
smoker less than or equal to 15 years of age?

15 A survey of a group of business people indicates that
42% of those surveyed read the Daily Times newspaper
only each day and 18% read both the Daily Times and the
Bugle. Additionally, 12% of those questioned stated that
they do not read either of these newspapers.
a Show this information as a Karnaugh map.
b What is the probability that a randomly selected
member of the group:
i does not read the Daily Times?
ii reads the Bugle only?
iii does not read the Bugle or does not read either
newspaper?
c If the group consists of 150 business people, determine
how many members read at least one newspaper.
16 A lucky dip box contains 80 marble tokens that can be
exchanged for prizes. Some of the marbles have a red
stripe, some have a blue stripe, some have both a red and
a blue stripe, and some marbles have no stripes at all. It is
known that 25% of the marbles have a red stripe on them,
20% of them have a blue stripe and 65% have no stripe.
a Present the information as a Karnaugh map.
b What is the probability of choosing a marble that has a red stripe only?
c Find the probability of choosing a marble that has a red and a blue stripe or no stripe.
11F Conditional probability

Erin thinks of a number from 1 to 10 (say 8) and asks Peter to guess what it is. The probability that Peter
1
makes a correct guess on his first try is 10 . If, however, Erin first tells Peter that the number is greater
than 7, his chances are better because he now knows that the number must be one of the numbers 8, 9 or
10. His probability of success is now 13.
This problem may be stated as: What is the probability of Peter choosing the right number from 1 to
10, given that the number is greater than 7?
This is an example of conditional probability, where the probability of an event is conditional on (that
is, it depends on) another event occurring first. The effect in this case is to reduce the event space and
thus increase the probability of the desired outcome.
For two events A and B, the conditional probability of event A given that event B occurs is denoted by
Pr(A | B) and is given by:
Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A | B) = , Pr (B) ≠ 0
Pr(B)
Event B is sometimes called the reduced event space.
For the example above, if we let B be the event ‘numbers greater than 7’ and A be the event
‘Erin’s secret number’, then we may write:
Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A | B) =
Pr(B)
1
1 3
= 10
3
= (10 ÷ 10 )
10
= 13
The reduced event space can be illustrated by the Venn diagram below.
ξ
A
1 B 5
2
3 8 9 10 6
7
4

WORKED EXAMPLE 21
If Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.8 and Pr(B) = 0.9, find Pr(A | B).

THINK WRITE
Pr(A ∩ B)
Substitute the values given into the expression for Pr(A | B) =
conditional probability. Pr(B)
= 0.8
0.9
=8
9
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
If Pr(A) = 0.3, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.6, calculate:

a Pr(A ∩ B) b Pr(A | B).
THINK WRITE
a Use the Addition Law for probabilities a Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
to find Pr(A ∩ B). 0.6 = 0.3 + 0.5 − Pr(A ∩ B)
so Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.2
Pr(A ∩ B)
b Use the formula for conditional probability to b Pr(A | B) =
find Pr(A | B). Pr(B)
= 0.2
0.5
= 25
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
Of a group of 50 Year 11 students, 32 study Art and 30 study Graphics. Each student studies at
least one of these subjects.
a How many students study both?
b Illustrate the information as a Venn diagram.
c What is the probability that a randomly selected student studies Art only?
d Find the probability that a student selected at random from the group studies Graphics, given
that the student studies Art.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Define relevant events. a Let A = students who study Art

G = students who study Graphics
A ∩ G = students who study both
2 Find the number who study both subjects n(A ∪ G) = n(A) + n(G) − n(A ∩ G)
using set theory. 50 = 32 + 30 − n(A ∩ G)
50 = 62 − n(A ∩ G)
n(A ∩ G) = 12
b Show all the information on a Venn diagram. b ξ
Art Graphics
20 12 18
c The Venn diagram reveals that 20 of the 50 students c Pr(Art only) = 20

50
study Art only. Calculate the probability.
2
= 5

Pr(G ∩ A)
d Use the conditional probability formula to find the d Pr(G | A) =
probability that a student studies Graphics, given Pr(A)
that the student studies Art. = 12 ÷ 32
50 50
= 12
32
= 38
WORKED EXAMPLE 24
Seated in a Ford Falcon are 4 males and 2 females. Seated in a Holden

Commodore are 2 males and 1 female. One of the cars is randomly stopped TUTORIAL
by the police and one person from the vehicle is randomly selected. eles-1451
Worked example 24
Draw a tree diagram to illustrate the situation and calculate the
probability that:
a the person selected by the police is female
b if a female is selected by the police, she was sitting in the Ford.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1
a 1 Calculate the a Pr(Ford) = Pr(Holden) = 12
2
probabilities. Pr(male from Ford) = 46 Pr(male from Holden) = 23
= 23
Pr(female from Ford) = 26 Pr(female from Holden) = 13
= 13
2 Draw the tree diagram. Car Person

2–
3 male Ford and male
1– Ford
2 1– female Ford and female
3
1– 2–
2
Holden 3 male Holden and male
1– female Holden and female

3
3 Use the tree diagram Pr(female selected) = Pr(Ford and female or Holden and female)
to work out the = Pr(Ford and female) + Pr(Holden and female)
probability that the = 12 × 13 + 12 × 13
person is female.
Consider all the ways = 13
a female may be
selected.
b Use the tree diagram and b Pr(person is from the Ford | female is selected)
the formula for conditional Pr(Ford and female)
probability. =
Pr(female)
1 1
2
× 3
= 1
3
1
= 2

Once the tree diagram was drawn, the calculation for part a in worked example 24 was quite
intuitive. In order to calculate the probability of a female being selected, the occupants of both cars
needed to be considered. In fact, there is a rule of probability that formalises the calculation performed
in part a above. The law is known as the Law of Total Probability, and it states:
Pr(A) = Pr(A | B)Pr(B) + Pr(A | B′)Pr(B′)
To calculate the answer to part a of worked example 24, let Pr(A) = Pr(female) and
Pr(B) = Pr(Ford).
Pr(female) = Pr(female given the car is a Ford)Pr(Ford)
+ Pr(female given the car is a Holden)Pr(Holden)
= 13 × 12 + 13 × 12
= 13
Note that the Law of Total Probability simplifies to give the rule used in part a of worked example 24:
Pr(A) = Pr(A | B)Pr(B) + Pr(A | B′)Pr(B′)
Pr(A) = Pr(A ∩ B) + Pr(A ∩ B′)
Exercise 11F Conditional probability

1 WE21 If Pr(A) = 0.8, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.4, find:
a Pr(A | B) b Pr(B | A).
DIGITAL DOC 2 If Pr(A) = 0.65, Pr(B) = 0.75 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.45, find:
doc-9808 a Pr(A | B) b Pr(B | A).
SkillSHEET 11.1
Conditional probability 3 If Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.4 and Pr(A) = 0.5, find Pr(B | A).
4 If Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.25 and Pr(B) = 0.6, find Pr(A | B).
5 If Pr(B | A) = 0.32 and Pr(A) = 0.45, find Pr(A ∩ B).
6 If Pr(A | B) = 0.21 and Pr(B) = 0.8, what is Pr(A ∩ B)?
7 Calculate Pr(A) if Pr(B | A) = 0.75 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.5.
8 Calculate Pr(B) if Pr(A | B) = 0.96 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.8.
9 WE22 If Pr(A) = 0.7, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.9, calculate:
a Pr(A ∩ B)
b Pr(B | A).
10 MC If Pr(B | A) = 0.8 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.6, then Pr(A) is:
4 3 1
A B C
5 5 4
3 2
D E
4 3
11 MC If Pr(A) = 0.9 and 2 × Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A), then Pr(B | A) is:

1 5 2
A B C
2 9 5
1 4
D E
9 9
12 Show that if Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B), then Pr(B | A) = Pr(B).

13 If Pr(A) = 0.23, Pr(B) = 0.27 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.3, find:
a Pr(A ∩ B) b Pr(A | B).
14 If Pr(A) = 0.45, Pr(B) = 0.52 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.67:
a find Pr(A ∩ B)
b find Pr(B | A)
c represent the information as a Venn diagram.
15 A box contains marbles numbered 1, 2, 3, . . . 50. One marble is randomly taken out of the box. What is
the probability that it is:
a a multiple of 3, given that it is less than 21?
b between 11 to 39 inclusive, given that it is greater than 20?

16 MC A group of 80 females consists of 54 dancers and 35 singers. Each member of the group is either
a dancer or a singer or both. The probability that a randomly selected member of the group is a singer
given that she is a dancer is:
A 0.17 B 0.44
C 0.68 D 0.11
E 0.78
17 WE23 A group of 60 adventurers comprises
30 mountain climbers and 45 scuba divers. If each
adventurer does at least one of these activities:
a How many adventurers are both climbers and
divers?
b Illustrate the information on a Venn diagram.
c What is the probability that a randomly
selected group member is a scuba diver only?
d Find the probability that an adventurer
randomly selected from the group is a scuba
diver, given that the adventurer is a mountain
climber.
18 Of 200 families surveyed, 85% have a TV and 70% possess a CD player. Assuming each family has at
least one of these items, what is the probability that one family randomly selected has a TV, given that
they also own a CD player?
19 During the Christmas holidays 42 students from a group of 85 VCE students found vacation
employment while 73 students went away on holidays. Assuming that every student had
at least a job or went on a holiday, what is the probability that a randomly selected
student worked throughout the holidays (that is, did not go away on holidays), given that
he/she had a job?
20 WE24 The probability that a machine in a chocolate factory does not coat a SNAP chocolate bar
adequately, therefore producing a defective product, is 0.08. The probability that it does not coat a
BUZZ chocolate bar adequately is 0.11. On any day the machine coats 250 SNAP bars and 500 BUZZ
bars. A chocolate bar is chosen at random from the production line. Draw a tree diagram to illustrate
the situation and find the probability that the chocolate bar chosen at random is:
a a BUZZ chocolate bar
b a SNAP chocolate bar and is defective
c defective, given that a SNAP bar is chosen.
21 The staff at Happy Secondary College is made up of 43 females and 29 males. Also, 22% of the
females are under 40 years old, and 19% of the males are under 40. If a staff member is selected at
random, what is the probability that:
a a male is selected?
b a male 40 years or over is selected?
c a female under the age of 40 is selected?
d a person under 40 years of age is selected?
e the person is a female given that the person selected is under 40 years of age?
22 Two letters are randomly picked from the word INFINITESIMAL. If a letter can be used more
than once, calculate the probability that both letters selected are vowels, given that the first letter
is a vowel.
Transition matrices and

11G
Markov chains
Introduction
In chapter 7 we saw many uses for matrices, from displaying information in an organised manner to
INTERACTIVITY
solving simultaneous equations or representing transformations. Matrices are also very useful in certain int-0270
conditional probability problems. Transition matrices

Example
A jar contains six red balls and four green balls. A ball is selected at random and not replaced. A second
ball is then selected. Find the probability that the second ball is a red ball.
Solution
The tree diagram illustrates the situation. 5–
We may express the answer (where R2 is the event ‘selecting 9 R2
R1
a red ball on the second selection’) in the form: 6
—
10 4– G2
Pr(R2) = Pr(R2 | R1)Pr(R1) + Pr(R2 | G1 )Pr(G1) 9
= 59 × 10
6
+ 69 × 10
4
4
6–
9 R2
—
10
54 G1
= 3– G2
90
3 9
=
5
This is an example of the law of total probability, which may be stated as:
Pr(A) = Pr(A | B ) × Pr(B ) + Pr(A | B′) × Pr(B′)
Applying the law to the complement of event A gives:
Pr(A′ ) = Pr(A′ | B) × Pr(B) + Pr(A′ | B′ ) × Pr(B′ )
These two equations may be written in matrix form:
⎡ Pr( A) ⎤ ⎡ Pr( A | B) Pr( A | B′) ⎤ ⎡ Pr( B) ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥×⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Pr( A′) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Pr( A′ | B) Pr( A′ | B′) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Pr( B′) ⎥⎦
The example can now be written in matrix form, where:
A = selecting a red ball on the second selection
A′ = selecting a green ball on the second selection
B = selecting a red ball on the first selection
B′ = selecting a green ball on the first selection.
⎡ 5 6 ⎤
⎡ Pr( A) ⎤ ⎢ 9 9 ⎥ ⎡ Pr( B) ⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥×⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Pr( A′) ⎥⎦ ⎢ 4 3
⎥ ⎢⎣ Pr( B′) ⎥
⎦
⎣ 9 9 ⎦
⎡ 5 6 ⎤ ⎡ 6 ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤
⎢ 9 9 ⎥ ⎢ 10 ⎥ ⎢ 5 ⎥
=⎢ ⎥×⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
4 3 4 2
⎢ 9 9 ⎥ ⎢ 10 ⎥ ⎢ 5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
The first element in the final column matrix is the same as the answer we obtained in the example
shown. The second element is the probability of selecting a green ball on the second selection.
Note that the columns of the matrix each add to one. This is equivalent to one of the properties of
probability, Pr(A) + Pr(A′ ) = 1. In this case it is actually Pr(A | B) + Pr(A′ | B) = 1 for the first column and
Pr(A | B′ ) + Pr(A′ | B′ ) = 1 for the second column.
The matrix of conditional probabilities is called a transition matrix, usually denoted T.
B B′
⎡ Pr( A | B) Pr( A | B′) ⎤
T = A ⎢ ⎥
A′ ⎢ Pr( A′ | B) Pr( A′ | B′) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The preceding example can be thought of as a transition from an initial state (selection of the first
ball, B or B′ being ‘red ball’ or ‘green ball’ respectively) to the next state (selection of the second ball,
A or A′, that is ‘red ball’ or ‘green ball’).
⎡ Pr( A) ⎤ ⎡ Pr( B) ⎤ ⎡ Pr( B) ⎤
The column matrices ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ Pr( B′) ⎥ are called state matrices, where ⎢ Pr( B′) ⎥ is the
⎣ Pr( A′ ) ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ Pr( A) ⎤
initial state, which we might label as S0, and ⎢ ⎥ is the next state, S1. The matrix equation
becomes S1 = T × S0. ⎣ Pr( A′) ⎦

WORKED EXAMPLE 25
Consider a simple model of the behaviour of a football team. If it wins a

game, then the probability that it wins the next game is 0.8. If it loses, then TUTORIAL
the probability that it wins the next game is only 0.5. Write the transition eles-1452
Worked example 25
matrix that represents the transition from one game to the next.
THINK WRITE
1 Set up a table showing the information given.

B (Wins B′ (Loses
first game) first game)
A (Wins (Pr(A | B)) (Pr(A | B′))

second game) 0.8 0.5
A′ (Loses (Pr(A′ | B)) (Pr(A′ | B′))

second game) ? ?
2 Complete the table using the knowledge that B (Wins first B′ (Loses first
the columns must add to one. game) game)
A (Wins (Pr(A | B) ) (Pr(A | B′) )

A′ (Loses (Pr(A′ | B) ) (Pr(A′ | B′))

3 Write the answer.

⎡ 0.8 0.5 ⎤
T=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.2 0.5 ⎦
The matrix equation S1 = T × S0 describes the transition from state S0 (the first game) to state S1 (the
second game). If the conditional probabilities remain the same, then a similar equation will express the
transition from any particular state to the next state.
In general, Sn + 1 = T × Sn may be used to determine any state from the previous one.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
Suppose the conditional probabilities expressed in worked example 25 remain constant

throughout the football season. Also, suppose the team wins the first game of the season.
Express the problem in matrix form and find the probability that the team loses the third game
of the season.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the transition matrix. This is the ⎡ 0.8 0.5 ⎤

T= ⎢ ⎥
same as in the previous worked example. ⎣ 0.2 0.5 ⎦
2 Write down a suitable initial state matrix that

shows the probabilities of the first game. The S0 = ⎡⎢ 0 ⎤⎥
⎣1 ⎦
first element will be the probability that the
team wins. Since we know it has won, this
probability must be 1. The second element must
be 0 as the column sums to 1.

3 Enter the transition matrix, T, into a CAS ⎡ 0.8 0.5 ⎤
calculator. ⎢ 0.2 0.5 ⎥ → t
⎣ ⎦
4 Enter the initial state matrix, S0, into the CAS ⎡ 1 ⎤

calculator. ⎢ 0 ⎥ → s0
⎣ ⎦
5 Perform matrix multiplication to calculate t × s0 → s1

S1 = T × S0.
6 Record the result. ⎡ 0.8 ⎤

⎢ 0.2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
7 Perform matrix multiplication to calculate t × s1 → s2

S2 = T × S1.

⎢ 0.26 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
9 The answer will be the second element of the The probability of losing game 3 is 0.26.
state matrix as we want the probability of a loss.
This worked example shows the power of using matrices. If the conditional probabilities remain
constant and the outcomes of any particular state depend only on the previous state, then we have a (two-
state) Markov Process. We can easily calculate the probabilities associated with any of the later states
without determining all the intermediate ones.
As S1 = T × S0 and S2 = T × S1,
S2 = T × T × S0 = T2 × S0
Continuing in this fashion, we see that:
S3 = T × S2 = T × (T × S1) = T × T × T × S0 = T3 × S0
and, in general, Sn = Tn × S0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
Using the data of worked example 25, find the probability that the team wins the fifth game of
the season, assuming it loses the first game.
THINK WRITE
1 Write down the transition matrix. ⎡ 0.8 0.5 ⎤

T = ⎢ 0.2 0.5 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 Write down a suitable initial state matrix. We S0 = ⎡ 0 ⎤

know that the team loses the first game, so the ⎢1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
second element must have a probability of 1.
3 Identify which state matrix is required. Since S0 corresponds to game 1, game 5 must
correspond to state matrix S4.
4 Enter the transition matrix, T, into a CAS ⎡ 0.8 0.5 ⎤
calculator. ⎢ 0.2 0.5 ⎥ → t
⎣ ⎦
5 Enter the initial state matrix, S0, into the CAS ⎡ 0 ⎤

calculator. ⎢ 1 ⎥ → s0
⎣ ⎦

6 Calculate the probabilities of the outcome of t 4 × s0
game 5 using the rule S4 = T 4 × S0.
⎢ 0.2915 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
8 Write down the answer. As we are interested in The probability of winning the fifth game, given
the probability of winning the fifth game, we that the team lost the first game, is 0.7085.
look at the first element of the matrix.
Alternative forms of the state matrix

It is not necessary to express a state matrix in terms of probabilities. We can use percentages or even raw
numbers, as the following example illustrates.
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
Suppose there are 800 people in a town who watch the two current affairs shows on television:
Breakdown and News Roundup. Assume they all watch just one of the shows every week night.
Also assume that if a person were to watch Breakdown on a particular night, then there is a
probability of 0.35 that she will watch Breakdown the next night. If she were to watch News
Roundup on a particular night, there is a probability of 0.45 that she will watch Breakdown the
next night. These probabilities remain constant.
If 300 people watch Breakdown on Tuesday night of a particular week, how many will watch
each show on the next Thursday night?
THINK WRITE
1 Set up a table that shows the

Watches Watches News
information given.
Breakdown Roundup on
on first night first night
Watches Breakdown 0.35 0.45
on next night
Watches News
Roundup on next
night
2 Complete the table using the Watches Watches News

knowledge that the columns must add Breakdown Roundup on
to one. on first night first night
Watches Breakdown 0.35 0.45
on next night
Watches News 0.65 0.55
Roundup on next
night
3 Write the transition matrix. ⎡ 0.35 0.45 ⎤

T=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.65 0.55 ⎦
4 The initial state matrix must show how

⎡ 300 ⎤
many watch each show on the Tuesday S0 = ⎢ ⎥
night. If 300 watch Breakdown, then ⎣ 500 ⎦
500 (800 − 300) must watch News
Roundup.

5 Idenfity which state matrix is required. Since S0 corresponds to Tuesday night, then Thursday
night must correspond to state matrix S2.
6 Enter the transition matrix, T, into a ⎡ 0.35 0.45 ⎤
CAS calculator. ⎢ 0.65 0.55 ⎥ → t
⎣ ⎦
7 Enter the initial state matrix, S0, into ⎡ 300 ⎤

the CAS calculator. ⎢ 500 ⎥ → s0
⎣ ⎦
8 Calculate the number of people who t 2 × s0

watch each show on Thursday night.
Use S2 = T 2 × S0.
9 Record the result. ⎡ 327 ⎤

⎢ 473 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
10 Write the answer, remembering to 327 watch Breakdown and 473 watch News Roundup
round off to the nearest whole number on Thursday night.
if necessary.
Exercise 11G Transition matrices and Markov chains

1 WE25 Consider a simple model of the behaviour of a netball team. If it wins a game, then
the probability that it wins the next game is 0.75. If it loses, then the probability that it wins
the next game is only 0.5. Write down the transition matrix that represents the transition from
one game to the next.
2 WE26 Suppose the conditional probabilities expressed in question 1 remain constant throughout the
netball season. Also, suppose the team wins the first game of the season. Express the problem in matrix
form and find the probability that the team loses the third game of the season.
⎡ 0.6 0.7 ⎤ ⎡ 30 ⎤
3 WE27 For a transition matrix T = ⎢ ⎥ and an initial state matrix S0 = ⎢ 70 ⎥ , calculate:
⎣ 0.4 0.3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
a S1 b S2 c S3.
⎡ 0.35 0.5 ⎤ ⎡ 800 ⎤
4 For a transition matrix T = ⎢ ⎥ and an initial state matrix S0 = ⎢ ⎥, calculate, giving
⎣ 0.65 0.5 ⎦ ⎣ 200 ⎦
answers to the nearest whole number:
a S1 b S2 c S4.
⎡ 0.6 0.25 ⎤
5 For a transition matrix T = ⎢ 3
⎥, calculate T . Use the result to calculate S3 if the initial
⎣ 0.4 0.75 ⎦
state matrix S0 = ⎡⎢ 1 ⎥.
⎤
⎣0 ⎦
⎡ 0.85 0.5 ⎤
6 For a transition matrix T = ⎢ 4
⎥, calculate T . Use the result to calculate S4 if the initial
⎣ 0.15 0.5 ⎦
state matrix S0 = ⎡⎢ 1 ⎤⎥.
⎣0 ⎦
7 WE28 A school canteen offers vegetable or tomato soup in a cup each day. It is noticed that 30%
of students who have vegetable soup on a given day select tomato soup the next day, and 60% who
have tomato soup choose vegetable soup on the next day. There are 500 students who use the canteen
each day, and they all have vegetable or tomato soup, but not both. On a particular Monday, 200 have
vegetable soup and 300 have tomato soup.
a Set up a transition matrix for this situation.
b Write down the initial state matrix.

c How many students will have vegetable soup and how many will have tomato soup on the Friday
of that week? (Answers must be given to the nearest whole number.)
d How many will have each type of soup on the following Friday? (Note that the canteen does not
open on the weekend.)
8 Frank Viccuci is the goalkeeper for his soccer team. Assume that he always dives sideways when
defending penalty kicks. If he dives to the right on a given occasion, then the probability that he dives to
the right on the next occasion is 0.4. The transition matrix for the probabilities of Frank diving to
either side, given the side he dived to on the previous occasion, is ⎡ 0.4 0.8 ⎤.
⎢ 0.6 0.2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
a If Frank dives to the left on a penalty he defends in today’s game, what is the probability that he
will dive to the right for the next penalty?
b Suppose there is a penalty shoot-out that consists of each team taking five penalty shots at goal.
The player taking the fifth penalty kicks to the right. If Frank had dived to the left on the first
penalty, what is the probability that he dives to the right on the fifth penalty? Give answers
accurate to 2 decimal places.
9 Assume that the probability of a particular football team winning its next game is 0.75 if it won its
previous game and 0.55 if it lost its previous game.
a If the team was successful in the opening game of the season, calculate the probability that it
will win:
i the second game of the season
ii the fifth game of the season
iii the tenth game of the season
iv the twelfth game of the season.
Give answers accurate to 4 decimal places.
b Repeat the calculations to find the corresponding probabilities if the team lost its opening game.
c Can you predict, without further calculation, what is likely to happen in the last game of the
season? (Assume the season lasts for twenty-four games.)
10 Tasha likes to vary her gym routines in a special way. If she does a cycling class one day, the
probability that she will do a Pilates session the next day is 0.6, and if she does a Pilates session one
day, the probability she does cycling next day is 0.75. Assume that Tasha goes to the gym every day
and does only cycling or Pilates.
a Write down the transition matrix for this situation.
b If Tasha cycles on Saturday, what is the probability that she also cycles the next Tuesday?
c What is the probability that she does Pilates on that Tuesday?
d What is the probability that she does Pilates on the next Tuesday?

Two events A and B are independent if each event has no effect on the likelihood of the other.
Consider two independent events A and B, where event A follows event B. If the probability of event A
is unaffected by event B, then we can say that the probability of A, given B has happened, is the same as
the probability of A (whether or not B has happened), or, using symbols:
Pr(A | B) = Pr(A) [1]
P r (A ∩ B)
But Pr( A | B) = using the conditional probability formula. Rearranging the above equation
we have: P r (B)
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(B) Pr(A | B) [2]
Note: Equation [2] has wide application in probability. It may be extended and
interpreted as: ‘When calculating the probability of a chain of events, you may simply multiply by
the probability of the next event, as long as the effect of previous events is taken into account’.
Substituting [1] into [2] we have:
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) Pr(B)

1. Pr(A ∩ B) means the probability of events A and B occurring.
2. If Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B), then the events A and B are independent.
One of the 12 outcomes possible when a coin and a die are simultaneously tossed is a Head for the coin
and a 5 on the die. The number 5 obtained with the die does not come about because the coin comes up a
Head, and getting a Head with the coin is not a result of the number 5 appearing uppermost on the die.
We can verify the expression given for independent events by looking further at the example of the
coin and die.
What is the probability of getting a Tail and a number from 3 to 4 inclusive?
The event space is ξ = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6}, with n(ξ ) = 12.
Let A be the event ‘getting a Tail’ and B be the event ‘getting a number from 3 to 4 inclusive’.
n(A ∩ B) 2 1
Then A ∩ B = {T3, T4}, n(ξ) = 12, so Pr(A ∩ B) = = = .
n(ξ ) 12 6
Now Pr(A) = 1 and Pr(B) = 2 = 1, so Pr(A) × Pr(B) = 1 × 1 = 1.

2 6 3 2 3 6
So Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B); thus the two events are independent.
WORKED EXAMPLE 29
Given that events A and B are independent, find the value of x if Pr(A) = 0.55, Pr(B) = 0.6 and
Pr(A ∩ B) = x.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the formula for independent events. Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B)
2 Substitute the given information. x = 0.55 × 0.6
3 Simplify. x = 0.33
WORKED EXAMPLE 30
Show that if Pr(A) = 0.5, Pr(B) = 0.8 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.9, then A and B are independent.
THINK WRITE
1 Use the Addition Law for probabilities to find Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A ∩ B). 0.9 = 0.5 + 0.8 − Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.4
2 Calculate Pr(A) × Pr(B). Pr(A) × Pr(B) = 0.5 × 0.8
= 0.4
Since Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B), A and B are
independent events.
WORKED EXAMPLE 31
Two spinners each labelled with the numbers 1, 2, 3 are spun.

A is the event ‘an odd number with the first spinner’. 1 2 1 2
B is the event ‘an even number with the second spinner’.
C is the event ‘an odd number from each spinner’. 3 3
a Calculate Pr(A), Pr(B) and Pr(C ). Spinner 1 Spinner 2
b Decide which of the pairs of events AB, AC, BC is independent.
THINK WRITE
a 1 List ξ, A, B and C. a ξ = {11, 12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 31, 32, 33}
A = {11, 12, 13, 31, 32, 33}, B = {12, 22, 32},
C = {11, 13, 31, 33}
2 Calculate Pr(A), Pr(B) and Pr(C ). Pr(A) = 6 = 2, Pr(B) = 3 = 1, Pr(C) = 4
9 3 9 3 9

b Check to see if b A ∩ B = {12, 32}, Pr(A ∩ B) = 2
9
Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B),
Pr(A) × Pr(B) = 23 × 13
Pr(A ∩ C) = Pr(A) × Pr(C ),
Pr(B ∩ C) = Pr(B) × Pr(C ). = 29
Pr (A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B), so A and B are
independent.
A ∩ C = {11, 13, 31, 33}, Pr(A ∩ C ) = 49
Pr(A) × Pr(C ) = 23 × 49
8
= 27
Pr(A ∩ C ) ≠ Pr(A) × Pr(C ), so A and C are not
independent.
B ∩ C = ϕ, Pr(B ∩ C ) = 0
Pr(B) × Pr(C ) = 13 × 49 = 27
4
Pr(B ∩ C ) ≠ Pr(B) × Pr(C ), so B and C are not

independent.
When the probabilities of all possible outcomes are not equally likely, the probability of
each outcome is placed on the corresponding branch of the tree diagram. When each branch is
representing an outcome from independent events, you can follow the branches and multiply the
probabilities together.
WORKED EXAMPLE 32
A moneybox contains three $1 coins and two $2 coins. The moneybox is shaken; one coin falls out and
is put back in the box. This is repeated twice more. If each coin has an equal probability of falling out:
a represent this information on a tree diagram
b calculate the probability of getting three $1 coins
c calculate the probability of getting at least two $2 coins.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 There are three $1 coins and five coins a

altogether. The probability of a $1 coin
falling out is 35 = 0.6.
2 There are two $2 coins and five coins
altogether. The probability of a $2 coin
falling out is 25 = 0.4.
3 Place the probability of each outcome on the 0.6 $1 $1, $1, $1
corresponding branch of the tree diagram. 0.6 $1
0.4 $2 $1, $1, $2
$1 0.6
0.6 0.4 $1 $1, $2, $1
$2
0.4 $2 $1, $2, $2
0.6 $1 $2, $1, $1

0.4 0.6 $1 $2 $2, $1, $2
$2 0.4
0.6 $1 $2, $2, $1
0.4 $2
0.4 $2 $2, $2, $2
b Multiply the probabilities obtained from the tree b Pr(three $1 coins) = 0.6 × 0.6 × 0.6
diagram corresponding to three $1 coins. = 0.216
c 1 Outcomes corresponding to ‘at least two $2 c
coins’ are ($1, $2, $2), ($2, $1, $2),
($2, $2, $1) and ($2, $2, $2).

2 Calculate and add the probabilities. Pr(at least two $2 coins)
= Pr($1, $2, $2 or $2, $1, $2 or $2, $2, $1
or $2, , $2$2)
= (0.6 × 0.4 × 0.4) + (0.4 × 0.6 × 0.4)
+ (0.4 × 0.4 × 0.6) + (0.4 × 0.4 × 0.4)
= 0.096 + 0.096 + 0.096 + 0.064
= 0.352
WORKED EXAMPLE 33
Christos estimates his chances of passing Maths, Science and English as 0.75,
0.6 and 0.5 respectively. TUTORIAL
a Represent this information on a tree diagram. eles-1453
b Assuming the events are independent, calculate the probability that: Worked example 33
i he passes all three subjects ii he passes at least Maths and English
iii he passes at least one subject.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
a 1 Name the three events. a Let M, S, E be the events ‘passing Maths’,

‘passing Science’ and ‘passing English’
respectively.
2 Calculate Pr(M ′), Pr(S ′) and Pr(E ′). M ′ is the Pr(M) = 0.75 Pr(M′) = 0.25
event of failing Maths. Pr(S) = 0.6 Pr(S′) = 0.4
Pr(E ) = 0.5 Pr(E′) = 0.5
3 Use the information to draw the tree diagram. Maths Science English
0.5 E MSE
0.6 S
0.5 E' MSE'
M 0.5
0.75 E MS'E
0.4 S'
0.5 E' MS'E'
0.5 E M'SE
0.25 0.6 S E' M'SE'
M' 0.5
0.5 E M'S'E
0.4 S'
0.5 E' M'S'E'
b i Multiply the probabilities corresponding b i Pr(MSE) = Pr(M) × Pr(S) × Pr(E)

to passes in all three subjects. = 0.75 × 0.6 × 0.5
= 0.225
ii 1 We require that Christos pass both ii Pr(MSE or MS ′E)
Maths and English and either pass or fail = Pr(MSE) + Pr(MS ′E)
Science.
2 These events are independent, so we may = Pr(M) × Pr(S) × Pr(E)
multiply the individual probabilities. + Pr(M) × Pr(S ′) × Pr(E)
= 0.75 × 0.6 × 0.5 + 0.75 × 0.4 × 0.5
3 Simplify. = 0.375
iii Passing at least one subject is the complement of iii Pr(passes at least one subject)
failing all three subjects. = 1 – Pr( M′S′E′)
= 1 – 0.25 × 0.4 × 0.5
= 1 – 0.05
= 0.95

Exercise 11H Independent events
1 WE29 Given that events A and B are independent, find the value of x if:
a Pr(A) = 0.4, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∩ B) = x
b Pr(A) = 0.7, Pr(B) = x and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.49
c Pr(A) = x, Pr(B) = 0.8 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.32
d Pr(A) = 0, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∩ B) = x
e Pr(A) = 0.375, Pr(B) = x and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.225.
2 WE30 Show that if Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.25 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.7, then A and B are independent.
3 Two coins are tossed.
a List the event space.
b Show that the two events ‘Heads with the first coin’ and ‘Tails with the second coin’ are
independent.
4 A coin is tossed twice. If A is the event ‘Heads with the first toss’ and B is the event ‘two Heads’,
decide if the two events are independent.
5 A coin is tossed and a die is rolled.
a What is the probability of getting Heads with the coin and a number greater than 2 with
the die?
b Establish if the events ‘Tails with the coin’ and ‘getting an even number with the die’ are
independent.
6 MC Pr(A) = 0.4 and Pr(B) = 0.5. If A and B are independent events, the value of Pr(A ∪ B) is:
A 0.5 B 0.7 C 0.4 D 0.9 E 0.8
7 WE31 A standard die coloured red and a standard die coloured blue are rolled. If A = ‘two odd
numbers’, B = ‘a 1 or a 5 with the first die’ and C = ‘the sum of the two numbers is less than 4’:
a calculate Pr(A), Pr(B) and Pr(C )
b decide whether each of AB, AC and BC are independent.
8 MC Two coins are tossed and a die is rolled. The probability that there are less than two Heads and
the number showing uppermost on the die is a 2 or a 5 is:
3 1 2 1 1
A B C D E
4 3 3 24 4
9 MC The probabilities of Anna, Bianca and Celia passing a Geography test are 0.75, 0.5 and 0.6
respectively. The probability that only two girls will pass the next Geography test is:
A 0.65 B 0.275 C 0.45 D 0.14 E 0.15
10 MC A die is biased so that the probability of rolling a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 is 0.25, 0.2, 0.1, 0.1, 0.15
or 0.2 respectively. If the die is rolled twice, the probability that the sum of the two numbers rolled is
greater than 9 is:
A 0.2255 B 0.4355 C 0.5650 D 0.1625 E 0.1255
11 WE32 A box contains 6 red marbles and 4 blue marbles. One marble is randomly drawn, its colour
is noted and the marble is put back in the box. This procedure is done two more times. Represent the
information as a tree diagram and calculate the probability of getting:
a three red marbles
b two red marbles and one blue marble in any order
c three red marbles or three blue marbles.
12 One card is randomly drawn from a standard deck of 52 cards, then the card is replaced and a
second card randomly chosen. Determine the probability that:
a both cards are aces
b both cards are spades
c the two cards are different colours.
13 A die is biased so that the probability of obtaining the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 is 0.1, 0.3, 0.1, 0.2, 0.2
and 0.1 respectively. If the die is rolled twice, find the probability of rolling:
a two 6s
b an odd number followed by an even number
c two numbers that sum to 4
d two numbers whose sum is greater than 10.

14 A Krisp-O cereal box contains an action card of a famous sports player selected from 10 cricket stars,
25 football identities and 15 tennis celebrities.
a What is the probability that a randomly selected box of Krisp-O contains a card of a cricket
player?
b What is the probability of finding cards of football players in each of two boxes randomly
selected from the supermarket shelf?
c What is the probability that three randomly selected packs of Krisp-O will provide cards of
different sports?
15 WE33 Three types of seedling (daisy, rose and orchid) have probabilities of surviving any one week as
0.9, 0.85 and 0.8 respectively.
a Represent this information on a tree diagram.
b Assuming the seedlings’ chance of survival are independent, calculate the probability that:
i after one week all three seedlings will have survived
ii more than one seedling will survive to the end of the first week.
16 Ibrahim estimates the probability of rain on Monday and Tuesday as 0.7 and 0.4 respectively.
Assuming that the events ‘rain on Monday’ and ‘rain on Tuesday’ are independent:
a represent this information on a tree diagram
b calculate the probability of rain on both days
c calculate the probability of no rain on at least one of the two days.
17 A school junior swim team has five Year 7 students and seven Year 8 students. A merit certificate is to
be awarded to one student from Year 7 and to one student from Year 8.
a If each student has an equal chance of selection, state the probability of a particular student from
Year 7 and a particular student from Year 8 receiving the award.
b If a special achievement certificate is also to be given to one of the students, what is the
probability that a particular student wins two awards, assuming that each student has the same
chance of being selected?
18 To open a combination lock involves using the correct sequence of
three digits selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and
9, where a digit may be used more than once. If each
digit is randomly selected:
a calculate the probability of success after
one try
b calculate the probability of success after
one try given that the three digits are known to
be odd
c calculate the probability of success after one try
given that the first and third digits are known to be the same.
19 A leather bag contains 4 black beads, 3 red beads and 3 white beads. Inside a plastic bag are
5 black beads, 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A nylon bag contains 6 black beads, 1 red bead and
3 white beads.
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9809 One bead is randomly withdrawn from each bag. What is the probability of getting:
SkillSHEET 11.2 a three black beads?
Sampling without b a red bead from the leather bag but not a red bead from the plastic bag?
replacement
c at least two white beads?
20 One letter is randomly selected from each of the words HOORAY FOR MATHS. Find the
probability of getting:
a three vowels
b at least two consonants
c at least one vowel which is not the letter O.
21 At Greengate Secondary College, the probability of a VCE student proceeding to university studies is
50%, the probability of enrolling in TAFE courses is 20%, and there is a 30% probability of finding
employment immediately after completion of the VCE. For a group of four randomly selected VCE
students, what is the probability that:
a all of them will undertake university studies?
b all will seek employment or all will undertake TAFE courses?

11I Simulation
Simulation methods are used to model events when direct investigations may not be possible or practical
because of factors such as insufficient time, possible danger or the expense involved. The aim of such
methods is to obtain results comparable to the outcomes that would have been observed if the event had been
DIGITAL DOC
examined directly. For example, the possible effects of air resistance on the structure and stability of a newly doc-9810
designed aeroplane may be investigated by performing wind-tunnel experiments using a scale model of the Extension
aircraft. On a larger scale, the economic implications arising from interest rate changes may be investigated Sampling without
replacement
using mathematical models that will take into account relevant variables such as unemployment and the cost
of living. Altering the value and type of variable will provide a range of predicted outcomes.
Many basic simulation techniques involve the generation of random numbers. Methods used include
coins, dice, cards, spinners, random number tables, calculators and computers. A CAS calculator can be
especially useful.
WORKED EXAMPLE 34
Pina estimates her chance of passing an English test as 23, and must take 5 tests during the year.
a Explain how a CAS calculator may be used to simulate the 5 tests.
b Carry out a simulation to obtain an estimate of Pina’s performance on the 5 tests.
THINK WRITE/DISPLAY
a 1 Define the event as shown. a Let P be the event ‘passing the test’.
2 State the relevant probabilities. Pr(P) = 2 and Pr(P′) = 1
3 3
3 Decide which numbers (to be generated on a Let the numbers 1, 2, 3 represent the event
CAS calculator) will represent the event space space, 1 and 2 represent passing the test and
and which will represent favourable outcomes. 3 represent failing the test.
b 1 Use the random number generator feature b randInt(1, 3, 5)
of the CAS calculator to generate 5 random
numbers from the set {1, 2, 3}.
2 Note that the results will vary every time. {3, 3, 1, 2, 2} is a possible set of 5 random
numbers.
3 Three of the 5 outcomes (1, 2 and 2) represent The simulation predicts Pina will pass 3 of the
passing the test. 5 tests.
The results can be summarised as follows.
Random Test
Trial number outcome
1 3 Fail
2 3 Fail
3 1 Pass
4 2 Pass
5 2 Pass
WORKED EXAMPLE 35
The probability of a Jonathan apple tree producing fruit in any one season is 56 and the
probability of a Granny Smith apple tree bearing fruit in a season is 34.
a Assuming the two events are independent, calculate the probability that during a particular
season:
i both trees will produce fruit ii both trees will bear no fruit
iii only one of the trees will bear fruit.
b Devise a suitable simulation model consisting of 10 trials for each tree to obtain estimates
for the probabilities obtained in a.

THINK WRITE
a 1 Define the events as shown. a Let J = Jonathan bears fruit

G = Granny Smith bears fruit
2 State the given probabilities. Pr(J ) = 5, Pr(G) = 3
6 4
5 3
i Find Pr(Jonathan and Granny Smith bear i Pr(J ∩ G) = ×
6 4
fruit). Recall ∩ means ‘and’. 5
=
Since the events are independent, 8
Pr(J ∩ G) = Pr(J) × Pr(G).
1 1
ii Find Pr(both trees bear no fruit). ii Pr(J′ ∩ G′) = ×
6 4
Note: = 1
Pr(J ′ ) = 1 − Pr(J ) = 1 − 5 = 1 and 24
6 6
Pr(G′ ) = 1 − Pr(G) = 1 − 3 = 1
4 4
iii Consider all situations in which only iii Pr(one tree bears fruit)
one of the trees bears fruit and add the = Pr(J ∩ G′) + Pr(J′ ∩ G)
probabilities (recall ‘or’ means + ). =5×1+1×3
6 4 6 4
= 13
b 1 Decide on a method of simulation and decide b Let rolling a 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 on a die represent the
which numbers will represent the event Jonathan bearing fruit.
space and which will represent favourable Let the outcomes HH, TT and HT when two
outcomes. There are 6 possible outcomes coins are tossed represent the Granny Smith
when a die is rolled: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. bearing fruit.
There are 4 possible outcomes when two
coins are tossed: HH, TT, HT, TH.
2 Roll a die 10 times and record the results. ✓ = Fruit × = No fruit
Possible results are shown in the table. Trial Die Coin Jonathan Granny Smith
Alternatively, use a CAS calculator to 1 3 TH ✓ ✕
generate 10 random numbers between 2 4 HT ✓ ✓
1 and 6 by entering (1, 6, 10) in randInt. 3 1 TT ✓ ✓
4 2 HH ✓ ✓
5 6 TH ✕ ✕
6 5 HT ✓ ✓
7 3 TH ✓ ✕
8 6 HH ✕ ✓
9 1 HT ✓ ✓
10 1 HH ✓ ✓
3 Toss two coins 10 times and record the results.
Possible results are shown in the table.
Alternatively, use a graphics calculator to
generate 10 random numbers between 1 and 4
by entering (1, 4, 10) in randInt.
i Trials 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 and 10 (6 trials) i Estimated probability that both trees bear
6
correspond to both trees bearing fruit. fruit = 10
ii Only trial 5 corresponds to both trees ii Estimated probability that both trees bear no
1
bearing no fruit. fruit =
10
iii Trials 1, 7 and 8 correspond to only one iii Estimated probability that only one tree bears
3
tree bearing fruit. fruit = 10
Compare the calculated and simulated probabilities in worked example 35. Repeat the simulation to
obtain a new set of results. How do they compare?

Exercise 11I Simulation
1 WE34 A student estimates the probability of stopping at a particular set of traffic lights when being
driven to school in the morning is 1.
5
a Explain how a graphics calculator can be used to simulate 5 trips to school.
b Carry out 5 simulations to obtain an estimate for the probability of stopping at the intersection.
2 The table below shows the number of bullseyes scored by 40 dart players after 5 throws each.
1 4 0 3 4 2 1 5 4 2
3 0 4 5 2 1 4 3 2 1
0 2 1 4 3 5 3 2 4 4 DIGITAL DOC
doc-9811
0 2 1 0 3 5 4 2 3 1 Random numbers
a Explain how a die or a CAS calculator can be used to obtain the range of numbers given in the
table.
b What proportion of players scored at least 3 bullseyes?
c Using a die (or by some other means), conduct 20 trials and obtain a second value for b.
d Analysis of the results of a particular tournament (at which each player threw 3 darts) gives
the probability of scoring more than 2 bullseyes to be twice the probability of scoring less than
3 bullseyes.
i Explain how a die or a CAS calculator can be used to simulate this situation.
ii Perform 40 trials and compare your results to the given probabilities.
3 A student generated 30 three-digit random numbers using a calculator. The results are given in the table
below.
200 123 399 165 100 355 778 400 150 100
387 001 793 215 030 288 345 009 970 993
546 720 549 139 248 405 369 217 935 782
a Explain how you can obtain 30 random 2-digit numbers from the table to simulate the ages of 30
people aged from 10 years to 100 years.
b Using the method you suggested for a, obtain an estimate of the proportion of the group that is
younger than 50 years of age.
4 WE35 A car may be said to be safe if both of its airbags will operate properly in the event of a
collision. Suppose that the probability of the driver’s airbag failing is 1 and the probability of the front
4
passenger’s airbag not working is 1. Use one die and two coins to simulate the situation of the airbags
3
working/not working.
a Assuming the operation of the airbags to be
independent, find the probability that during a
collision:
i both airbags operate properly
ii neither airbag operates properly
iii only one airbag operates properly.
b Using a die and two coins, devise a simulation
model consisting of 20 trials to obtain an
estimate for the probabilities obtained in a.
5 A die and a coin are each tossed 20 times with the following results.
Die 1 3 2 4 6 5 4 3 2 3 1 6 4 6 2 1 4 2 2 1
Coin H H T H T T T H H T H T H T H T H T H H
H is Heads, T is Tails.
a Explain how the events of tossing a coin and rolling a die can be used to simulate the situation of
forming a particular dancing couple consisting of a man randomly chosen from a group of 2 men
and a woman randomly selected from a group of 3 women.
b Perform 20 simulations to obtain an estimate of the probability of a particular man and a
particular woman dancing together.
6 Each packet of Krisp potato chips contains 1 of 5 different fridge magnets. Use 20 trials for a simulation
analysis to determine how many packets of Krisps need to be purchased in order to obtain all 5 magnets.

Summary
Introduction to Sets and Venn diagrams:
experimental r { } A set is a collection of objects (or elements).
probability r x ∈ A denotes that element x belongs to set A.
r x ∉ A denotes that element x does not belong to set A.
r A finite set can be listed; an infinite set cannot be listed.
r A null set (denoted ϕ) contains no elements.
r A unit set contains one element.
r n(A) The cardinal number of a set is the number of elements it contains.
r ξ The universal set is a set containing all elements being considered.
r A′ The complement of set A is all the elements of the universal set not contained in set A.
r A = B Two sets are equal if they contain the same elements.
r A ↔ B Two sets are equivalent if they have the same cardinal number.
r A ∩ B The intersection of two sets is the set of elements common to both sets.
r A ∩ B = ϕ Two sets are disjoint sets if they have no elements in common.
r A ∪ B The union of two sets A, B is the set that contains all elements belonging to A or B or to
both A and B.
r n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)
r A ⊂ B Set A is a subset of set B if all the elements of set A are contained in set B.
r A ⊃ B Set A contains set B if set A contains all the elements of set B.
r Properties of sets can be represented as Venn diagrams.
Using sets to solve practical problems:
r Use overlapping regions (for example, circles) to represent sets within a universal set (for example,
a rectangle).
r Label each set.
r Fill in any given information.
r Calculate required missing quantities.
Estimated probability and expected number of outcomes:
r Experimental probability =
r Expected number of favourable outcomes
= experimental probability (long-run proportion) × number of trials
Calculating number of favourable outcomes

probabilities
r Pr(favourable outcome) =
total number of outcomes
n(E )
r For event E, Pr(E ) = .
n(ξ )
r Pr(E ) + Pr(E ′) = 1
r Pr(E ′) = 1 − Pr(E )
r If event E is impossible, Pr(E ) = 0.
r If event E is certain to occur, Pr(E ) = 1.
r 0 ≤ Pr(E ) ≤ 1
r Pr(ξ) = 1 and Pr(ϕ) = 0
Tree diagrams and r Outcomes can be illustrated by a tree diagram. The order of events determines the structure of the ‘tree’.
lattice diagrams r A lattice diagram is a grid used to show the possible outcomes when two events occur. It is
particularly useful when dealing with outcomes from rolling a die.
The Addition Law of r For events A, B, Pr(A ∪ B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) − Pr(A ∩ B).
Probabilities r ∪ means ‘or’ and ∩ means ‘and’.
r Two events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.
r If A ∩ B = ϕ, then A, B are mutually exclusive and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.

Karnaugh maps and r Karnaugh maps and probability tables summarise all combinations of two B B'
probability tables events (for example, A and B) and their complements (A′ and B′ ). A
r Use known values, subtotals and the fact that the sum of the probabilities A'
in the outer row and column is equal to 1 to fill in any missing values. 1
Conditional probability r For two events A and B, the conditional probability of event A given event B occurs is
Pr(A ∩ B)
Pr(A | B) = , where Pr(B) ≠ 0 and B is the reduced event space.
n(ξ )
r Venn diagrams, tree diagrams and Karnaugh maps are useful aids in conditional probability
problems.
r The Law of Total Probability: Pr(A) = Pr(A | B) × Pr(B) + Pr(A | B′) × Pr(B′)
Transition matrices r In general, Sn + 1 = T × Sn may be used to determine any state from the previous one.
and Markov chains r In general, Sn = T n × S0.
Independent events r If Pr(A ∩ B) = Pr(A) × Pr(B), then events A and B are independent.
r Pr(A ∩ B) means the probability of events A and B.
Simulation r Simulation techniques are used to model events.

r Outcomes of the event space are randomly obtained but based on certain probabilities.
r Coins, dice, random number tables and calculators can provide random numbers that can be
associated with outcomes of the event space.
r Performing more trials or repeating the simulation will provide better estimates of the probability.

Chapter review
1 A random sampling of 80 ceramic tiles produced at a ceramics factory reveals 8 scratched, 3 chipped
SHORT
ANS WER and 4 broken tiles. Estimate the probability that a tile produced at the factory will be:
a scratched
b chipped or broken
c damaged in some way.
2 A card is randomly selected from a deck, its suit is noted, and then the card is placed back in the deck.
The experiment is repeated to obtain a second card.
a List the possible outcomes for selecting 2 cards in this way.
b Are the outcomes all equally likely? Explain. $1000 $
$10 Jackpot 60
3 A game show host spins the wheel shown at right. What is the probability that
it a se
Lo 00
$1
ll
Lo
the wheel ends on:
se
$200
$100 Bo
a the jackpot ($1000 prize)?
Pri dy
b a prize greater than $50?
$50
ze
o
$4
$30 0 $500
4 A letter is chosen at random from each of the words GO BLUES. Represent all
possible outcomes on a tree diagram and find the probability that:
a G and B are chosen
b S is chosen
c G or S is chosen.
5 A standard die is thrown and the spinner shown at right is spun.
1
a Show all possible outcomes on a lattice diagram.
3
b Find the probability of getting a number greater than 4 on the die and 2
an odd number on the spinner.
6 A set of 20 uniformly sized cards numbered 1 to 20 is shuffled. What is the probability of drawing a
number less than 8 or an even number from this set?
7 A class of 30 students was asked if there was a pet dog at home and if the students were responsible for
pooper scooping before the backyard lawn was mown. Fourteen students had a dog but only 6 did the
pooper scooping.
a Draw a Karnaugh map showing this information.
b Complete a probability table.
c State the probability that a randomly selected student has a dog but avoids pooper scooping.
8 If Pr(A) = 0.3 and Pr(B | A) = 0.4, find Pr(A ∩ B).
9 Two identical, equally accessible cookie jars sit on a kitchen bench. Jar 1 contains 6 chocolate and
9 plain biscuits, and jar 2 contains 12 chocolate and 8 plain biscuits. One biscuit is selected randomly
from one of the jars. If a chocolate biscuit is selected, what is the probability that it came from jar 1?
10 Of 50 people surveyed, 35 played tennis and 26 played netball. Everyone surveyed played at least
one of these sports.
a How many people played both netball and tennis?
b If one person is selected at random, what is the probability that:
i he/she plays tennis only?
ii he/she plays netball?
iii he/she plays tennis, given that he/she also plays netball?
MULT IP L E 1 Twelve nuts are taken from a jar containing macadamias and cashews. If 3 macadamias are obtained,
C H OICE the estimated probability of obtaining a cashew is:
1 1 1 3 3
A B C D E
12 4 3 4 1
2 From a normal pack of 52 playing cards, one card is randomly drawn and replaced. If this is done
208 times, the number of red or picture cards (J, Q or K) expected to turn up is:
A 150 B 130 C 120 D 160 E 128
3 A cubic die with faces numbered 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 6 is rolled. The probability of rolling an even number is:
1 2 1 5 1
A B C D E
3 3 6 6 2

4 The probability of rolling an odd number or a multiple of 2 using the die in question 3 is:
1 1 3 2
A 1 B C D E
3 4 4 3
5 The tree diagram that describes the outcomes when three coins are tossed is:
A TH B H T C H
TH H T
T H
H H
T H T
TH H T
TH T H
T H
T
T H
D H H E HT
H T
T T TH
H H
T HT
T T
6 Bag A contains 3 red and 4 blue marbles, and
Bag B contains 3 yellow and 2 green marbles, as
shown at right. A marble is drawn from Bag A,
then one is taken from Bag B. Which diagram
below best illustrates this situation?
Bag A Bag B
A Yellow RY B Red YR
Red Yellow
Green RG Blue YB
Yellow BY Red GR
Blue Green
Green BG Blue GB
C Blue RB D Red
Red
Green RG Blue
Yellow
Blue YB Green
Yellow
Green YG
E Red RR
Blue RB
Red Yellow RY
Green RG
Red BR
Blue BB
Blue
Yellow BY
Green BG
Red YR
Blue YB
Yellow Yellow YY
Green YG
Red GR
Green Blue GB
Yellow GY
Green GG

7 If Pr(A) = 0.6, Pr(B) = 0.7 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.8, then Pr(A ∩ B) is:
A 0.1
B 0.5
C 0.9
D 0.2
E 0.6
8 Consider the Karnaugh map at right, where C is ‘people who like comedy A A′
movies’ and A is ‘people who like action movies’.
C 19
The number of people who like only action movies is:
A 26 B 30 C 18 C′ 25
D 20 E 23 26 50
9 Which of the following alternatives gives the correct values of a and b in
the probability table at right? B B′
A a = 0.2, b = 0.3
A 0.4 0.7
B a = 0.3, b = 0.2
C a = 0.3, b = 0.6 A′ a b
D a = 0.6, b = 0.3 0.4
E a = 0.7, b = 0.4
10 If Pr(B | A) = 0.45 and Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.35, then Pr(A) is:

7 3 4 5 8
A B C D E
9 8 9 8 9
11 A fair coin is tossed twice. If A = Tails on first toss, B = Heads on second toss and C = both tosses are
Heads, which of the following is true?
1
A Pr(A) =
4
B Pr(B) = Pr(C)
C A and B are independent.
D A and C are independent.
E B and C are independent.
3
12 An archer has a probability of approximately of hitting the bullseye from a particular distance. The
8
spinner at right is used to simulate 10 rounds of 4 shots at such a target, and the
results are as follows, where B = blue (bullseye) and R = red (non-bullseye).
B, R, R, R B, R, B, R R, B, R, R
R, B, R, R R, B, B, R
R, R, B, B R, B, R, R R, R, R, R
R, B, B, R B, R, B, B
Based on this simulation, the probability of getting 2 bullseyes in a round of 4 shots is:
1 3 2 5 3
A B C D E
4 8 5 8 4
E X TENDED
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
R E SP ONS E 1 For a transition matrix T = ⎢ 0.22 0.33 ⎥ and an initial state matrix S0 = ⎢ 0.5 ⎥ , calculate, accurate
to 3 decimal places: ⎣ 0.78 0.67 ⎦ 0.5
⎣ ⎦
a S1
b S4.
2 The manager of a snow resort has noticed that, if it snows on a given day, there is a 70% chance that
it will snow the following day. If it does not snow, there is only a 30% chance that it will snow the
following day. John arrived on a Saturday when the weather was sunny and clear.
a What is the probability that he will have fresh snow the following Tuesday?
b What is the probability that he will have fine weather for the drive home on the following
Saturday? (Give answers to 3 decimal places.)
3 A factory has a machine in poor working condition that often produces faulty components. If it
produces a faulty component, there is a probability of 0.25 that it will follow this up with another faulty
component. However, each time it produces a good component, there is a probability of only 0.05 that

it will next produce a faulty component. If there is a 20% chance that the first component of the day is
faulty, set up the initial state matrix and find the probability that:
a the second component is faulty b the fifth component is faulty.
4 One student is selected at random from each of Years 7, 8 and 9. If there are 148 girls and 114 boys in
Year 7, 126 girls and 97 boys in Year 8, and 115 girls and 122 boys in Year 9, find the probability that
all students chosen are boys. Give your answer to 3 decimal places.
5
5 The probability that the newspaper is delivered to Geoff’s house before 8.00 am is , and the probability
9 7
that he arrives at work to find a free parking space in his company’s car park is 10. Assuming these
events are independent:
a use a CAS calculator to conduct a simulation of 28 days’ duration
b find the probability, based on the simulation, that on one day Geoff misses out on a company car
park space and his paper arrives late
c calculate the theoretical probability of the combination of events described in part b.
6 Consider 3 fair coins being tossed.

If A = Heads with the first coin, B = Tails with the
second coin and C = Tails with the third coin:
a list the event space (for example, use HTH for
‘Head then Tail then Head’)
b find:
i Pr(A)
ii Pr(B)
iii Pr(C)
iv Pr(A ∩ B)
v Pr(A ∩ C)
vi Pr(B ∩ C)
vii Pr(A ∩ B ∩ C)
viii Pr(A) × Pr(B) × Pr(C)
c propose how you might define independence for 3 events.

7 A large number of asthma sufferers were asked to volunteer for the testing of a new drug. Only some
of the volunteers were given the drug, but all of the volunteers were observed to see if they developed
asthma on a smoggy day. The results are shown in the table below.
Given drug Not given drug
Developed asthma 148 59
Did not develop
566 184
asthma
a How many people were selected to take part in the study?

b If a person was randomly selected from the volunteers, what is the probability that they were
given the drug?
c What is the probability that a randomly selected person developed asthma on this day?
d Given that a volunteer was given the drug, what is the probability that they developed asthma?
e From this information, what can you conclude about the effectiveness of the drug in preventing
asthma?
It was decided that conclusive observations about the effectiveness of the drug could not be made
after one day, so the same volunteers continued with the study for three months. (Assume that the
number of people given the drug is unchanged.) The results were:
395 people were given the drug and did not have an asthma attack
143 people were given the drug but had exactly one episode of asthma per month
97 people were not given the drug and developed asthma more than once a month
84 people were not given the drug and had exactly one episode of asthma each month.
f Represent this information using a Venn diagram.
g How many people were given the drug and had more than one episode of asthma per month?
h How many people in the study were not given the drug and did not have an episode of asthma?
i Given that a volunteer had been given the drug, what is the probability that they have more than
DIGITAL DOC one episode of asthma per month?
doc-9812
Test Yourself j Given that a volunteer had more than one episode of asthma per month, what is the probability
Chapter 11 they had taken the drug?

ICT activities
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CHAPTER 11 � Introductory probability 523
5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_11.indd 523 8/05/13 3:32 PM

Answers CHAPTER 11
INTRODUCTORY PROBABILITY 2 a Head Red HR b 1
4
11 a
Head Head HHH
Head Tail HHT
Exercise 11A Introduction to White HW Tail Head HTH
n(ξ ) = 4 Tail HTT n(ξ ) =8
experimental probability Head Head THH
Red TR Tail Tail THT
1 0.6 2 0.7 Head TTH
Tail White TW Tail
3 a 0.66 b 0.34 Tail TTT
4 48 5 250 1 1 1
3 a A CA b 6 b 8 c 2
6 200 7 A C
8 C T CT
12 Outcomes n(ξ) = 12
9 18 squares, 24 circles C AC
A S VCS
10 a 120 b 140 T AT V C L VCL
11 E C TC B VCB
V LCV
12 249 (Hot-Shot), 401 (Zap Inc) T L C S LCS
A TA
13 10 B LCB
14 a i 72 ii 24 iii 12 1 V SCV
4 a H HH b 2 S C L SCL
b 4 losses or draws H B SCB
T HT V BCV
15 A B C S BCS
16 a 0.7597 H TH L BCL
b 0.2403 T
T TT 13 Head AH 1
c i 1200 ii 380 Alan
3
1 1 1 Tail AT
5 a b c Head BH
4 4 4 Bjorn n(ξ ) = 6
Exercise 11B Calculating probabilities 6 B Tail BT
1 a ξ = {Red, Blue, Yellow, Green} 7 Red 2R 3 Carl Head CH
2 Blue 2B
b n(ξ) = 4 Red 4R
10 Tail CT
4
2 ξ = {A, B, C, D, E, F, G, . . . , X, Y, Z} Blue
Red
4B
6R n(ξ ) 1
3 n(ξ) = 52
6
Blue 6B = 10 14 a
S
F MSF b 4
M N MSN
8 Red 8R
4 a ξ = {spades H, spades T, clubs H, Blue 8B S F TSF
10 Red 10R T N TSN
clubs T, hearts H, hearts T, diamonds H, Blue 10B F HSF
diamonds T} 1
H S
N HSN
b S = {spades H, spades T} 8 4 24 a 3 F SSF
S S
5 ξ = {HH, HT, TH, TT} 2 5 25 N SSN
1
6 a ξ = {boy Time Out, boy Mars Bar, boy
6 26
34
n(ξ ) = 6 b 6
4 1 1 1
3 15 a 4 b 4 c 4
Violet Crumble, girl Time Out, girl Mars 5 35
c
1
Bar, girl Violet Crumble} 6 36 2 3
16 8 17 D
b M = {boy Mars Bar, girl Mars Bar}
9 T1 18 a Outcomes
1 6 1
7 a 7 b 7 T2 12 H HHHH
J1 T3 H T HHHT
1 73 T4 H HHTH
8a 1 b 154
c 154
n(ξ) = 12 H T T HHTT
H H HTHH
1 1 3
T1 J1 is the T H T HTHT
9 a b c T2 H HTTH
13 4 13 J2 first jacket, T T HTTT
T3 H H THHH
10 T4 T1 is the T THHT
d 13 e1 first tie. H T H THTH
T1 T T THTT
1 T H H TTHH
T2 T TTHT
10 40 000 J3 T3 T H TTTH
T4 T TTTT
1 1 1
11 a 2 b 6 c 2 d 1
1 3 1
1 4 1 1 1
b 16 c 8 d 2
12 a 2 b 5 c 4 d 2 10 Outcomes
L 6
R F 1 1
5 4 19 a 6 b 4 c
13 a 11 b 11 T1 G L
5
9
F
L 4
Die 2
9 3 B 3
14 21 = 7 F
L 2
R
F 1
3 7 12 14 T2 L
15 a 19 b 19 c 19 d 19 G F
L 1 2 34 5 6
B
8 1 F Die 1
16 a 17 b 85 c 0 R L
F
T3 G L 20 a
F T
Coin
L
B F H
Exercise 11C Tree diagrams and lattice L
R F
diagrams 1 2 3 4 5 6
L
T4 G F Die
1 a B BB 1 L
B R BR b i 9 B F 1 1
b 12 c 4
G BG
1
n(ξ ) = 24
B RB n(ξ ) = 9
R R RR ii 9 T1 is the first small triangle. 1 1 5
G RG R is red, G is green, B is blue. 21 a 36 b 18 c 6
B GB 2
G R GR iii 9 L is low sheen. 1 1
d 9 e 4
G GG F is full gloss.

Exercise 11E Karnaugh maps and 4
22 1 B B′
6 probability tables
23 D1
M1 D2
1
1 a A 35 29 64
E1
M2 D1 6 B B′
D2
D1 A′ 56 44 100
M1
E2 D2 A 8 17 25
M2 D1
D2
91 73 164
D1 A′ 7 6 13
M1 D2
E3 5a B
M2
D1
15 23 38 B′
D2
A 0.45 0.14 0.59
E1 is the first entrée. ξ
M1 is the first main meal. A′ 0.3 0.11 0.41
A B
D1 is the first dessert. 0.75 0.25 1
n(ξ ) = 12 17 8 7
b
Exercise 11D The Addition Law of B B′
6
Probabilities A 0.61 0.27 0.88
1 0.7 2 0.68 3 0.89
b B A′ 0.12 0 0.12
4 0.3 5 0.45 6 0.41 B′
7 0.78, 0.39 0.73 0.27 1
A 69 33 102
8 A and B are mutually exclusive.
A′ 45 27 72 c
9 A⊂B B B′
1 3 3 11
10 a i 4
ii 13
iii 52
iv 26 114 60 174 A 6 10 16
b No A′ 4 0 4
11 a i 5
3
ii 5
2
iii 0 iv 1 ξ
A
10 10 20
B
b Yes
1 1 3 1 d B
12 a 10 b 2 c 20 d 2 33 69 45 B′
1 3 13 A 7 15 22
13 a 2
b 10
c 20 27
2 2
A′ 18 5 23
14 3 15 5
c B B′
25 20 45
1 1
16 a 13 b 4
A 0.27 0.3 0.57 6 a B B′
2 27
c 13 d 52 A′ 0.4 0.03 0.43 A 0.27 0.37 0.64
27 3 12
17 a 80 b 8 c 65 0.67 0.33 1 A′ 0.09 0.27 0.36
18 a
1
b
1 0.36 0.64 1
14 7 ξ
2 9 A B b B
c 7 d 14 B′
19 a
19
b
5 0.3 0.27 0.4 A 0.15 0.35 0.5
24 8
13 11 A′ 0.25 0.25 0.5
c 24 d 24 0.03
0.4 0.6 1
7 2
20 a 10 b 5 d B B′ 7 E
c 1 d
4 8 a ξ
5 A 0.61 0.03 0.64
3 23 F S
21 a b A′ 0.14 0.22 0.36
4 40 24 6 20
29 0.75 0.25 1
c 40
d 0
10
22 The probability of winning Alotto, Blotto ξ
33 30 32 A B b S
or Clotto is 100 , 100 and 100 respectively, so S′
Alotto is easier to win. 0.03 0.61 0.14 F 6 24 30
23 0.75 F′ 20 10 30
3
24 10 0.22
26 34 60
1 2
25 a i 10 ii 5 2 C
9 S S′
1 9
3
iii 2 iv 10 B B′
F 0.1 0.4 0.5
b The areas are stated to be equal to
A 87 63 150
F′ 0.33 0.17 0.5
ensure that each area has an equal A′ 13 55 68
0.43 0.57 1
chance of being hit, that is, to ensure
100 118 218
equally likely outcomes. F is football, S is soccer.

10 A Exercise 11F Conditional probability c Vegetable 333, tomato 167
11 a B B′ 1 a 0.8 b 0.5 d Same answer as c
2 a 0.6 b 0.69 8 a 0.80 b 0.58
A 0.3 0.3 0.6 4 5 9 a i 0.7500 ii 0.6880
35 4 12 5 0.144
A′ 0.2 0.2 0.4 iii 0.6875 iv 0.6875
2 5
6 0.168 7 3 8 6 b i 0.5500 ii 0.6864
0.5 0.5 1
3
iii 0.6875 iv 0.6875
b 9 a 0.3 b 7 c 0.6875
B B′
0.40 0.75 ⎤
10 a ⎡
10 D 11 A
A 0.1 0.1 0.2 b 0.5365
Pr( B ∩ A) Pr( A) × Pr( B) ⎢⎣ 0.60 0.25 ⎥⎦
A′ 0.7 0.1 0.8 12 Pr( B | A) = = c 0.4635 d 0.4444
Pr( A) Pr( A)
0.8 0.2 1 = Pr( B) Exercise 11H Independent events
20 1 a 0.2 b 0.7
c B 13 a 0.2 b
B′ 27
c 0.4 d 0
2
A 0.5 0.3 0.8 14 a 0.3 b 3 e 0.6
A′ 0.1 0.1 0.2 c 2 Using the Addition Law, Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.15
ξ
A B
and Pr(A) × Pr(B) = 0.15, so A and B are
0.6 0.4 1 independent.
d 0.15 0.3 0.22 3 a {H1H2, H1T2, T1H2, T2T2}
B B′ 1
b Pr(H1 ∩ T2) = and Pr(H1) × Pr(T2) =
1
4 4
A 0 1 1 0.33 4 Not independent
4 4 1
5 a b Independent
1 1 3 3 19 3
A′ 4 2 4
15 a 10 b 30
6 B
16 A 1 1 1
1 3
1 7 a 4 , 3 , 12
4 4 17 a 15
b ξ Mountain b A and B are not independent. A and C
12 Scuba
S S′ are not independent. B and C are not
C 50 110 160 independent.
15 15 30 8 E 9 C 10 D
C′ 95 25 120 11
C is chocolate, Second draw Third draw
145 135 280 First draw 0.6 Red
S is strawberry. 0.6 Red
1 1 Red 0.4 Blue
13 a c 2 d 2 0.6 Red
G G′ A is people 0.6 0.4 Blue
0.4 Blue
less than 20 11 2 0.6 Red
A 0.32 0.22 0.54 years of age, 18 14 19 7 0.4 0.6 Red
Blue 0.4 Blue
A′ 0.44 0.02 0.46 G is people 20 a 3
2
b 75
2 2
c 25 0.4 Blue
0.6 Red
who wear Blue
0.4
0.76 0.24 1 glasses. 21 a 0.40 b 0.32 c 0.13
a 0.216 b 0.432 c 0.28
b i 0.02 ii 0.54 d 0.21 e 0.63
1 1 1
14 a 6 12 a 169 b 16 c 2
B B′ 22 13
13 a 0.01 b 0.24
A 0.08 0.32 0.4 Exercise 11G c 0.11 d 0.05
Transition matrices and
A′ 0.25 0.35 0.6 Markov chains 14 a 5
1
b 4
1
c 50
9
0.33 0.67 1 ⎡ 0.75 0.5 ⎤ 15 a

1 2 0.31
b i 0.35 ii 0.25 iii 0.57
⎢⎣ 0.25 0.5 ⎥⎦ Daisy Rose Orchid
⎡67 ⎤ ⎡63.3 ⎤ 0.8 Survive
15 a B B′ 3a ⎢ ⎥ b ⎢ 0.85 Survive Not survive
⎣33 ⎦ ⎣36.7 ⎥⎦ Survive Not
0.2
0.8 Survive
D 0.18 0.42 0.6 0.9 Not survive
⎡63.67 ⎤ 0.15 survive 0.2
D′ 0.28 0.12 0.4 c ⎢ 0.8
⎣36.33 ⎦⎥
Survive
0.85 Survive Not survive
D is Daily Times, 0.1 Not 0.2
0.46 0.54 1 0.8 Survive
B is Bugle. ⎡380 ⎤ ⎡ 443 ⎤ survive Not
Not survive
4a ⎢ b ⎢ survive 0.2
⎣620 ⎥⎦ ⎣557 ⎥⎦
0.15
b i 0.4 ii 0.28 iii 0.54
b i 0.612 ii 0.941
c 132 ⎡ 435 ⎤
c ⎢ 16 a
16 a ⎣ 565 ⎥⎦ Monday Tuesday
B B′ 0.4 Rain
5
⎡ 0.411 0.368 125 ⎤ ⎡ 0.411 ⎤ Rain
R 10% 15% 25% ⎢⎣ 0.589 0.631875 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.589 ⎥⎦ 0.7 0.6 No rain
R′ 10% 65% 75% ⎡ 0.772 694 0.757 688 ⎤ ⎡ 0.772 694 ⎤

6⎢ 0.3 No 0.4 Rain
⎣ 0.227 306 0.242 313 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0.227 306 ⎥⎦ rain
20% 80% 100% 0.6
No rain
b 0.15 ⎡ 0.70 0.60 ⎤ ⎡ 200 ⎤ b 0.28

7a ⎢ b ⎢
c 0.75 ⎣ 0.30 0.40 ⎥⎦ ⎣300 ⎥⎦ c 0.72

1 1 5 a 4 0.097
17 a 35 b 35 3
Spinner
2 5 a, b Answers will vary.
1 1
18 a 1000 b 125 1 1
c 35
1
c 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 a {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT,
100
Die
3 6 2 TTH, TTT}
19 a 25 b 25 b 9 1 1
b i 2 ii 2
27 7
c 6 10
125 1 1
iii 2 iv 4
1 11 7a
20 a 30 b 15 P P′
1 1
v 4 vi 4
c
1 D 6 8 14
3 1 1
21 a 0.0625 b 0.0097 D′ 0 16 16 vii 8 viii 8
6 24 30 c If Pr(A ∩ B ∩ C ) = Pr(A) × Pr(B) ×
Exercise 11I Simulation
Pr(C ) and A, B and C are ‘piecewise
Answers will vary.
b P P′ independent’ (that is, AB, AC and BC
are all independent pairs of events), then
CHAPTER REVIEW D
3 4 7
A, B and C are independent.
15 15 15
SHORT ANSWER
D′ 0
8 8 7 a 957
1 7 3 15 15
1 a b c b 238 ≈ 0.746
10 80 16 3 12 319
15 15
1
2 a LetH = hearts, D = diamonds, c 69 ≈ 0.216
319
S = spades and C = clubs. c
4
74
Possible outcomes are: 15 d 357 ≈ 0.207
HH DH SH CH 8 0.12
e Answers will vary. Make reference to
2
HD DD SD CD 9 5 the percentage who developed asthma
HS DS SS CS given the drug, compared with those not
HC DC SC CC 10 a 11
12 13 11
given the drug (20.7% compared with
b All outcomes are equally likely as there b i 25 ii 25 iii 26 24.3%).
is an equal number of cards in each suit f ξ
during each selection. MULTIPLE CHOICE
Drug
1 5 1D 2E 3B 395
3 a b 12
12 4A 5C 6A
143 176
4 B GB 7B 8D 9A Asthma > 1
Asthma = 1
L GL 10 A 11 C 12 C
84 97
G U GU
E GE EXTENDED RESPONSE
S GS 62
0.275 ⎤ ⎡ 0.297 ⎤
B OB 1 a ⎡ b ⎢
L OL ⎢⎣ 0.725 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0.703 ⎥⎦ g 176
O U OU 2 a 0.468 h 62
E OE 88
S OS b 0.501 i 357 ≈ 0.246
0.2 ⎤
a 10
1 1
b 5 c 5
3
3 S0 ⎡ a 0.09 b 0.063 176
j 273 ≈ 0.645
⎣⎢ 0.8 ⎦⎥

CHAPTER 12
Combinatorics
doc-9813
12A The addition and multiplication principles 10 Quick Questions
12B Permutations
12C Factorials
12D Permutations using nPr
12E Permutations involving restrictions
12F Arrangements in a circle
12G Combinations using nCr
12H Applications to probability
12A The addition and multiplication

principles
Introduction
Consider how many ways two different letters can be listed from the letters C, A and T if the order
in which the letters are to be listed is not taken into account. We would write CA, CT and AT. If
the order of listing the two letters is taken into consideration, there will be 6 different possibilities,
namely, CA, AC, CT, TC, AT and TA. In this chapter we introduce some methods that will enable
us to effectively determine the number of possible ways objects can be ordered according to given
conditions, without necessarily having to list them. Combinatorial theory is widely applied in areas
such as computer system design, genetics, statistics and probability, where arrangements are of
particular importance.
The addition principle

To reach the top of the hill, Jack and Jill can use public transport (tram or bus) or private transport (hire
car, taxi or motorbike). In how many ways can Jack and Jill go up the hill if only one form of transport is
to be used for the entire trip?
Since the modes of transport are mutually exclusive (that is, two forms of transport cannot be used at
the same time), there are 2 + 3 = 5 different ways of travel.
This straightforward method of summing is the addition principle, which can be stated as: If two
operations can be performed in A or B ways respectively, then both operations can be performed
together in A + B ways.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
A particular mathematics problem can be solved in 2 ways using analytical methods, in 4 ways
using approximation techniques and in 3 ways by trial and error strategies. In how many ways
can the problem be solved?
CHAPTER 12 Combinatorics 529

THINK WRITE
1 List the given information. Analytical 2

Approximation 4
Trial and error 3
2 Use the addition principle as the three methods The total number of ways is 2 + 4 + 3 = 9.
of solving the problem are mutually exclusive.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A stack of playing cards contains four jacks, four queens and four kings. Gary has two jacks, a
queen and a king in his hand. But, to complete his hand, Gary requires three jacks, two queens
or two kings. In how many ways can he complete his hand?
THINK WRITE
1 List the cards remaining in the stack. Two jacks, three queens and three kings remain in
the stack.
2 Gary requires a jack or a queen or a king to 2+3+3=8
complete his hand. Use the addition principle There are eight ways for Gary to complete his
to calculate how many ways he could complete hand.
his hand, given the cards that are remaining.
The multiplication principle

Suppose 4 colours are available to spray-paint 3 different cars. Let O1 be the first operation — selecting a car
— and let O2 be the second operation — picking a paint colour. Also let C1, C2, C3 and P1, P2, P3, P4 denote,
respectively, the cars and the available colours. The 12 different ways in which the job can be undertaken are
{C1P1, C1P2, C1P3, C1P4, C2P1, C2P2, C2P3, C2P4, C3P1, C3P2, C3P3, C3P4}. Since the choice of a particular
car is independent of the colour selected, the total number of possibilities can be obtained by multiplying
together the number of choices available from the Operation 1 Operation 2
two operations. That is, there are 3 × 4 = 12 different O1 O2 P1
ways possible. The tree diagram at right shows the P2
different outcomes. P3
The product of the number of outcomes from P4
each operation provides the total number of possible C1 P1
outcomes of the operations performed sequentially. C2 P2
This method is the basis of the multiplication P3
C3 P4
principle, which states: if two operations can be
performed in A and B ways respectively, then P1
P2
both operations can be performed in succession in
P3
A × B ways. P4
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Juanita has to choose an outfit to wear to a party. She has 6 skirts, 5 jumpers and 8 shirts to
choose from. If any combination of these items will be acceptable attire, in how many styles of
dress can Juanita attend the party?
THINK WRITE
1 Choose a skirt, a jumper and a shirt. There are 6 skirts, 5 jumpers and 8 shirts.
2 Use the multiplication principle. The total number of ways is 6 × 5 × 8 = 240.

We can also represent the sequence of operations of the above example using boxed numbers as
follows.
Skirts Jumpers Shirts
6 5 8 = 240
Each box contains the number of possible outcomes associated with the particular operation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
From a cafeteria 4-course lunch menu, I can choose 3 varieties of soup, 5 types
of seafood, 4 kinds of side dish and 2 types of salad. TUTORIAL
a How many different dishes are offered? eles-1454
Worked example 4
b How many different lunches can be ordered if one dish from each course is
selected?
c How many different types of dish are possible if soup and seafood must be included
with each order?
THINK WRITE
a Write the number of dishes for each course a The 4-course menu offers
and use the addition rule. 3 + 5 + 4 + 2 = 14 different dishes.
b There are 3 soups, 5 seafoods, 4 side dishes b Soup Seafood Side dish Salad
and 2 salads. Use the multiplication rule 3 5 4 2 = 120
(as you must sequentially order a soup,
Number of different lunches is 120
seafood, a side dish and a salad).
c 1 Consider the possible orders containing c Soup Seafood
soup and seafood: 3 5 3 × 5 = 15
soup and seafood only
soup and seafood and a side dish only Soup Seafood Side dish
3 5 4 3 × 5 × 4 = 60
soup and seafood and a salad only Soup Seafood Salad

3 5 2 3 × 5 × 2 = 30
soup and seafood and a side dish and Soup Seafood Side dish Salad
a salad. 3 5 4 2 3 × 5 × 4 × 2 = 120
2 Calculate the number of dishes

possible for each order.
3 Use the addition rule to find the total Number of different types of dish possible
(as you can only order the first, second, = 15 + 60 + 30 + 120
third or fourth combination). = 225
Exercise 12A The addition and multiplication

principles
1 WE1 Juicy Chickens offers 10 varieties of roast chicken dish, 6 types of fried chicken and 5 types of
chicken pie. How many different chicken meals are sold by Juicy Chickens?
2 Freda Frog eats 2 varieties of fly on the first day, 5 varieties on the second day, 9 varieties on the third
day and 14 varieties on the fourth day. Assuming Freda will never consume 2 of the same variety of fly
and that her daily eating habits follow this definite pattern, find how many flies she will eat altogether
in a week.

3 A suburban mall consists of five shops: Teen Fashion, Harry’s Takeaway, Video & Games Arcade, Toy
Palace and Byte Computers. On a busy weekend, 11 people went into Teen Fashion, 27 bought food
from Harry’s Takeaway and 59 people entered the Toy Palace. Each person visited only one store. How
many customers did Teen Fashion, Harry’s Takeaway and Toy Palace have altogether?
4 MC Two pieces of timber can be held together using adhesives, fasteners or clamps. The adhesives
are PVA glue, Liquid Nails and Bondcrete. Fasteners that can be used are nails, screws, rivets and bolts.
There are two different types of clamp available: SureGrip and Hold-tite. If only one adhesive fastener
or clamp is required, the number of ways two pieces of timber can be joined is:
A 2 B 24 C 3 D 4 E 9
5 WE2 From a pack of playing cards, the queen of spades, king of clubs and queen of clubs are drawn. In
how many ways can another card from the deck be drawn so that there will be three queens or two kings?
6 MC There are 4 novels, 7 comic books and 2 biographies on a bookshelf. Zoe selects and reads 2
novels, 3 comics and a biography from the shelf. However, her reading assignment requires that she
read 3 novels, 4 comics or 2 biographies. In how many ways can she select books from the shelf to
meet the minimum requirements of the assignment?
A 6 B 7 C 11 D 13 E 24
7 WE3 Jack and Diane are preparing for their wedding. They will decide on one of 3 churches, one
of 5 available reception centres and one of 10 holiday destinations. How many combinations of church,
reception centre and holiday are possible?
8 Alana lives in Melbourne and intends to go to Sydney via Canberra. She will get to Canberra by bus,
continue on to Sydney by hire car and return home by air. If 4 bus lines are available for the outward
journey to Canberra, 6 car rental agencies can be used to get from Canberra to Sydney and 3 airlines
are available for the return trip, determine how many different ways Alana can make the trip to Sydney
and back.
9 At Burpies restaurant the ‘special meal’ consists of a choice of one of 2 entrées, one of 3 main meat dishes
and one of 4 kinds of dessert. For a ‘surprise feast’ at Belchies restaurant you can have one of 5 different
entrées, select from 4 main meals and decide which one of 3 kinds of dessert to order.
a How many different combinations of dishes are possible in a ‘special meal’ consisting of an
entrée, a meat dish and a dessert?
b Find how many different combinations of dishes are available to a customer who visits both
places and orders a ‘special meal’ and a ‘surprise feast’. (Assume that the customer must have an
entrée, main meal and dessert for the ‘surprise feast’.)
10 MC On a dentist’s waiting room table are 3 piles of reading matter. The first pile consists of
6 different copies of News, the second pile has 5 different issues of Geographic and the third pile
comprises 10 different Woman’s World magazines. A patient randomly chooses one item of reading
from each pile. The number of ways of choosing the 3 items is:
A 21 B 30 C 216 D 19 E 300
11 MC A Whoppa pizza base is made using one of
2 types of cheese and one of 2 toppings. Up to 3
additional toppings are available at extra cost. The
number of different Whoppa pizzas that can be made
containing at least one additional topping is:
A 12 B 16
C 24 D 28
E 20
12 WE4 A school offers English, Maths, Language and
Science as part of the curriculum. Janice must do at
least one of these subjects.
a List the different ways Janice can select at least one
subject.
b In how many ways can this be done?
13 To get to school, Erin can walk, take the train or catch the bus. After school she can either walk or catch
the bus to get back home.
a List the different combinations of travel for Erin to get to school and to return to her home.
b Show the different travel methods as a tree diagram.

14 A hot dog consists of a sausage in a bun with sauce. Onion, tomato, pineapple and cheese are
available as extras. How many different types of hot dog can be made?
15 During a special morning recess, teachers had a choice of tea, orange juice, coffee, pies, cheese,
salami, biscuits and cake. However, a teacher could sample only two kinds of food and one drink.
How many different combinations of two kinds of food and drink were possible?
12B Permutations
A permutation is the arrangement of objects in a specific order. Awarding a first and second prize to
two people randomly selected from a studio game-show audience or determining the number of ways
a group of people can queue for tickets are examples where the order of objects needs to be taken into
account.
Consider now how many ways two letters can be taken from the letters B, L, U and E and then
arranged.
If the order of the letters is taken into account and repetition of letters (that is, BB, LL etc.) is not
allowed, we have the 12 possible arrangements shown below:
BL, LB, BU, UB, BE, EB, LU, UL, LE, EL, UE, EU
We can obtain the same result using the multiplication principle. There are 4 choices for the first letter
because there are 4 letters available. Once the first letter has been chosen there are 3 letters to choose
from for the second letter.
First letter Second letter
4 3 = 12
Notice that the multiplication principle takes into account the order of the outcomes. That is, BL is not
considered to be the same as LB, BU is not the same as UB and so on.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5
Josie picks up a Mathematics textbook, an English novel and a Biology notebook and places
them on a shelf. Determine the number of ways the books can be arranged. List the ways they
can be arranged.
THINK WRITE
1 There are three positions to be filled on the shelf. 3 2 1
2 There are three choices of book for the first position

on the shelf. This leaves two choices for the second
position and one choice for the third position.
3 Use the multiplication principle. 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 arrangements
4 Let M be the Mathematics textbook, E the English The arrangements are MEB, MBE, BME,
novel and B the Biology notebook. BEM, EMB, EBM.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6
In how many ways can at least two letters be chosen from the word STAR if the order of the
letters is taken into account and repetition of letters is not allowed?
THINK WRITE
1 There are 3 mutually exclusive events: choose

2 letters from 4 letters, 3 letters from 4 letters, or
4 letters from 4 letters.
2 For the first event there are 4 choices for the first 2 letters 4 3 = 12 ways
letter and 3 choices for the second letter, because
repetitions are not allowed.

3 For the second event there are 4 choices for the 3 letters 4 3 2 = 24 ways
first letter, 3 choices for the second letter and
2 choices for the third letter.
4 For the third event there are 4 choices for the first 4 letters 4 3 2 1 = 24 ways
letter, 3 choices for the second letter, 2 choices for
the third letter and 1 choice for the fourth letter.
5 Use the addition rule to find the total number Number of ways = 12 + 24 + 24
of possibilities. = 60
WORKED EXAMPLE 7
How many ways are there for 2 different prizes or 3 different prizes to be
awarded to a group of 5 people if: TUTORIAL
a a person may receive more than one award? eles-1455
b a person may not receive more than one award? Worked example 7
THINK WRITE
1st 2nd
a 1 Use the multiplication principle to find the a 2 prizes 5 5 = 25
number of ways for 2 prizes to be awarded.
Any one of the 5 people can receive the first
prize and any one of the 5 people can receive
the second prize because the same person
may receive more than one prize.
1st 2nd 3rd
2 Use the multiplication principle to find the 3 prizes 5 5 5 = 125
number of ways for 3 prizes to be awarded
and remember that the same person may
receive more than one prize.
3 Use the addition rule to obtain the total Number of ways to distribute 2 or 3 prizes
number of ways to distribute 2 or 3 prizes. = 25 + 125
= 150
b Use the same method as above, but repetition is b 2 prizes 5 4 = 20

not allowed, so the number of people to choose
from is reduced each time. 3 prizes 5 4 3 = 60
Number of ways to distribute 2 or 3 prizes
= 20 + 60
= 80
Exercise 12B Permutations

1 WE5 A chef restocks her collection of spices by placing jars of pepper, nutmeg, ginger and mint on
the shelf. In how many different ways can the 4 jars be placed in a straight line?
2 In how many ways can 6 students line up at the school canteen?
3 If there are 8 competitors in a race, in how many ways can the first three places be awarded?
4 To cancel an electronic alarm, a 5-digit code number must be entered into the code box. Assuming that
digits may be repeated, how many codes are possible?
5 Five items of mail are to be placed in 5 letterboxes. In how many ways can this be done if no
letterbox is to contain more than one item?

6 A history quiz consists of matching 8 countries with their capital cities. In how many ways can a
contestant answer the quiz by randomly matching each country with a capital city?
7 How many ordered subsets consisting of two letters can be chosen from the word SUPERBLY if:
a a letter may be used more than once in each subset?
b choosing the same letter more than once is not permitted?
8 WE6 In how many ways can at least two letters be chosen from the word MATHS if the order of the
letters is taken into account and repetition of letters is not allowed?
9 WE7 Calculate the number of ways that 3 or 4 prizes can be awarded to a group of 5 people if:
a a member of the group is allowed to receive more than one prize
b a member of the group cannot receive more than one prize.
10 Decide in how many ways 2 or 3 letters can be selected from the vowels of the alphabet if a vowel
can appear only once in each selection.
11 Determine how many numbers greater than 10 can be made using all of the digits 4, 7, 2, 6 and 5 if
each digit cannot be used more than once.
12 How many numbers greater than 100 and less than 10 000 may be formed using the digits 2, 3, 4 and 5
if each digit may be used more than once?
13 MC The number of 3-digit and 4-digit numbers greater than 500 that can be formed using the digits 2,
6, 1, 5 and 3, if each digit can be used more than once in each selection, is:
A 600 B 500 C 675 D 575 E 450
14 MC Juliana has saved her pocket money to buy
up to 3 fashion magazines. If there are 5 different
magazines to choose from, the number of ways she
can buy 1, 2 or 3 magazines is:
A 90 B 80 C 25
D 70 E 85
15 MC The total number of 2-digit, 3-digit and 4-digit
odd numbers that can be formed using the digits, 5, 3,
4 and 9, when a digit may be used more than once in a
group, is:
A 78 B 85 C 252 D 68 E 75
16 How many 7-letter arrangements are possible using the letters of the word DECAGON if the letters A,
E and O must occupy the third, fifth and sixth positions respectively and the letters remaining may be
used more than once?
17 A school fundraising competition that costs 5 cents per entry involves trying to correctly match
9 teachers with their baby photographs. Wasim wants to be certain to win the $1000 first prize by trying
all possible combinations. Decide how much money Wasim will win or lose if he is to be the prize
winner.
18 A version of the party game ‘musical chairs’ has the players march around a line of chairs and scramble
to sit on them when the music unexpectedly stops. At each stage the number of players is one more
than the number of chairs. The player who remains standing when the music stops is out of the game
and one chair is then removed. The player remaining sitting after all the other players have been
eliminated is the winner.
a If 12 players are taking part, how many different arrangements of seating are possible during the:
i first round? ii fourth round?
b The rules are changed so that 2 chairs are removed each time. If there are 9 players and 7 chairs at
the start of the game, how many seating arrangements are possible for all the rounds?
19 A school is using identification cards (ID cards) that consist of 3 letters selected from A to E inclusive
followed by 3 digits chosen from 0 to 9 inclusive.
a How many different ID cards can be issued to students if a digit may be used more than once but
all 3 letters of each ID are different?
b New ID cards are issued to all students each year and the old cards discarded. However, the old
ID numbers are not used again. If, on average, the school’s population increases by 10% each
year and was 2000 during the year when the ID cards were first used, how many years will elapse
before cards with numbers already used will have to be issued?

12C Factorials
Expressions obtained by using the multiplication principle frequently contain the product of consecutive
whole numbers. It is convenient to adopt a shorthand way of representing such expressions to assist with
calculations and to effectively display the properties associated with permutations and other types of
order of objects. Particularly useful is to define n! to mean the product of n consecutive positive integers
starting from n down to 1. That is:
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1
The symbol n! is read as ‘n factorial’.
For example, 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24, 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6, 2! = 2 × 1 = 2.
Alternatively, 4! = 4 × 3! = 24, 3! = 3 × 2! = 6, 2! = 2 × 1! = 2.
n!
Thus from the definition we have n! = n(n − 1)! or =n
(n − 1)!
If we substitute n = 1 we have:
1! 1
=1 or = 1 (since 1! = 1)
(1 − 1)! (0)!
This expression is true if 0! is taken to be equivalent to 1. So we define 0! = 1.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8
a Express 7! as a numeral. b Simplify 2 × 5! + (3 × 2)!

THINK WRITE
a 1 Use the definition of n! with n = 7. a 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
2 Multiply the numbers in the expression obtained. = 5040

b 1 Write the expression and simplify (3 × 2)! b 2 × 5! + (3 × 2)!
= 2 × 5! + 6!
2 Calculate 5! and 6! = 2 × 120 + 720
3 Evaluate. = 960
WORKED EXAMPLE 9
8!
Simplify
3!
THINK WRITE
8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3!
Divide the answer for 8! by the answer for 3! =
using a calculator. 3! 3!
=8×7×6×5×4
= 6720
WORKED EXAMPLE 10
100!
a Evaluate 8! b Simplify
98!
THINK WRITE
a 1 Use the factorial (!) feature of a CAS calculator a 8!

to evaluate the expression.
2 Record the result. 40 320
3 State the answer. 8! = 40 320

b 1 100! and 98! are too large to write in fully b
expanded form.
2 Express 100! with 98! as a factor. 100! 100 × 99 × 98!
100! = 100 × 99 × (98 × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1) =
98! 98!
= 100 × 99 × 98!
3 Cancel 98! in the expression. = 100 × 99
= 9900
Notice that: n! = n × (n − 1)!

= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2)!
= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3)! etc.
Exercise 12C Factorials

1 WE8a Evaluate:
a 4! b 9! c 12! d 3! + 2!
e 5! − 4! f 7! − 6! − 2! g 6! − (1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + 5!)
2 WE8b Evaluate:
a 4 × 3! − 4! b (4 + 2!) 3! + 5! c 5 × 6! − 6 × 5!
d 7 × 7! − (8! − 7!) e 8! + 3 × 2! − 5! f 7 × 9! + 3 × 3! − 9 × 8!
g (5! − 4!) + (8! − 7!) h 12! + 6! − 11! − 3 × 4!
2! + 3! + 4!
3 MC The value of is:
2! + 3!
A 5 B 4 C 7 D 24 E 8
4 MC The value of 4(4! − 3) + 2!(5! − 4!) is:
A 250 B 235 C 284 D 276 E 290
5 WE9 Simplify:
4! 5! 7! 6! 3! 1!
a b c d e +
2! 4! 3! 3! 2! 0!
6 WE10 Simplify:
102! 1000! 4500!
a b c
100! 998! 4499!
250! 396! 25000!
d e f
247! 393! 24999!
7 Simplify:
15! 28! 55!
a b c
14! 26! 53!
1000! 63!
d e
998! (936 − 875)!
(12 + 37)!
8 MC is equal to:
(100 − 53)!
A 3250 B 1875 C 2840 D 1030 E 2352
9 Evaluate each expression.
7! 4! 9! 32! 13! 6!
a + b + c −
4! 3! 7! 31! 10! 3!
80! 10! 64! 8! 12! 78!
d − + e − +
77! 6! 62! 6! 11! 77!
10 Simplify each expression.
2!5! 6! 7! − 5! 8! + 4! 2! 18!4! 8!10! DIGITAL DOC
a b c d × e × doc-9814
3! 2! + 3! 5! 2! + 3! 3! 17!5! 9!9! WorkSHEET 12.1

A permutation is an arrangement of objects in which order is important. Consider the letters A, B and C.
There are 6 possible arrangements or permutations of these three letters:
ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA
We could have determined that there are 6 possible arrangements without listing all of them using
the multiplication principle, where each box below represents a position (first letter, second letter, third
letter):
1st 2nd 3rd
letter letter letter
3 2 1 = 6 ways
Note that we had 3 possibilities for the first letter but, having placed it, we were left with
2 possibilities for the second letter and, in turn, just 1 possibility for the third.
But what if we had 10 different letters and wished to select an arrangement of 3 letters? Again, we
could count the number of arrangements as follows:
1st 2nd 3rd
letter letter letter
10 9 8 = 720 ways
We can express the above calculation using factorials as follows:

10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
10 × 9 × 8 =
7×6×5× 4 ×3× 2×1
10!
=
7!
10!
=
(10 − 3)!
Following on from this, we can generalise a formula for the number of arrangements (permutations)
of n objects, taking r at a time, which we denote by n Pr:
n!
nP =
r , where n and r are natural (counting) numbers, and r ≤ n.
(n − r )!
Another way of thinking of n Pr is as n! expanded to r ‘places’.
nP
r = n(n − 1)(n − 2). . .(n − r + 1)
!####"####$
r values multiplied together
In the preceding example, which involved arranging 10 (n = 10) objects (letters) taking 3 (r = 3) at a
time, we can verify that (n − r + 1) = (10 − 3 + 1) = 8, which was the last value in the chain of multiplied
numbers.
Special cases
1. If r = 0, then nP= n P0
r
n!
=
n!
=1
This implies that there is one way of selecting zero objects from n objects.
nP = nP
2. If r = n, then r n
n!
=
0!
= n!
There are n! ways of arranging n objects taken from n objects.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11
Calculate 7P3.
THINK WRITE
7!
Evaluate using the definition n Pr. 7P
3 =
(7 − 3)!
7! 7 × 6 × 5 × 4!
= or =
4! 4!
5040
= = 7 × 6 × 5
24
= 210 = 210
WORKED EXAMPLE 12
Only the 3 fastest cars in a car rally of 10 competitors will compete in the world championships.
How many different arrangements of the 3 fastest rally cars are possible?
THINK WRITE
1 We want the number of permutations when

3 objects are selected from 10 objects.
2 Use n Pr with n = 10 and r = 3. Number of arrangements
= 10 P3 = 10 × 9 × 8 = 720
n P (10,
3 Alternatively, use the permutations feature of r 3)
the CAS calculator with n = 10 and r = 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13
How many numbers greater than 1000 can be formed using the digits 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 if a digit
cannot be used more than once?
THINK WRITE
1 Each 4-digit, 5-digit or 6-digit number formed

will be greater than 1000.
2 Find the number of ways the required number 6P
4 + 6P5 + 6P6
of digits can be chosen from the 6 digits given.
3 Add the 3 answers. (‘or’ situation). = 360 + 720 + 720 = 1800
There are 1800 numbers greater than 1000 that
can be formed.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14
A captain and vice-captain are to be chosen from a group consisting of 10 cricket

players. From the remaining 8 players, 3 will be selected to be the wicket keeper, TUTORIAL
spin bowler and fast bowler. Calculate how many different ways the eles-1456
Worked example 14
5 positions can be allocated.
THINK WRITE
10P
1 Find the number of ways in which 2 objects 2
(captain/vice-captain) can be chosen from
10 objects (10 cricket players).

2 Find the number of ways in which 3 objects Number of different ways
(wicket keeper/spin bowler/fast bowler) can = 10P2 × 8P3
be chosen from 8 objects (8 remaining cricket = 90 × 336
players).
3 Multiply the two results (‘and’ situation as we = 30 240
wish to have a captain and vice captain and a
wicket keeper, spin bowler and fast bowler).
Exercise 12D Permutations using n Pr

DIGITAL DOCS
1 WE11 Evaluate:
6P 8P
doc-9815 a 4 b 2
SkillSHEET 12.1 c 9P d 4P
Calculating nPr 3 4
25P 3P
doc-9816 e 5 f 2
Combinatorics g 4P
2 + 5P1 h 8P
6 − 7P3
6P − 5P
1 × P2
3P 4
i 3 4 j
100 P 200 P
K 4 l 3
2 WE12 A committee comprising a president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer is to be selected
from a group of 25 people. How many different committees are possible?
3 In how many ways can a first and second prize be given to 5 lottery winners?
4 WE13 How many numbers greater than 100 can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 5, 7 and 9 if a digit
cannot be used more than once?
5 John has a 5-cent coin, a 20-cent coin, a 50-cent coin and a $2 coin.
a In how many ways can the coins be placed in a row?
b In how many ways can 2 coins or 3 coins be chosen if the order is taken into account?
6 MC A magic paint set contains seven ‘magic’ colours that when applied to paper produce other
colours. The colour obtained depends on the order in which the colours are applied, and at least
two colours must be used. The number of different colours that can be produced is:
A 11 605 B 10 254 C 14 250
D 12 540 E 13 692
7 WE14 A captain and vice-captain are to be selected from a team of 18 footballers. From the remaining
16, four players will be selected to be the full-back, full-forward, centre-half back and centre-half
forward. Calculate the number of ways the 6 positions can be allocated.
8 The Southern Belle’s train crew consists of 2 drivers and 4 engineers. Each person performs different
tasks. The 2 drivers are chosen from 6 available drivers and the 4 engineers from 10 engineers. How
many permutations of the train’s crew are possible?
9 Three students are to be chosen from a group of 8 students to fill the positions of school president,
vice-president and treasurer. After these appointments are made, 2 more students will be selected from
the group to serve as secretary and assistant secretary. Determine how many different committees are
possible.
10 A novelty sports day carnival involves
10 competitors. A prize is given to the winner
of the first race, who then cannot take part in
the remainder of the races. The winner and
runner-up of the second race are awarded
prizes and are then eliminated from the
remainder of the events.
Similarly, the first three place-getters of the
third race are given prizes and must drop out
of the competition. This is continued until the
number of competitors remaining is the same
as the number of prizes to be awarded. How
many different ways can prizes be awarded?

11 There are three separate bundles of reading material comprising 4 comics, 2 novels and 3 magazines.
They are placed together to form one pile.
a In how many ways can this be done if there are no restrictions on where individual items are to be
placed?
b Determine the number of permutations if

the order of the comic books in each bundle
does not change.
12E Permutations involving restrictions

Identical objects
So far our study of permutations has been based on the assumption that the objects arranged were all
different (distinguishable). We will now examine the situation when some of the objects are identical
(indistinguishable).
INTERACTIVITY
A scrabble player has the following letter tiles: A, A, A, B, C, D, E. If the As were distinguishable, we int-0271
might consider them to be A1, A2, A3 and could begin to list the possible arrangements of the 7 letters as Permutations involving
follows: restrictions
A1A2A3BCDE ....... ....... ....... and os on

A1A3A2BCDE ....... ....... ....... and os on
A2A1A3BCDE ....... ....... ....... and os on
A2A3A1BCDE ....... ....... ....... and os on
A3A1A2BCDE ....... ....... ....... and os on
A3A2A1BCDE ....... ....... ....... and os on
Without listing them all, we can calculate there are 7P7 = 7! = 5040 possible arrangements. But the As
are not distinguishable. So, really, the arrangements listed above are all the same as AAABCDE, which
counts as one arrangement.
Because there are 3 A’s we have 3! = 6 times too many arrangements, hence we need to divide
5040 by 6.

7P
77! 5040
This means there are only =
= = 840 different arrangements or permutations of
3! 3! 6
7 objects where 3 of them are identical.
n!
In general, the number of arrangements of n objects, p of which are identical, is given by
p!
Extending this formula we have:
The number of ways of arranging n objects that include p identical objects of one type,
q identical objects of another type, r identical objects of yet another type and so on is:
n!
p! q ! r ! . . .
WORKED EXAMPLE 15
In how many ways can 4 identical red marbles and 3 identical blue marbles be placed in a row?
THINK WRITE
1 There are 4 + 3 = 7 objects altogether.

2 The number of ways the blue marbles can be
arranged is 3!, and the number of ways the red
marbles can be arranged is 4!.
3 Substitute the values into the formula. Number of ways
7!
=
4! × 3!
= 35
Grouped objects
In how many ways can the letters A, B, C, D be positioned in a row? We know that this can be done in
4! ways, but what would be the answer if the question had been: ‘In how many ways can the letters A,
B, C, D be positioned in a row if A and B must be next to each other?’ The number of arrangements will
clearly be less than 4! because of the restriction imposed on A and B. The figure below shows the 4!
possible arrangements of A, B, C, D that include the 12 ways A and B are together.
A B C D B A C D C B A D D B C A
A B D C B A D C C B D A D B A C
A C B D B C A D C A B D D C B A
A C D B B C D A C A D B D C A B
A D B C B D A C C D B A D A B C
A D C B B D C A C D A B D A C B
If A and B are to be together, we consider the problem to be one of arranging 3 objects, say X, C
and D, where one of the objects, X, is the group containing A and B.
The figure below shows that there are 6 arrangements with A and B together.
A B C D C A B D C D A B
A B D C D A B C D C A B
The 3 objects can be arranged in 3! ways, and within the group A and B can themselves be arranged
in 2! ways (namely AB and BA). The multiplication principle is now used so that the number of
arrangements when A and B are together is 3! × 2! = 12.
Now consider the permutations if A, B, C must be together. Again, we view the letters as consisting of
two objects, X and D, where X is the group of letters A, B and C. Thus we have two objects to arrange in
2! ways as shown below.
X D D X

Among themselves the letters A, B, C contained in X have 3! different arrangements as shown below.
A B C D D A B C
A C B D D A C B
B A C D D B A C
B C A D D B C A
C A B D D C A B
C B A D D C B A
Therefore the total number of arrangements when A, B and C are together is 2! × 3! = 12.
We can generalise this approach to include any number of groups of objects that are required to be
together.
If n objects are to be divided into m groups with each group having G1, G2, G3, . . . G m
objects respectively, the number of arrangements is given by m! × G1! × G2! × G3! × . . . × Gm!
WORKED EXAMPLE 16
The letters of the word TABLES are placed in a row. How many arrangements are possible if the
letters T, A and B must be together?
THINK WRITE
1 Consider the letters T, A and B as one object G1 = {T, A, B}

(group). There are 4 objects to be arranged, G2 = {L}
namely the TAB group and the letters L, E G3 = {E}
and S. G4 = {S}
2 Identify m and G1, G2, G3, G4. m=4
3 Apply the formula: Number of arrangements

m! G1! G2! G3! G4! = m! × 3! × 1! × 1! × 1!
= 4! × 3!
= 144
WORKED EXAMPLE 17
Five cars — a Toyota, a Ford, a Holden, a Mazda and a BMW — are to be parked side by side. In
how many ways can this be done if the Toyota and BMW are not to be parked next to each other?
THINK WRITE
1 The five cars can be arranged in 5! ways Number of ways of arranging 5 cars
without restriction. = 5!
2 Calculate the number of arrangements where Number of ways where the Toyota and BMW are
the Toyota and BMW are together (4! × 2!). not together
(m = 4, G1 = 2, G2 = 1, G3 = 1, G4 = 1) = 5! − 4! × 2!
3 Subtract from the unrestricted number of = 120 − 48
arrangements the number of ways the two cars = 72
are together.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18
The letters of the word REPLETE are arranged in a row. In how many
ways can this be done if the letters R and P must not be together? TUTORIAL
eles-1457
THINK WRITE
Worked example 18
1 Find the number of unrestricted arrangements Number of ways of arranging 7 letters with 3 Es
of the 7 letters and consider that there are 7!
=
3 identical Es. 3!

2 Calculate the (restricted) number of ways R Number of ways where R and P are not together
and P are together. Consider R and P as one 7! 6! × 2!
= −
object so there are 6 objects to arrange. There 3! 3!
are three Es to consider (3! ways). R and P can
be arranged in 2! ways within their group.
(m = 6, G1 = 2, G2 = G3 = G4 = G5 = G6 = 1)
3 Subtract the number of ways with R = 840 − 240
and P together from the total number of = 600
arrangements.
Exercise 12E Permutations involving restrictions

1 WE15 In how many ways can 5 identical white beads and 4 identical yellow beads be arranged in a
straight line?
2 Three 5-cent coins, two 10-cent coins and six 20-cent coins are to be placed side by side. Determine
how many ways this can be done.
3 MC The number of permutations using the letters of the word LOOPHOLE is:
A 3520 B 3360 C 4000
D 4150 E 3840
4 The toy set shown in the photo consists of a number of
indistinguishable brown horses, 1 white horse, a cowboy
and 3 indistinguishable black horses. In how many
ways can they be placed end to end?
5 How many different 6-digit numbers can be obtained
using the digits 4, 6, 7, 6, 6 and 4?
6 A party-light kit consists of 20 coloured globes connected to
each other in a straight line.
a If there are 5 red globes, 6 blue globes, 7 yellow globes
and a number of green globes as shown at right, find
how many different arrangements of coloured globes
are possible.
b How many different permutations of coloured globes
are there if the first and last globes must both be red?
7 WE16 Find how many arrangements are possible altogether when
the letters of the word CHAIR are placed in a row and C and H are to
be next to each other.
8 The digits 5, 3, 6, 2 and 7 are used to make a 5-digit number. How many different numbers are
possible if the digits 3, 2 and 7 must be together?
9 Maria, Steven, James, Sofia, Nin and Alfredo are standing next to each other. Calculate how many ways
this can be done if Maria and James are not to stand next to each other.
10 WE17 Establish the number of ways in which 7 different books can be placed on a bookshelf if 2
particular books must occupy the end positions and 3 of the remaining books are not to be placed together.
11 MC Ten athletes line up for a race. The number of
permutations when three of the athletes — Sam,
Troy and Pablo — would be next to each other is:
A 3 628 800 B 1 209 600 C 241 920
D 5 443 200 E 4 838 400
12 A carpenter has 3 identical hammers, 5 different
screwdrivers, 2 identical mallets, 2 different saws and
a tape-measure. She wishes to hang the tools in a row
on a tool rack on the wall. In how many ways can this
be done if the first and last positions on the rack are to
be mallets and the hammers are not to be all together?

13 WE18 Decide in how many ways the letters of the word ABRACADABRA can be arranged in a row
if C, R and D are not to be together.
14 MC The number of ways the letters of the alphabet can be placed in a straight line with the restriction
that the letters of the sentence UP THE BIG SKY WORLD must not be together is:
A 26! − 11!16! B 26! + 16! C 16! − 8! D 6!16! E 6!16!26!

Anna, Betty and Lin stand on the circumference of a circle painted on the school’s playground. In how
many different arrangements can the three girls stand?
The figure below shows the two arrangements for the girls’ positions on the circle.
Anna Anna
Betty
Lin Lin Betty
Notice that Anna is ‘locked’ in position to provide a reference point, and Betty and Lin are arranged
around Anna in 2! (= 2) ways.
Compare this with the 3! (= 6) arrangements in a line.
ABL BAL BLA LBA ALB LAB
(A is Anna, B is Betty, L is Lin)
Susie now joins the group to make 4 people in a circle.
We can designate any of the 4 girls in the circle as our ‘start’ by ‘fixing’ one person (in this case,
Anna) in one position and arranging the remaining girls around her. This reduces, by one person, the
number of girls to arrange.
A A A A A A
B L B S L B L S B L S B
S L S B S L
(A is Anna, B is Betty, L is Lin, S is Susie)
There are 3! (= 6) ways of arranging 4 people in a circle. Compare this with 4! (= 24) arrangements in
a line.
In general:
n distinguishable objects can be arranged in a circle in (n − 1)! ways.
In how
many ways
can these
five children
be arranged
in a circle?

WORKED EXAMPLE 19
In how many ways can the vowels of the alphabet be arranged in a circle?
THINK WRITE
1 The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. Therefore, there are n=5

5 objects to arrange.
2 Use (n − 1)! with n = 5. Number of ways = (n − 1)!
= (5 − 1)!
= 4!
= 24
WORKED EXAMPLE 20
Calculate the number of arrangements in a circle that are possible using the letters of the word
UNUSUALLY.
THINK WRITE
1 There are 9 letters, so use n = 9 with (n − 1)! n=9

(9 − 1)!
2 We need to consider repetition of letters. Number of arrangements =
There are three Us and two Ls. 3!2!
8!
=
3! × 2!
= 3360
WORKED EXAMPLE 21
In how many ways can 6 people sit around a table if two particular people must
be seated next to each other? TUTORIAL
Worked example 21
1 Consider the two people required to sit n=5
together as being one object. So there are
5 objects to arrange in a circle.
2 The two people can be arranged in 2! ways.
3 Use the multiplication principle. Number of ways = (5 – 1)!2!
= 4! × 2!
= 48
Exercise 12F Arrangements in a circle

1 WE19 Calculate the number of ways in which the letters of the word PENCIL can be arranged in a
circle.
2 MC Eight children hold hands to form a circle in the playground. The number of ways this can be
done is:
A 6280 B 5400 C 3680 D 4320 E 5040
3 WE20 Determine the number of arrangements in a circle that are possible when the letters of the word
EXCELLENT are used.
4 A child uses coloured dots on paper to represent the hour marks of a clock face. How many permutations
are possible if there are 4 orange dots, 5 white dots, 2 black dots and 1 purple dot?

5 WE21 A family of 3 adults, 3 boys and 3 girls are sitting around a circular dinner table. Find the
number of seating positions that are possible if the 3 boys are to be together.
6 A special pizza consists of 10 slices with different toppings used. If 2 slices are Capricciosa, 5 slices are
Supreme and 3 slices are Ham and Pineapple, how many different arrangements of pizza slices are possible?
7 A manufacturer of merry-go-rounds uses 8 identical wooden horses, 4 identical plastic motorbikes and
2 different miniature cars. They are all equally connected around the rim of a circular moving base.
Establish how many different arrangements there can be if the 2 cars are not to be placed in consecutive
positions.
8 MC Ten owners of pedigree dogs will enter the arena to parade their dogs by walking around a
circular track. Unfortunately, 3 particular dogs cannot get along together and so cannot parade if all
3 are next to each other. There appears to be no problem if any two of this group of 3 dogs are together.
The number of ways of avoiding this problem is:
A 358 848 B 387 072 C 362 880 D 332 640 E 354 065
9 In how many ways can the letters of the word POTATOES be arranged in a circle?
10 MC The letters of the word FULFILLED are to be arranged in a circle. The number of arrangements
possible when U and E are together or when U, E and D are together is:
A 3140 B 1940 C 2000 D 1200 E 1850
11 To publicise a venue, a hotel manager gave a gift to each of 12 prominent businesspeople as they went
into the conference room and seated themselves at a round table to begin discussions. The gifts comprised
4 fountain pens, 5 pocket electronic organisers and 3 calculators. Calculate what fraction of the possible
DIGITAL DOC
unrestricted arrangements is the number of arrangements that has 4 businesspeople who have been given doc-9817
a fountain pen sitting next to each other. WorkSHEET 12.2
12G Combinations using n C r

Taking combinations involves the selection of r objects from n objects without consideration for the
order of the elements. For example, the number of permutations of two letters selected from the letters
A, B, C, D is 4P2 = 12. The arrangements are:
AB AC AD BC BD CD
BA CA DA CB DB DC
If we are not concerned with order, there are only 6 selections:
AB AC AD BC BD CD
The 2! ways of arranging the elements of the 2-element subgroup are not considered.
Now consider the selection of 3 letters from A, B, C, D. The number of ordered subsets is 4P3, and
each subset of 3 elements can be arranged in 3! ways. Therefore 4P3 is the number of unordered subsets
of 3 objects multiplied by the number of ways the 3 objects can be arranged.
In general terms it can be stated that nPr is the number (nCr) of unordered groups of r objects
multiplied by the number of arrangements (r!) of r objects.
nP
That is, nPr = nCr × r! so that nCr = r .
r!
n!
Now by the definition of Pr =
n we have:
(n − r )!
n! n!
n
Cr = ÷ r! =
(n − r )! r !(n − r )!
⎛ n⎞
The number of combinations is usually denoted by n Cr or ⎜ ⎟ , so we have:
⎝ r ⎠
1. The number of combinations of r objects selected from n objects is:
⎛ n⎞ n n!
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ = C r = r !( n − r )!
where n, r are natural numbers and r ≤ n.

nP
⎛ n⎞
2. n Pr = n C r × r ! or ⎜ ⎟ = n C r = r
⎝ r ⎠ r!

The function nCr is a standard mathematical function to be found on scientific, graphics and CAS
calculators.
Special cases
n! n!
1. If r = 0, then n Cr = n C0 = = = 1.
0! (n − 0)! 1 × n!
This implies that there is one way of selecting 0 objects from n objects.
n! n!
2. If r = n, then n Cr = n Cn = = = 1.
n! (n − n)! n! × 0!
There is one combination of n objects taken from n objects.
n! n (n − 1)!
3. If r = 1, then n Cr = n C1 = = = n.
1! (n − 1)! 1 × (n − 1)!
If objects are taken one at a time from n objects, there are n combinations.
From cases 1 and 2 we conclude that nC0 = nCn.
This is an instance of the general case that:
⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
n
Cr = n Cn−r or ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜
⎝ r ⎠ ⎝ n − r ⎟⎠
7 C = 7!
For example, 4
4!3!
7!
and
7
C3 =
3!4!
7C = 7C
so 4 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 22
Evaluate 10C3.
THINK WRITE
n! 10!
1 Use the definition n Cr = . 10 C
3 =
n!(n − r )! 3!(10 − 3)!
10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7! 10 × 9 × 8
= = =
3! × 7! 3! × 7! 3× 2 ×1
= 120
nC (10,
2 Alternatively, use the combinations feature of r 3)
the CAS calculator with n = 10 and r = 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 23
⎛ 100 ⎞
Evaluate ⎜ .
⎝ 98 ⎟⎠
THINK WRITE
⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎛ 100 ⎞ 100!

1 Express ⎜
⎝ 98 ⎟⎠
in factorial form. ⎜⎝ 98 ⎟⎠ = 98!2!
100 × 99 × 98!
=
98! × 2 × 1
2 100! = 100 × 99 × 98!
3 Evaluate. 100 × 99
=
2 ×1
= 4950

WORKED EXAMPLE 24
In how many ways can a committee of 2 boys and 3 girls be formed from a group consisting of
5 boys and 8 girls?
THINK WRITE
1 Select 2 boys from 5 boys.

2 Select 3 girls from 8 girls.
3 Use the multiplication principle (‘and’ Number of ways = 5C2 × 8C3
situation). = 10 × 56
= 560
WORKED EXAMPLE 25
A committee of 6 is to be formed from a group of 5 men and 4 women.

a How many committees can be formed? TUTORIAL
b How many committees contain 3 men and 3 women? eles-1459
Worked example 25
c How many committees contain at least 4 men?
THINK WRITE
a Use n = 9 and r = 6 with nCr . a Number of committees = 9C6

= 84
b 1 Select 3 men from 5 men and 3 women b Number of committees
from 4 women. = 5C3 × 4C3
2 Use the multiplication principle. = 10 × 4
(‘and’ situation) = 40
c 1 At least 4 men means 4 men and 2 women c Number of committees
or 5 men and 1 woman. = 5C4 × 4C2 + 5C5 × 4C1
2 Select 4 men and 2 women. =5×6+1×4
3 Select 5 men and 1 woman. = 30 + 4
4 Sum the answers because the 2 events are = 34
mutually exclusive (‘or’ situation).
Exercise 12G Combinations using nCr

1 WE22 Calculate each of the following. DIGITAL DOC
a 5C2 b 4C3 c 6C
1 d 8C
0 e 9C
9 doc-9816
Combinatorics
2 Evaluate each of the following.
⎛ 6⎞ ⎛ 7⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 9⎞ ⎛ 12 ⎞
a b c d e
⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
3 WE23 Determine the value of each of the following.
⎛ 30 ⎞ ⎛ 55 ⎞ ⎛ 64 ⎞ ⎛ 38 ⎞ ⎛ 29 ⎞
a b c d e
⎜⎝ 29 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 53 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 61 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 34 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 24 ⎟⎠
4 MC The value of 2 × 4C2 + 3 × 5C3 is:
A 42 B 90 C 80 D 94 E 70
5 Calculate each of the following.

3C
a 1 and 3C2 b 4C1 and 4C3 c 5C
2 and 5C3 d 9C
3 and 9C6

6 Copy and complete the following.
a 20C
7 = 20C__ b 100C
9 = 100C__
7 In how many ways can 5 objects be chosen from 12?
8 How many combinations are possible if 2 numbers are chosen from 6 in a mini-lotto game?
9 A student must choose 5 types of party food from the following list: sausage rolls, potato crisps, fairy
bread, party pies, cheezels, cocktail frankfurts and celery sticks. How many different combinations may
be chosen?
10 A committee of 6 must be chosen from a meeting of 30 people. How many different committees are
possible?
11 WE24 In how many ways can a group of 3 boys and 4 girls be formed from a group consisting of
4 boys and 6 girls?
12 A magazine pile in a waiting room contains 6 glamour magazines and 7 computer magazines. In how
many ways can a patient choose 2 glamour and 3 computer magazines to flick through during a lengthy
wait?
13 A school offers 10 science subjects and 15 humanities subjects to prospective Year 12 students. In how
many ways may a student choose 4 science and 2 humanities subjects?
14 How many 10-card hands containing exactly 7 hearts and 3 spades are possible from a standard 52-card
deck?
15 WE25 A committee of 5 parents is to be established from a group of 6 men and 4 women.
a Find how many different committees can be formed.
b How many different committees are possible consisting of 3 men and 2 women?
16 A school organises an adventure camp for its Year 11 students, who must choose 2 or 3 activities
from the following: paragliding, abseiling, skydiving and bungee jumping. In how many ways may a
group of activities be chosen?
17 An ice-cream vendor offers chocolate, strawberry and vanilla ice-creams with one, two or three scoops.
How many different ice-creams are possible? (Assume that you cannot choose two scoops of the same
flavour for any one one ice-cream.)
18 A basketball squad of 10 must be chosen from a group of 8 women and 6 men. How many squads are
possible:
a without restriction?
DIGITAL DOC b if the squad contains 6 women and 4 men?
doc-9818
SkillSHEET 12.2 c if the squad must contain at least 6 women?
Listing possibilities d if the squad contains all the men?
19 A sub-committee of 3 people must be chosen from a group of 9 teachers (which includes the
principal). How many sub-committees may be chosen:
a that contain the principal?
b that do not contain the principal?
20 To win LottoMania, the 5 numbers entered on the player’s entry ticket must be the same as 5 numbers
that are randomly selected from the numbers 1 to 30.
a How many different entries are possible?
b What is the percentage increase in the number of possible combinations if the numbers are
randomly selected from the numbers 1 to 35?
21 MC A painter has 7 colours at her disposal. The number of additional colours that can be obtained by
mixing equal amounts of any number of the 7 colours is:
A 100 B 128 C 5040
D 5120 E 120
22 Determine the number of ways in which 8 people can be divided into
2 equal groups.
DIGITAL DOC
doc-9819
23 MC The number of ways in which 10 objects can be divided into
Investigation 2 unequal groups is:
Pascal’s triangle A 385 B 835 C 950
D 640 E 565

We define the probability of an event to be:
Pr(event) =
The methods we have used to calculate permutations and combinations can also be applied to
problems involving probability.
WORKED EXAMPLE 26
Romina makes a guess as to which 2 of 10 swimmers will come first and second in a race. What is
the probability that her guess will be right?
THINK WRITE
1 Calculate in how many ways 2 swimmers can

be chosen from 10 swimmers, where the order
is taken into account. Use nPr where n = 10 and
r = 2.
1
2 Use the formula for probability. The number Pr (correct guess) = 10 P
of favourable outcomes is 1 because Romina 2
1
makes only one guess. = 90
WORKED EXAMPLE 27
A computer randomly interchanged the letters of the word CREATIONS. Find the probability
that the letters A and T end up together.
THINK WRITE
1 If A and T are together, treat them as one

object; therefore, we have 8 objects
2 AT can be arranged in 2! ways.
8! × 2!
3 Use the formula for probability to find the Pr (A and T are together) =
number of ways the 9 letters can be arranged 9!
2
=
(total number of possible outcomes). 9
WORKED EXAMPLE 28
A committee of 5 people is to be formed by choosing members from a group of 6 men and

4 women. What is the probability that the committee will consist of 3 men and 2 women?
THINK WRITE
6C
1 Calculate the number of ways in which 3 men 3 and 4C2
can be selected from 6 men and 2 women can be
chosen from 4 women.
2 Use the multiplication principle to establish 6C
3 × 4C2
the number of favourable outcomes of the
committees consisting of 6 men and 4 women.

3 Using the formula for probability, determine Pr (3 men and 2 women)
6 C × 4 C
the number of ways in which 5 people can be 3 2
=
selected from the group of 10 people (total 10
C5
number of possible outcomes).
20 × 6
=
252
10
=
21
WORKED EXAMPLE 29
Eight people randomly seat themselves about a circular table. What is the probability that
3 particular people will be sitting next to each other?
THINK WRITE
1 Treat the 3 people as one object; therefore, 3!

there are 6 objects to arrange.
2 Use the formula (n − 1)! for arrangements in a (6 − 1)! × 3!
circle for the situation where the 3 people are
together.
3 Using the formula for probability, calculate Pr (3 particular people seated together)
the total number of possible outcomes (6 − 1)! × 3!
for the 8 people, using (n − 1)! =
(8 − 1)!
5! × 3!
=
7!
720
=
5040
= 0.143
WORKED EXAMPLE 30
Two bags (A and A′) contain blue marbles (B) and other coloured marbles (B′).
A bag is randomly selected, then from that bag a marble is randomly selected. TUTORIAL
The table below describes the distribution of marbles between the bags. eles-1460
Worked example 30
Bag A Bag A′
5 blue marbles 4 blue marbles
3 other marbles 6 other marbles
a What is the probability of choosing bag A and then a blue marble?

b What is the probability of not choosing bag A and then obtaining a blue marble?
c What is the probability of choosing a blue marble?
THINK WRITE

a 1 Find the probability of choosing bag A. a Pr (A) =
total possible outcomes
1C
1
= 2C
1
= 1
2

2 Find the probability of choosing a blue Pr (B from A) =
marble from bag A. total possible outcomes
5
C1
= 8
C1
= 5
8
3 Find the probability of choosing bag A and Pr (A ∩ B) = 12 × 85

then a blue marble.
= 165

b 1 Find the probability of choosing bag A′. b Pr (A′ ) =
total possible outcomes
1
C1
= 2
C1
= 1
2

2 Find the probability of choosing a blue Pr (B from A ′ ) =
marble from bag A′. total possible outcomes
4
C1
= 10 C
1
= 2
5
3 Find the probability of choosing bag A′ and Pr (A ′ ∩ B) = 12 × 25

then a blue marble. = 1
5
c A blue marble can be selected from bag c Pr (B) = 5

+ 15
16
A or bag A′.
= 41
80
Pr ( A ∩ B)
Recall from chapter 11 that, for conditional probability, Pr ( A | B) = , Pr (B) ≠ 0.
Rearranging this formula gives Pr ( B)
Pr (A ∩ B) = Pr (A | B)Pr (B) [1]

From Worked example 30 above, notice that
Pr (B) = Pr (A ∩ B) + Pr (A′ ∩ B) or Pr (A) = Pr (A ∩ B) + Pr (A ∩ B ′) [2]
Combining the information from equations [1] and [2], we have
Pr (A) = Pr (A | B)Pr (B) + Pr (A | B′) Pr (B′)
This expression is known as the Law of Total Probability and was briefly discussed in chapter 11.
Another way to visualise this rule is to use a tree diagram. The tree diagram below shows the situation
described in worked example 30. Notice how the probability of selecting a blue marble from bag A is
denoted as Pr (B | A). This is because the probability of selecting a blue marble from bag A is conditional
on selecting bag A to begin with.
5–
8 (B A) Pr (A ∩ B) = 1–
2 × 5–8 = —5
16
1– A
1– 3– 3
2 3– (B' A) Pr (A ∩ B') = 2 × 8 =—
16
8
4 1– 4 2 1–
1–
—
10 (B A' ) Pr (A' ∩ B) = 2 × 10 = 10
— — = 5
2 A'
1– 6 3
—6 (B' A' ) Pr (A' ∩ B') = 2 × 10 = 10
— —
10

So, worked example 30 could also have been solved using a tree diagram or the Law of Total
Probability.
WORKED EXAMPLE 31
The probability that Suzanne will pass her examination given that she had help from her tutor
is 11 . The probability that Suzanne does not pass her exam given that she did not see her tutor is 2 .
15 5
If the probability of Suzanne seeing her tutor is 1 , what is the probability of her passing her exam?
2
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Define T and E. Write down all the information Let T = having help from the tutor.
that is given in the question. Let E = passing the exam.
Pr ( E | T ) = 15
11
, Pr ( E ′ | T ′) = 25 , Pr (T ) = 1
2
2 Draw a tree diagram to represent the information. 11

—
15 E⏐T
1–
T
2 —4 E′⏐T
15
3–
1–
2
5 E⏐T′
T′
2– E′⏐T′
5
3 Using the formula Pr ( E ) = 15 × 2 × 35 × 12

11 1
Pr (E) = Pr (E | T ) Pr (T ) + Pr (E | T ′ ) Pr (T ′ ),
substitute all the known values from the tree diagram. = 2
3
4 Interpret the result. The probability that Suzanne will pass her
exam is 23 .
Exercise 12H Applications to probability

1 WE26 Jenny, Hakan and Miriam are competing in a car race against 5 other drivers. Their friend Mary
predicts that they will cross the finish line first, second and third respectively. What is the probability
that Mary is right?
2 WE27 The letters of the word PRODUCE are randomly reordered. Calculate the probability that
the letters P and E will be together.
DIGITAL DOC
3 WE28 Six people selected from 5 men and 7 women are to form a committee. Work out the
doc-9816 probability that the committee will consist of 3 men and 3 women.
Combinatorics
4 MC The letters A, B, C, D, E and F are randomly placed in a row. The probability that the letters A
and B will occupy the first and second positions respectively is:
1 1 1 1 2
A B C D E
15 3 30 6 3
5 Six cards are randomly distributed from a standard pack of 52 playing cards. Determine the probability
that exactly one of the 6 cards is a queen.
6 From a toy set consisting of 4 dolls and 5 clowns, 2 toys are chosen at random. Find the probability that
the 2 toys are 2 clowns or 2 dolls.
7 MC From a group of 3 children and 8 adults, 5 will be chosen to receive prizes. The probability that
2 children and 3 adults will be awarded a prize is:
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 8⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 8⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 8⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 8⎞
+
⎜⎝ 3⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5⎟⎠ ⎝⎜ 1⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 1⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 2⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 3⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 2⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 3⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 2⎠⎟ ⎝⎜ 3⎠⎟
A B C D E
⎛ 11⎞ ⎛11⎞ ⎛11⎞ ⎛11⎞ ⎛11⎞ ⎛11⎞ ⎛11⎞
⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ + ⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
8 WE29 A group comprising 6 people is sitting around a table. Find the probability that two particular
people are sitting next to each other.

9 Ten people are seated at a circular dining table. Find the probability that two particular people will
be sitting next to each other.
10 MC Six mothers and their 6 daughters randomly arrange themselves in a circle. The probability that
Susan is next to her daughter Jeanette is:
1 5 2 1 2
A B C D E
4 6 3 12 11
11 Four letters are randomly selected from the word ENCYCLOPAEDIA. Find the probability that one
letter E will occur in the selection of 4 letters.
12 A school captain and 2 vice-captains are to be chosen from a group of 5 boys and 6 girls. What is the
probability that all 3 positions will be taken by:
a boys?
b girls?
c two boys and one girl?
d at least two girls?
13 Four colours are randomly picked from the 7 different colours of the rainbow. Calculate the probability
that yellow will not be one of the colours chosen.
14 A dealer draws three cards from a deck of 52 cards. What is the probability that she draws:
a no queens?
b at least 2 queens?
c exactly one heart?
15 Five letters are randomly selected from the letters of the word HOLIDAYS and placed in a row.
Calculate the probability that the first letter chosen is a consonant.
16 MC Inside a box are n objects of which m are white. If r objects are randomly taken out of the box
and placed in a row, the probability that the first object is white is:
n m m m+n n−m
A B C D E
m n! n n! n
17 MC A 5-digit number is randomly formed using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. If a digit cannot
be used more than once in the number:
a the probability that the number is even is:
9 57 4 35 14
A B C D E
100 195 9 78 63
b the probability that the number is between 30 000 and 50 000 is:
20 19 2 35 14
A B C D E
57 73 9 78 63
18 A debating team of 6 people is to be formed from a group consisting of 5 males and 6 females.
a What is the probability that the team will consist of at least one male?
b What is the probability that the team will have at least four females?
19 WE30 Two small crates (X and Y) contain apples (A) and bananas (B).
A crate is randomly selected, then from that crate a piece of fruit is X Y
randomly selected. The table at right describes the distribution of fruit 6 apples 4 apples
between the crates.
a What is the probability of selecting crate X and from it, a banana? 5 bananas 7 bananas
b What is the probability of selecting crate Y and from it, a banana?
c What is the probability of selecting a banana?
d Find the probability of selecting a banana using Pr (B) = Pr (B | X)Pr (X) + Pr (B | Y)Pr (Y).
20 Given Pr (B | A) = 3, Pr (B | A′ ) = 1, and Pr (A) = 3 , find Pr (B) using the Law of Total Probability.
5 3 4
1
21 WE31 The probability that Tim is late for school is 3, but he has an exam on Friday. The chance of
5
him passing his exam given that he is on time to school is 7 . If he is late, his chance of not passing the
5
exam is 11. What is the chance that Tim will pass his exam?
22 Eleni loves chocolates. She particularly loves soft-centred chocolates. She is offered a box of
12 chocolates to select from, but all the chocolates are wrapped. The probability of selecting a soft-
centred chocolate given that it is dark chocolate is 2 , and the probability of selecting a hard centre given
5
that it is milk chocolate is 4 . If there are 7 milk chocolates in the box, find the probability of selecting a
7
soft-centred chocolate.

8
23 Fred’s chance of being selected for the soccer team this season is . The probability of Fred going on
11
7
the school trip given that he is selected for the soccer team is , whereas the chance of him not
12
going on the school trip given that he is not selected for the soccer team is 3 . What is the probability
4
that Fred will go on the school trip?
1
24 The chance of a sprinter winning a race given that his archrival runs is . If his archrival does not run,
3
5 1
the sprinter has a chance of winning. His archrival is injured and has a 4 chance of running at all.
8
Use the Law of Total Probability to find the probability that the sprinter wins the race.

Summary
The addition and r The addition principle states that if two operations can be performed in A or B ways respectively,
multiplication then both operations can be performed together in A + B ways.
principles r The multiplication principle states that if two operations can be performed in A and B ways, then
both operations can be performed in succession in A × B ways.
Permutations r A permutation is the arrangement of objects in a definite order. The multiplication principle is
commonly used in calculating the number of possible permutations.
n!
r n Pr =
(n − r )!
r The number of ways of arranging n objects that include p identical objects of one type, q identical
n!
objects of another type, r identical objects of yet another type and so on is:
p! q ! r ! …
r n objects divided into m groups, with each group having G1, G2, G3, . . . G m objects respectively,
has m! × G1! × G2! × G3! × . . . × Gm! arrangements.
Factorials r The factorial of a positive whole number n is defined as:

n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) × . . . × 3 × 2 × 1 with 0! = 1
r n! = n × (n − 1)! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2)! and so on.
Arrangements in a r n distinguishable objects can be arranged in a circle in (n − 1)! ways.

circle r The same methods are applicable to arrangements in a circle as the methods used for
indistinguishable objects when there are restrictions on the possible arrangements.
Combinations r The number of combinations when r objects are selected from n objects is denoted
nP
using nCr ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ n!
by nCr or ⎜ nr ⎟ . nCr = ⎜ r ⎟ =
r nC = nC
or r n−r
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ r !(n − r )! r!

Applications to r The probability of an event: Pr (event) =
probability total number of possible outcomes
r The Law of Total Probability states: Pr (A) = Pr (A | B)Pr (B) = Pr (A | B′)Pr (B′)

Chapter review
1 There are 7 airlines that have flights from Australia to Singapore, 6 airlines that offer flights from
SHORT
ANS WER Singapore to Europe, and 5 airlines that service the route from Europe to America. Determine the
number of different travel arrangements possible to get from Australia to America via Singapore and
Europe.
2 Seven people form a queue to board a bus. How many different queues are possible?
3 The digits 3, 5, 6 and 8 are used to form numbers greater than 100. If a digit may be used once only and
not all digits have to be used, how many different numbers can be formed?
4 Seven different books are to be placed on a shelf. If a particular book must occupy the first position,
find the number of permutations possible.
5 In how many ways can first, second and third prizes be awarded to 12 people competing in a marathon?
6 A team of at least 2 people must be chosen from a group of 5 mountaineers to mount a rescue
mission. How many different teams may be chosen?
MULT IP L E 1 Samantha can get to work by walking, by taking her car or by using public transport (train, tram, bus or
C H OICE taxi). The number of different ways she can get to her work is:
A 3 B 5 C 4 D 6 E 2
2 Malcolm is guessing someone’s house number. He knows that the number is an odd number and is
between 30 and 60. Assuming that the same guess is not made twice, the maximum number of guesses
he can make is:
A 15 B 20 C 30 D 45 E 25
3 The total number of 2-digit, 3-digit and 4-digit odd numbers that can be formed using the digits 6, 4, 5,
2, 1 when a digit cannot be used more than once is:
A 200 B 80 C 170 D 120 E 128
4 The value of
998! is:
996!
A undefined B 1000 × 999 C 996!
D 998 × 997 E 998 × 997 × 996
5 The value of 9! − 7! is equivalent to:
A 71 × 7! B 2! C 7! × 9 D 8! E 7 × 8!
7P
6 The value of 5 is:
A 21 B 42 C 2520 D 1008 E 5040
7 The number of permutations using the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI is:
11! 1
A 4! B 11! C D 1!2!4!4! E
4!4!2! 4!
8 Five letters are chosen from the letters of the word WATERING and placed in a row. The number of
ways in which this can be done if the last letter is to be W is:
A 840 B 2520 C 210 D 40 E 625
9 A family consisting of a mother, father, 3 sons and 4 daughters lines up for a photograph. How many
ways can this be done if the daughters must be together?
A 9! B 6!4! C 5!4!
D 2!3!4! E 10!
10 Eleven members of a cricket team are to be seated in a circle. The number of possible arrangements is:
A 5! B 10! C 11!
11! 10!
D 10! E 11
11 The letters of the word MUSICAL are to be arranged in a circle. If the letters U and S must not be
together, the number of possible arrangements is:
A 480 B 718 C 1440
D 3600 E 5038

12 Joanna has decided to study at university. Her course requires that she undertake at least 2 subjects for
the year. If 4 subjects are being offered, the number of subject combinations is:
A 36 B 24 C 15 D 11 E 20
13 Four pieces of fruit are selected from a box containing 5 oranges and 6 apples. The number of
selections that contain at least 2 oranges and 1 apple is:
A 210 B 150 C 60 D 90 E 110
14 Five letters are randomly selected from the word ENERGISE. The probability that the letter E will
appear in the group of 5 letters is:
5 15 3 1 55
A B C D E
8 56 8 8 56
1 A 3-, 4- or 5- digit number is to be formed using digits taken from 8, 4, 3, 6 and 7. If a digit may be EXTENDED
RES P O N S E
used more than once, how many different numbers can be made?
2 The 4 fastest runners in a race will qualify for the finals. If there are 11 competitors, determine the
number of different ways in which the race can finish.
3 Evaluate 9! + 8! − 6! + 3 × 2!
4 Find the number of ways the letters of the word ARRANGEMENT can be placed in a row.
5 Anna, Belinda, Chien, Deanna and Erica are lining up for concert tickets. If Belinda and Deanna do not
want to be next to each other, what is the number of possible queues?
6 Ten children are arranging themselves in a circle. Calculate the number of ways this can be done if
three particular children are not to be next to each other.
7 Two students from a group of 8 students are to be class captain and vice-captain. From the remaining
candidates, two will become class monitors. Find the number of ways this can be done.
8 A class consists of 24 students. If an initial group of 4 must be chosen to go for a measles injection,
how many different combinations may be selected for that group?
9 A committee of 5 people is to be established using members from a group of 6 men and 7 women.
What is the probability that the committee will contain 2 men and 3 women?
10 The letters of the word FEATURING are randomly rearranged. Find the probability that the letters of
the word FEAT are together, though not necessarily in the order shown.
11 Two women and three men approach an ATM at the same time.
a How many different queues are possible if the position of each person in the queue is taken into
account?
b How many queues of at least two people are possible if the position of each person in the queue is
not taken into account?

12 From a group of 20 female students, 2 female staff, 18 male students and 3 male staff, a committee of
6 is to be formed.
a Find the number of different committees if:
i there are no restrictions
ii all committee members must be students
iii one female and one male staff member must be on the committee
iv there is an equal number of males and females on the committee
v one particular student must be on the committee
vi one particular student must not be on the committee
vii the committee must comprise 2 male staff members, 2 male students, 1 female staff member
and 1 female student.
b Find the probability that:
i only students are selected for the committee
ii all the staff are selected for the committee
iii exactly 2 staff and 4 students are selected.
13 In the game of Tattslotto, a barrel contains forty-five balls numbered 1 to 45, of which eight are
randomly drawn. The first six of these numbered balls are the winning numbers. The final two drawn
are called supplementary numbers. When you purchase a standard ticket, you may select six numbers
in each game. Prizes are awarded according to how many of your six numbers match those drawn from
the barrel.
r To win the first prize (division one), all six of your numbers must match the six winning numbers
drawn from the barrel.
r To win the second prize (division two), five of your numbers must match the winning numbers and
your remaining number must match one of the supplementary numbers.
r To win the third prize (division three), five of your numbers must match the winning numbers.
(Your remaining number does not match any of the numbers drawn.)
a What is the probability of winning division one?
DIGITAL DOC b What is the probability of winning division two?
doc-9820
Test Yourself c What is the probability of winning division three?
Chapter 12 d What is the probability of winning at least a division three prize?

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Answers CHAPTER 12
COMBINATORICS 10 a 40 b 90 Exercise 12H Applications to probability
c 41 d 1681 1 2
Exercise 12A The addition and 1 336 2 7
e 4
multiplication principles 25
Exercise 12D Permutations using nP r 3 66 4 C
1 21 2 112 3 97
1 a 360 b 56 4
4 E 55 6 B 5 0.336 6 9
c 504 d 24
7 150 8 72
9 a 24 e 6 375 600 f 6 7 D
2
8 5
b 1440 g 17 h 19 950
2
10 E i 0 j 36 99 10 E
11 D k 94 109 400 l 7 880 400
2
2 303 600 3 20 11
12 a E is English, 33
M is Mathematics, 4 300 2 4
5 a 24 b 36 12 a 33 b 33
L is Language,
S is Science. 6 E 4 19
c 11 d 33
E, M, L, S, EM, EL, ES, ML, MS, LS, 7 13 366 080
EML, EMS, ELS, MLS, EMLS 8 151 200 13 7
3
b There are 15 ways in total. 9 6720

10 3 628 800 14 a 0.783
13 a Walk/walk, walk/bus, train/walk, train/ b 0.013
bus, bus/walk, bus/bus 11 a 362 880 b 720
c 0.436
b Walk Exercise 12E Permutations involving 5
Walk Bus 15 8
Train Walk restrictions
Bus 16 C
Bus Walk 1 126 2 4620
Bus 3 B 4 5040 17 a C b C
14 16 15 30 5 60 461 181
18 a b 462
Exercise 12B Permutations 6 a 2 793 510 720 b 147 026 880 462
7 48 8 36 5 7
1 24 2 720 3 336 19 a 22 b 22
9 480 10 168
4 100 000 5 120 6 40 320 6 6
7 a 64 b 56 11 C 12 6 289 920 c 11 d 11
8 320 13 78 624 14 A
8 152
9 a 750 b 180 20 15 21 231
Exercise 12F Arrangements in a circle
10 80 11 320 12 320 1 120 2 E 22 12
5
23 132
65
13 C 14 C 15 C 3 3360 4 6930
53
16 256 5 4320 6 252 24 96
17 Lose $17 144.00 7 5445 8 D
18 a i 479 001 600 9 1260 10 D
ii 362 880 4
11 165
CHAPTER REVIEW
b 184 023 SHORT ANSWER
19 a 60 000 Exercise 12G Combinations using nC r 1 210 2 7! = 5040
b In the 15th year 1 a 10 b 4 3 48 4 6! = 720
Exercise 12C Factorials c 6 d 1 5 1320 6 26
1 a 24 b 362 880 e 1
MULTIPLE CHOICE
c 479 001 600 d 8 2 a 15 b 21
e 96 f 4318 c 45 d 84 1 D 2 A
g 567 e 924 3 B 4 D
2 a 0 b 156 3 a 30 b 1485 5 A 6 C
c 2880 d 0 c 41 664 d 73 815 7 C 8 A
e 40 206 f 2 177 298 e 118 755 9 B 10 B
g 35 376 h 439 085 448 4 A 11 A 12 D
3 B 5 a 3, 3 b 4, 4 13 A 14 E
4 D c 10, 10 d 84, 84
EXTENDED RESPONSE
5 a 12 b 5 6 a 20C7 = 20C13 b 100C9 = 100C91
7 792 8 15
1 3875
c 840 d 120
9 21 10 593 755
2 7920
e 4
11 60 12 525
3 402 486
6 a 10 302 b 999 000
13 22 050 14 490 776
4 2 494 800
c 4500 d 15 438 000
15 a 252 b 120
5 72
e 61 629 480 f 25 000
16 10 17 7
6 332 640
7 a 15 b 756
18 a 1001 b 420
7 840
c 2970 d 999 000
c 595 d 70
8 10 626
e 3906 175
8 E 19 a 28 b 56 9 0.408 or 429
9 a 214 b 104 20 a 142 506 b 128% 1
21 E 22 70 10 0.0476 or
c 1596 d 491 952 21
e 122 23 A 11 a 120 b 26

12 a i 6 096 454 ii 2 760 681 − −
13 a 1.23 × 10 7 b 1.47 × 10 6
iii 442 890 iv 2 048 200
− −
v 850 668 vi 5 245 786 c 2.73 × 10 5 d 2.89 × 10 5
vii 18 360
b i 0.453 ii 0 (negligible)
iii 0.121

1 A and B are two events such that Pr (A) = 0.3, Pr (B) = 0.3 and Pr (A ∪ B)′ = 0.6. Determine the value of S H O RT
Pr(A ∩ B). 2 marks A N S W ER
25 minutes
2 Fifty-five Year 11 students at Grampians Rise Secondary College attended the study camp. On the
camp, students were able to select up to three physical activities: bike riding, rock climbing or
hiking.
29 students selected hiking.
22 students selected rock climbing. B R
28 students selected bike riding. c a 9
5
7 students selected both bike riding and rock climbing. 8 d
8 students selected only bike riding and hiking. b
5 students selected all three activities.
H
Some of this information is represented on the Venn diagram at right.
H represents hiking, R represents rock climbing and B represents bike riding.
a Determine the values of a, b, c and d. 3 marks
b Determine the number of students who did not select any of the activities. 1 mark
c Determine the probability that a student selected at random selected bike riding and hiking. 1 mark
3 65% of learner drivers have more than 300 hours driving practice.
40% of minor car accidents are caused by learner drivers.
50% of learner drivers with more than 300 hours driving practice have not been involved in any
minor car accidents.
Let A represent the event of a learner driving the car with more than 300 hours driving practice.
Let B represent the event of a learner driver being involved in a minor car accident.
The information is represented in the probability table below.
a Complete the probability table.
B B′
A 0.65
A′
0.4 1
3 marks
b From part a, determine the probability that a learner driver selected at random has more than
300 hours driving practice and has been involved in a minor car accident. 1 mark
c Show that the probability that a learner driver selected at random did not have more than
300 hours driving practice given that they have not been involved in a minor car accident is 16. 2 marks
d 200 learner drivers were surveyed about their driving experiences. Determine the expected
number of learner drivers who have had less than 300 hours driving practice and have been
involved in a minor car accident. 2 marks
M U LTIP L E
1 Two six-sided dice are rolled. The probability that a 4 appears on the second die given that an even C HO IC E
number appears on the first die is: 10 minutes
1 1 1 1 1
A B C D E Each question is worth
36 18 12 6 3
one mark
2 4
2 If A and B are independent events such that Pr (A) = and Pr (A ∩ B) = , then Pr (B) would equal
7 15
which one of the following?
2 8 4 14 103
A B C D E
105 105 5 15 105
3 Lillie’s Lucky Lotto involves a player selecting 6 numbers from numbers 1 to 40. To win the lotto, the
player’s 6 numbers must match those randomly selected from the numbers 1 to 40. The total possible
number of different entries would be determined by which one of the following expressions?
A 6 × 40 B 6! C 40C6 D 40P6 E 40!
Exam practice 5 565

Questions 4 and 5 relate to the following information.
Savannah has organised a dinner party for 6 of her friends: Roger, Betty, Nan, Charlie, Helen and
Veronica.
4 If Roger and Betty need to sit together, then the total number of different seating arrangements around
the table would be determined by which one of the following?
A 5! B 6! C 7! D 5!2! E 6!5!
5 If Roger and Betty no longer need to sit next to each other, the probability that Charlie and Helen are
seated next to each other would be which one of the following?
2 1 1 2 5
A B C D E
7 3 2 3 7
E XTENDED
R E SPONS E 1 Lakeside Rebels is an A-League soccer team. There are 11 players in the team.
30 minutes a Before the start of each game, the Rebel’s players line up for the national anthem. Determine the
total number of different ways the players can line up if the captain and vice-captain are always in
the first and second positions in the line. 2 marks
The winning performance is constant throughout the season. When the Rebels W
win their game, the probability of winning the next game is 85%. If the Rebels
W
lose their game, the probability of winning their next game is 60%.
b Represent this information on the tree diagram at right, where W represents W'
a win and W ′ represents a loss. 2 marks W
c The Rebels are playing in a five-game tournament. Determine the
W'
probability of them winning their third game if they win their
first game. 2 marks
W'
d To win the tournament the Rebels need to win 4 games. Determine the
probability of the Rebels winning the tournament given they lose the second
game. Write your answer correct to 3 decimal places. 2 marks
e The Rebels’ probability of winning games can also be represented in the following transition
matrix:
⎡ a 0.6 ⎤
⎢ b 0.4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Determine the values of a and b. 1 mark
f There are 22 games to be played in the soccer season. Using the transition matrix, determine
the probability of the Rebels winning their last game if they lost their first. 3 marks
2 The club holds a presentation night at the end of the season. 120 guests are invited to a sit-down
three-course meal. A copy of the menu is shown at right.
a Determine the total number of different meal
choices. 1 mark
b Of the 120 guests, 3 out of 5 people select the MENU
pumpkin soup (P), 1 out of 6 select the fish
(F), and 3 out of 4 people select the lemon Soup
cheesecake (L). Show that the probability of Pumpkin or Vegetable
choosing vegetable soup is 2. 1 mark Main served with steamed vegetables
5
c Determine the probability that a person Chicken breast, Roast Beef or Pan
chooses beef or chicken given that they Fried fish
DIGITAL DOC
doc-10165
choose vegetable soup. 2 marks Dessert
Solutions d Determine the expected number of fish Lemon Cheesecake or Apple Crumble
Exam practice 5 served. 1 mark

Answers EXAM PRACTICE 1–5
EXAM PRACTICE 1 iii y 2 a M0 = 150
1100 b i 235 = 150 e4k
SHORT ANSWER 235
ii Solving 150 = e for k using a CAS
900 4k
3 ± 29 700 calculator gives k = 0.11.

1 x= c The expected number of mosquito
2 500 Seng
2 a f (1) = 2(1)3 + 5(1)2 − 4(1) − 3 = 0 300 Victor larvae present in the dam is
LHS = RHS; therefore, (x − 1) is a linear 2 989 555.57.
100
factor. d i Domain: [20, 89]
0 1 2 3 4 5 x ii In the long term, there will be
b Therefore, a = 2 and b = 1.
c y 300 mosquito larvae.
d 4.02 minutes = 4 minutes and 1 second
iii 126
3 a x+5
b A(x) = x(x + 5)
c Length = 15 m; width = 10 m EXAM PRACTICE 3
d Slides are 3 metres vertically from gate. SHORT ANSWER
−3 1 x e Show that when x = 1, B(x) = 5
−1 1 a det(A) = −8
2
RHS = 13 − 6(1)2 +10(1) −1 ⎡ −
2 −
1 ⎤
=5 −
b A 1= ⎢ ⎥
3 a = 4, b = −7 = LHS 8 ⎢⎣ − 2 3 ⎥⎦
4 a 2(x − 1)2 − 5, turning point: (1, −5)
f d=2 2
b Range: y ∈ [−5, 3] ⎡ 2 6 ⎤
2 a A+ B = ⎢ − ⎥
2 ± 10 EXAM PRACTICE 2
c x= ⎣ 1 2 ⎦
2
d
SHORT ANSWER ⎡ 1 6 ⎤
y b AB = ⎢ − ⎥
1 Centre is (−3, −4); radius = 7 −
⎣ 6 4 ⎦
2 a y
(−1, 3) (3, 3) ⎡ − 13 −
2⎤
c 2 A − 2B = ⎢
1
4
2 ⎥
x ⎢ − 3 −4 ⎥
2 ⎣ ⎦
−3 −3 2 5 x 3 a k = 1 (Methods will vary.)
−4 b a = 3, b = −6
(−1, −5)
MULTIPLE CHOICE
b Range of f : (−4, 4)
MULTIPLE CHOICE 1 B 2 C
3 a x=⎜ ⎟
⎛ 1 ⎞ log5 b x = 11
1 3 D 4 B
1 D 2 E 3 B ⎝ ⎠ 3 log2
4 D 5 C 6 A EXTENDED RESPONSE
7 D 8 E MULTIPLE CHOICE ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤
−
EXTENDED RESPONSE 1 a i ⎢ ⎥ ii ⎢ ⎥
1 E 2 E 3 C 4 D ⎢ −1 0 ⎥
⎣ 0 3 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
1 a d AB = (− 2 − 1)2 + (1 − 5)2 5 D 6 C 7 A 8 D
⎡ 0 −
1 ⎤
=5 EXTENDED RESPONSE iii ⎢ ⎥
⎢ −3 0 ⎥
1 a For maximum depth: 5.5 + 1.5 = 7 metres ⎣ ⎦
d AC = (− 2 − 5)2 + (1 − 2)2 For minimum depth: 5.5 − 1.5 = 4 b A (−1, 2)
= 50 metres
2π ⎡ cos(90) ⎤
− sin(90)
b = 12 hours; therefore, the time c i ⎢ ⎥
=5 2 π
⎢ sin(90) cos(90) ⎥
6 ⎣ ⎦
d BC = (1 − 5)2 + (5 − 2)2 taken to increase from minimum to ii B″(3, −5)
=5 maximum is 6 hours. 2 a [4 2 3 0]
c y b $3h
dAB = dBC; therefore, triangle ABC is an
isosceles triangle. c i 1×1
b y = −7x + 12 ii The amount of money, in dollars, Jim
c If this line passes through the vertex B earns from selling the four different
(1, 5), then this point lies on the line. types of fruit trees in the third week.
Substituting the values of (1, 5) into the ⎡ 4 2 3 0 ⎤
function, we get: ⎢ 2 1 0 3 ⎥⎥
LHS = 5 RHS = −7(1) + 12 = 5 d ⎢
LHS = RHS; therefore, the line passes 0 x ⎢ 0 0 2 1 ⎥
through the vertex B. d 3.6 hours after 7 am = 10:36 am
⎢ 2 p 0 3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2 a Qv = −3.44t4 + 18.03t3 + 31.01t2 e i If they arrive at 9:30 am, they have
+ 55.23t – 108.47 1 hour 36 minutes to swim in the rock ⎡ 195.30⎤
b Cs = −7.04t3 + 50.63t2 + 129.74t + 5.40 pools. ⎢ 175.35⎥
e ⎢
c i Domain Qv: [1, 5] or {x: 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} ii 51 minutes + 1 hour 36 minutes 74.65⎥
⎢158.85 + 16.5 p ⎥
ii Domain Cs: [0, 5] or {x: 0 ≤ x ≤ 5} = 147 minutes ⎣ ⎦
ANSWERS Exam practice 1–5 567

⎡ 4 2 3 0⎤⎡ e ⎤ c 0 = 4976.80a + 81.46b + c c
B B'
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 16.5 ⎥ 0 = 439 148.28a + 765.20b + c
2 1 0 3
f ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ d 0 = 166 375 000a + 302 500b + 550c A 0.15 0.5 0.65
⎢ 0 0 2 1⎥⎢ g ⎥ e b = 0.0063, c = −0.4675 A' 0.25 0.1 0.35
⎢ 2 p 0 3⎥⎢ h ⎥ x
⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ 2 a x = 2πr → r =
2π
0.4 0.6 1
⎡ 195.3 ⎤
⎢ 175.35 ⎥⎥ (300 − x )2 Pr( A′ ∩ B′)
=⎢ b Area square = Pr(A′|B′) =
⎢ 74.65 ⎥ 16 Pr( B′)
⎢ 158.85 + 16.5 p ⎥ c Total area
⎣ ⎦ 0.1
(300 − x )2 x 2 =
g e = 25.95, g = 19.50 and h = 35.65. = + 0.6
Apple trees cost $25.95, nectarine trees 16 4π
1
cost $19.50 and cherry trees cost $35.65. (π + 4) × x 2 − 600π x + 90 000π =
= 6
h p = 3.00. The number of plum trees sold 16π
in the fourth week is 3. d 50 learner drivers would be expected to
d 0 < x < 300
have less than 300 hours driving practice
dA (π + 4) x − 300π
EXAM PRACTICE 4 e
dx
=
8π
and be involved in a minor car accident.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
SHORT ANSWER 300π
f x= 1 D 2 D
1 a f (2 + h) = 14 + 11h + 2h2 π +4
b Gradient of tangent = 11 3 C 4 D
x ≈ 131.97 5 B
2 a The car’s speed is variable (i.e. it dA
changes) in the first 30 seconds. g When x = 130, ≈ 2.28
dx EXTENDED RESPONSE
2
b Average speed = 3 m/s dA − 1 a 9! or 362 880
When x = 140, ≈ 0.56
c Instantaneous speed at t = 50 would dx b W
2 0.85
be 3 m/s. That is, positive gradient, zero gradient,
negative gradient — showing that at W
3 y 0.85
300π 0.15
(−2, 4) x= , the function has a minimum W'
π +4 0.6 W
value. 0.15 W'
−2 1
x EXAM PRACTICE 5 0.4
W'
SHORT ANSWER c Pr(winning third game) = 0.8125
(1, −5) 1 Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.2 d 0.434
2 a a = 2, b = 10, c = 13, d = 6 e a = 0.85, b = 0.15
4 f(x) = 4x + 1 b 2 students f The Rebels have an 80% probability of
13
c Pr(selects both bike and hiking) = winning the last game.
MULTIPLE CHOICE 3 a 55 2 a 12
B B'
1 D 2 A 3E 4C 5 B 6 B 2
A 0.15 0.5 0.65 b v=
EXTENDED RESPONSE 5
A' 0.25 0.1 0.35 5
1 a h(0) = 150 = a(0)3 + b(0)2 + c(0) + d c y=
Therefore, d = 150. 0.4 0.6 1 6
b h′(x) = 3ax2 + 2bx + c b Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.15 d 20

Cumulative exam practice
Functions and graphs M U LTIP L E
C HO IC E
πc
1 equals: Each question is worth
5 one mark.
A 50° B 40° C 36° D 216° E 30°
2 112.5° equals:
5π c 5π c 3π c 3π c 4π c
A B C D E
8 4 4 4 5
3 An isosceles triangle has two equal sides of length 2a cm; two equal angles, each θ°; and an altitude to
the third side of length a cm. The exact value of tan (90 – θ)° is:
3a a 3a
A 3a B C D E 3
2 2 2
4 The exact value of x where x2 = cos 30° − sin 45° is:
3− 2 3− 2 3− 2
A ± B C ±
2 2 2 2
3− 2 3− 2
D E −
2 2 2 2
⎛ π⎞
n ((22n − 1)
5 The exact value of tan , n ∈ Z is:
⎝ 6⎠
+ −
3 3 3
A ± B C
3 3 3
D + 3 E − 3
⎛ 3π − θ ⎞ + cos π
6 sin cos ⎛ θ − ⎞ equals:
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
A − 2sin θ B − 2 cos θ C 0
n θ − ccos
D sin os θ n θ − ccos
E sin os θ
x
Consider the graph of y = − 2 sin ⎛ ⎞ − 5, [0, 2π ] to answer questions 7 and 8.
⎝π⎠
7 The minimum value of y occurs when x equals:
−π 2 3π π π2
A B C D E π2
2 2 2 2
8 The period is:
π π2
A 2π B 1 C D E 2π 2
2 2
⎛ 3π ⎞
9 The depth of water at the harbour entrance at Portcliffe is given by the equation d = 3sin 2t − + 4,
⎝ 2 ⎠
where d is the depth in metres and t is the number of hours after midnight.
The depth at midnight in metres is:
⎛ 9π ⎞ ⎛ 9π ⎞
A 1 B 4 C ⎝4− D 7 E ⎝ −4
2 ⎠ 2 ⎠
10 The graph of y = −2(32x) + 4 has a y-intercept and an asymptote, respectively, of:
A 2, x = 4 B 2, y = 4 C −2, x = 4
D −2, y = 4 E −2, y = 0
11 The inverse of y = a loge(cx + d) – f is:
y+ f x+ f x
1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( +f)
A x= [e a − d] B y= [e a − d] C y = c [e a − d]
c c
y y
1 (a + f ) 1 ( +f)
D x= [e − d] E y = [e a − d ]
c c
Cumulative exam practice 569

12 The exact distance between the points (−4, −7) and (1, −5) is:
A 13 B 29 C 153 D 13 E 21
3 −2 − 5 −8
13 The midpoint of the line joining the points (4 , 5) and ( 4, 5) is:
−1 −3 3 1 −1
A ( 4 , −1) B (1, 5 ) C (1, 5 ) D ( 4 , −1) E ( 4 , 1)
14 It is anticipated that the population of Tapagonia will increase at an annual rate of 3%. Its population
now is 2.25 million. The population at the end of 8 complete years from now will be (in millions):
A 18.3539 B 2.7672 C 14.1184
D 2.8502 E 2.7900
−
15 The breakdown of a radioactive element is given by the equation Dt = D0 × 10 0.015t , where t is time
measured in years and D0 is the density when t = 0. The half-life in years of the element is:
A 0.7079 B 0.2007 C 2.007
D 20.07 E 0.8414
1
16 If f ( x ) = 2( x − 3)2 − 4 x + , then f (a) equals:
x
1 1 1
A 2a − 3 − 4 a + B 2a − 6 − 4 a + C 2a − 9 − 4 a +
2 2 2
a a a
1 1
D 2a − 18 − 4 a + E 2(a − 3) − 4 a + a
2 2
a
17 The function f (x) = x3 is translated 3 units to the left and 2 units downwards. It is then dilated by a
factor of 4 from the x-axis before being reflected in the y-axis. The transformed equation is:
A y = −4(x – 3)3 – 8 B y = −4(x – 3)3 + 8 C y = 4(x + 3)3 – 8
−
D y = 4(x + 3) – 2
3 E y = 4(x + 3) + 2
3
⎛ − a b⎞
18 All points on a particular line are equidistant from the points (a, −b) and ⎜ , . The equation of the
⎝ 2 2 ⎟⎠
line is:
3 3 3 3
A − 3by + 3ax + b 2 + a 2 = 0 B − 3by − 3ax + b 2 + a 2 = 0
4 4 4 4
3 3 3 2 3 2
C 3by − 3ax + 4 b 2 + 4 a 2 = 0 D 3by + 3ax +
4
b + 4
a =0
− 3by + 3ax − 3 b 2 + 3 a 2 = 0
E
4 4
19 The region inside the circle x2 + (y – 2)2 = 4 that lies on or below the line y = x – 1 is represented by:
A x2 + (y – 2)2 > 4, y ≤ x – 1 B x2 + (y – 2)2 < 4, y ≤ x – 1
C x2 + (y – 2)2 < 4, y ≥ x – 1 D x2 + (y – 2)2 ≤ 4, y < x – 1
E x2 + (y – 2)2 ≥ 4, y > x – 1
20 The graph of f (x) = (x2 – a2)(x2 – b2), a ≠ b has:
A symmetry about the y-axis, three zeros and three stationary points
B symmetry about the y-axis, two zeros and three stationary points
C symmetry about the y-axis, two zeros and two stationary points
D symmetry about the x-axis, three zeros and three stationary points
E symmetry about the x-axis, two zeros and one stationary point
Algebra
1 The remainder when ax3 – ax2 + 2ax – a is divided by x + 1 is:
A −a B a C −5a D −3a E 3a
2 The factors of x3 – (b + 3)x2 + (3b – 4)x + 4b are:
A (x – 1)(x – 4)(x – b) B (x + 1)(x – 4)(x – b) C (x + 1)(x – 4)(x + b)
D (x – 1)(x + 4)(x + b) E (x – 1)(x – 4)(x + b)
3 If log3(x2 – 7x + 1) = 2, then x equals:
7 ± 553
A B 7, −1 C −7, 1 D −8, 1 E 8, −1
2

4 If 6e2x – ex – 1 = 0, then x equals:
−1 1 1 −1 1
A 3, 2 B 3, 2 C 2
1
D − log
ge ((2) E loge( 2 ), −loge(3)
5 The graph of y = 1 – x3 is subject to the following transformations in the given order: translation of
2 units to the left and 3 units upwards; dilation of 4 away from the x-axis and 3 away from the y-axis.
The resulting equation is:
4 4 4
A y = 16 − ( x − 6)3 B y = 16 + ( x + 6)3 C y = 16 − ( x + 6)3
27 27 27
4 4
D y = 16 − ( x + 6)3 E y = 16 − ( x − 6)3
27 27
( y + 1)2
6 The order of transformations that combine to transform x2 + y2 = 4 into 16(( x − 2)
2)2 + = 4 is:
A 1 A translation of 2 units to the left and 1 unit upwards
9
1
2 A dilation of 4 from the y-axis and a dilation of 3 from the x-axis.
B 1 A translation of 2 units to the left and 1 unit downwards
1
C 1 A translation of 2 units to the left and 1 unit downwards
1
1
D 1 A dilation of 4 from the y-axis and a dilation of 3 from the x-axis.
2 A translation of 2 units to the left and 1 unit upwards
1
E 1 A dilation of 4 from the y-axis and a dilation of 3 from the x-axis.
2 A translation of 2 units to the right and 1 unit downwards
πx π ⎞
7 The solution of 2sin ⎛ − + 5 = 4,
4 [0, 4] is:
⎝ 2 4⎠
13 17 19 23 13π 17π
A ,
6 6
B ,
6 6
C ,
6 6
19π 23π 1 17
D , E 6, 6
6 6
8 Given 4[cos(x)]2 – cos(x) – 5 = 0, [−π, π), then x equals:
5
A −π B π C coss 1 ⎛⎜⎝ ⎞⎠⎟ , cos
− −
cos 1 ((1)
4
5
D coss 1 ⎛⎜⎝ ⎞⎟⎠ , cos
−
4
cos 1 ( − 1)
− −
E coss 1 ( ), cos
− 5
cos
4
−
1 ((1)
9 The zeros for the graph of the function f (x) = (x – 2a)2(x + b)2, x ∈R are:
A 4a2, b2 B −4a2, b2 C 4a2, −b2
D 2a, −b E −2a, b
10 The graph of a function has x-intercepts of 1, −3 and 7. The y-intercept is 3. The equation of the
function is:
1
A y = 7( x − 1)(( x + 3)( x − 7) B y = 1 ( x − 1)( x + 3)(( x − 7) C y= ( x + 1)( x − 3)(( x + 7)
7 7
− 1
D y = 7( x + 1)(( x − 3)( x + 7) E y= ( x − 1)( x + 3)( x − 7)
7
11 The x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the graphs of the functions f (x) = 2x + 1 and
g(x) = 2x3 – x + 2 are:
1
A 1 B −1 ± 3 C 1, − 1 ± 3 D −1 E −1, 2
12 Reflection in the x-axis is represented by the matrix:
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ −1 0 ⎤ ⎡ −1 0 ⎤
A ⎢ B ⎢ ⎥ C ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 ⎦
⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 0 ⎤
D ⎢ ⎥ E ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 −1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 −1 ⎦

1
13 A dilation of factor from the x-axis followed by reflection in the line y = x is represented by the
4
matrix equation:
⎡ x′ ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x′ ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
A ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥ B ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ 4 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ y′ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 0 1 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎢⎣ y′ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦
⎡ x′ ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ x′ ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
C ⎢ ⎥=⎢ 4 ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ D ⎢ ⎥=⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ y′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎢⎣ y′ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦
⎡ x′ ⎤ ⎡ 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤
E ⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ 1 ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ y′ ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1 0 ⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 4 ⎥⎦ ⎣ y ⎦
14 The original simultaneous equations used to compile the matrix equation

⎡ 2 0 −10 ⎤⎡ w ⎤ ⎡ 3 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 5 0 1 ⎥⎢ x 0
⎥=⎢ ⎥ are:
⎢ −2 4 0 0 ⎥⎢ y ⎥ ⎢ −2
⎥
⎢ −5 ⎥⎢ z ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ 2 1 0 ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
A 2x + y − z + w = 3 B 2x − z + w = 3
3x − 5 y + z + w = 0 3x − 5 y + w = 0
− 2x
− 2x + 4y + z + w = −2 + 4y = − 2
2x − 5y + z − w = 1 2x − 5y + z = 1
C 2x − y = 3 D 2x − z = 3
3x − 5 y + w = 0 3x − 5 y + w = 0
− 2x + 4y = − 2 − 2x + 4y = − 2
2x − 5y + z = 1 2x − 5y + z = 1
E 2x − z = 3
3x − 5 y + w = 0
− 2x + 4y = − 2
2x − 5y + w = 1
15 For the cubic function y = f (x), f (a) = a, f ′(a) = 0, f (b) = 0, f ′(b) = 0, a < b, and a and b ∈ R+ ∪ {0}.
Which one of the following statements cannot possibly be true?
A For a < x < b, y = f ( x ) is a decreasing function.
B There is a local maximum turning point at (f (a), a).
C There is a local minimum turning point at (b, 0).
D There is a stationary point at (a, a).
E If x < a and x > b, y = f (x) is an increasing function.
π π
16 The graph of y = 2cos( g( x − )) + 1, x ∈ [0, ∞), g > 0 crosses the x-axis closest to the origin at x = .
2 12
The value of g is:
1 1 π
A 2 B 2π C 2 D E
2π 2
e x − 2e − x + 1
17 When expressed in its simplest form, equals:
e x − e− x
(e x )2 + e x − 2 ex − 2 ex + 2
A B ex − 1 C
(e x )2 − 1 ex − 1
ex + 2 (e x )2 + e x − 2
D E
ex + 1 (e x )2 + 1

18 For the family of curves y = a(x + b)4 – c, the x-intercept and the y-intercept are respectively:
c a −b ± 4 c
A −b + 4 , ab 4 − c B −b ± 4 , ab 4 + c C , ab 4 + c
a c a
c a
D − b ± 4 , ab 4 − c E −b ± 4
, ab 4 − c
a c
19 The graph of y = (x – 1)(x + 3)(x2 – 4) intersects the y-axis at the point(s):
A (0, 1), (0, −3), (0, 4) B (0, 1), (0, −3), (0, 2), (0, −2) C (0, 1), (0, 3), (0, 2), (0, −2)
D (0, 12) E (12, 0)
1 1 1 1
20 + = + . If p = 4, r = −3 and s = 2, then q equals:
p q r s
1 − 1
A 12 B −12 C 12 D E −5
12
Rates of change and calculus

dy
1 If y = x4 – 3x3 + 6, then equals:
dx
A 4x4 – 9x3 + 6 B 4x4 – 9x3 C 4x3 – 9x2 + 6 D x3 – 3x2 E 4x3 – 9x2
dy
2 If = 3x3 + 2x2 – 1, then y equals:
dx
A 9x 2 + 4 x + c B 9x 2 + 4 x − 1 + c C x4 + x3 − x + c
1 1 3 3 2 3
D
4
x4 + 3
x − x+c E
4
x4 + 3
x − x+c
−
1
3 If f ( x ) = + 1, then f ′(−2) equals:
x3
−3 3 −3 3 −5
A 4 B 4 C 16 D E
16 4
4 The graph of y = f ′(x) is an upright parabola that has roots x = a and x = 0, where a > 0. The function
f (x) has:
A no stationary points
B two stationary points of inflection
C one turning point, which is a minimum, and one stationary point of inflection
D one turning point, which is a maximum, and one stationary point of inflection
E one maximum turning point, one minimum turning point and one point of inflection
5 The graph of y = f (x) in question 4 could be:
A y B y C y
0 a x 0 a x
0 a x
y y
D E
−a 0 a x
0 a x

6 The gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x2 + x, x > 0 at the point where y = 6 is:
A 42 B 5 C 6 D 13 E 9
7 The graph of f (x) is an inverted parabola that has roots x = p, x = q, q > p. The function is decreasing
when:
p+q
A x>q B x<p C x>
2
p+q
D x< E p<x<q
2
8 The equation of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at the point where x = a is:
A y = (x – a)f ′(a) + f (a) B y = (x + a)f ′(a) + f (a) C y = f (a)
D y = xf ′(a) + f (a) E y=0
9 ∫ 1 − 2 x ddx equals:
−1
2 3
− 1 − 1
A (1 − 2 x ) 3 +c B (1 − 2 x ) 2 +c C − (1 − 2 x ) 2 + c
3 3
−1 3
− 3
D 1 (1 − 2 x ) 2 + c E (1 − 2 x ) 2 + c
2 4
⎧⎪ x 2 + 1 x≥0
10 For the hybrid function f ( x ) = ⎨
−
, f ′ ⎛⎜⎝ 1 ⎞⎟⎠ equals:
⎪⎩ x + 1 x<0
2 2
−1
A 0 B C 1
D 3 E none of the above
11 Measured in square centimetres, the maximum area of a rectangle whose perimeter is p centimetres is:
1
A p2 B 1 p2 C 16 p2
4
D p p− ( 1
4 ) E
1
4
p( p − 1)
12 The total surface area of a cylinder is A cm2. Measured in cubic centimetres, the maximum volume of
the cylinder is:
3 3
⎛ A ⎞2 ⎛ A ⎞2 2A A
A 2π ⎜⎝ ⎟ B 2π ⎜⎝ ⎟ C
6π ⎠ 3π ⎠ 3 6π
2A A A
D E r
3 3π 2
13 The tangent to f (x) at the point (3, 5) has the equation y = −x + 8. The equation of f (x) is:
− x2
A +8 B −x2 + 5x + 2 C −x2 + 8x – 9
3
− x3
D +6 E −(x – 3)(x – 5)
27
14 A rectangular sheet of metal, 12 cm by 10 cm, has a square of side x cm cut from each corner. The
sides of the rectangular sheet are then folded to form an open cuboid. Measured in cubic centimetres,
the maximum volume of the cuboid occurs when x is:
11 + 31 11 − 31 11 ± 31
A B C
3 3 3
22 + 6 101 22 − 6 10
1
D E
3 3
15 The curve f (x) = −x3 + 2x2 – x + 5 is an increasing function for:
1 1 1
A ≤x≤1 B 3 ≤x<1 C
3
<x<1
3
−1
D
3
< x < −1 E x<1

16 A bag contains some red marbles, some blue marbles and some green marbles. There are 100 marbles
in total, and there are four more green marbles than blue marbles. The probability of choosing a red
marble followed by a blue marble, with replacement and as independent events, is greatest when the
number of red marbles in the bag equals:
A 24 B 36 C 48 D 60 E 72
Questions 17 and 18: A particle moves in a straight line such that its displacement, x metres, after
time t seconds from a fixed point O is given by x = at2 + bt + c.
17 The velocity is:
1 3 1
A 1 at 3 + 1 bt 2 + ct + d B at + 2 bt 2 + ct C 2at + b + c
3 2 3
D 2at + bt E 2at + b
18 The acceleration is:
A at2 B 2at C 2a D at2 + b E a
19 The sum of two numbers is m. The numbers in terms of m, such that the sum of their squares is a
minimum, are:
m m m 3m
A m, 0 B , C ,
2 2 4 4
m 2m
D , E 2m, −m
3 3
20 The velocity of 10 m/s is drawn on a velocity–time graph and also on a displacement–time graph. The
graphs are drawn respectively as:
A y = 10x, y = 10 B y = 10, y = 10x C x = 10, y = 10x
D y = 10x, x = 10 E y = 10, x = 10
Probability
1 pCq equals:
p! q! p!
A B C
q! p! ( p − q )!
q! p!
D E
( p − q ) ! p! ( p − q )! q !
2 The probability that the sum of the two up-facing numbers on a pair of unbiased six-sided dice equals 7
is:
7 6 5 4 3
A B C D E
36 36 36 36 36
3 The probability of selecting 2 kings, 3 queens and 3 aces when selecting eight cards from a standard
pack of 52 playing cards is:
⎛ 12 ⎞
⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
A 18 B 8 C
52 52 ⎛ 52 ⎞
⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞⎛ 4 ⎞
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
52
D E
⎛ 52 ⎞ 8
⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
4 If Pr(A) = 0.9, Pr(B) = 0.3 and Pr(A|B) = 0.5, then Pr(B|A) equals:
A 0.15 B 0.6 C 0.2 D 0.1667 E 0.8
5 If for two events, A and B, Pr(A ∩ B) = 0.1 and Pr(A ∩ B′) = 0.6, then Pr(A) equals:
1 1
A 0.7 B 0.5 C D 1 E 7
6 5

6 If Pr(A ∩ B′) = 0.6, Pr(A) = 0.7 and Pr(B) = 0.2, then Pr(A ∪ B′) equals:
2
A 1 B 0.1 C 0.3 D 0.9 E
3
7 The number of ways that 10 people can be split into groups of five, three and two is:
⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ⎛ 5 ⎞
A ⎜ B ⎜ C ⎜
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
D 3 E 6
1⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
8 If 2 ⎜ + = , then n equals:
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
A 5 B 4 C 1 or 8 D 1 E 8
9 If the probability of success, p, of a certain event satisfies the equation log10(5p) = log10(4 – 6p2), then
p equals:
1 −4 1 4 1 4 −1 4
A 2, 3 B 2 C 3 D 2, 3 E 2, 3
1
10 The probability of success, p, of a certain event, satisfies the equation log p = 2 log (x + ) – log x,
4
x > 0. The value of x for which p is a minimum is:
5 5 −1 ± 5 1 1
A 4
B 1− 4 C 4
D ±4 E 4
11 Events P and Q are mutually exclusive. Pr(P|Q) equals:

A 1 B 0 C Pr(P) D Pr(Q) E Pr(P ∩ Q)
1 3
12 For two independent events A and B, Pr(A) = p, Pr(B) = (p – ) and Pr(A ∩ B) = . p equals:
4 8
3 1 3 1 1 1
A 4, 2 B 4 C 2 D 4 E 4, 1
13 If Pr(P|Q) = 0, which one of the following must be true?

A P⊂Q B Q⊂P C P∪Q=∅
D P and Q are independent. E P and Q are mutually exclusive.
14 The probability of choosing an ace or a diamond in one pick from a standard pack of playing cards
equals:
17 16 13
A 52 B 52 C 52
10 9
D 52 E 52
15 The value(s) of a in the table below for which b is a maximum is:

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
a(5a − 8)
Pr(x) b a3 a3 a3 2b
2
1⎡ a(5a − 8) ⎞ ⎤
1 − ⎛⎜ 3a3
1 4 1
A 9 B 3, 3 C
3⎢
+ ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎦
4 4
D −1, 9 E 9
16 The value(s) of a in the table below for which b is a minimum is:

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
a(5a − 8)
Pr(x) b a3 a3 a3 2b
2
1⎡ a(5a − 8) ⎞ ⎤
A 0.9468 B 0 C
3⎢
1 − ⎛ 3a3 +
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦
− 1 ⎡ ⎛ 3 a(5a − 8) ⎞ ⎤ 4
D
3⎢
1 − 3a + E 9
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦

17 The number of ways of arranging the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI in a row such that the letters P
are together is:
10! 11! 11!
A B C
4!4! 2!4!4!2! 2!4!4!
11! 10!
D E
4!4! 2!4!4!2!
18 The probability of Chiu answering the first question correctly in a multiple choice examination is 0.5.
If he gets a correct answer, the probability of answering the next question correctly is 0.6. If he gets an
incorrect answer, the probability of answering the next question correctly is 0.2. The probability that he
answers the fourth question correctly is:
A 0.656 B 0.344 C 0.5(0.6)3
4 2
D 0.5(0.6) E (0.5)(0.6) (0.5)
19 The probability of rain today is p. The probability of rain on the day after rain is q. The probability of
rain on the day after a fine day is q2. If this is Monday, the matrices that can be used in the calculation
of Friday’s weather are:
3 4
⎡ q q2 ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤ ⎡ 1 − q 1 − q2 ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤
A ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ B ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 − q 1 − q2
⎣
⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 − p ⎥⎦ ⎢ q
⎣
q2 ⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 − p ⎥⎦
4 3
⎡ q q2 ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤ ⎡ 1 − q 1 − q2 ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤
C ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ D ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 − q 1 − q2
⎣
⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 − p ⎥⎦ ⎢ q
⎣
q2 ⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 − p ⎥⎦
4
⎡ p q2 ⎤ ⎡ p ⎤
E ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 − p 1 − q2
⎣
⎥
⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 − p ⎥⎦
20 Three students sit a particularly difficult Mathematics test in which there is an extremely tricky
problem. Anh, Beatrice and Colin have probabilities of 0.8, 0.7 and 0.6 respectively of solving this
problem. If the problem is solved, the probability that it is only solved by Anh is:
A 0.3443 B 0.09836 C 0.976
D 0.2857 E 0.96
1 A particle moves in a straight line. Its displacement from a fixed point O is x metres at time t seconds. S H O RT
A N S W ER
a Its acceleration at time t seconds is (2t – 4). Find its velocity, v m/s, at time t seconds if the particle
is initially at rest. EXTENDED
b Find its displacement in terms of time if the particle is 3 m to the left of O after 2 seconds. R ES P O N S E
2 For a particular curve, f ′(x) = −x3 + 2x. If f (2) = 1, find f (x).
∫ ( 4 x 5 + 1) ddx.
1
3 Find
4 If f ( x ) = ∫ ( x 3 + x )dx and f (1) = 0, find c, the constant of integration.

1
5 a Find the gradient of the secant through the points (x, f (x)) and ((x + h), f (x + h)) on the curve y = .
b Hence find the gradient of the tangent at the point (x, f (x)). x
c Find the equation of the tangent at x = a.
6 A farmer has 300 metres of fencing that he wishes to use to fence off a rectangular field of the largest
possible area. If the field is bounded along one of its longer sides by a river (no fence required), find the
maximum area of the field.
7 Find the volume of the largest right cylinder that can be fitted into a right circular cone of height
8 metres and radius 3 metres.
8 A wire of length 30 cm is bent to form the edges of a cuboid that has a square cross-section.
a Find the dimensions of the cuboid of greatest volume.
b Find the dimensions of the cuboid of greatest surface area.

9 A sector of a circle of radius r cm has a perimeter of 12 cm. Find r if the sector has maximum area.
10 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x3 – 3 at the point P (g, y).
11 Find the equation of the normal (perpendicular line to the tangent) to the curve y = x3 + 3x at the point
A (a, y).
12 The hourly cost, C (in dollars), of running a particular motor vehicle at a speed of V km/h is given by
C = a + bV 2, where a and b are constants.
ad
a Show that the total running cost for a journey of d km is + bdV .
V
a
b Show that the total running cost is least when V = , and find this cost.
b
c In fact, the journey lies along a freeway on which there is a maximum speed limit of f km/h. Find
the minimum total running cost if:
a a
i f < ii f >
b b
x 2a 2 − a + 2
13 The equation of the tangent at the point (a, b) on a curve is y = + . Evaluate b.
1 + a2 1 + a2
14 Find the equations of the tangents to y = x3 + 3x2 that have a gradient of 9.
15 Find the coordinates of the point where the tangent to y = x2(3x – 2) at the point (1, 1) meets the curve
for a second time.
16
16 a Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = at the point (2, 8).
x
b Find the coordinates of a second point on the curve at which the tangent is parallel to the tangent
at (2, 8).
17 For what values of x are the tangents to y = x2 and y = x3 parallel?
18 Show that the tangent to the curve xy = c2 (for constant c) at the point (h, k) cuts off a triangle of
constant area from the coordinate axes.
19 In the rich wheatlands of Tapagonia, grain silos consist of a hemisphere mounted on a right cylinder.
By a traditional law of the land, each silo must be exactly h metres high. If the cylindrical section has
height of x metres and radius r metres:
a find x in terms of h and r
1
b show that the volume of a silo is V = π r 2 h − π r 3
3
c show that the maximum volume of a silo does not occur at a turning point
d find the shape of the silo that holds the maximum volume of grain.
20 A metal sphere of radius b cm is melted down and recast into the shape of a right cylinder of height
h cm and radius r cm.
4 b3
a Show that the height of the cylinder is given by h = 2 .
3r
8π b3
b Show that the surface area, A, of the cylinder is + 2π r 2.
3r
c Show that the surface area is least when 3r3 = 2b3.
21 The sum of the squares of two positive numbers is 32. Find the two numbers such that their sum is:
a a maximum b a minimum.
22 Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be enclosed in a circle of radius r cm.
23 A particle moves in a straight line according to the equation x = t3 – 2t2 + t – 1, where x is the
displacement from a fixed reference point in metres and t is the time of travel in seconds.
a What is the displacement when t = 3?
b When is the particle 1 m to the left of the reference point?
c When is the particle 1 m to the right of the reference point?
d When is the particle passing through the reference point?
e What is the particle’s velocity when it passes through the reference point?
f What is the particle’s acceleration when it passes through the reference point?
g At what time(s) are the magnitude of velocity and acceleration equal?

24 A particle moves in a straight line according to the equation x = t3 – 2t2 + t – 5, where x is the
displacement from a fixed reference point in metres and t is the time of travel in seconds.
a What is the maximum displacement between t = 0 and t = 1?
b What is the velocity when the displacement is a minimum between t = 0 and t = 1?
c In which direction is the particle moving immediately i before and ii after the displacement is a
minimum?
∫
− −
3
25 Find ( x + x 2 − 1)dx.
26 A function f (x) = ax3 – bx2 + x – 5, [−2, 4) has no stationary points. Find the relationship between
a and b.
x2
27 Find the average rate of change between the points where x = a and x = b on the graph of y = .
b−a
−
28 Show that there are three possible normals to the curve y = x that pass through the point ( 4, 16).
2
29 f (x) = 1 – x2, [0, 1] and g (x) = 1 − x 2 , [0, 1]. The line x = a intercepts both curves. Show that the
3
distance along x = a between the two curves is a maximum when x = 2
.
30 Find both the maximum and minimum values of the function f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 16, R → R, in the
interval [−3, 0].
− 12
31 f ( x ) = ( x − 1)( x − 1)(
1)( x − 6), [1, 6], where f (x) equals the probability of x.
625
a Find the value of x for which the probability is a maximum
b Find the maximum probability.
32 Nine different consonants and four different vowels are arranged in a row.
a Find the probability that the vowels are all together.
b If the vowels are not all together, find the probability that the consonants are all together.
33 The independent probabilities that two horses live to the age of ten years are 0.4 and 0.2.
Find the probability that:
a both horses live to the age of 10 years
b only one lives to the age of 10 years
c if only one lives the age of 10 years, it is the one with the lower probability.
34 Events P ′ and Q ′ are independent. Prove that events P ′ and Q are independent.
35 Find the probability that if the total on two normal six-sided dice is greater than 6, the second die
shows a 3.
36 Prove that Pr((A ∩ B)|B) = Pr(A|B).
37 Two unbiased 4-sided dice, each numbered 1 to 4, are thrown.
a Find the probability of a total less than or equal to 4.
b If the total is less than or equal to 4, find the probability that the total is greater than or equal to 3.
38 Pr(A) = 0.6 and Pr(B) = 0.8. Find Pr(A|B) if:
a A and B are independent
b A⊆B
39 Find Pr(A|B) if:
a A and B are mutually exclusive
b Pr(A′ ∩ B) = 0
40 A committee of foxes and rabbits has to be chosen to settle a tricky dispute. There are 20 foxes
available for election and 37 rabbits. The committee will consist of 7 members. The foxes have insisted
that the Big Brown Fox, a fearsome creature, must be on the committee. The rabbits have insisted
that Floppy Bunny, an orator of some eloquence, must also be on the committee. How many different
committees may be selected if there must be more rabbits than foxes?
41 The letters of the word COMMITTEE are arranged in a circle. Find the probability that the T’s are
together.
42 If two events A and B are complementary, find:
a Pr(A ∩ B′) b Pr(A ∪ B)
c Pr(A|B)

43 A target of diameter 2 metres is marked with concentric circles. Find the probability that if an archer’s
arrow strikes the target it lands:
a within 10 cm of the target’s centre.
b between 15 cm and 30 cm from the target’s centre
c between 15 cm and 20 cm from the target’s centre if it lands between 15 cm and 30 cm from the
target’s centre
44 P and Q are two events. Prove, using a Venn diagram or otherwise, that Pr(P) = Pr(P ∩ Q) + Pr(P ∩ Q ′).
45 A mining company has ten exploratory mines underway. The probability of success, f (x), in any one of
15
the mines can be described by the function f ( x ) = , 3 ≤ x ≤ 5, x ∈ R.
2x 2
a Find the value of x that gives the greatest probability of success.
b Find the greatest probability of success.
c Assuming the probability of success in each of the ten mines is the greatest probability found
above, find the probability that six of the mines succeed and four fail.
46 Find the probability that a poker hand of 5 cards has 3 aces and 2 kings.
47 If a poker hand of 5 cards has 3 aces and 2 kings, find the probability that it contains the ace of hearts
but not the king of diamonds.
48 If a poker hand of 5 cards contains the ace of hearts but not the king of diamonds, find the probability
that it has 3 aces and 2 kings.
49 William Tell, the famous archer, has a probability of 0.9 of hitting the centre of a target with his first
shot. If he is successful with any shot, the probability of success on the next shot is 0.95. If he misses,
the probability of success on the next shot is 0.7. Find the probability that he hits the centre of the target
on his fifth shot.
50 The probability of rain today is 0.7. The probability of rain on the day after rain is 0.8. The probability
of rain on the day after a fine day is 0.4. If today is Monday, find the probability that it will be fine on
Sunday.
51 The three students previously encountered are sitting an Economics test. Anh, Beatrice and Colin have
probabilities of p, (1 – p) and (1 – p2) respectively of passing. If at least two of the three pass, show that
(1 − p)(1 − p2 )
the probability that Anh fails equals .
2 p3 + 1
52 The probability that an egg will crack while being brought home from the market is estimated at 0.05.
What is the probability that, in a box of one dozen eggs, three will crack on the way home?
53 The probability of success in a business venture is p. Over time it has been found that p closely follows
the equation 102p – 10 p – 2 = 0.
a Evaluate p.
b Find the probability that in 5 ventures the first 4 succeeded and the last failed.
54 From a Year 11 class in Hicksville Heights High (HHH), the following study pattern emerges. Of the
30 students, some study a combination of Geography, Chinese and Physics. Two study only Geography,
5 only Chinese and 12 only Physics. Four study Geography and Physics, 4 study Physics and Chinese
and 3 study Chinese and Geography. Of these, x student(s) study all three subjects. If 8 students study
Geography, 11 students study Chinese and 19 study Physics, what is the probability that a student
chosen at random studies none of these three subjects?
55 In a batch of 300 shids, 12 are known to be defective.
a Find the probability of choosing a sample of ten shids containing exactly one defective shid from
the batch.
b Find the probability of choosing a sample of ten shids containing two or less defective shids from
the batch.
c Find the probability of choosing a sample of ten shids containing exactly one defective shid if the
sample contains two or less defective shids.
d If a sample contains three or more defective shids, it is classed as ‘unacceptable’. A box contains
12 samples. Find the probability that 2 of the 12 samples are ‘unacceptable’.

1
+2p
56 The probability, p, of rolling a 6 with a biased die is given by e6 p =
2
. Find p.
e3 p − 6
57 Eight novels, two dictionaries and ten mathematics books are placed on a shelf.
a Find the probability that the novels are all together.
b If the novels are together, find the probability that the dictionaries are not all together.
58 a In how many ways can three witches and five unsuspecting children be seated round a circular table?
b In how many ways can they be seated if the wickedest witch refuses to sit beside the youngest
unsuspecting child?
59 The probability that patient A will survive a course of hospital treatment is 0.95; the probability that
patient B will survive the same course of hospital treatment is 0.85.
a Find the probability that both patients survive.
b Find the probability that if only one survives, it is patient B.
60 One person in n has red hair. Find the probability, in terms of n, that in 2n people, n have red hair.
61 Convert 40° to radians:
a in terms of π b as a decimal.
r
62 An angle at the centre of a circle of radius r cm subtends an arc of length cm at the circumference.
2
Express the sector angle (the angle at the centre of the circle) as a vulgar fraction in radians.
63 Find the distance between the point (3, 5) and (−4, −6) in surd form.
64 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of (3, 5) and (−4, −6).
1 1
65 g( x ) = , x ≠ 2. Evaluate p if g(p) = 5.
x−2
66 List the transformations, in the correct order, that transform the equation y = x2 into y = 3(x + 1)2 – 5.
67 Sketch the graph of f (x) = x4 + 2x3 – x2 – 2x, showing the coordinates of stationary points and intercepts.
68 Establish, by using the vertical line test, whether or not y = x 2 − 16 is a function.
69 Show the region x2 + y2 ≤ 16, x – y > 3, x > 1, x ≤ 2 by shading the regions not required.
70 a Sketch the graph of y = x2 – (a + b)x + ab, 0 < a < b < 1.
b Give the minimum value of y in terms of a and b.
c Sketch the graph of the inverse of y = x2 – (a + b)x + ab, 0 < a < b < 1.
d Find the equation of the inverse.
e State the domain and range of the inverse
f Find the points of intersection of the original graph and its inverse.
2
71 Show that the points of intersection of the graphs of y = cot x + tan x, [0, 2π] and y = , [0, 2π] are
⎛π 4 3⎞ ⎛ 5π − 4 3 ⎞ sin x
⎜⎝ , ⎟⎠ and ⎜⎝ , ⎟.
3 3 3 3 ⎠
72 For the graph of y = −4 sin(πx – 1) + 3, state:
a the horizontal translation b the vertical translation
c the dilation factor (including from which axis the graph is dilated)
d the reflection.
−
73 a Sketch the graph of y = 3(2) 4 x + 1 over the maximal domain.
b State the range.
c What is the dilation factor and from which axis?
d State the reflection.
−
74 a Find the equation of the inverse of y = 3(2) 4 x + 1, stating the domain and range.
b Sketch the graph of the inverse.
c Compare the graph of the inverse to the graph obtained in question 73. Comment.
75 a Sketch the graph of y = 2 log

loge ⎛ x + 1⎞ over the maximal domain.
⎝3 ⎠
b State the domain and range.
c What is the dilation from the y-axis?
d What is the dilation from the x-axis?

⎛ 2x + θ ⎞ − π
76 State the period and amplitude of y = − 5c
5cos
os ⎜ ⎟⎠ .
⎝π
77 A ball on an elastic string oscillates back and forth horizontally according to the formula
t π
sin ⎛ + ⎞ − 4
d = 4 2 sin
⎝π 4⎠
where d metres is the displacement from a fixed point after t seconds.
a What is the displacement when t = 0?
b When is the ball 4 metres behind the fixed point for the first time?
c How many metres are there between the farthest positions of the ball?
−
kt 1
78 Given that N t = N 0e , evaluate k if N 4 = N 0 .
5
1 bx + f 1
cp − px )], (−∞, c] → R.
−
79 Prove that the inverse of f ( x ) = − e + c, R → R is g( x ) = [ f − loge (cp
p b
80 Lars Ponsen, the athlete, trains by running backwards and forwards on a narrow running track. His
displacement from a fixed reference point at any time is given by d = 200(cos t + sin t), where d metres
is the displacement after t seconds.
a When is Lars at the reference point for the first time?
b How long is the track from one extreme to the other?
π
c What is the displacement at t = seconds?
3
81 The temperature of a cake in an oven is given by T = 200 sin t −
⎛ π ⎞ + 200, [0, π], where T is the
⎝ 2⎠
temperature in degrees Celsius after t hours.
a Show that the initial temperature of the cake is 0°.
b Show that the maximum temperature of the cake occurs when t = π hours.
c When does the temperature equal 150°?
82 Prove that as the angle θ changes, the point P (5 cos θ, 5 sin θ) traces out the circumference of a circle
with centre at the origin and radius 5 units.
1
83 a Sketch the graph of f ( x ) = + 1, x ≠ 3.
( x − 3)2
b Use differential calculus to prove that there are no stationary points.
c Find the equation of the inverse.
84 The points A (−1, 3), B (2, −1), C (6, 2) and D (3, 6) form a rhombus. Prove that the diagonals of the
rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
85 a Use the vertical line test to show that the inverse of y = x2 is not a function.
b Place suitable restrictions on the domain of y = x2 such that the inverse is a function.
c Show that over the restricted domain from part b, y = x2 and its inverse function intersect on the
line y = x.
86 The longship of Harken the Terrible, the feared Viking warlord, is able to carry plunder back home
t
according to the well trusted Viking formula P = 30 tan ⎛ ⎞ tonnes up to a maximum of 100 tonnes,
⎝π⎠
where P is the weight of booty in tonnes and t is the number of days away from his home port, Asvark.
a How many days away from Asvark is Harken when he reaches his maximum load of 100 tonnes?
b When he is 3 days out of port, what is the value of P?
c How much plunder can he take on board on day 3, assuming he had already reached his
day 2 limit on the day before?
87 Prove:
a cos 2 x (tan 2 x − 1) = 2sin 2 x − 1 b cos
⎛ π − θ⎞ sin(
sin(22π + θ ) = 1 − ccos
os2 θ
⎝2 ⎠
⎛ π + x ⎞ + 1, [0, 2π] occurs when x = π .
2
88 Show that the minimum value of y = − 5s
5sin
in
⎝ 3 π⎠ 6
3 1
89 The graph of y = is reflected in the x-axis and then dilated by a factor of 5 from the y-axis.
1− x
The graph is then translated 2 units to the left. Find the new equation.

1
90 If f ( x ) = 3x + x , find:
( x − 1)
⎛ 1⎞
a f (a) b f (a + 1) c f⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ a
91 Divide 3x4 – 6x3 + x – 1 by x + 1.
92 a Prove that 2x – 1 is a factor of 4x4 – 5x2 + 1.
b Factorise 4x4 – 5x2 + 1 fully.
93 When ax2 + bx + 1 is divided by x – 1, the remainder is −2. When it is divided by x + 2, the remainder
is −1. Use a matrix method to find a and b.
94 Sketch the graph of f (x) = a(x – b)3(x + 1), R → R, where a, b ∈ R+, showing intercepts and the
coordinates of stationary points.
95 Solve log102 + log10(y2 – 1) = log10y + log10(y + 1).
96 a The graph of y = loge x is reflected in the y-axis, moved 6 units to the left, and then dilated from the
y-axis with a scale factor of 2. Find the new equation.
b Show the transformations as a matrix equation.
c Solve the matrix equation found in part b.
d Show that the result in part c gives the same equation found in part a.
⎛ π⎞
97 Give the transformations, in the correct order, that transform y = − 3sin 2 x − + 1 into y = sin x.
⎝ 3⎠
98 Solve log3(p2 – 4p + 4) = 2.
− log10 100
99 Solve e x × e 2 x ÷ e(2 + x ) = e
2
.
1
− 2 x − 1)
100 Solve e logge ( x =
3
27 3 .
101 a Place restrictions on the range of f ( x ) = ± (1 − x)
x ) + 2 such that f (x) is a function. Use the upper
branch of the curve.
b Using the restricted range, find the inverse of f (x).
102 The circle x2 + y2 = 9 is transformed by a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis followed by a dilation of
factor 1 from the y-axis. Find the new equation. ⎡ 0 1 ⎤
3
103 State the combination of transformations that are represented by the single matrix ⎢ 4 ⎥.
⎢ −3 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ π⎞
104 When the solution to tan x − = 1, [0, π] is substituted into f (x) = x3 – ax + 1, the remainder is 2.
⎝ 4⎠
Find the value of a.
105 For a certain cubic curve the y-intercept is 5. The curve touches the x-axis at x = 1 and intercepts the
x-axis at x = 4.
a Find the equation of the curve.
b Find the coordinates and the nature of the stationary points.
c Show that the line y = x – 4 only intersects the curve once.
106 Solve the following simultaneous equations.
2 x + 3 y + 2z − w = 3
−x − y − z − w = −1
x − 5 y − 2z = 5
3x + z + 4 w = 2
107 Solve the following for x and y.
⎡ 2 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 2 ⎤ ⎡ x ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ −3 0 ⎥ × ⎢ −1 3 ⎥ × ⎢ y ⎥ = ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
108 Given v2 = u2 – 2as:
a find s in terms of the other variables
b find s if v = 15, u = 25 and a = 2.
109 Solve log 2 (log 2 ( x
2
− 2 x )) = 4 .

Ê pˆ p
110 Solve 3 sin x = cos Ê x - ˆ , [0, 2π].
Ë 3¯ Ë 3¯
111 Show that x – 3 does not divide exactly into 3x4 – 6x3 + 4x – 2.
112 Solve −15x2 – x + 6 = 0.
113 Solve 5x2 – x – 2 = 0 for x by first completing the square. Give your answer in exact form.
114 Solve 2x2 + 8x – 5 = 0 for x by using the quadratic formula. Give your answer in exact form.
115 Show that x – 1 is a factor of x4 – x3 – 7x2 + x + 6 and hence find the other linear factors.
116 The discriminant of the quadratic equation px2 – p2x – q = 0 equals zero.
a Find a relationship between p and q.
b If f (x) = px2 – p2x – q, find a restriction on the domain such that the inverse of f (x) is a function.
x 2 + x - 2 2x 2 x 3
117 Simplify ¥ .
4x2 9 x2 - 1
2x 2 + 2x - 2 -
118 Solve - 2 > 1.
5x - 3
- 1
119 Sketch the graph of y 1 3 x + 2, (−∞, 3] � (−∞, 2], showing intercepts and the coordinates of end
points. Show stationary points as appropriate.
- 1
DIGITAL DOC
120 Find in exact form the coordinates of the point of intersection of y 1 3 x + 2, (−∞, 3] � (−∞, 2]
doc-10428 and y = −x.
Solutions
Cumulative exam
practice
5_61_10586_MQ11_MMCAS_3E_CEP.indd 584 8/05/13 3:42 PM

Answers
CUMULATIVE EXAM PRACTICE 19 a x = h – r 66 Translation 1 unit to the right, dilation of
b, c Teacher to check factor 3 away from the x-axis, translation
MULTIPLE CHOICE 2
π h3 5 units down
d Vmax =
Functions and graphs 3 67 f(x) = x4 + 2x3 − x2 − 2x f(x)
1 C 2A 3 E 4 A 20 Teacher to check.
5 C 6E 7 D 8 E 21 a 4, 4 b 0, 4 2
9 D 10 B 11 B 12 B 22 2r2 1
(−0.5, 0.5625)
13 A 14 D 15 D 16 E 23 a 11 m b 0 s, 1 s
x
17 A 18 C 19 B 20 B c 2s d 1.755 s −2 −1 0 1
−1
e 3.22 m/s f 6.53 m/s2 (−1.618, −1) (0.618, −1)
Algebra g 2.721 s
1 C 2 B 3 E 4 D 24 a 5 m left b 0 m/s 68 Yes, it is a function.
5 C 6 E 7 E 8 A c i Left ii Right 69 y
−1 −
4
9 D 10 B 11 C 12 D x2 + y2 ≤ 16
25 x 2 − x −1 − x + c x−y>3
13 E 14 D 15 C 16 A 2
17 C 18 D 19 D 20 B b+a
26 b2 < 12a 27
Rates of change and calculus b−a x
28 Teacher to check. −4 4
1 E 2E 3 D 4 E 29 Teacher to check.
−5.940, −16 Region
5 B 6B 7 C 8 A 30
required
9 B 10 C 11 C 12 A 13 −4 x≤2
31 a b 0.3556
13 D 14 B 15 C 16 C 3 x>1
17 E 18 C 19 B 20 B 32 a 0.013 99 b 0.004 255
33 a 0.08 b 0.44 70 a y y = x2 − (a + b)x + ab
Probability c 0.2727 1
1 E 2 B 3 D 4 D 34 Teacher to check.
5 A 6 D 7 C 8 E 1
35 5
9 B 10 E 11 B 12 B ab
13 E 14 B 15 E 16 A 36 Teacher to check. x
a b 1
3 5
17 A 18 B 19 C 20 B 37 a 8 b 6
SHORT ANSWER AND EXTENDED RESPONSE 38 a 0.6 b 0.75
39 a 0 b 1 ⎛ a + b − (a − b)2 ⎞
1 7 b ⎜ , ⎟⎠
1 a v = – 4t
t2 b x = t 3 − 2t 2 + 40 2 717 127 ⎝ 2 4
3 3 41 0.25
−1 4 c y
2 f (x) = x + x2 + 1 42 a Pr(A) b 1 1
4 b
c 0
1 6 −3
43 a 0.01 b 0.0675
3 x + x+c 4 c=
4 7 a
24 c 27 0 ab x
−1 −1 1
44 Teacher to check.
5 a b 2 5
x ( x + h) x 45 a 3 b 6
−1
2 c 0.054 27
c y= 2 x+ (a − b)2 (a + b)2
a a 46 0.000 009 234 d y = ± (x + )+
3
4 2
6 11 250 m2 47
8 −
32π 3 0.000 039 08 49 0.9332
(a − b)2
7 m 48 e Domain = [ , ∞), range = R
3 50 0.6668 51 Teacher to check. 4
8 a Cube, side = 2.5 cm 52 0.017 33 ⎛ a + b + 1 + (a + b + 1)2 − 4 ab
b Cube, side = 2.5 cm 53 a 0.3010 b 0.005 74 f ⎜ ,
9 3 cm 54
1 ⎝ 2
15
10 y = 3g2x – (2g2 + 3)
−x
55 a 0.2841 b 0.9950 a + b + 1 + (a + b + 1)2 − 4 ab ⎞
a(2a 2 + 9a + 10) c 0.2855 d 0.001 569 ⎟
11 y= + 2 ⎠
2a + 3 2a + 3 56 3
2
ad 11 and
12 a Cost = + bdv 57 a 0.000 103 2 b 13
v ⎛ a + b + 1 − (a + b + 1)2 − 4 ab
b Minimum total running cost = 2d ab 58 a 5040 b 3600 ⎜ ,
59 a 0.8075 b 0.2297 ⎝ 2
⎛a ⎞
c i ⎜ + bf ⎟ d ii 2d ab ⎛ 2n ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ n ⎛ 1⎞ n
⎝f ⎠ 60 ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ a + b + 1 − (a + b + 1)2 − 4 ab ⎞
⎝ n ⎟⎠ ⎝ n⎠ ⎝ n⎠ 2
⎟
⎠
13 2
14 y = 9x + 27, y = 9x – 5 2π 71 Teacher to check.
− 4 − 32 61 a b 0.6981 1
15 ( 3 , 3 ) 9 72 a Horizontalt ranslation units to the
62 0.5c right π
16 a y = −4x + 16
63 170 b Vertical translation 3 units upwards
b y = −4x – 16
64 22y + 14x + 18 = 0 c Dilation of factor 4 away from the x-axis
2
17 0, 3 18 2c2 65 7 d Reflection in the x-axis

73 a y y = 3(2)−4x + 1 83 a f(x) =
1
+1 97 Translation 1 unit downwards; reflection
(x − 3)2
4 y in the x-axis, dilation by a factor of 1
π 3
from the x-axis, translation of 3 units to
1
y=1
19
y=1 the left, dilation by a factor of 2 from the
y-axis
0 x 0 x
98 5, −1 99 0, −1
x=3
100 2
b (1, ∞) b Teacher to check. 101 a [2, ∞)
c 4
1 1 b y = 1 – (x – 2)2, [2, ∞)
c −y = ± +3
x −1 y2
d Reflection in the y-axis 102 9 x 2 + =9
84 Teacher to check. 4
−1 x − 1⎞ 1
74 a y = log2 ⎛⎜ ⎟ , (1, ∞) → R
85 Teacher to check. 103 Dilation by a factor of 4 from the y-axis,
4 ⎝ 3 ⎠ 86 a 4.019 days b 42.39 tonnes dilation by a factor of 3 from the x-axis,
c 20.21 tonnes reflection in the x-axis, reflection in the
b y y = − 14 log2( x −3 1)
87 Teacher to check. line y = x
88 Teacher to check. 104 1.831
3 5
89 y= 105 a y = − ( x − 1)2 ( x − 4)
5x + 9 4
0
4 x b Maximum turning point (1, 0),
1
minimum turning point (3, 5)
x=1
90 a f (a) = 3a +a c Teacher to check.
(a − 1) 106 x = 1, y = −2, z = 3, w = −1
c The graph of the inverse is a reflection
1 − 10 −1
of the original graph in the line y = x. 107 x = ,y=
3 3
75 a y y = 2 loge( x + 1) b f (a + 1) = a +1 + a +1
3
(a + 1)3 − 1 v2 − u2
108 a s= b −100
2a
⎛ 1⎞
c f⎜ ⎟=
a
+
1
⎝ a⎠ ⎛ 1 109 4, −2
⎞ a
0 x ⎜⎝ 3 − 1⎟⎠ π 3π
a 110 ,
a4 1 2 2
= + 111 Teacher to check.
1 − a3 a
3 −2
x = −3 91 3x3 – 9x2 + 9x – 8 remainder 7 112 5 , 3
92 a Teacher to check.
b (−3, ∞) → R 1 ± 441
b (2x – 1)(x – 1)(2x + 1)(x + 1) 113
c 3
−4 −5 10
d 2 93 a = ,b= −
76 Period π 2, amplitude 5
3 3 4 ± 226
94 f(x) = a(x − b)3(x + 1) 114
77 a 0 2
y
3π 2 115 (x – 1)(x + 1)(x + 2)(x – 3)
b
4 p3 p
0 x 116 a q=− b x=
c 8 2 −1 b 4 2
78 0.4024 −ab3
x+2
5
(aba +−33 , −27a(a +(b3)+ 1) ( 118 −1 < x <
2 4
117 2x + 3
79 Teacher to check. 4
3
3π 95 2 119 y = −√1 − 3x + 2 y ( 13 , 2)
80 a seconds 1
4 96 a y = loge − 2 ( x + 12)
1
b 400 2 m ⎡ −
2 x − 12 ⎤
c 273.2 m b ⎢ ⎥ 0 x
⎢⎣ y ⎥⎦ −1
81 a 0
b π hours −1
c 1.318 hours c x= x ′ + 12),
( x′ y = y′ ⎛ − 7 + 37 7 − 37 ⎞
2 ,
120 ⎜
82 Teacher to check. d Teacher to check. ⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎟

Index
Addition Law of Probabilities 487–9 definite integrals 453 indicial 217–27
addition principle 529–30 properties 454 inverse 192
algebraic solution of simultaneous linear signed areas 454–5 logarithmic 231–9
equations 16–17 dependent variables 163 and modelling 197
amplitude of sine and cosine graphs 274 derivatives special types 187–9
antidifferentation 437–9 finding by rule 400–2 fundamental theorem of integral
applications 457–9 and functions 397, 409 calculus 452–3
approximating areas determinant of matrix 320
lower rectangle method 445 difference of cubes formula, gradient
trapezoidal method 446–7 factorising 117–18 of curve at point 402
upper rectangle method 446 difference of two squares (DOTS), of perpendicular line 19–20
areas enclosed by functions, factorisation by 44 of straight line 8–10
approximating 445–8 differentiation using first principles 397–9 gradient functions 397
Associative Law for matrix addition 311–12 dilation factor by antidifferentiation 437–9
asymptotic behaviour basic square root curve 180 deriving original functions from 440–2
hyperbolas 176 exponential functions 228 graphs 364
tangent graphs 280 hyperbolas 176 graphical solution of simultaneous
average rates of change 349–51 truncus 178 equations 15–16
dilation using matrices 326 graphs
basic square root curve 180–2 discontinuous functions 371 containing stationary points 412–16
boundary conditions 441, 457 limits of 393 gradient function 364
discriminant, quadratic equations motion 357–9
CAS calculators, using 62–5, 77–8 and relations 163–5
antidifferentiation 459 distance between two points on sine and cosine functions 273–7
approximating areas 447 Cartesian plane 21 tangent function 280–2
cubic equations 120, 124 division of numbers in index form 218 grouped objects, permutations 542–3
degrees and radians 262–3 domains
derivatives 400–1 circles 194–5 highest common factor (HCF) 44
differentiation 398 cubic functions 132–4 hybrid functions
exponential functions 230 functions 184–6 limits 394–5
indicial equations 226 ordered pairs 167–70 rates of change 371–2
limits 390, 393–4 rules for 188–9
modelling 136 elimination method for simultaneous linear hyperbolas 176–8
quadratic equations 40, 80–2 equations 16–17
simultaneous linear equations 15–16 evaluating functions 183 identical objects, permutations
circles event space 478–9 541–2
arrangement of objects on exact values of trigonometric ratios 259–61 identities 269–71
circumference 545–6 expected number of outcomes and implied domain of relations 167
general equation 194–5 experimental probability 476–7 indefinite integrals, finding 437–9
many-to-many relations 193–4 experimental probability 475–7 independent events 507–10
co-domains of functions 184–5 exponential functions independent variables 163
combinations applications 238–9 index laws 217–20
applied to probability 551–4 graphs 227–30 indicial equations
formula (nCr) 547–9 exact solutions without calculator
combinatorial theory 529 factor theorem 112–13 224–6
common logarithms 234–6 factorials 536–7 solving using CAS calculator 226
Commutative Law for matrix addition 310–12 factorising inequalities 3–4
complementary functions, sine and cubic and quartic equations 119–20 inflection, point of 121
cosine as 270 polynomial equations 119–20 inspection
completing the square quadratic expressions 44–9 factorisation by 44
factorising by 47–9 finite differences method 138–40 factorising by 44
solving quadratic equations 55–7, 68 fixed point iteration in solving quadratic instantaneous rates of change
conditional probability 497–500 equations 53 353–5, 407
constant rates of change 343–4 function notation 183–6 integer set 162
continuous functions, limits of 391–2 domains 132–4 integral calculus, fundamental theorem
continuous variables 164, 165 functions of 452–3
cosine areas enclosed by 445–8 integrals
complementary function 270–1 definition 173–4 definite 454
graph 273–7 and derivatives 397 properties 437–9
cubic equations, solving using matrices 323 deriving original from gradient integrands 453
cubic functions in power function function 440–2 integration 437–9
form 128–30 domains and ranges 184–6 intercepts
cubic graph sketching, intercepts evaluating 183 cubic functions 129
method 121–4, 129 exponential 227–31, 238–9 linear graphs 121–4
cubic polynomials 105–25, 128–41 fully defining 184 quartic functions 126–7
Index 587
interval notation 167–70 n! (n factorial) 536 limits to expressions and functions 80
inverse matrix 320 natural number set 162 solving 50–61
inverse relations and functions 192, 236 negative powers 221–2 using technology to solve 80–2
irrational number set 162 negative reciprocal relationships 20 quadratic formula 58–61
normals and tangents 402–5 quadratic functions
Karnaugh maps 492–3 Null Factor Law as power functions 66–8
kinematics 357–9 cubic and quartic equations 119–20 sketching using intercepts method 70–8
indicial equations 225 quadratic polynomial expressions
lattice diagrams 484–5 quadratic equations 50–2 expanding 41–3
Law of Total Probability 500, 553–4 numbers, sets of 162 factorising 44–9
limits of functions 389–95 values 40
linear equations one-to-many relations 172–3 quadratic trinomials 44
rearrangement of variables 4–5 one-to-one functions 187 quartic graph sketching, intercepts
simultaneous 15–17, 321–3 one-to-one relations 172–3 method 126–7
sketching 12–13 ordered pairs 163 quotients and products of numbers in
solving 1–3 index form 218
substitution of variable values 5–6 perfect squares, factorisation by 44
linear inequations, solving 3 period of sine and cosine graphs 274 radian measurement of angles 262–3
linear modelling 24–5 permutations 533–4 and exact values 263–4
local minimum and maximum turning applied to probability 551–4 raising to a power, numbers in
points 412–13 grouped objects 542–3 index form 218
logarithm laws 231–2 identical objects 541–2 raising to power zero, numbers in
logarithmic functions, applications 238–9 permutations formula (nPr) 538–40 index form 218
logarithmic graphs 236–7 perpendicular lines, gradients of 19–20 random outcome experiments 475–6
logarithms 231–3 piecewise defined functions 188–9 range of probabilities 480–1
logarithms to base 10 234–6 points of inflection 121 ranges
long division, factorising polynomials stationary 413 circles 194–5
using 114 polynomial equations cubic functions 132–4
long-run proportion 475 factorising 119–20 ordered pairs 167–70
lower rectangle method of approximating solving 118–20 rates of change 407–10
areas 445 polynomial expressions 39–40 average 349–51
polynomial functions, finding constant 343–4
many-to-many relations 172–3 derivatives 400–2 identifying 341–2
many-to-one relations 172–3 polynomials, factor and remainder instantaneous 353–5
Markov Process 504–5 theorems 111–13 polynomials 369–73
matrices polynomials, cubic variable 347–8
addition and subtraction 310 expanding 105–6 rational functions, limits of 393–4
associative law for addition 311 factorising 114–16 rational number set 162
commutative law for addition 310 long division 107–9 rational powers 222–4
definition 309 rates of change 369–73 real number set 162
multiplication by a scalar 314–15 values 109–10 rearrangement of variables 4–5
multiplication of 316–18 polynomials, quadratic 39 reduced event space 497
special types 312–13 values 40 reflection
and transformations 325–7 position–time graphs in relation to basic square root curve 181
transition 501–4 velocity–time graphs 365–6 exponential functions 227
matrix equations, solving 320–3 power functions hyperbola 176
maxima and minima linear and quadratic 66–8 truncus 178–9
of cubic functions 133 types 175–82 using matrices 326
of sine and cosine functions 274 power functions (turning point form) relations
maximal domains of functions 184–6 for sketching cubic functions 128–30 and graphs 163–5
maximum and minimum problems for sketching quadratic functions 66–8 types 172–4
function known 419 powers, raising numbers in index remainder theorem 111–12
function rule not given 420 form to 218 restriction of functions 188
solving 418–19 probabilities rotation using matrices 326–7
midpoint of straight-line segment, locating 22 addition law 487–90
mixed functions 188–9 calculating 478–81 scalars, matrix multiplication by 314–15
modelling combinations and permutations set notation
and functions 197 applied to 551–4 definition 161–2
linear 24–5 conditional 497–500 sets of numbers 162
using a CAS calculator 136 probability, conditional 497–500 set theory and probability 478, 487–90
motion, graphs of 357–9 probability tables 493–5 short division, factorising polynomials
multiplication products and quotients of numbers in using 114–16
of matrices 316–18 index form 218 signed areas of definite integrals 454–5
of matrices by a scalar 314–15 Pythagorean identity 269–71 simulation methods 513–14
of numbers in index form 217 simultaneous cubic and quadratic
multiplication principle 530–1 quadrants in the unit circle 258–9 equations to find a polynomial
multiplicative identity matrix 320 quadratic equations model 140–1
mutually exclusive events, effect on determining roots using discriminant 62–5 simultaneous equations, quadratic and
addition law 487 finding x-intercepts using discriminant 77–8 linear pair 83–7
588 Index
simultaneous linear equations transformations unit circle 258–61
algebraic solution 16–17 of points or curves using matrices symmetry of 265–8
graphical solution 15–16 325–7 upper rectangle method of area
solving using matrices 321–3 of power functions 176–7 approximation 446
sine transition matrices 501–4
complementary function 270–1 transitive matrix (T) 502 value of a polynomial 40
graph 272–7 translation variable rates of change 347–8
singular matrices 320 basic square root curve 181 variables
square root function 180–2 exponential functions 228 continuous 164, 165
state matrices 502 hyperbola 177 dependent and independent 163
alternative forms 505–6 truncus 179 rearrangement in linear equations
stationary points, graphs containing 412–16 using matrices 325–7 4–5
straight lines, finding equation of 18–19 trapezoidal method of area velocity–time graphs in relation to
subjective probability 475 approximation 446–8 position–time graphs 365–6
substitution of variable values 5–6, 16 tree diagrams 483–4 Venn diagrams and probability 489–90,
sum of cubes formula, factorising 117–18 trigonometric equations, solving 283–7 492–3
symmetry trigonometric functions, applications vertical line test for functions 173–4
in solving trigonometric equations 283 288–90
of unit circle 265–8 trigonometric ratios Werisie River problem 444–5
exact values 259–61 a model 452–3
tangent of angle 269 revision 255–6
graph of 280–2 in the unit circle 258–9 x as subject of polynomial equations
as line gradient 9 truncuses 178–80 118–19
tangents and normals 402–5 turning point coordinates of quadratic x-intercepts of quadratic function, finding 70
technology for modelling 136 function, finding 71
terminals of definite integrals 453 turning point form y-intercept of quadratic function, finding 70
theorems on limits 391–2 cubic functions 128–30
Total Probability, Law of 500, 553–4 quadratic functions 66–8 ‘Zilch’ game 479–80
Index 589

VCE Maths Methods CAS Units 1 2 Text Book

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VCE M AT HEM AT I CS U N I T S 1 & 2

3RD EDIT ION

First edition published 2009

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Title: Maths quest 11 mathematical methods

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1ASolving linear equations

Solve the following linear equations.

a 1 Write the equation. a 7 x − 4 = 17

CHAPTER 1  Linear functions 1

a 1 Write the equation. a 4x − 3 = 3(6 − x)

b 1 Write the equation. b 9 x + 3 13 x + 7

2 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

Solve the following linear inequations.

a 1 Write the inequations. a 6x − 7 ≥ 3x + 5

2 Combine the variable terms by subtracting 3x − 7 ≥ 5

b 1 Write the inequations. b −3m + 5 < −7

Exercise 1A Solving linear equations and inequations

CHAPTER 1  Linear functions 3

1B Rearrangement and substitution

a 1 Write the equation. a 6x + 8y − 48 = 0

2 Add 48 to both sides. 6x + 8y = 48

Divide both sides by 8. 48 − 6 x

Cancel if possible. Here, divide the numerator and 24 − 3 x

2 Subtract 12 at 2 from both sides. s − 12 at 2 = ut

3 Multiply both sides by 2. 2s − at 2 = 2ut

2 Divide both sides by 2π. T m

3 Square both sides. T2 m

4 Form the reciprocal of both sides to make k the 4π 2 k

4 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

4 Substitute A = 20 into the new formula. If A = 20,

CHAPTER 1  Linear functions 5

4 Simplify and evaluate. 16 − 100

Exercise 1B Rearrangement and substitution

6 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

5 The area of a trapezium (Figure A) is given by A =

CHAPTER 1  Linear functions 7

1C Gradient of a straight line cone

y The gradient may be calculated using the formula:

A cliff face with

Scientists calculate the required gradient of solar

8 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

tan (θ ) = opposite = rise = m

a Since the angle the line makes with a m = tan (θ)

CHAPTER 1  Linear functions 9

Exercise 1C Gradient of a straight line

5 Which of these lines has:

10 Maths Quest 11 Mathematical Methods CAS

CHAPTER 1  Linear functions 11

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 1

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 3

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 5

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 7

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 9

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 11

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 13

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 15

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 17

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 19

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 23

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 25

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 27

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 29

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 31

CHAPTER 1 Linear functions 33