Language and Literacy Levels

Teaching Strategies
Acknowledgements

Lead writers
Stella Emberson
Camilla Karaivanoff

Additional writers
Gloria Capolongo
Wendy Paddick

Reference group
Rosie Antenucci
Velma Beaglehole
Marie Davis
Stuart Kenny
Erika Von Aspern
Bev White

Project leader
Ross Hamilton

The Department for Education and Child Development requests attribution as: South Australian
Department for Education and Child Development.
Introduction
The explicit teaching strategies described within are primarily a guide for teachers of EALD students. The
strategies were designed with the Language and Literacy Levels (Levels) professional learning modules in
mind. These modules, available at https://myintranet.learnlink.sa.edu.au/teaching/english-as-an-
additional-language-or-dialect-eald/teaching-and-learning-support/language-and-literacy-levels-
professional-learning, introduce the Levels, build teacher grammar capacity and support teachers to
assign accurate Levels, use Levels data and identify language learning goals and targets for students
within their ability to learn with support from a teacher or capable peer (Zone of Proximal Development).
The final module, Setting Goals and Targets, enables teachers to answer the Learning Design question
“What do we want them to learn?” Teachers can then use the teaching strategies contained in this
resource to intentionally teach students’ identified language needs thereby answering the Learning
Design question “What will we do to get there?”
Separate teaching strategies to develop strong foundations in groupings of Language and Literacy Levels
(e.g. Levels 1-4) have been written for:
• Thematic progression and foregrounding
• Sentences: simple, compound, complex and lexically dense
• Verbs and verb groups
• Circumstances – using adverbs, adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases
• Nouns and noun groups
• Evaluative language
• Vocabulary
• Spelling
The strategies could also be used by other teachers to meet the needs of other students and without
having first completed the professional learning modules, but teachers should be aware that some of the
strategies have been designed for older students who are operating at a Language and Literacy level that
is relatively low. Teachers will have to modify these strategies so they can be used with native English
speakers who are operating at or near the language and Literacy level for their year level. The following
table shows the alignment between year levels and Language and Literacy Levels.
Year Level R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-12
Language & 1-4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Literacy
Level

It is strongly recommended that the teaching strategies are not taught in isolation but as part of a
teaching and learning pedagogy that includes a gradual release of teacher responsibility. It is anticipated
that:
• Highly Accomplished EALD teachers may only need to refer to the strategies to have their current
good practice confirmed and model this for colleagues
• Proficient EALD teachers may be able to initially borrow from the strategies before developing
their own to suit their own context
• Graduate EALD teachers will be more reliant upon the strategies while they begin to modify
them for their own contexts.
Regardless of their level of expertise, all teachers should consider the learning strategies that accompany
each teaching strategy. This assists them to answer the Learning Design question “How will we know they
got it?” They should expect to observe and hear their engaged students doing certain things such as:
• Talking a lot about the text
• Comparing texts
 • Exploring particular patterns generated in texts
• Asking and answering higher order questions
• Using the language in authentic dialogues about the topic.
If teachers do not see the learning strategies they anticipated, then they should revise the teaching
strategy or use their own.
 Foregrounding - Developing thematic progression through cohesive and coherent texts
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around cohesion and coherence for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning
document.
Good text organisation depends on
• Organisational structures. These are words used to structure the text. 1. Rhetorical language features are used to begin paragraphs. Common
examples are Firstly, A further point to make, In addition. These are common in exposition texts at each stages that function to organise the text where
an author is setting out their arguments and viewpoints. These have been accepted in the cultural and social context of both written and spoken texts.
2. Cohesive conjunctions are used to link paragraphs and sentences in logical relationships eg In fact; Yet; Therefore;
• Foregrounding. The introductory paragraph, the topic sentence in paragraphs and the beginnings of sentences in the paragraphs and the connection
between these three elements at whole text level, at paragraph level and at sentence level (including clause level) are what makes the text flow and
gives the thematic progression or coherence to a text.
• Reference. The use of reference items and synonyms are the language items that make the text hang together and give cohesion to the text.
The following resource suggests strategies and activities to move the learners towards higher language Level achievement in both their spoken and written
texts. Examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Text Knowledge (Organisational features;
foregrounding; reference)
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Most often the first texts Engage Reception students and year 1 students in paired or
that learners see are group work activities that require them to put pictures of a The repetition of the main characters is typical at this
Across the story/picture books and at familiar story into sequence. If possible have a student level eg ‘Billy Goats Gruff’. Available at
stages of the earliest stages of report back on how they arrived at their final consensus of http://www.kizclub.com/storytime/billygoat/goat13.html
schooling learning about texts children the sequence.
equivalent to are recognising the Reference items and cohesive conjunction.
the end of Model the beginning words on each ‘page’ or segment of
sequence of pictures to tell The three billy goats gruff were very hungry.
Reception the story. Point out repetition which at this stage is a
a story. They will expect the They wanted to eat the green grass across the river. But
cohesive language device.
main character to be an ugly monster lived under the bridge. So they were
repeated in each picture. Show the learners the words representing the main afraid to cross the bridge.
Often the main character character and then point out the reference items (pronouns
NB ‘So’ is acting as a cohesive conjunction. ‘So’ can also
appears in every picture and to start with). If possible, use the text with a smart board,
be used as a linking conjunction eg.
this is the simplest form of circle the reference item and link it to the participant.
It was hot so we went swimming.
foregrounding.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Use stories (Narratives) Using familiar written stories or fables on-line or in books focus on
Cont’d that have circumstances of circumstances of place and time and ask students consider if the
time or place in foreground circumstance relates to the picture eg But an ugly monster lived under
Across the position. the bridge. “Is there a bridge in the picture? Is there an ugly monster
stages of under it?”
schooling If no circumstances are foregrounded take sentences like the example
equivalent to just given and rewrite: Under the bridge lived an ugly monster.
the end of
Reception Model and Teach how sentences of a familiar topic can begin with
• repetitive sentence openers Bees are insects. Bees make honey.
• a pronoun or other reference item Bees are insects. They live in hives.
• a circumstance Last weekend I saw bees in the garden.
Introduce simple Recounts
• a cohesive conjunction Also, I saw bees at school.
and Information Reports
• a time conjunction Then I saw bees at school.
next. Another example:
and call these the starting points of the sentence.
The Wolf is like a dog. The Wolf lives in Canada.
Engage students in group activities and games that require them to Last weekend I saw a wolf in the zoo.
put cards with sentence parts together to make full sentences. The Wolf is like a dog. It lives in Canada.
Focussing on the changes made by foregrounding different language Also I saw a Canadian wolf at the Adelaide zoo.
elements, discuss with students which completed sentences they like
the best. Have students copy out the sentences.
Introduce demonstrative pronouns – This, These, (for close proximity)
That, Those (for distance) and have students make up sentences using In answer to questions such as “Which toy(s) do
demonstrative pronouns in spoken and written contexts. When they you like best?” Have students answer:
understand the meaning of the proximity /distance and I like this/that one.
plurality/singularity of these words in spoken language model for I like these/those.
students how to use them in foreground position in spoken and Then model foregrounding of reference item
written texts. This/That is the one I like.
Model and Teach simple sub-headings for information reports: These/Those are the ones I like.
Appearance/Description (what it looks like); Habitat (where they
live); Diet (Food); Reproduction (How they have babies).
Use the nominalisations as headings particularly with older students,
otherwise use the words in brackets. Also, for older students use similar proforma for
Use familiar information about an animal and have students copy note taking and explain to students that this
appropriate sentences into a proforma/table or under headings. will help them ORGANISE their texts.
Description/Appearance; Habitat; Food; Reproduction.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7
Model and Teach simple procedures foregrounding the
Continue use of Information Reports.
processes:-
It is crucial that students work with
• Directions – How to get to somewhere (simple Use simple maps and have pairs of students
texts other than Narratives.
directions can be done in the playground with a tell each other how to go from point A to
Across the Procedures including protocols eg
stages of blindfolded student walking a number of steps point B.
how to behave at Sports Day, are
schooling forward, sideways, reverse, while being supported
appropriate text types to develop at Have students explain to each other how to
equivalent to by another student, in order to reach a chalk mark
this stage. play a game from their culture.
the end of Year on a netball rectangle)
3. • How to make a – paper kite; pancakes; cup of tea
• How to use a – pencil sharpener; ruler
Foregrounded Elements (theme) in
procedural type texts eg • How to behave in school assembly.
Process
Place the mixture in the oven after five Model and Teach other theme elements of procedural eg. Have a student operate a simple
minutes. texts eg time; human and non-human participants. machine/tool and orally explain what they are
Time Introduce and model passive voice in learning area doing. Write the sentences on a smart board.
After five minutes, place the mixture in procedures. Read them through in order to recall then
the oven. hide the sentences and ask the class :
Human (in a procedural recount) Model and Teach foregrounding of cohesive conjunctions “After …… what did XXXX do?”
We placed the mixture in the oven eg ‘Next’, ‘Then’. Also Teach and model foregrounding of “So after (action) what is the next
after five minutes. Manner circumstances in procedures eg ‘Carefully’; instruction?” “How did we do it?”
Non-human using passive voice ‘Quickly’; ‘Immediately’.
The mixture was placed in the oven Encourage students to take a position on an issue such as I think some children call other children
after five minutes. bullying (or name calling) and encourage them to respond names to be funny but I believe it hurts them.
orally foregrounding a sensing verb eg I believe…; I think…; I would like the students to tell each other
Students need to begin to develop I would like…; when they say something wrong. I would like
language to express their own voice Introduce the structure of a formal argument Exposition the students to listen to each other and to do
and opinions. Introduce simple by modelling an introductory paragraph with three main the right thing.
Expositions. points or reasons. Model how these three points become
the topic sentences of the three following paragraphs.
Teach the metalanguage of ‘Introductory paragraph’ and
Appendix 1 shows introductory paragraph
‘Topic sentence’ and ‘theme’ and show how they create
(consisting of one sentence) and topic
thematic connection, highlighting and drawing arrows as
sentences re smoking.
appropriate.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 5 – 7 Foregrounding
Cont’d Suggest a metaphor to students that a
text is like a journey on which the
Across the writer must take reader.
stages of The Introductory paragraph sets out
schooling the journey like the big signpost at
equivalent to the beginning of a journey from one
the end of year
capital city to another.
3.
The topic sentences at the beginning
of the paragraphs are like the
signposts that indicate main junction
points in the journey.
The beginnings of sentences are like
signposts between the smaller
towns on the journey.
Sequential Explanations are
introduced. Natural phenomena,
production processes can be
explained with sequential
Explanations.
Activities Expansion
Introduce a simple science investigation:
eg Use a toy vehicle and a one metre plank of wood with
sides to prevent the toy from falling. Put one end of the
plank of wood on the ground and the other end raised to
different heights, 10 centimetres, 20 centimetres, 30
centimetres etc . Record the speed of the toy at different
heights. Repeat with different surfaces and different ty
cars. Model and show sequential Explanations
Teach students how to write an explanation paragraph: such as milk production; chocolate
First Model for students how to write up the science production, digestion, respiration etc.
investigation as a Procedure and to record results in a
table. Highlight the language that is foregrounded in the Demonstrate the connection between the last
Investigation purpose parts of sentences and the beginning parts of
the following sentences (rheme and theme
eg We wanted to know…; We thought that……; A toy
See Appendix 2 for example. The theme is like
vehicle was used…..; a plank was put…..; Then we rolled
a signpost orienting the reader to the topic.
the car…etc
Then write up the results as an Explanation and again The rheme is new information about the
highlight foregrounding elements eg A slope of one metre theme)
and 50cms elevation causes the toy car to go faster. When Explain how this gives coherence (flow) to the
the elevation is reduced …….. etc. text.
Bring attention to the grammatical shift in language. Pronouns, substitutions, rhetorical and
cohesive conjunctions are language elements
Introduce Creative Responses and Reviews and focus on creating cohesion of a text.
foregrounding when modelling texts.
Model - Creative Response in the form of a letter to a
character in a familiar story.
Model and jointly construct - Book Review; Performance
Review.
Introduce the use of topic sentences. First write topic
sentences on cards. Do this with Reports (also using the
learnt sub headings) and Recounts. Have students work in
pairs to put topic sentences with matching paragraphs
(also on cards). Have the pairs then place the paragraphs in
order for the whole text.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10
At this stage students should be
able to independently construct
simple Sequential Explanations.
Some of these can be turned into
Across the
stages of Causal Explanations and new
schooling Causal Explanations can be
equivalent to introduced.
the end of
year 6 Continue development of
Information Reports and develop
Classifying Reports
Recounts need to be further
extended as Biographical and
Historical Recounts.
Exposition writing also needs to
be extended and may include
more evaluative language (as do
Personal Reflection texts)
The use of passive voice also
determines what is foregrounded.
(passive voice is formed by ‘to be’
+ past participle)
Activities Expansion
Teach structure of genres relevant to Learning Areas
and topic by deconstructing, modelling, and jointly
constructing.
Identify and highlight (revise) language for staging
For Teacher Reference see example on Page 22 and 23 of
and structuring the text.
Identify (revise) other foregrounding language: the the DTLA cycle Year 9 Science which gives some ideas for
participants (the noun groups and nominalisation) activities for older students working at these Language
and the circumstances. Levels. It can be accessed at this URL.
Model and jointly construct texts where, in complex https://myintranet.learnlink.sa.edu.au/teaching/english-
sentence, the subordinate clause is foregrounded eg as-an-additional-language-or-dialect-eald/professional-
learning/designing,-teaching-and-learning-and-
in Historical Recounts/Narratives - When they
assessment-cycle
arrived at the Cove, now known as Anzac Cove,……..;
Before the first wharf was built,……..
in Explanations and Arguments – If the surface is
smooth,……; If young people don’t control their
spending, ….
in Historical Reports and other genres, using passive
voice to change the focus of the sentence and text
eg Penicillin was discovered…..; Penicillin had been
discovered prior to…..
in Explanations and Arguments using a passive
voice verb and subordinate clause – If penicillin had some examples of ‘Demonstratives’ that refer to
not been discovered,…. complex participants or large segments of texts

Referencing in texts moves
beyond pronouns, and
demonstratives refer to complex
participants or large segments of
texts
Deconstruct texts by circling demonstratives and
connecting to the relevant pieces of text.
Repeat activity (mentioned in Levels 5 – 7) topic
sentences on cards, at a higher language level.
Particularly use Argument texts. Have students work
in pairs to put topic sentences with matching
paragraphs (also on cards). Have the student pairs
then place the paragraphs in order.
The woodchips are mixed with water to make pulp. This
pulp is …..; In the middle of 1852 gold mining licences
were introduced. These licences were….;
Canteens also have a traffic lights method: green light
are…, orange light foods are…., and red light foods ……
This method of food identification is…….
See Appendix 3 as an example.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10
A paragraph has a topic sentence
Cont’d
usually at the beginning. A
paragraph contains one idea that
Across the
stages of
relates to the main topic and is
schooling supported by the information and
equivalent to evidence in that paragraph.
the end of
The following sentences should
year 6
elaborate (expand, extend or give
examples), of the main idea in the
topic sentence.
expand the main idea by giving
more information about it.
extend the main idea by giving
points that are relevant and
closely related to the main idea.
give examples in a paragraph to
support the main idea.
Activities Expansion
Introduce/Revise with students how to develop a paragraph idea by
expanding (saying the same thing in more detail); extending (give
further detail that relates to main idea); exemplifying (give examples
Students in this range of Language
of the main idea).
Levels confidently use circumstances of
Show how topic sentences can be elaborated upon: eg time and place in foreground position.
Explain /Define
At Level 10 they can also use
The Industrial Revolution was the period from about 1760 to Dependent clauses in foreground
sometime between 1820 and 1840. (Topic sentence) position. This requires a comma at the
The term refers to the transition from earlier technology to new end of the Dependent clause.
manufacturing processes.
Dependent clauses at Level 10 can be
Expand/Explain non-finite clauses, again requiring a
Another advantage of early technology in farming was that very little comma at the end of the clause.
pollution was produced. (Topic sentence)
The following sentence expands or elaborates the idea NB. At level 8 students tend to use
There were no fuel-powered machines to pollute the atmosphere spoken-like non-finite clauses but do
because the power came from human hard work. not foreground them in theme position.
Extend
However a disadvantage of this stage of farming development may
Appendix 3. Text Deconstruction
have meant that not everyone was employed. (Topic sentence)
How to write a good Research Report.
The following two sentences extend the idea because they introduce
This appendix highlights the topic
other possible issues caused by the point made in the topic sentence
sentences in the first three paragraphs.
Some people may not have been able to feed and clothe themselves
The second paragraph shows how the
properly. This may have led to more crime and more social problems.
topic sentence is expanded with
Exemplify/Give examples/evidence questions. The last sentence extends
The view that Aboriginal people came from Asia is widely accepted. the topic sentence giving the reason for
(Topic sentence) ‘understanding’. More deconstruction
There is considerable evidence for this. (These words introduce the example) can be done on this text but the main
There are, for example, groups of people in Asia today who have point is to organise the paragraphs by
physical resemblances to some Aborigines and who may be part of the working in pairs and using the headings.
same original racial group.
See Level 11 -12 for further development.
 Language Language Level Activities Expansion and examples from Levels
Level
Level 11 – Statistics and quotes also exemplify topic or earlier sentences. Refer
Create more paired activities around
12 back to Levels 8 to 10 re Exemplify/Give examples/Evidence
matching topic sentences with appropriate
Teach paragraph elaboration with more complex sentences eg: paragraphs.
Across the The current status of the health of Aboriginal people is a direct result
stages of
of colonisation. Europeans introduced life-threatening diseases into
schooling
Australia such as whooping cough, colds, flu, measles and sexually
equivalent
to the end transmitted disease. As the indigenous people had no immunity to
of Year 8 such diseases, many died. (Topic sentence and elaborating sentences)
The underlined words then introduce the example At this stage teacher consciously models and
A prime example of this was the small pox epidemic of 1790’s that jointly constructs a range of sentence
killed a high percentage of Aboriginal people living along the River starting points that orientate the reader and
Murray (McCorquodale 1997). organise the flow of information
Simple Investigation: o time:- During a scene that is focused on
At these levels students can Model and jointly construct more complex introduction and topic a good character….; After changing the
independently compose sentences appropriately to clearly predict the content of the whole two fractions into twelfths and then
mathematical and scientific text and the paragraph respectively twenty-fourths….; When adding heat
investigations, based on Show, model and jointly construct paragraphs using text connective energy to a chemical reaction ….
provided headings for each phrases to structure and stage a text eg One reason; The first event; o place: In a physical change, materials
stage, eg introduction, aim, The next instance; The last event may change colour
hypothesis, method, results, o means: By using eco-tourism and
Show, model and jointly construct use of text connectives to make raising awareness about the reef’s
analysis of results and
logical connections between paragraphs and sentences: eg In protection…..;
conclusion.
addition; Overall; Indeed o comparison: In contrast to the lengthy
Model the use of rhetorical questions to structure and stage an ship and mast ……;
exposition (persuasive argument), particularly oral debates. eg But is a o cause: Due to mining..; Because we had
total ban on mobile phones necessary? some difficulties….; Because of this….
o contingency: (concession) Even though
Model use of abstract noun groups and nominalisations in factual
this is true….; If I was a peasant;
genres: The loss of habitats……; The safety of workers……
o angle:- As a modern day person reading
Also model passive voice to foreground issues and abstractions:- The about Viking raiders ….;
damage to these habitats needs to be investigated rather than The
Conservation Foundation needs to investigate …… Refer to Appendix 4 section on citing
sources
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 13 – 14
Explanation: confidently constructs longer,
more detailed causal, factorial and
consequential explanations with effective use
Across the
stages of
of paragraphing; begins to compose
schooling theoretical explanations using models and
equivalent to diagrams.
the end of year Response/Review/Source Analysis:
10
synthesises information from multiple sources
to create own interpretation and insight;
makes reference to and draws comparisons
with other relevant texts; analyses accuracy of
interpretations, identifies bias and prejudice
and offers alternative readings to a text
It is important at this level to encourage
writers to reflect on the organisation of their
text and the thematic flow of ideas. At this
level delicate choices are needed that reflect
audience and purpose. Either of two
statements (clauses): Children must be
protected; We don’t want a nanny state, could
be the independent clause when using a
conjunction of concession – Although. The
conceding dependent clause is foregrounded
so that the independent clause concludes the
statement with impact. To an audience of
parents the sentence would be Although we
don’t want a nanny state, children must be
protected. To an audience of civil libertarians
the sentence would be Although children must
be protected, we don’t want a nanny state.
Activities Expansion
Model and jointly construct texts which use a full range of
alternative sentence starters to organise the thematic links
within the text
eg The primary argument for an increase is …; One of the
features of …; The most significant feature of …; The first
step to determining …
Also refer to the Circumstances Teaching Strategies
Model and jointly construct a wider range of more complex
foregrounded phrases and clauses:-
o time: As your awareness widens; During the
experimental process
o place: Against this background
o means: By following The Law of Conservation of
Energy;
o cause: Because of the law of conservation of energy
o contingency: Without the inspiring leaders of the
World Cup campaign, such as …; Despite the fact that
there is a lot of information……..
Model and jointly construct a wider range of foregrounded
abstractions:- The evidence shown in both these examples… Teacher can create her own model
Foreground abstractions in reference to people: Cathy texts to highlight structure and
Freeman’s aspirations…. organisation; thematic progression
Model and jointly construct a range of reference items (coherence); and cohesion through
strategically to compact and carry forward previously reference and substitution.
mentioned ideas: The language used in this chapter …; A
particularly apt example …; Such word usage …;
We followed this procedure with every piece ….. where ‘this
procedure’ refers back to 7 steps outlined in the previous
sentences; These differences….. referring back to the
previous paragraphs.
Appendix 1 Argument: Linking EVIDENCE to REASONS (thematic patterns)
Suggestion: Teachers print the ‘Argument’ template below in A3 size for students to use with the following page of text which has been cut into boxes.

1.1

1. Smoking is really bad for the person’s

health. It can make them very, very sick. 1.2

1.3

Introductory paragraph 2.1 Conclusion [last

paragraph]
Young people should not 2. Smoking can badly affect people who
smoke. are not smoking. Smoking is not only
2.2
unwise it is really
dangerous. Young people
should NEVER smoke.

2.3

3.1
3. Smoking creates a huge cost to the
Australian government and to all
Australian people.
3.2

3.3
Teachers - Print the ‘Argument’ outline above in A3 size. Students cut each of the following pieces of evidence and sort them according to which ‘reasons’
they support. They copy them onto the grid OR stick them onto the grid. This activity builds an understanding of the structure of ‘Argument’ and the notion
of including evidence and/or elaboration in each paragraph to make each reason more persuasive. Sentence are:-

In a year, children of parents who smoke are likely to inhale Employees who smoke are costing Australian companies &
about the same amount of nicotine as if they were actively businesses millions of dollars per year, as smoke breaks and
smoking 60 to 150 cigarettes in that year. days absent due to illness lead to decreased worker
productivity.

The more time people spend in close company with smokers, the
more they are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. In 1998,
128 people died of passive smoking and another 1,968 were
hospitalised. Frequent exposure to environmental tobacco
smoke in homes and other enclosed public places, hotels,
sporting fields and in
 some working environments is really
dangerous.
Even before it is born, a developing baby can be affected by
environmental tobacco smoke if the mother smokes. Many
harmful substances can reach an unborn baby through its
mother’s bloodstream Exposure of unborn children to
tobacco smoke can increase the risk of miscarriage, low birth
weight and sudden infant mortality.

The major tobacco-related diseases common in smokers are In one year, $7million of federal government money was spent
cancer, heart disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. on ‘Quit’ smoking campaigns and even more money was added
by each state government.

The annual cost of smoking to the government health system in The amount of life expectancy lost for each pack of cigarettes
Australia is about $1.84billion a year, to treat smoking-related smoked is 28 minutes, and the years of life expectancy a
illness. typical smoker loses is 25 years over a lifetime.

Smoking and smoke related disease in Australia, is killing 50

Australians daily, 350 each week, and around 19,000 every
year.
Appendix 2

Student Text Analysis of student text. Commentary

People write lots of different texts and they
Student foregrounds people and
are structured differently and they use
the pronoun ‘they’. The verbs are
different language. The language the writer
mainly action verbs.
decides to use depends on audience and
purpose. Information texts, advertising
posters and a personal letter are types of texts
that are very different.

Improved Text Analysis of improved text. Commentary

All texts, particularly written texts, follow
In this text the topic ‘written texts’
predictable patterns of structure and language
is foregrounded. Two metaphorical
use. The language patterns and language
relational verbs are used ‘follow’
choices made by writers of texts are
and ‘show’ and also ‘is’. The other
determined by the purpose of the text, eg to
two verbs are in passive voice.
persuade, entertain, instruct, inform etc and
who the text is for, in other words the
audience. Text types such as a personal letter,
an advertising brochure and an information
pamphlet are written for different people and
for different purposes. Consequently the
language patterns and choices in these texts
show considerable variance.

In the improved text the theme patterns are more complex and more passive voice verb form and metaphorical relational verbs are used.
Appendix 3 This resource is relevant to examining text structure for secondary students. It is in big enough font to
allow cutting up for use. Only the first three paragraphs have highlighted topic sentences. This allows the teacher to
elicit answers from the students about the topic sentences in the other paragraphs. The labels are to help the
students in pairs to think about the organisation of the text and thus its thematic progression.

How to write a good Research/Investigation Report

Research and Investigation are part of senior studies in any school. Sometimes
students are given questions to investigate; sometimes they devise their own
question, statement or hypothesis. They then need to collect information, analyse,
evaluate and select relevant and appropriate information to write their report
indicating clearly the sources of their information.

To begin with the student needs to understand the given question. Is it asking for a
discussion of current ideas around the given topic? Is it asking for an explanation
of a phenomena or situation? Is it asking for a report of the issues or problems,
and strategies to address the problems? Understanding the demands of the
question is essential to collecting the right information and framing the written
report.

Collecting information from the Internet, books, newspapers or magazines

requires careful note taking. Rather than cutting and pasting web material the
student should have a word document open and type in key words and phrases
making sure the website URL and other ‘author’ details are also recorded on the
document. Recording the date the website was accessed is also important. Similarly
when note taking from books and other print material the student needs to record
author and date of publication followed by the relevant pages and succinct notes.
By trying to write notes in their own words students paraphrase the author’s
comments and so are not accused of copying.
When at least five relevant resources (experts’ ideas) have been studied students
can group the ideas. Typing up a list of points and viewing them in ‘outline’ allows
the learner to move and group ideas into appropriate paragraphs. It is then easy
to see which points might be general statements and which group of ideas still
need a topic sentence to be written.

The ‘outline’ view should be printed because it gives a good basis for the
investigation outline. Teachers usually expect an outline of students’ investigations
and will ask to see one before a student begins a research/investigation report
especially if the report is expected to be over 800 words.

When writing the report it is important to have an introductory paragraph that

clearly indicates to the writer what the text is about. The research/investigation
question may be included or the question may be put into one or two sentences
stating the nature of the research. The introduction may include definitions of
issues, situations or behaviours. It may also have a preview statement about
arguments in the following text.
In the body of the report each part of the argument or issue will have its own
paragraph with a general topic sentence. The following sentences will give more
specific details. They will expand the idea, or extend the idea with closely related
points and or give examples.

The ideas that are presented in the body of the report text have to be those
sourced from the ‘experts’ or relevant people interviewed. This is where in text
referencing is important. Rather than quoting word for word what they ‘experts’
have said students can paraphrase the information prefacing it with words such as
‘According to Smith….’, Smith concludes that…..,’ ‘Smith predicts that …’, and
‘Smith argues that…’. Yet another way of referencing the writing is to use the
Harvard in text referencing in brackets like this (Jones 2004 p65). It is also
important to remember that any imported graphic, graphs or illustration also be
properly referenced.
Finally ‘Research Reports’ can sometimes be written as essays but more often than
not they are structured with subheadings. Subheadings need to be in smaller print
than the report heading but in bigger print than the body of the text. They should
be left justified and can be underlined or in a different font. A contents page at
the beginning of the report is helpful and a bibliography (list of books and
resources) must be included at the end of the report text. A research report of
2000 plus words may require an abstract of 100 to 200 words to be written on a
front page. An evaluation of the research process and the student’s opinions may
also be required and these are included at the end of the report.

In conclusion Investigation and research are an essential part of students’ learning

in senior school. They offer a chance for students to direct their own learning
through personal interests that might not otherwise be covered in the school
curriculum.

Introduction Structuring the report

Beginning the research Summing up

Writing the Report

Appendix 4
Discussion
The Reading to Learn (R2L) project has an important point to make about leading learners into text deconstruction and reconstruction.
Reading to
Learn (R2L) In the third generation of Accelerated Literacy (ie R2L) a text is deconstructed by looking at the focus (topic, purpose)
project and then identity (author and audience). To deconstruct a text the context is first examined. Then text paragraphs are
examined, followed by sentences, word groups, words, syllables and finally letter patterns. The approach confirms the
whole text inwards to deconstruction and reconstruction. 20 to 25% of lesson time is devoted to this type of work on
texts. The students use a single slash between word groups and a double slash between clauses. There is Lexis
deconstruction by linking members of grammatical categories such as nouns in hyponymy relationship. Knowing the
context of the text gives an understanding of audience and purpose.
This approach contributes to understanding about cohesion and coherence of a text.

Oratory
rhetoric Another point to make about cohesion and coherence is the use of oratory rhetoric which leads an audience on a journey. A memorable
recent speech is Obama’s victory speech where he used the tri-parallelism of ‘yes we can’ to such effect that the audience, so engaged,
began to reiterate his potent phrase. Kevin Rudd also grounded his exposition – ‘Sorry’ speech in narrative and parallelism.

Primary and
Secondary Citing Primary and Secondary Sources
Sources Besides grammatical reference there is another aspect of reference which is referencing to primary and secondary source materials. In
the levels this is covered in Expressing opinion directly and indirectly. Students express their own opinions directly up to Language level
9. In language Level 10 students are expected to reference to others eg Research shows that…; Some parents think that….
Although not a grammatical feature of texts, correct referencing supports thematic development. Students need to be taught how to
quote from experts and to reference indirectly and directly with the Harvard System of in-text referencing. However when texts clearly
carry the opinions and views of others relevant questions help students to understand whose views are being represented by the author.
Here are some suggestions for supporting students to interrogate ownership of views and beliefs in a text.
Line X: who is concerned?
Line XX: what has been suggested?
Line XXX: who said?
Line XXXX: according to whom?
Line XXXXX: who has asked?
Line XXXXXX : who claims? etc

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 Simple, Compound, Complex Sentences and lexically dense Simple Sentences
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around sentence structure for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning Goals and Language and
Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Developing and improving sentence structure in student writing is supported by explaining to learners the function of different parts of the sentence. The meta language
of clause, compound sentence, complex sentence, linking conjunction, binding conjunction, coordinating clause, subordinating clause, relative clause, non-finite clause,
and lexically dense clause need to be introduced to learners gradually as they become appropriate. See Teaching Strategy resource on Text organisation, foregrounding
and reference for ideas to build sentences into continuous text.
Examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Sentence Structures)
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Begin early by identifying with students the participants,
By Level 4 learners are able to processes and circumstances that make up a simple sentence.
complete simple sentences Do this with the picture books and accompanying sentences.
Across the with a circumstance of Have students colour the given sentences in the appropriate
stages of • place way: Red for Participants (who); Green for Processes (Verbs)
schooling • accompaniment
equivalent and Blue for Circumstances. Circumstances refer to what is
• time. going on ie the action (verb) in the sentence.
to end of
Reception
Students need to be able to eg The three billy goats gruff were very hungry. They wanted to This example offers some challenges so it is
eat the green grass across the river. But an ugly monster lived important to start with a more straightforward text.
identify the different parts of
sentences as early as possible. under the bridge. In this text the quality of being hungry is acting as a
Circumstance of place is under the bridge. participant. This can be understood if the quality is
NB ‘But’ is used here as a cohesive conjunction not as a conjunction added to the noun group eg The three very hungry
Punctuation to join two clauses. billy goats gruff…
At this level emphasise the use Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of The green grass is followed by a qualifier across the
of Capital letters at the place using place prepositions and list common examples eg river which at first looks like a circumstance.
beginning of sentences and on the table; under the desk; in the cupboard; beside the chair; However it is giving more information about the
full stops at the end. at my friend’s house grass not about the action of eating.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of There is a verbal group in this short text: wanted to
accompaniment using the preposition with and list common eat. In such groups the first verb (process) modifies
examples eg with mummy and daddy; with my dog; with class the second verb. Only the first verb is made finite by
3G; with the Principal; with all the children under eight years old time and person. The second verb in the group stays
in its infinitive form: wanted to eat.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 1 – 4
Cont’d
Across the
stages of
schooling
equivalent
to end of
Reception
Children can begin to use the
linking conjunction ‘and’.
However they often use this
with run on sentences: I went
to the show and I got on a ride
and I had an ice cream.
So, introduce them to other
linking conjunctions: but; so.
Punctuation
Continue emphasising the use
of Capital letters at the
beginning of sentences and
full stops at the end. Model
capital letters for names.
Activities Expansion
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of Refer to using adverbs, adverbial phrases and
time using at; on; (during is a higher Language Level) and list prepositional phrases to express circumstances Teaching
common examples eg Strategies in this document
at 3 ‘o’ clock; on the weekend; on Sunday; (during the holidays); Circumstance of place.
The little boy took his new toy out of the box.
These activities about developing posters are also suggested in Circumstance of accompaniment
the Using adverbs, adverbial phrases and prepositional The little boy walked along with his new toy
phrases to express circumstances resource. Circumstance of time
The little boy received his new toy on Saturday.
Teach compound sentences
Children are given relevant/appropriate simple sentences (clauses) on large strips of card and
separate cards with the word ‘and’ (the activity can be repeated with ‘but’ and ‘so’).
eg
I am going to the show and my sister is coming too.
It is 1 pm and I am eating my lunch.
I went on holiday and I went in the pool.
Examples can also be taken from current story books or from simple procedures eg Sit down
and take out your books.
I am going to the show but my sister can’t go.
I want to go on another ride but I don’t have any money.
I don’t have any money so I am going to borrow some.
I’m going to get some money so I’m looking for my friend.
Look for causal
Begin modelling complex sentences using the binding conjunction ‘because’.
relationships in
We will not go outside today because it is raining. stories and simple
We will go swimming because it is hot explanations.
When talking children will often use ‘because’ to answer questions in incomplete sentences eg Teach and model the
Why were you late for class? Because he had my ball. Teach and model full sentences for sentence
writing: I was late because Sam had my ball. construction to show
Expand the teaching of complex sentences with a similar activity, as the one above, using these relationships.
clauses on cards and separate binding conjunction cards.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 5 – 7
It is important that children build
simple sentences using noun groups
Across the
stages of
and adverbs, adverbial phrases and
schooling prepositional phrases to express
equivalent to circumstance, so review the teaching
end of Year 3 strategies resources for these
language items.
Punctuation
If learners understand capital letters
at the beginning of sentences and full
stops at the end, introduce commas in
lists of more than two items. Also
introduce the use of a comma after a
dependent clause when that clause is
foregrounded ie when dependent
clause comes first in the sentence.
Only the very basic of non-finite
clauses are used at these levels and
they are not foregrounded.
Depending on the age of students
draw their attention to shifts in
language to make texts more ‘school-
like’.
Activities Expansion
Complex sentences
Continue the teaching activities that highlight the use of
binding conjunctions because; if; when; after;
Select complex sentences from a teaching text;
Write the individual clauses on cards;
make separate binding conjunction cards;
ask students to make up sentences and write them into
their books.
Teach and model the use of commas when the
dependent clause is foregrounded.
One test for checking to see if an infinitive verb
eg When a volcano erupts, it spits out rock, gas and
(ie to + verb ) is being used in a non-finite clause
liquid called lava.
is to put the words ‘in order’ before it. If this
Commas: the first comma shows the pause after the
makes sense then the verb is the beginning of a
dependent clause; the second comma is used in a list.
non-finite clause.
Draw learners attention to simple non-finite clauses in eg He strained // (in order) to listen.
information reports: He practiced // (in order) to improve his skills.
The bilby has big ears// to hear. He climbed up // (in order) to get a better view.
in science or maths investigations:
However if using mental/thinking verbs,
We used column charts// to compare our data .
eg He wanted to listen to the concert, the first
verb is modulating the second in the verbal
group.
Non-finite clauses are also formed using the
present participle of a verb eg
Thinking about my parents’ predicament, I
decided to investigate residential aged care.
Feeling cold and lonely, I headed north to my
home and the sun.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10
Students continue to use binding
conjunction: because(cause); and
Across the
stages of
binding conjunctions of time: after;
while; when; until; as;
schooling
equivalent to
end of year 6. NB ‘During’ is a preposition and is
followed by a participant (noun).
See prepositional phrases in
Circumstance resource.
‘While’ is a conjunction and is
followed by a clause.
Students are able to understand
clauses that concede a fact or
possible context using binding
conjunctions such as Although; Even
if; Even though;
Punctuation: continue use of comma
after dependent/subordinate clause
in theme position ie foregrounded.
It is important for students to be
able to change their spoken
language into written language to
write an academic essay.
Activities Expansion
Complex sentences:
Build learners’ understanding of time conjunctions in
Historical Narratives and Recounts. Teach the difference
between while which requires a verb following and is
Give students a simple clause on a piece of
therefore part of a dependent clause and during which
refers to a noun or period of time and is therefore a card eg THE PERFORMANCE CONTINUED
preposition and part of a circumstance. and smaller cards each with one subordinate
conjunction eg
Complex sentence with Dependent clause: While the
performance was going on, thieves broke into the props WHEN the ringmaster returned.
room. But is a simple sentence with Time circumstance:
ALTHOUGH there were just six people in
During the performance thieves broke into the props room.
the audience.
Select sentences relevant to the topic and learning area and BECAUSE the trapeze artist was not
model sentences. Point out the small reduction in the seriously hurt
number of words when using a time circumstance instead of
AFTER everyone returned to their seats.
a clause. This is useful for précis and texts requiring a
restricted number of words. Ask students to complete the sentence/clause
following the subordinate conjunction.
Concession conjunctions: Make this activity relevant to the topic
Although I’d really like a holiday, I need to save my money. learning.
Even if he apologises, I’m not inviting him to my party.
Even though it is raining, I‘m not taking my umbrella.
Show learners how to develop the participants in their texts
For further development of Complex
with relative pronouns creating relative clauses:
sentences refer to Appendix 2 for joining two
Captain James Cook who was born in Whitby Yorkshire ……
sentences with a relative pronoun. (see level
There was a federal convention in Sydney where they drew
up a draft constitution. 13 to 14 for interrupting clauses)
Focus students’ attention on shift in register as a result of
PUNCTUATION
using more technical verbs and nouns; more abstraction
Introduce quotation marks for direct speech.
through nominalisation and more objectivity by removing
She said, “I’d like to go home please”.
human participants. See other Teaching Strategies resources
He famously said, “I have a dream”.
for these language items.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 11 – 12
Continue to focus students’ attention
on the shift in language/text register
Across the through increasing technicality,
stages of abstraction and objectivity. Written
schooling language typically has fewer verbs in it
equivalent to
and actions are expressed as concepts,
end of year 8.
ideas and processes (not verbs) which
are often foregrounded. For these
things nouns/nominalisations are used
and often the noun groups have other
description words that could also be
actions in spoken language.
eg “…the managed conservation
practices.”
managed is a verb that has become a
describer in the noun group;
conservation is a nominalisation that is countries in our region are keen to access our
now a classifier;
practices is the head noun.
Binding conjunctions of concession
continue to be used including
while/whilst at these Language Levels.
Activities Expansion
Use a text such as this one from AusAid Water
Resource management page.
http://dfat.gov.au/aid/topics/investment-priorities/
agriculture-fisheries-water/water-resource-
management/Pages/water-resource-management.aspx
Create a table that has in the left hand column many
of the noun groups taken from the web page text.
Leave a blank column on the right and jointly
construct with students the active language that
develops understanding of the noun
group/nominalisation. eg:
Noun group How we say it.
The UN has estimated that by 2025, 1.8 billion countries with countries that have no
people will be living in countries with absolute water absolute water access to any purified
poverty and two thirds of the world’s population poverty – water supply. They may
could be under water stress. As the driest inhabited rely on rivers and rainfall.
continent on earth, Australia has decades of Australia has Australia has managed its
experience in managing water for scarcity and decades of limited supply of water for
experience in many many years so has
expertise and technology in water management. managing water for lots of experience.
Improving water resource management is essential scarcity –
to provide adequate water for drinking and Improved if water is managed well
sanitation, for agriculture, industry and for management of for watering the soil and
electricity generation as well as for protecting the water for irrigation for using in the home,
environment and reducing water related disasters. and domestic use then….
Improved management of water for irrigation and can -
domestic use can reduce labour inputs and increase
productivity, particularly for women. Verbs are becoming simplified and relational. One
non-finite verb is used. Protecting and reducing
could be considered at gerunds (verb- present
participle, acting as a noun).
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion/explanations
Level
Level 13 – 14 Students begin to build lexically Using the coloured highlighting create your own
dense simple sentences. sentences and show students how sentences are
grammatically simple: Refer to Appendix 3 for further nominalisations in
Across the The rescued performing dogs gave a magnificent Science
stages of performance.
schooling
equivalent to The extraordinary performance of the dogs captivated
end of year 10.
everyone.

The continued exploitation of performing animals for

human entertainment is evidence of a debased society.
Although grammatically simple these three sentences
are lexically dense. Gave and captivated which can be
action verbs are used metaphorically here to describe a
relationship between the participants.
Non-finite clauses of greater
Subordinate non-finite clause:
complexity are used
Using his voice gently, the ringmaster controlled the
animals’ movements.
To get the best performance from the dogs, the
ringmaster had some tasty treats in his pocket.

Interrupting clauses:
The performing dogs, who had been rescued from the
Punctuation pound, gave a magnificent performance.
At this level consolidate the use of Here the interrupting clause gives some extra
a comma for an interrupting information but is not needed to identify the dogs.
clause.
The extraordinary performance of the dogs who’d been
rescued from the pound, outshone the other animals.
Here the commas indicate a pause in the voice when
the sentence is read.
Here the clause is embedded as a post qualifier of
the noun group and identifies the particular dogs.
There is no pause in the voice as indicated by the
contraction.
Appendix 1
Texts showing the shift in theme and foregrounding using passive voice and nominalisation.
In a traditional community a number of people who are related paint together. It is more
important for the people to paint together than for them to finish the painting. When they
act together or paint together they regenerate the natural world. People cooperate and
produce a painting that all can see and this holds the society together. (Active Voice)
In a traditional community an art work is painted by a number of people who are related. It
is more important for the painting to be done than for the painting to be finished. Acting
together the natural world is regenerated and a painting is produced. The society is held
together by this community activity. (Passive Voice)
In a traditional community a painting is the work of a number of people who are related in
a specific kinship way. The act of painting is more important than the final product since it
is through the act that there is regeneration of the natural world. The essential cooperation
needed between kin to produce visual art creates a subtle cohesion within the society.
(Nominalised)
Text deconstruction
Verbs
are related; paint; is; to paint; to finish; act; paint; regenerate; cooperate;
produce; can see; holds.
Nouns
a traditional community; a number of people; it; the people; them; the
painting; they; they; the natural world; people; a painting; all (people); this.
NB. The subject nouns are underlined. The text is in active voice. The active
subjects are ‘People’. They do all the actions.
There are lots of verbs, and thus clauses so we can say this text is
grammatically complex. Most of the verbs are action verbs.
Verbs
is painted; are related; is; to be done; to be finished; is regenerated; is
produced; is held; ‘Acting together’ is a non-finite clause
Nouns
an art work; a number of people; it; the painting; the painting; the natural
world; a painting; the society; this community activity
NB. the objects in the previous text have become the subjects
NB. Traditional community is part of circumstance clause – same in each text.
Passive voice is used - The subjects are having ‘actions’ done to them. The
subjects are:- ‘An art work’; ‘The painting’; ‘The natural world’; ‘A painting’;
‘The society’
Verbs
is; are related; is; is; is; creates; (‘needed’ part of the noun group and ‘to
produce’ non-finite clause)
Nouns
a painting; the work of a number of people; a specific kinship way; the act of
painting; the final product; the act; regeneration of the natural world; the
essential cooperation needed between kin; a subtle cohesion within society
The verbs in this text are simple/every-day and the first and third sentences
are simple sentences so we can say that the text is grammatically simple.
Nominalisation:- However the nouns are much more complex and some of
them are formed from the verbs in the first text eg regeneration;
cooperation. This text is lexically complex and lexically dense.
Appendix 2:
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:- Sentences that can be paired are written on cards. Students then join the sentences using the correct relative pronoun. This creates complex
sentences with dependent relative clauses. Refer to both ‘Sentence Structure’ resource and Foregrounding (cohesion and coherence) resource in this document.
Students identify the

NB ‘whom’ is used when the relative clause has a subject eg Could the person whom I spoke to yesterday please come forward. Although this is correct
English, it is very formal and the more common linking word used is ‘that’. Although ‘that’ is a demonstrative it can be used like a pronoun.

WHO WHICH WHOSE WHERE THAT

Sentence Sentence
Relative pronoun acting as
conjunction
At the wood mill, the wood is ground into a pulp. The pulp is then treated with steam and chemicals.
WHICH

The MTV Award was presented to Taylor Swift. Her response was humorous.
WHOSE

My sister sold her car to her friend. She lives across the road.
WHO

The solution was removed from the fridge. WHERE It had been there for 90 minutes.

I like the new house. It is on the corner.

WHICH/THAT

I met my new neighbour. WHO She is called Harriet.

Appendix 3

Discussion – creating lexically dense texts by nominalising What does this mean? Understanding the scientific Nominalisation
science concepts. concepts of inquiry

Science teachers create and engage in a scientific world view What questions can we ask? (this is Meticulous Sustained Inquiry
through the language of concepts and ideas. To apprentice
students into this world, questions that give them access to the How can we test that? (this is Experimental Observation
actions of science must be asked.
Once these actions are experienced and understood the What do these results mean? Can we graph them? Detailed Analysis and Evaluation
teacher can hang the language of scientific concepts and ideas (this is what we do
(nominalisations) onto students’ current understanding.
This gives the students the language to discuss ideas and so
What does this mean for other similar situations? Can we Rigorous, Informed and strategic debate
partake in the powerful rhetoric of social and scientific decision make any predictions? How should we act/ continue?
making.
(this is what we do when we ask these questions

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 Using Verbs and Verb Groups or Phrases
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around verbs and verb groups and verb tense for their students’ texts using the Teaching and
Learning Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning
document.
Not all languages use, define and qualify processes (verbs) in the same way as English. Giving learners a metalanguage to talk about the processes (actions, relatings,
sensings and sayings) going on in sentences enables them better reflect on their language choices.
Examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Words and word groups –verbs and
verb groups/phrases)
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 In an activity lesson eg skipping, jumping, model for students
At this stage children express Model active language in present and past
actions thoughts and sayings using the language of the actions eg “What are we doing?” “We are tense whenever possible eg We are playing….
ACTIVE voice in the following skipping; We are jumping”. On returning to the classroom ask We played……
Across the stages
of schooling tenses (time) the students “What did we do when we were outside?” Model
equivalent to Present continuous tense for the students the past tense “we jumped; we skipped”.
end of Reception Simple present(timeless present) Direct students’ attention to the change of words to indicate
Simple past tense time (from present continuous to simple past tense).
Simple future tense
Most stories are written in past tense. Read a short story in Story example: The fox chased chickens.
the past tense, twice if necessary using the visuals. Tell The fox is chasing the chickens/ The foxes are
When asking questions highlight
students you are going to repeat the story as if it is happening chasing the chickens. (Note the change when
that the verb is in the Interrogative
right now. Ask them to listen carefully and to see if they can subject is plural - subject verb agreement)
mood and show how it is used in
tell you what is different eg Are there different words? Help The fox chases the chickens. (This is simple
the Declarative answer.
students to focus on the shift in time by asking questions eg present)
“How would we say that if the fox was doing that NOW?”
Using timeless present tense in preparation for information
reports ask questions eg “Do all foxes chase chickens?” “Yes all foxes chase chickens.” (This is using the
simple present tense as timeless present)
Find a suitable point in a story and ask “What do you think will
happen next?” The students may respond with the present
tense but this is the opportunity to model the future tense
using ‘will’. eg “The fox catches a chicken.” “Yes. I think the fox
will catch a chicken.”
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4
Develop students’ vocabulary Build an understanding of time and how it is expressed in
Cont’d
(refer to Teaching Strategies English by creating a chart with three columns Yesterday,
Resource: Vocabulary) by creating Today, Tomorrow and writing the equivalent verb forms that
Across the stages
of schooling various collections of verbs on have been learnt eg chased; is chasing (chases); will chase. Model active language in present and past
equivalent to charts. tense whenever possible, particularly with
Encourage children to write using the examples that have
end of Reception irregular verbs eg We are swimming; Yesterday
been collected on the chart.
we swam.
Read a children’s story to students and identify, ask for or give
other verbs for saying process. See Appendix 1.
Create a chart of saying processes relevant to Level 1 -4 for
the classroom. Use pictures which correspond to activity.
Teach and model other verbs of movement: eg walk, run,
crawl, jump, skip, hop, fly, slide, leap; and relate to the
movement of animals. Introduce more complex words such as
waddle, slither as relevant. Create a chart of relevant
movement verbs for display in the classroom.
Introduce ‘can’ to show ability: eg when doing measurement
and student’s heights, do an activity where the students have Encourage students to say what they can do: I
to reach to a point on the wall. Measure the differing can swim; I can skip; I can run etc.
Verbal groups using modality and distances and create each individual student’s sentence: I can
negative: can, can’t; don’t, reach up to 120cm. Repeat activity using negative. I can’t
doesn’t; reach up to 130cm.
I like to play with…; I like to jump…; I like to
Teach multi-word groups:-
eat…; I like to swim on hot days etc.
Fold and cut A4 sheets of paper to create a mini writing book
This is an introduction to expressing opinion
for students. Put ‘I like to….’ on at least half of the pages and
and persuasive writing.
Verbal groups (multi-word groups) support the students to write what they like to do, using
I tried to swim; I tried to skip; I tried to run etc.
using mental processes: I like to modelling and the charts you have created.
play; I want to go; or behavioural Repeat with the verb ‘to try’. Ask students “What
Also check for subject/verb agreement when
processes: I tried to help. games/sports/things have you tried to do?”
using do/does and when using auxiliaries (is,
are) in present continuous.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 5 – 7
There is a need to continue focus on
control of simple past tense forms
Across the stages
of schooling particularly for verbs that are more
equivalent to technical and precise in meaning and
year 1 to 3 of for irregular past tenses.
schooling
At this stage older students can begin
to categorise verbs into: doing;
saying; sensing; relating
Elaborated tenses (ie using auxiliary)
Past continuous – was running
Present perfect –I’ve seen …; I
have eaten;
Verbal groups using modality and
negative: eg wasn’t; was not; didn’t;
did not; might; should; shouldn’t;
would; wouldn’t.
Verbal groups with multi-word verbal
groups, using mental verbs in other
tense forms: I want to go; I wanted
to go to the circus.
And using verbs in multi-word verbal
groups to indicate time/sequence: It
starts to bubble; It started to bubble.
NB. Language learners in this Level
attempt to use a basic non-finite
clause eg I went to the shop // to buy
some lunch. Refer to resource on
sentence building.
Activities Expansion
Choose a Learning Area text and categorise the verbs into
doing; saying; sensing and relating.
Examples of elaborated verbs:
Highlight text to show single word verbs; elaborated verbs
The fox was chasing the chickens.
and other verb groups. Ensure you sometimes use texts
The foxes have chased the chickens.
with negatives and modality.
Use Cloze activity to fill in missing verbs. This can be done
using given list of more technical and precise verbs.
Use short movie clips pausing at regular intervals to ask
and record “What is he/she doing?” “What is happening?”
eg Mr Bean DVDs or sequences in Learning Areas eg
science - seed germination; Aboriginal Studies – canoe
making.
Teach obligation: should; shouldn’t; must; mustn’t
through safety issues: Safety on the road, at the beach, in
the science lab.
Teach conditional: would; wouldn’t in response to “If”
questions
eg What would happen if:
we put the seed upside down?
all the insects in the world died?
Harry Potter lost his glasses?
In Maths discuss mathematical problems using multi-word
verbal groups eg want to do; want to find.
“What were we doing in Maths today?” “What did we
want to do in maths today?”
“We were trying to find the area of a triangle”. “We In all activities check for subject verb
wanted to find the area of a triangle.” See extension in agreement.
Levels 8 – 10.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7
Cont’d
In Science focus on technical verbs that explain scientific
processes eg evaporate; heat; measure; pour;
Across the stages
of schooling Begin to introduce more technical and precise verbs
equivalent to
eg
year 1 to 3 of
schooling ‘to allow’ instead of ‘to let’
May use modality of Obligation: eg ‘to prevent’ instead of ‘to stop’ A Phrasal verb consists of a verb plus a
“must” eg “We must see the ‘consists of’ instead of ‘is made up of…’ preposition. The addition of a preposition
penguins.” “We mustn’t forget to pick shifts the meaning of the verb
up Sam.” eg to back up means to support;
[Phrasal verb (to pick up) in a multi- to follow through means to complete (or take
word verbal group (to forget to …) Use multi-word verbal groups that support sequencing to the next stage).
with negative and modality (mustn’t)] eg
starts to bubble…..; Highlight Phrasal verbs as appropriate.
May use PASSIVE voice when begins to turn….;
modelled. “He got hit” Teacher continue to add….;
models “He was hit”. continues to glow…..;
check to see that……;
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10 Elaborated tenses
Future conditional - following
Across the stages dependent clauses with binding
of schooling conjunctions eg if we do not have
equivalent to
year 4 to 6 of fresh water, we would not survive.
schooling Past perfect: They had settled in the
outback
Present perfect continuous: They
have been going to school for five
years.
Past perfected continuous: They had
been going to school.
Future continuous: They will be
going to school.
NB Future conditional tense: This
tense uses modal auxiliary “would”
and two clauses one beginning with
“If” and one beginning with
“then”.eg “If we move, then he
would go to a new school”. Another
conditional verb form is “if we were
to move, then he would go to
another school”
Passive voice needs to be highly
scaffolded at Levels 8 and 9
Activities Expansion
Provide a text which contains both simple past and past
perfect verbs. Work through the verbs with students,
questioning why there are single word verbs and why
some have two words. Explore with students the time
relationship of events.
NB Draw students’ attention to the need to
Repeat with other texts that include a variety of
change auxiliary verb depending on singular or
elaborated tenses including future tense.
plural (was/were).
To teach past perfect, provide students with sentences
from a recount or other past tense texts such as
One student was crying.
Ask “Why was he crying?”
Model the answer “Because he had fallen over”
The science seedlings were dead. We had forgotten to
water them. (past perfect multi word verb)
Instruction for a task such as Appendix 2
Read the following procedure about making
Create and model with students a Learning Area compost. Re-write this text as a personal
procedural text eg making a kite; solving a maths problem. recount: that is, write a recount of yourself
Then highlight the command verbs and work with students making this compost. Remember to change all
to change verbs to past tense enabling the writing of a the command verbs to past tense.
personal recount. See first and second column of Appendix 2
Discuss with students the different audience
and purpose for procedures and recounts.
Begin to teach Passive Voice: After an excursion discuss
and model responses to questions eg “What were you
allowed to do? Were you allowed to buy an ice-cream;
Were you allowed to wear T-shirts? Were you allowed to
wear sandals? Where you allowed to play volleyball?
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10
At these Levels passive voice is used Explain that when writing in most Learning Areas, self is
Cont’d
when foregrounding different not important. The focus is on the objects/ideas and the
theme/participant. actions. This is achieved by using passive voice. Highlight
Across the stages
of schooling verbs in past tense and work with students to change verbs
See second and third column of Appendix 2
equivalent to to passive voice enabling the writing of a procedural
year 4 to 6 of recount.
schooling

Model the shift to passive voice when the actor participant

is known eg: The teacher bought our tickets the day before.
These were used to enter the zoo - instead of ‘We used the
tickets to enter the zoo’.

Verbal groups with multi-word verbal

In Maths discuss mathematical problems using the Verbal groups using passive voice - elaborated
groups, using mental verbs in other
language of maths that uses non-finite clauses as well as tenses.
tense forms: I was supposed to go; I
multi-word groups eg “To find the area of………” “We Passive voice – Past perfect
decided to go to the circus; He wanted
wanted to find……….” And then following a maths activity Why did Chinese men come to Australia in the
to spread the word.
ask students to share/report orally on what they did to 1850s?
solve the problem. The problem must be foregrounded Because gold had been found in Victoria.
with a non-finite or verbal group. This is then followed up Why had the Orang-utan been brought to the
with their written report. sanctuary?
NB multi-word groups in Maths (wanted to find) are Because her habitat had been destroyed.
introduced in this resource in Levels 5 – 7. The increasing
technicality is found in the second word of the multi-word
verbal group at this Level. eg wanted to calculate
Verbal groups using modality of
obligation: eg. ought
Continue substitution of more technical and precise verbs
eg
‘to initiate’ instead of ‘to begin’ Model obligation where appropriate.
‘to resemble’ instead of ‘to look like’
‘to till’ instead of ‘to dig over’.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 11 – 12
Action, saying and thinking verbs become Students demonstrate better subject-verb
Across the
more precise and nuances of meaning are agreement but may make occasional errors
made through ‘delicate’ choices with more complex agreement. eg:
At higher Language Levels the more • after “there” where verb needs to agree
Across the stages with a longer noun group that follows –
of schooling academic language is achieved through Begin to use other relational verbs from Appendix 3
nominalisation and use of passive voice. There has (sic – have) been several
equivalent to
year 7 to 8 of dangerous events over the past years.
schooling • noun groups with qualifiers: All of the
weapons that the Spanish used was (sic –
were) made of iron; their water for crops
are (sic – is) becoming polluted.

Level 13 – 14
Continue to achieve the more academic At this Level students demonstrate control of
language through nominalisation and use subject-verb agreement and errors are only in
Across the stages
of schooling of passive voice. In addition nouns/ more complex agreements: when there is
equivalent to nominalisations representing concepts, confusion as to which noun should be agreed
year 9 to 10 of values, ideas and beliefs are juxtaposed with eg
schooling using relational verbs. The number of assaults have increased over
time.
Since academic language levels require
The above agrees with ‘assaults’ when it
nominalisation and simple but lexically
should agree with ‘number’ and read: The
dense sentences use a variety of relational
number of assaults has increased over time.
verbs as in Appendix 3.
Appendix 1 - adapted from Success for Boys. Catholic Education.
There are many substitutes for the verb ‘to say’. Verbs in narratives help to create a picture for the audience. Here are some substitutes for ‘said’; some are metaphors like ‘barked’;
some verbs are shifting from ‘saying’ processes to mental processes eg assumed, some are shifting to behavioural-like processes eg grinned, jeered, moaned and whimpered. You can
add your own examples.
accused cackled elaborated lamented quarreled
acknowledged challenged emphasized laughed questioned
added chattered exaggerated lied quibbled
admitted cheered exclaimed
advised chuckled explained marveled raged
agreed claimed exploded mentioned recalled
announced comforted moaned recommended
answered commanded faltered mumbled refused
apologized commented fumed murmured replied
approved complained mused reported
argued concluded greeted muttered retorted
asked confessed grinned responded
assumed confided groaned nagged
continued growled screamed
objected
babbled contradicted grumbled screeched
observed
barked cried grunted shouted
offered
began croaked guessed shrieked
ordered
begged
bellowed decided hesitated panted teased
blurted declared hinted persisted thanked
boasted defended hissed persuaded
boomed demanded uttered
pestered
bragged denied informed pleaded
described inquired ventured
praised
determined insisted predicted
directed instructed whimpered
proclaimed whined
discussed insulted promised whispered
proposed
jeered
protested
Appendix 2 –This shows the change in verb form from Imperative in a procedure to past tense in a personal recount text and to passive voice in a procedural recount.
How to make Compost (How to do)
Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to
improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and
vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture
in the soil for longer.
To make compost
• Collect some animal manure such as chicken manure
or horse manure from local stables
• Clear a patch of ground in your garden away from the
house
• Build bricks to make three walls of a bay in which to
place kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings
• Put down a first layer of newspaper as this will help to
stop weeds coming up through the compost
• Make a second layer of animal manure
• Add the kitchen scraps
• Next add the lawn cuttings
• Repeat the layers using shredded paper in place of the
newspaper.
• When all the available materials have been used add a
little bit of soil to the top of the compost heap so that
fruit rats are not attracted to the vegetables
• Water the top of the heap gently for 15 minutes
• The heap will reduce in size quite rapidly over the next
week, then you can continue to add layers of mulched
weeds, lawn cuttings and vegetable scraps from the
kitchen
• After a few weeks dig over the compost heap with a
garden fork so that air can get into the rotting
material.
• This is a good time to clear a second patch of ground
next to the first bay and to build a second bay for the
turned compost
• After three months sift the oldest compost and put it
on the garden.
How I made Compost (How I did)
Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to
improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and
vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture
in the soil for longer.
I collected some animal manure such as chicken manure or
horse manure from the local stables and then I cleared a
patch of ground in our/my garden away from the house. I
built bricks to make three walls of a bay in which I placed
kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings.
I put down a first layer of newspaper as this helps to stop
weeds coming up through the compost and then I made a
second layer of animal manure. After that I added the
kitchen scraps. Next I added the lawn cuttings. I repeated
the layers using shredded paper in place of the newspaper.
When all the available materials had been used I added a
little bit of soil to the top of the compost heap so that fruit
rats were not attracted to the vegetables. I watered the top
of the heap gently for 15 minutes.
The heap reduced in size quite rapidly over the next week,
then I continued to add layers of mulched weeds, lawn
cuttings and vegetable scraps from the kitchen. After a few
weeks I dug over the compost heap with a garden fork so
that air could get / gets into the rotting material.
This was a good time for me to clear a second patch of
ground next to the first bay and to build a second bay for
the turned compost.
After three months I sifted the oldest compost and I put it
on the garden.
How Compost is made (How it was done)
Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to
improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and
vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture
in the soil for longer.
Some animal manure such as chicken manure or horse
manure was collected from the local stables and then a
patch of ground in the garden away from the house was
cleared. Bricks were built to make three walls of a bay into
which kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings were placed.
An initial layer of newspaper was put down to help stop
weeds coming up through the compost and then a second
layer of animal manure was added. After kitchen scraps
and lawn cuttings were added. The layers were repeated
using shredded paper in place of the newspaper.
When all the available materials had been used, a little bit
of soil was put onto the top of the compost heap so that
fruit rats were not attracted to the vegetables. The top of
the heap was gently watered for 15 minutes.
The heap reduced in size quite rapidly over the next week,
then layers of mulched weeds, lawn cuttings and vegetable
scraps from the kitchen were continually added. After a few
weeks the compost heap was dug over with a garden fork
so that air could get into the rotting material.
This was a good time to clear a second patch of ground next
to the first bay and to build a second bay for the turned
compost
After three months the oldest compost was sifted and was
put on the garden.
Appendix 3

Common Relational verbs are ‘to be’ (is, are, was, were) and ‘to have’ (has, have, had). There are many substitutes for ‘to be’. These substitutes and metaphors are
grouped under relevant headings and are listed from low language level to higher language level.
form is changed composition naming context is changed interpretation cause and effect other metaphors
becomes is made up of is called causes means causes gave a wonderful
makes is composed of is known as results in signifies results in performance
grows into contains is referred to leads to reflects shows
captivated the
develops consists of brings about represents reveals
audience
develops into includes produces mirrors indicates
forms possesses allows symbolises shows up as an
produces comprises creates anomaly in our data
results in gives rise to
shapes sparks
contributes to fosters
increases initiates
decreases inaugurates
resembles generates
ensues from engenders

form is modified appearance essential to substitutes equals expansion

makes seems to be needs represents is the same as expresses
resembles appears to be depends on equals exemplifies
affects requires discloses
influences
inspires
renders
manifests
are realised (passive
voice)

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 Developing Sentences using adverbs, adverb groups and phrases, prepositional phrases to express circumstances
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Circumstance development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning Goals and Language
and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.

Questions are a great way to interrogate a young person’s thinking around the context of an action, a thought/ idea, or a process (often as a gerund or nominalisation eg
shopping, entertaining, filtration, productivity, analysis, activism). Circumstances of time, place, accompaniment and some of manner are generally well understood.
Students can be challenged to use circumstances of cause, matter, role, angle and contingency according to the developing examples in the Language and Literacy
levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Word groups)
Language Discussion
Level
Level 1 – 4 This is generally the oral stage of
language development and a learner’s
Across the stages understanding of context/
of schooling circumstance is developed with
equivalent to the
questions.
end of
Reception. Prepositional phrases are used for
Place - Where did it happen?
and
Time - When did it happen?
A prepositional phrase beginning with
‘on’ is used with a named day or the
weekend; a prepositional phrase
beginning with ‘in’ will give
information about
• the period of the day (eg in the
morning/afternoon)
• the week or month (in the first
week; in May)
• the period identified (eg in the
holidays; in the first weeks of school)
• NB ‘at’ is used for other periods such
as: at night; at daybreak; at dawn;
at sunset; and also for times of the
clock).
Activities
Place:
Ask questions: Where is your bag? Where is the cat in the
picture? Where did it happen?
Teach the prepositional phrases of Place that begin with:
on (the couch); in (the basket); under (the chair); inside
(the cupboard); above (the door); outside (the room);
beside/next to (the TV); below (the picture), using the
following activity
Whole class or individual activity: Have a large picture (of
a room, a farmyard scene, or a shopping precinct) that
shows the position of numerous objects. Have cards with
circumstance of Place (as above) written and ask the
learners to come and place an appropriate card on the
picture in response to the questions of place.
Whole class or individual activity: Ask one student to go
outside of the room and place a toy in a specific position.
Model the circumstance of Place with the remaining
students eg The truck is on the shelf. Invite the student
back into the classroom and ask them to find the toy and
give the correct information. Correct answer leads to
student hiding the object for the next student. Prompting
may be needed to get the correct answer.
Expansion
Sample questions and answers
Place
Where is your bag? - under the chair; on the
table; outside the room.
Where did you go on the weekend? - I went to
the Circus.
Where was the circus? - in the Park.
In the picture, where is the woman with the
dog?
“outside the chemist”; “inside the barn”; “on
the tractor”
Reinforce this with “Who is on the tractor?”
and model the written response “The woman
with the dog is on the tractor.”
Give some students cards which show an
object in a position (eg a cat on a chair, a shoe
under a table, etc) Create a game where other
students have to ask questions about the
‘place’ of an object using “Where is…” or
“Where are ….”.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 1 – 4
Across the stages
of schooling this is
equivalent to the
end of Reception.
Accompaniment - Who did
you go with? (Don’t worry
about ‘dangling’ prepositions.
With whom did you go? might
be grammatically correct but
no one speaks like this now
days).
Activities Expansion
Time
Time: Teacher uses the daily school routine to create questions,
Ask questions: When do we go to library? Use timetable plan to When did you go to the circus?
elicit answer. When did you go to your grandma’s?
Teach the prepositional phrases of Time that begin with: on When will you go on holiday?
(Saturday); in (the morning, the next week; the holidays, August); at Give some students cards which show
(night) etc. time. Create a game where other students
Accompaniment : ask questions about time eg What time is
Ask questions: Who did you go to the circus with? it? What time do you have? What does
Model the answers: “I went with my sister” your clock/watch say?
Accompaniment
Model how to write the sentences using prepositional phrases. Ask
students to copy sentences in their books and then to underline the Model the other form of questioning to
elicit the information eg Who went with
prepositional phrases.
you?
Use simple cloze procedure texts requiring students to fill in missing
Then model the full answers.
words of circumstance of Place, Time and Accompaniment.
I went …with my sister; …with my dog, …on
Alternatively have this on an interactive board. Ask students come
my own.
to the board and ‘drag’ a preposition/prepositional phrase to the
space.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of place Engage students in asking and answering
using place prepositions and list common examples eg questions about time, place and
on the table; under the desk; in the cupboard; beside the chair; at accompaniment.
my friend’s house; etc
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of
accompaniment using the preposition with and list common
examples eg
with mummy and daddy; with my dog; with class 3G; with the Investigate free APPs that provide this
Principal; with all the children under eight years old; etc activity.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of time
using at; on; (during is a higher Language Level) and list common
examples eg
at 3 ‘o’ clock; on the weekend; on Sunday; (during the holidays); etc
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 5 – 7
It is important to teach
circumstances in context of
Across the stages
of schooling this the focus genre and topic
is equivalent to matter.
the end of Year 3
Time circumstances can be
indicted without prepositions
when using defined periods
(eg today, yesterday,
tomorrow; next week; next
month; last holidays; every
two years)
At this Language Level
learners can talk about the
quality of how something
happens or can describe the
means by which something
happens.’ Means’ and
‘Quality’ are subsets of
circumstance of Manner.
Adverbs are used for
describing the quality of how
something is done.
Activities Expansion
Time
Teach and model - Time circumstances with defined periods (see What are we doing today?
words in discussion column). Today we are going to the circus.
Today we will go to lunch together. What did we do yesterday?
(Time) (Accompaniment) Yesterday we went to the beach.
Tomorrow you will go to lunch on your own.
Every two years we go on a school camp.
(Time) (Accompaniment)
What did you do in the holidays?
Teach - Time circumstances using a Clock and the preposition ‘at’.
In the holidays, I went to see my
What time will we go to lunch?
grandmother (The holidays are
We will go to lunch at 12.30pm.
foregrounded).
Show how the circumstance can move according to what is the focus I went to see my grandmother in the
or theme – ie at the beginning as theme, or at the end of the holidays (The subject ‘I’ is foregrounded).
sentence.
At 12.30pm we will go to lunch. Quality
How does your car go?
Demonstrate how circumstances of Quality can be used to describe My car goes really fast. NB ‘really’ is an
attributes that each class member has eg intensifier like ‘very’.
Sophie dances gracefully; How does Sally sing?
Mohammed paints beautifully; She sings beautifully.
Jason cleverly works out his sums. I can fix that toy easily
Notice how we can foreground the adverb when we want it to reflect
more on the subject than the action. This shifts the meaning slightly. Means
How did you come to school?
Introduce and model sentences with circumstance of means by asking
I came by bus; by bike.
questions such as “How does the nurse get your temperature?” With
a thermometer; How does the cricket make that sound? With its Continue to engage students in question
wings. and answer around circumstances.
Introduce, model sentences with circumstance of cause.
eg for Diwali; for assembly Repeat this activity in Levels 8 to 10 by
using the circumstance as marked theme
Activity: students match sentence parts to full sentences eg ie as a sentence starter.
We learned a new song \ for assembly. eg For assembly \we learnt a new song.
We had a big party \ for Diwali For breakfast \ I ate eggs.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10 It is important to teach
circumstances in context of the
focus genre and topic matter.
Across the stages
of schooling this is At this Language Level students
equivalent to the use a greater range of
end of year 6 circumstances of Time and
Manner and place them
variously in sentences for effect
and thematic progression.
Additional circumstances that
students should use in their
writing at this Level are:
Cause(reason) – because of; as
a result of; for a reason or
purpose
Activities Expansion
Teach - Time circumstances using higher level prepositions: during; What did you do during the holidays?
after (NB. ‘after’ is also used as a binding conjunction and in prepositional During the holidays I went to see my
phrases) grandmother.
Teach the prepositional phrases of Time that begin with: during the
I went to see my grandmother during the
holidays/ the following term/Easter; after the holidays/ term holidays.
3/Easter;
Again show the shift in thematic foregrounding in sentences Quality
relevant to the topic or subject learning area. Foreground other examples relevant to
Model procedures where it is imperative to foreground the subject area and topic.
circumstance of Manner eg Carefully remove the crucible; Slowly sift
in the flour;
Teach and model causal relationships using both dependent clauses
and Cause circumstances. Here are some examples:-
in History when modelling how to record the information about
causal relationships write a sentence using
a) a causal process (verb)
“The famine caused migration to the cities” (‘Famine’ is the or
idea/issue but what was the cause?) “Migration to the cities was the result of
b) a dependent (causal) clause foregrounded famine.”
“Because the people were starving//they moved to the cities” “As a result of famine, people migrated to
c) with the dependent clause changed to a circumstance phrase the cities”
“Because of the famine, people migrated to the cities.” (note use of nominalisation: famine;
migration)
Cause (reason)continued In History / Literature
“The wealthy colonial nabobs moved to the cooler hill stations for
the monsoon.”
“The bungalow was refurbished for the new Governor and his family” Means
Continue modelling circumstances of Means. How are you going to fix that broken toy?
In Science highlight circumstances such as - with a thermometer….; I am going to fix it with some glue.
with the tongs…; with a prepared solution…;
In History highlight circumstances such as - through these
discoveries, new lands were…;
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10 Manner is articulated as
continued Quality, Means and
Comparison by Halliday.
Across the stages Terms that describe
of schooling this is
direction or relationship to
equivalent to the
end of year 6 space do not fit into these
three categories of manner.
Circumstances of
Comparison comes in at
Level 9
Matter and Role are at Level
10 Role – in History eg
Activities
Teach – ‘Organisational’ Manner
The bee moves diagonally across the surface.
(NB across the surface is a circumstance of place)
You must come up with a solution in your teams.
Teach by modelling
Comparison - in Social Studies eg
Children like these are more likely to …;
The men behaved like overgrown babies.
Matter - in Literature eg
This part of the narrative about the impact on her life of the
events in her early teens, …
As a young woman in early 20th century Russia, she was …….
Expansion
Horizontally; diagonally - Clearly these are manner
but to separate these words from quality, means
or comparison we can say they are circumstances
that give a spatial relationship to the physical
environment or to other people.
He danced in circles. The manner of his dancing is
relational to the space in which the dancer
performed. It does NOT mean He danced within a
circle (circumstance of Place)
However
‘He danced in a circle’ could be about place or
about spatial relationship. The sentence has to be
examined in context of the paragraph.
We worked in teams.(could be means or manner)
We discussed the project in relevant groups. (could
be means or manner)
The bees ran diagonally across the hive surface in a
wiggly manner. Here there are three
circumstances:- the first is organisation (spatial
relationship to the environment), the last is quality
with the middle circumstance being of place.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 11 – 12
It is important to teach
Across the stages circumstances in context of
of schooling this is the focus genre and topic
equivalent to the
matter.
end of Year 8
Greater extension of Role,
Angle and Contingency
become valuable when
developing exposition
writing. Through the use of
these circumstance phrases
students are able to show
greater insight into the
actions of the actors/
provocateurs within the
argument.
Activities
Teach - Means that are of a higher level and relevant to the
topic or Learning Area eg
By careful interrogation the school counsellor was able to
establish the order of events;
Her attention to detail is shown through both her appearance
and her personality;
The ancient statue was surrounded by walls made of stone.
Teach Role, Angle, Contingency:
Teach Contingency (condition) in a procedure: -
With the isolating valve shut, remove the ….;
Challenge and Interrogate students thinking when reading
listening and writing texts by asking questions such as “Whose
view is this”; “What role does this person/group have in this
issue”; “What conditions were/will be (or won’t be) in place
for this to happen”; “What would happen if….?”; “What
wouldn’t happen if …….?”
Expansion
Further examples:
Means The dog communicates through barks and
yelps;
Comparison: in contrast to the tall ship and mast, .
Cause: because of the pollution of the water; due
to lack of fresh clean water; for extra protection
against waves and sea spray, she wore …
Role: as a world heritage site ….; as a teacher at
the School….; as a modern day writer
As the driest inhabited continent on earth, Australia
has …
Angle: from their point of view…; in their
position…;
Contingency: condition - with more tourists;
without tourists; without touching the magnet ….
see further categories of Contingency in Level 13-14
Language Level Discussion
Level 13 – 14 It is important to teach
circumstances in context of
Across the stages the focus genre and topic
of schooling this is matter.
equivalent to the
end of Year 10
Further extension of Role,
Angle and Contingency
At this level of written
language students are
expected to present views
and arguments that explore
possibilities. Thus the
circumstances which give
context are linguistically
much more challenging.
Students are expected to
describe ideas and situations
that exist ‘despite other
circumstances’ ‘in spite of
other circumstances. This is
called Contingency of
concession. Closely related is
Contingency of condition.
This states what could
happen with or without a
particular circumstance
Activities Expansion and other examples
from the Levels
Role – As a dispossessed young women with a disability her struggle was
almost insurmountable. Comparison: like a leaf falls off a
tree in the middle of autumn; as
Further focus on Contingency using the same type of questions. opposed to the more commonly
used term.
Interrogate and challenge students ideas when modelling texts and/or when
conferencing their writing by asking “What conditions were/will be (or won’t Cause: for his efforts in promoting
be) in place for this to happen”; “What would happen if….?”; “What wouldn’t the sport; because of their
happen if …….?” personalities and where and how
Have students write down the answers to these questions. they were brought up; for
eg In Issues Analysis, when speaking to students about an issue such as guidance; out of fear and hunger …
exploitation of garment out-workers, ask
Role: as small gas particles; as
“What conditions would make this situation better for the women?”
prisoners of war of the Japanese;
List ideas. Use each idea to model circumstance of contingency (condition) eg
under the banner of Australia
They need to have:- shorter working hours; better light; better equipment;
comfortable chairs; regular breaks; increase in pay; fair bosses etc. Angle: According to my results; in
Then model sentences with circumstance of contingency: condition eg “With the eyes of Australians …
better work conditions such as shorter working hours, the women would be
Contingency: Concession - Despite
healthier”
the bad weather, the boats set out
NB make comparison by using a conditional clause eg “If there was better
from the harbor; Despite the urging
lighting // the women would be healthier.” This is more spoken-like.
of the event organisers, the circus
Also model concession “Despite the difficult conditions, the women….” management cancelled / didn’t
Repeat questions to investigate cause: eg cancel the performance.
“Why do young women get trapped in this industry?”
Contingency: Condition – Without
Possible student answer, “Because they are poor and desperate for income the deteriorating weather, the
for their families; because they are unskilled.”
circus would not have been
Ask “what noun/s can you make from the adjective ‘poor’ and ‘desperate’?” cancelled; With some urging on the
Then model for students the circumstances of cause: Due to poverty and part of the organisers, the
desperation; Because of poverty and desperation; due to lack of skills/job performers decided to continue.
opportunities.
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
 Developing Nouns and Noun Groups
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Noun and Noun Group for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning Goals and
Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Students recognise and use nouns that represent people, places, things and ideas in the learning area and expand nouns to achieve greater precision. They can be
challenged to use nouns and noun groups according to the developing examples in the Language and Literacy Levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students –
Grammar Knowledge (Word groups).
Language Discussion Activities and examples Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 This is generally the Introduce words about a topic eg. Birds:
Use big books, picture books concrete and visual resources. Ask students to
oral stage of language wings, beak, feathers, nest etc. include
name given/nominated items. Explain/clarify what it is and what it is used for.
development and a numbers eg. two (long legs), few, some,
Across the
Model the correct name and pronunciation of words and explain meaning if
learner’s many.
necessary.
stages of understanding of
Explain the meaning of the word ‘noun’ as ‘the thing’.
schooling context is developed
equivalent to with questions. Whole class, small group or individual activity: use pictures of people, places
Use such sentences/phrases as ideas for
the end of and feelings/emotions, everyday objects, have a large picture (of a room, a
an art activity. Some Senior student
reception farmyard scene, or a shopping precinct) that has lots of objects. Students name
examples from an art class are:- one
as many objects as they can. Teacher has students repeat words that are new.
disgustingly wild, fat, hairy cat with red
. Building Noun Groups eyes and sharp claws outside my house;
Information is usually Introduce and Explain the purpose of describing word and Use describing words The community’s very big chlorine pool
given by students in including size, shape and colour to build noun groups about topic words eg. big next to the school; A couple of green
one word or short pointed yellow beak; small shiny black feathers. Construct the sentence as nocturnal owls hiding in the tree among
phrases using follows to show the describing words: the leaves; These six quite loud year 2
everyday nouns. The a beak students with big mouths.
students may also use a big beak
objects, visuals and Focus on vocabulary connected with the
a big yellow beak
gestures Learning Area / theme eg. The Beach:
a big pointed yellow beak
sand, sun, water, waves, lifesavers, rock
The bird had a big pointed yellow beak.
pools, shells, seagulls, etc
Introduce articles: ‘the’, ‘a’, ‘an’ and have students match with nouns. List all new words on display posters to
highlight high frequency words and
Teach addition of ‘s’ and ‘es’ to regular plural form of nouns. Focus on irregular
technical vocabulary. Use pictures and
plural forms as they arise.
diagrams to support vocabulary
extension.
 Language Discussion Activities and examples Expansion
Level
Introduce singular and plural pronouns eg. ‘it’, ‘they’ to substitute for nouns.
Remember to highlight to students
Level 1 – 4 Nominalisations do not Use Appendix 1 ( modified for your students) to teach the correct order of the importance of subject-verb
Cont’d appear until Level 6 but describers ie number, size, colour, shape, sound agreement: eg. I am…We are…
students may use Whole class, small group or individual activity: Students choose a picture and name A car needs…Cars need…
common examples such the item and how it is used if applicable. They then can choose two cards eg. an
Across the as ‘activity’ or ‘free astronaut and a house. Students make a short sentence about the two pictures eg. A fun activity is to use a Snap cards
stages of time’ “The astronaut lives in a house”. Ask for some words which describe and give more game with matching noun and
schooling information about the noun groups ‘the house’ and ‘the astronaut’. The noun picture.
equivalent to groups can be quirky/humorous/impossible. The aim is to encourage oral skills and
the end of the use of new vocabulary in noun groups eg The big green astronaut lives in a small Write words of a sentence on cards
reception. mud house. or small whiteboards and students
place in order. Consider reading
Use cloze exercises to fill in missing nouns as words and/or pictures (assist as level of the students. Cater for
necessary). differentiation.
Whole class, small group or individual activity: Have a collection of pictures, ask
students to group them in to similar categories.
Ask questions: “Why did you group them like that?” This might introduce the idea of
classification and hyponymy.
Ask questions: “Who can think of some words that tell us more about the object?”
Encourage noun group words: pointers eg a flower, the donkey, my bag; numbers eg
2 leaves, 4 legs; classifiers eg chocolate milk, birthday card.
Refer to Noun Group chart. See Appendix 2.
Whole class or individual activity: introduce labelling and reinforce in context with
certain genre eg. information report
Ask questions: “What is this part called?”
Model the answers: eg “This is called the wing”. Then write the sentences on a
whiteboard. Have the noun groups eg the wing, the feet, the eye, the beak, on cards
and ask a student to find and match a card to the noun group on the board.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 5 – 7 It is important to teach nouns,
noun groups and
Across the nominalisations in context of
stages of the focus genre and topic
schooling matter whenever possible.
equivalent to
the end of At this Level learners are
year 3 constructing noun groups using
a narrow range of vocabulary to
add some detail to descriptions.
These include possessive
pronouns, numeratives,
describers (what’s it like?),
classifiers (what type?) and
qualifiers (tell me more). Refer
to the Language and Literacy
Levels for more information.
Activities and examples Expansion
Focus on correct order of adjectives refer to Appendix 1 and include
commas as appropriate.
Use noun group table Appendix 2.to deconstruct noun groups in a NB Intensifiers are only included in noun
given text eg a Narrative, Information Report. Teacher models some groups because they modify the describer.
of the deconstruction, students fill in noun group table.
Develop further understanding by constructing sentences and
reinforcing word order in noun groups.
Use cloze exercises and have students fill in missing nouns and or When reading texts identify the nouns and
ask students if there are describing words
describers.
in front of the nouns that give more
In an Information Report on fish, focus on nouns as key words in information about that noun.
texts. Students can highlight nouns. Are these nouns generic eg.
‘fish’ or are they words that name specific fish eg. ‘snapper’. This is a Triangular poems:
cats
development of hyponymy.
big cats
Teach classifiers: define what they are and their purpose. Ask
big fluffy cats
questions eg Are there any words that give us more information
big fluffy grey cats
about the type of thing/noun? Guide students to pick out classifiers.
Whole class, small group or individual activity: Teacher to select
nouns eg animals. What words can we put in front to make groups
of animals? eg. farm animals; native animals; wild animals;
Australian animals; hairy-nosed wombat; eastern, grey kangaroo etc.
Use cloze exercises as a paired activity: have describers and
classifiers on a separate sheet or on the bottom of the page. Pairs of To develop qualifiers further:-
students build the noun groups Give noun groups on a worksheet and ask
Teach qualifiers using prepositional phrases: ie using prepositions. students to add a qualifier. eg
Emphasise that they come after the noun and explain that they add The beautifully iced birthday cake …….. (on
more information to further define the head noun. the table)
Whole class activity: use noun groups that they have already A bright sunny day ……. (at the beach)
constructed in earlier lessons. Revise what the head noun is. Ask The antique school hand-bell ……. (in the
what other word/s could be added after the noun to give more principal’s office)
information about the noun. eg “The big, black dog in the back yard Support students by suggesting that what
barked loudly.” they need to add after the head noun
‘dog’ is the head noun and ‘in the back yard’ is the qualifier. starts with a preposition eg in, on, under
 Language Discussion Activities and examples Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7
Introduce the concept of nominalisations as appropriate to topic.
cont’d
Make a list of common suffixes (eg ment, ivity, ence, tion), and show
how nominalisations are formed and what their purpose is.
Across the Use a non-fiction text, for example an information report about
stages of volcanoes, to show how nominalisations are used and the effect they
schooling have on the text.
equivalent to eg the verb ‘erupt’ is changed to the nominalised form ‘eruption’:-
the end of When volcanoes erupt lava runs down the side.
year 3 The violent volcanic eruption results in a dangerous flow of lava.
This shows the use of a higher order relational verb (results in) and
packing of information into the two participant noun groups: violent
volcanic eruption; dangerous flow of lava.
Whole class or partner activity for students needing development in
this Language Level band, focus on one common ending such as tion.
Students can look for words with this ending in dictionaries; non-
fiction texts etc and list them.
Discuss the meaning of the words found and how they would be used
in sentences. Talk about how they change from being a verb (or
adjective) to a noun.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10 It is important to teach
nouns, noun groups and
nominalisations in context
Across the stages of the focus genre and
of schooling topic matter.
equivalent to the
Extended noun groups add
end of Year 6
description to build a
character and a setting in
Narratives. Information
Reports also contain
extended noun groups
which typically contain
classifiers. Extended noun
groups in Recounts add
detail.
Adding a post qualifier to a
noun adds/compacts more
information into the noun
group.
Activities and examples Expansion
Teach the value of using nouns which are more specific in nature. They
clearly define what students are writing about.
Focus on noun groups in texts. Refer to Appendix 1 and 2.
Explore how the noun groups add meaning to the text and what purpose
they serve.
Remove the words in the noun groups except the head noun. Compare with
the original text paragraph. How are the two texts different? Which text
Provide students a selection of
gives you a better ‘mental picture’ of the noun participant?
words (nouns, pointers, describers,
Discuss how the noun groups in Narratives can classifiers etc) Ask students to use
• create a character them to make sentences to create
• set the scene an atmosphere, to build a character
• build suspense or to create a setting.
Activity: find noun groups in different genres. How similar are they? How Distribute pictures of people, places
different are they and why? or a scene – ask students to write
sentences that include noun groups
Revise qualifiers and explain that they add more information after the head
based on the details in the pictures.
noun. They can be made by using prepositional phrases or relative clauses:
Teach relative pronouns (eg who, where) and relative clauses as qualifiers: Visualisation: A type of ‘dictogloss’
eg ‘Captain James Cook who was born in Whitby Yorkshire ……’; ‘The federal based on using visualisation and
convention in Sydney where they drew up a draft constitution …………’ memory:-
Whole class activity: distribute a worksheet with noun groups and Read a poem, a description or an
additional information and another with the relative pronouns. excerpt from an appropriate text;
Students rewrite noun groups using the relative pronouns to form qualifiers. Encourage careful listening to
Refer to Appendix 3 as an example. enable students to create mental
images of what they are hearing.
Model the use of longer prepositional phrases eg at the bottom of the pile as
qualifiers by first identifying the preposition (at) and then noting that the In pairs students then describe in
rest of the phrase (the bottom of the pile) is another noun group and written form the images they have
therefore can be built up in the same way as any other noun group:- eg the imagined.
last sock at the very bottom of the great big pile of dirty socks
 Language Discussion Activities and examples Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10
Cont’d Introduce nominalisations as appropriate and in context.
How do I know if a word is a Teach how they are formed and why. Students to
Across the stages nominalisation? complete worksheet changing given words into
of schooling Can my, a, the, be put in front of nominalised form.
equivalent to the the word? Are the words abstract
end of Year 6 not concrete/physical? Make a list of suffixes (eg ment, ivity, ence, tion).
eg my respect; the cooperation; a Direct students to walk around the classroom and school
definition; her courage. and make a list of the nominalisations they find eg
Nominalisations are concepts, pollution, environment (from topics being taught)
ideas, beliefs, processes etc. Reception, administration.
Look for nominalisations in texts.
Distribute sentences. Ask students to nominalise given
words. Rewrite the sentences.

Genre Nominalisation What is the

Give students selected texts from a range of genre both meaning
fiction and non-fiction. Look for nominalisations and Information
complete the table. report
Explanation

Narrative
Look for nominalisations in advertisements on trucks,
work vans and billboards eg excellence, expertise Persuasive
List them and discuss why they have been used. text
Historical
Recount
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 11 – 12 It is important to teach
nouns, noun groups and
nominalisations in context of
the focus genre and topic
matter.
Nouns and noun groups are
Across the
used to express shades of
stages of
meaning and more
schooling
specialised knowledge.
equivalent to
Students begin to use more
the end of
complex noun groups built
year 8.
around a nominalisation
using precise and technical
vocabulary.
Activities and examples Expansion
Use modelled texts to focus on the noun groups and
nominalisations. What technical vocabulary is used?
Introduce specific vocabulary relevant to new topics. Talk
about why it is important to the text to help achieve its
purpose and what specific meaning it brings to the text.
Clarify the information by looking at:
classifiers eg. domestic animals, chemical reaction, primary
industry, and
qualifiers eg sand dunes which have been eroded; business
practices that have reduced the number of workers.
Develop understanding of the purpose and benefits of
using nominalisations
• ability to include a lot of information in less words
• moving a focus of the text from concrete to
abstract concepts eg
I feel happy My happiness
Water dries up Dehydration occurs
when ……..
• naming a complex phenomenon or process eg
filtration; dehydration; evaporation;
For older learners refer to EALD Teaching and Learning
photosynthesis; logging.
under first tab DTLA cycle
• being able to show the relationship between
https://myintranet.learnlink.sa.edu.au/teaching/english-
things eg eruption and the flow of lava ie the
as-an-additional-language-or-dialect-eald/professional-
eruption resulted in the flow of lava
learning/designing,-teaching-and-learning-and-
• convey a particular image of a product eg as in
assessment-cycle
made up words such as schweppervessence
Year 9 Explanation:
Appendix D: (work sheet 2 – moving lexically dense to
Ask students to de-nominalise words within a sentence, more spoken-like)
paragraph or short text. Discuss how this changes the Appendix F (worksheet 3 moving from spoken to written
tenor of the text. For more examples refer to language)
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 13 – 14 It is important to teach nouns,
noun groups and
Across the stages nominalisations in context of the
of schooling focus genre and topic matter.
equivalent to the
end of Year 10.
At this level of written language
students are expected to
compose texts which are more
academic and formal showing a
definite move to the right hand
side of the register continuum
Nominalisations also hide the
actor and action ie what is
actually happening.
eg “collateral damage” .
We know what this means but it
is implied or inferred.
Activities and examples
Use a variety of genre and texts from different subject
areas including scientific or medical articles. Look for:
• complex and expanded noun groups with
nominalisations
eg the industrial construction process
• multiple classifiers and qualifiers that carry a lot of
information before and after the head noun
eg the continual mass destruction (of the world’s
forests).
• nominalisations that express
o cause eg impact, outcome
o thinking and saying verbs eg debate, notion
o abstraction and technicality eg evidence,
approach
Activity: look at examples of
• critical book and film reviews,
• applications for grants, for permission to do
something ,
• advertisements,
• political statements.
Engage students in critical literacy, focussing on use of
nominalisations. How effectively are the messages
conveyed? (Refer to Evaluative language resource in this
document for further critical literacy focus ideas)
Would the messages be different without the nominalised
words? How easy is it to read the text? How easy is it to
understand the text and its message?
Refer to example of two texts in the next column.
Expansion
Nominalise a sentence or paragraph.
De-nominalise a text on the same topic. Compare
both texts. When and why would you use one or
the other text? How does it change the tenor of
the text? What affect could/would it have on the
intended purpose of the text or a particular
audience?
Texts with a lot of nominalisation may appear to
be challenging (eg dense, difficult to read) when:
• noun groups are complex
• “actors” are removed
• abstract concepts are used
• metaphorical relating verbs are used (e.g.
contains, comprises, indicates). See Verbs
resource in this document.
The taking of evasive measures resulting in the
avoidance of predatory actions by the offending
party was a result of the meeting of the
previously mentioned little pigs and their
awareness of the premeditation of the wolf in
terms of harmful deceptions and his cleverness in
the execution of his criminal intentions.
The little pigs evaded the attempt of the sneaky
wolf to kill them because they had met before
and knew that he planned to deceive and to kill
them.
NB overuse of nominalisation should be avoided.
Appendix 1: Adjectives - Word Order

An adjective can be a describer or a classifier that describes (eg old hat) or classifies (eg sports car) a noun (person, place or thing).

Although not fixed there is a common order (culturally accepted order) of these describers and classifiers:-

Describers these can have an intensifier added to them Classifiers

Opinion Size Shape/ Condition Age Colour Pattern Origin Material Purpose or
Weight / use
Length
beautiful, big, small, round, broken, cold, old, young, white, blue, striped, American, gold, sleeping
boring, tall, huge, square, hot, wet, new, greenish – spotted, British, wooden, (bag),
stupid, tiny circular, hungry, rich, ancient, blue, reddish checked, Italian, silk, paper, gardening
delicious, skinny, fat, dirty antique -purple flowery eastern, synthetic, (gloves),
useful, heavy, Australian, cotton, shopping
lovely, straight, Chilean woollen (bag),
comfortable
long, short wedding
(dress)

Questions that can help determine classifiers.

What sort/type of gloves are they? (gardening; skiing)
What are they made of? (rubber; cotton; leather)
What sort/type of bag is it? (shopping; shoulder)
Where does it come from? (Spain - Spanish; PNG - Dilly)

NB commas are used when describers/adjectives are interchangeable ie to separate describers use from within the same category.
Appendix 2

EXPANDING THE NOUN GROUP QUALIFIER

Phrases/clauses
DETERMINER that tell more
DESCRIBER PARTICIPANT about the noun:
Points to the noun. NUMERATIVE/ Where? With
INTENSIFIER Describes the CLASSIFIER (THING/ PERSON/ whom/ what?
Which one/s are you QUANTIFIER noun. PLACE) What like? About
referring to? Increases the Classifies the what? What for?
To quantify the intensity or level of What is it like? noun. What What or who we are Which one in
Who/ what does it belong noun the describer. kind is it? talking about? particular? Includes
to? Adjectives
circumstances of:
How many or how To what degree?
place, time,
Which or Whose? much? Describers:

POINTER COUNTER INTENSIFIER DESCRIBER/S CLASSIFIER/S KEY NOUN QUALIFIER/S

a, an, the one , two, second, most, few, a lot really, very, red, black, big, old , round, Male, female, teenage in the corner, under the
of, a little, another, enough, a bit absolutely, long, hairy, long-necked, girl, mountain bike, table, over the bridge
this, that, these, those of, several, much, plenty of, extremely, sharp Holden car, Tiger shark,
my, your, his, her, its, numerous, various, more, less, somewhat, slightly, due to the rain, with the
our, their, mum’s, many, some incredibly lovely, pretty, wonderful living room curly hair, for dinner on
Gloria’s Thursday, who lived with
horrible, scary, boring her grandmother

NB intensifiers do not add to the head noun but are used to vary the effect of the describers.
Appendix 3
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:- the noun group and the additional can be written on cards. Students then rewrite the noun group with the correct relative pronoun so making a noun group
with a qualifier. Refer to ‘Sentence Structure’ resource in this document for complex sentences with dependent relative clauses.
NB ‘whom’ is used when the relative clause has a subject eg Could the person whom I spoke to yesterday please come forward. Although this is correct English, it is very formal and the
more common linking word used is ‘that’. Although ‘that’ is a demonstrative it can be used like a pronoun.

WHO WHICH WHOSE WHERE THAT

Noun Group Answers: Relative pronoun used to Additional information to turn into a qualifier
join qualifier to noun group

The loggers WHO The loggers harvest trees from the forest plantations

The wood mill WHICH The wood mill is on the edge of town

The wood mill WHERE The wood is ground into a pulp

The ground up pulp. WHICH The ground up pulp is treated with steam and chemicals

The mill owner WHO The mill owner employs children

The children WHO The children are too young

The children WHOSE The mothers are very worried

The mill cat THAT The mill cat chases the mice

NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS

 Developing Evaluative Language and modality
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Evaluative language and modality for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Developing appropriate tenor for a text depends on a writer’s ability to use modality, to open up to other viewpoints and to use relevant language of Appraisal (feelings,
judgement, and appreciation of things or processes). There are also skills in expressing opinions directly and indirectly.
The following resource suggests strategies and activities to move the learners towards higher language level achievement in both their spoken and written texts. Many
of the examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Expressing Opinion and point of
view; Evaluative Language and Modality).
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Attitude is an aspect of Appraisal Ask students how characters, from books being read, might be feeling. Accept all Appendices 2-4 are
language. The first category in Attitude answers but expand on students’ answers by offering alternative synonyms and examples to support
Across the is AFFECT – that is words about feelings. phrases. Write these up on an ‘Electronic board’ so that the words can be moved teachers’ own text
stages of JUDGEMENT of others and
schooling around and grouped under positive feelings and negative feelings. deconstruction.
equivalent to APPRECIATION of ‘things’ are the other
Similarly use images conveying a range of feelings to build word banks. Read the attached
end of categories.
reception Attitude is expressed in language that When building vocab about physical characteristics of family members, book example of Tangaroa’s
shows feelings, makes judgements of characters and other people, take the opportunity to ask students how these gift (Appendix 2) to
people and their behaviour or appreciates family/friends feel in certain situations. inform yourself about
things. It is further categorised: Create scenarios that draw on student experiences of issues such as: affect language. The
• Affect is language about ourselves and highlighted words in
• Canteen runs out of ice-cream on a hot day.
our feelings and emotions blue indicate Paua’s
• Being bullied
• Judgement is language about other feelings. Use this to
people’s character and behaviour • Going to a party
support you to
• Appreciation is language about things, • Being asked to stand up in front of the class
deconstruct the texts
ideas, programs, performances, art • Being told off by the teacher that you have chosen
work etc. • Learning how to swim for your students to
It is only at the end of level 4 (end of • Singing/dancing in front of friends and they clap a lot. identify a character’s
Reception) that learners are expected Ask how they feel about these situations feelings.
to express attitude with I like…; and to Build a word bank/word wall of feeling words
use common evaluative language: My NB At a higher level,
best toy; He’s not nice; She’s happy; Introduce students to mental process to express attitude: like; want; think; eg I students can be asked
Evaluative language is most appropriate like dogs best; and use in to make a Judgement of
in non-factual texts such as Narratives, • verbal groups eg I like going to the footy; I want to go to the zoo; people or places in
Personal Recounts and Expositions. • projecting clauses eg I think I will get a bicycle for my birthday. these scenarios.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 5 – 7
Across the stages
of schooling
equivalent to
Appraisal is about the tenor of a text. When
end of year3 a text is very subjective without the
possibility of other viewpoints its
Engagement language is monoglossic eg
People will become sick. When this
viewpoint is expressed as: I believe people
will become sick or People may become sick,
there is opportunity for other viewpoints
and this opens up the text. The text is said to
be diglossic.
Attitude is expressed in language that shows
feelings, makes judgements of people and
their behaviour or appreciates things.
• Affect is language about ourselves and
our feelings and emotions
• Judgement is language about other
people’s character and behaviour
• Appreciation is language about things,
ideas, programs, performances, art work
etc.
Both Attitude and Engagement are
subjected to words that increase or decrease
the intensity. This is the language of
Graduation.
Modality is used in expositions to both
soften and strengthen arguments and open
up to other points of view. Learners at level
6 can express levels of modality.
Activities Expansion
To follow up with Affect from Levels 1 – 4 use following
synonyms and graduation (intensity) to vary happiness in
a chosen text.
Happy: glad, pleased, delighted, overjoyed.
Intensifiers: so, very, extremely
Repeat for sadness
Sad: upset, depressed, miserable
Intensifiers: slightly, a bit, really, rather, so very etc.
Highlight in a suitable text the words that reveal
judgement and appreciation. For older students some
feature articles in newspapers may be suitable. Read the attached text of Tangaroa’s gift
(Appendix 3) to inform yourself about
Use similar texts to highlight for modality – judgement and appreciation language.
modal adjuncts: can; will; might; should The highlighted words in red indicate
modal adjective/adverbs: possible; possibly; frequently Paua’s judgement of other characters and
See Appendix 1. words in light blue indicate appreciation
of his surroundings and the things he is
The use of quantifiers such as a few, some, most; and given.
mental processes or modality, open the text up to other Use this to support you to deconstruct
points of view. This is called diglossia. the texts that you have chosen for your
eg Some people think ice-cream is delicious; Most students.
students do their homework; It might rain tomorrow.
Provide students with short monoglossic statements
eg Ice cream is delicious; students do their homework; It
will rain tomorrow; Young people love parties; Men are
hopeless at cooking
Ask students, to work in pairs and change a monoglossic
text using the language items to open it up to other
viewpoints.
Provide texts from your Teaching Learning Cycle and use
this learning about diglossia to highlight this language in
other texts.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 8 – 10
To use language that expresses
Across the stages
of schooling feelings, judgements of people and
equivalent to appreciation of things can be
end of year 6
developed into a fun activity.
Modality becomes increasingly
important when the author needs to
persuade the audience to agree or to
take action.
Modality can soften the ‘attack’ to
make it sound reasonable and open to
discussion. Whereas the language of
obligation (modal auxiliary verbs)
should; must, can exhort the reader to
action.
eg Human beings must save the
rainforests. This is an example of
language expressing obligation.
Human beings need to be stop
rainforest destruction. – Here a modal
process softens the ‘attack’.
Activities
Use an advertising pamphlet and jointly with your students
highlight all the evaluative language in the text.
Students create their own promotional texts using positive
language eg. Promoting the school camp to younger
students.
Concentrate on modal verbs and modal adverbs.
Then ask students working in groups to change all positive
evaluative language into negative evaluative language.
Share responses.
Show students how negative language from a previously
prepared text can be changed into neutral language with
little subjectivity.
Create another scenario such as a day at the beach, a
school sports day, a visit to the Museum/Art Gallery/
Botanic gardens. Organise students into three groups.
Have one group write a recount that is neutral, one group
write a recount that is positive and one group write a
recount that is negative. Compare answers and list new
vocabulary as well as teaching new vocabulary.
See level 11 to 12 for further development of this idea. 
Use texts that show modality, using language items from
chart - Appendix 1.
modal adjuncts(auxiliary verbs): can; will; might; should
modal adjective/adverbs: possible; possibly; frequently
and particularly modal nouns: possibility; frequency;
probability;
Model increasing Evaluative Language using a text similar
to ‘Convict Ships’ Appendix 5.
ACTIVITY Show shift to objective writing as per the Level
10. Appendix 6.
Expansion
Use the following text example to inform your
understanding about feeling, judgement and
appreciation words. Deconstruct your own
text with positive words and having built a
bank of negative words have students work in
pairs to change your chosen text to a negative
meaning.
Example.
I love cooking so I was thrilled to be asked to
attend a very important culinary experience
where a well-known chef demonstrated some
amazing cooking skills.
All the attendees were so excited and you
could see their mouths watering in
expectation of the delights we would be
shown. The smells in that beautiful kitchen
were sublime and we couldn’t believe that the
time went so quickly. At last it was time to try
the tasty morsels and while we waited our
turn it was hard to be patient. The sounds of
people enjoying the samples were soon filling
the kitchen. There was lip-smacking and
‘oohs’ and ‘aahs’ from everyone
Expand and extend evaluative language by
changing as many as possible of the positive
evaluative words (in Bold) into negative
words.
Refer to sample Evaluative Language Convict
Ships Appendix 5.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 11 – 12
At this level students are using an Analyse with students an advertisement for a product(s),
highlighting the evaluative language and modality.
Across the stages extensive range of evaluative language
of schooling and are beginning to use Scaffold with students the writing of an advertisement for
equivalent to nominalisations for feelings (beyond a ‘Miracle’ product eg face cream; shampoo.
end of year 8
simple words such as sadness,
happiness), for judgements and for Students then create their own advertisement for a
appreciation eg A man full of product.
forgiveness; this terrible destruction At Level 11/12 concentrate on modal adjectives and modal
of the habitat. nouns.

Graduation of evaluative language Assuming the students have done an exercise like the A third copy of Tangaroa’s gift at the end of
becomes important as writers make one suggested in level 8 to 10 continue with the following: this resource (Appendix 4) has words in
language choices to show the nuance Find a suitable media text that reports on an issue of purple that show graduation.
of meanings. In the Tangaroa text national or international importance and
greater focus and force is given Examine it together with the class for evaluative language.
through language such as: a single Look for describers, adverbs and nominalisations. Some
solitary friend; a booming voice. verbs (processes) may also carry feelings or judgements eg
the activists were seen creeping along the edge of the
NB. Older students will need to use forest; the doctors have been sympathising with the local eg Conservation issue around logging of old growth
Appreciation language to report on inhabitants. forest in South America
their science experiments, If the issue involves different groups of people create a + positive - negative
movie/book reviews and excursions as words words
table with the ‘participants’ of the text in the left hand Loggers Provide jobs Destroying
well as their Personal Learning Plan column. In the middle and right hand column the positive heritage; money
(PLP). Refer to the table in the next and negative evaluative language is recorded. grabbers.
Levels to introduce relevant evaluative Subsistence friendly; just Lacking
(Appreciation) language. Discuss how each of the participants in the text is farmers trying to education/world
presented. In a positive light? In a negative light? survive knowledge
Indigenous proud;
Discuss critical literacy and bias with students. people knowledgeable;
sustainable
Show the shift from subjectivity to objectivity with practices
examples from Levels as per Appendix 6.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 13 – 14 For the SACE Personal Learning Plan
students are required to write an evaluation
Across the stages of their learning in literacy, numeracy,
of schooling this Community and work experience. The PLP is
is equivalent to often done in year 10 as part of pre-SACE.
end of Year 10 Supporting students through an
understanding of the type of language used
to evaluate their learning will greatly
enhance their reflective writing.
Learners will be tempted to write sentences
such as “I enjoyed doing my Personal
Learning Plan because I felt good about
what I learned and could see that I am quite
an intelligent student.” Here the student is
expressing their attitude about themselves,
in other words they are making language
choices from the Affect language category.
For a student to move to the ‘B’ or ‘A’ grade
they need to make language choices from
the Appreciation category of language, that
is the language that shows appreciation
(positive, neutral, negative) of the product.
The product in this case is the program and
process of their Personal Learning Plan.
It is also important for students to be able
to extend their evaluative statements/
sentences using causal or concession
clauses that reflect at a deeper level and
more objective tone eg This part of SACE
was challenging because the content had to
come from my own thinking and experience.
Even though there were no subject
reference books to use, it was valuable to
come up with my own ideas about my
learning.
Questions and examples
Possible questions around POSITIVE - language to model NEGATIVE – language to model
the three aspects of
appreciation of ‘things’.
Reaction to the PLP I liked the Personal Learning Plan because it Doing the PLP was confusing and did not
made me think deeply about my learning. It engage me in thinking about my learning.
What did I like about the
engaged me positively and I found it enjoyable. I found it boring, (un-enjoyable, tiring,
process of reflecting on
my learning in literacy? (satisfying, absorbing, interesting) stultifying).
Being made to think about learning in this way
What was it about the
was both exciting and engaging. It gave me a Having to think about my learning in this
program/process of
new interest in learning. way did not interest me. It was not an
literacy learning that
engaged me? engaging process for me.
Composition of the PLP My PLP program was well constructed. There It was hard to follow the process and it
Was the program of were well organised questionnaires and didn’t support my learning in my other
learning well put evaluation proformas to follow. Peer discussions subjects. The materials we were given
together/constructed? were guided appropriately There was a balanced were difficult to follow and poorly
amount of discussion and writing. Each step of presented. It was disjointed, confusing,
Was it easy to follow the the program was well supported and easy to muddled.
ideas that teachers were follow.
giving me to help me
focus on my PLP?
Valuation of my PLP The ideas and suggestions given were very This process has not been helpful and has
helpful, however the whole process of reflecting lacked depth and quality to further my
What was worthwhile in
on my learning was challenging at times but I education and growth as a student. I was
this program of
have found this part of my SACE very not given support to solve and overcome
learning?
worthwhile. My research methods were reliable the issues I faced. It was shallow,
What was the value of and my data was accurate and useful. It has meaningless, outdated and irrelevant
engaging in this been a rewarding and constructive experience. I process. It was repetitive, repetitious and
approach to my felt the whole program was effective. This tedious. It was not stimulating. It failed to
learning? innovative (valuable) program has had a big meet my needs as a student.
impact and influence on my learning by
supporting and developing my capabilities. It has
made me very aware of learning challenges I will
face in tertiary education but has prepared me
for the opportunities.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 13 – 14 English speaking students are Deconstruct a higher order text to record the various
Cont’d expected to reach Language Level 14 language items that express low to high modality.
by the end of year 10 if they are high Concentrate on modal clauses and phrases. See
Across the stages achieving learners. Level 14 is a highly Appendix 1.
of schooling sophisticated Language Level that
equivalent to
end of year 10 many students do not reach while Show the shift from subjectivity to objectivity with
they are teenagers. examples from Levels. Expand on Appendix 6 with
your own examples.
While students are developing their
language between Levels 11 and 14
they sometimes drop back to less
complex language and grammar. This
is because their ‘internal language
voice’ is seeking clarity which they
may feel is not evident in the higher
order language.

From Language Level 14 onwards a

student increases their specialised
topic vocabulary and uses lexically
dense language with increasing
confidence. Complex sentences and
grammatically simple but lexically
dense sentences become the norm in
their academic writing.
Appendix 1

Modal resources expressing certainty

Modal Finites (auxiliaries): • That must be the milkman.

Will, must, could, might, may. • It could be Jill.

Modal Adjuncts • It’s possibly the best in the world.

perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, surely, certainly, • It’s definitely the best in the world.
definitely.

Mental and verbal processes

Subjective:
• I think it’s the best.
I know, I think, I believe,
• I believe you’re right.
Objective:
It indicates that.., It suggests that…, They say that…., • Scientists claim that the Universe is continuing to
Scientists claim that.. expand.

Modal qualities • I am certain that it is the best

Certain, sure, positive, uncertain, impossible, possible.
Modal nominals • There is a chance of rain.
Possibility, certainty, probability, risk, chance, • There is a strong possibility that the event will be
likelihood…. cancelled.
• The risk of damage is high.
Modal resources expressing usuality/frequency

Modal adjuncts • I always shop there.

Always, usually, typically, often, sometimes, seldom, • I never shop there.
rarely, never

Modal qualities • It’s a common sight.

Frequent, common, usual, typical, infrequent, unusual, • It’s an unusual sight.
rare.

Modal nominals • Fatal accidents have decreased in frequency recently.

Tendency, frequency, rate.

Modal resources expressing obligation

Modal finites • I should go and help.

Will, must, should, ought to, have to. • We ought to think about that more carefully.

Modal adjuncts • It must be stopped at all costs.

Necessarily, compulsorily, at all cost
Saying and relational processes • They demanded we finish immediately.
Demanded, commanded, compelled, required. • It required a change in procedure.

Modal qualities • It was a compulsory test.

Compulsory, obligatory, necessary. • Salt is a necessary ingredient.

Modal nominals • There is an expectation that we will attend.

Obligation, requirement, expectation, demand. • It is a requirement of the job.
Appendix 1 continued

Table of language items for expressing High to Low modality

Grammatical Resource High Modality Medium Modality Low modality

Modal verbs and a few modal adverbs tend to be used in the lower Language Levels 5 to 7
Model verbs (auxiliaries) Must; should; ought to; Will; can; need to. May; would; could;
has to. might.
Model adverbs, adjectives and nouns are more typical of Language Levels 8 to 10
Modal adverbs Certainly; definitely; Probably; usually, Possibly; perhaps; maybe;
absolutely; surely; in fact generally; likely. sometimes.

Modal Adjectives Certain; definite; Probable; usual. possible

absolute.
Modal Nouns certainty probability Possibility

The following modal language is more typical of highly written-like language at Levels 11 to 14. However
mental processes eg think; believe and rhetoric ‘in my opinion’ are taught at lower language levels.
Modal clauses and I contend (that) I think/believe (that) I guess (that)
phrases It is obvious/clear (that) In my opinion It seems (that)
Everyone knows (that) It is/isn’t likely (that) This suggests (that)
I am sure you will agree … If………..then……

Rhetorical (expository) Does it have to be this Will science provide an Can literature save the
questions way? answer to global world?
warning?
Adapted from Humphries, Love, Droga (2011) Working Grammar, table 7.1 page 88
Appendix 2

Tangaroa’s Gift

Affect. Words in blue describe the emotions and feelings of the character.

Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.

So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.

Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”

Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”

“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.

The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.

The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.

The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.

Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”

And he cried.

Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.

So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.

“From the dawn you shall have a tinge of violet……

….and from the sunset a blush of pink,

And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”

And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.

Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.

The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.
Tangaroa heard him crying.
“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”

Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.

And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”

And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 3

Tangaroa’s Gift

Judgement. Words in red used to describe people or living things.

Appreciation. Words in turquoise used to describe the attributes of things.

Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.

So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.

Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”

Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”

“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.

The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.

The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.

The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.

Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”

And he cried.

Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.

So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.

“From the dawn you shall have a tinge of violet……

….and from the sunset a blush of pink,

And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”

And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.

Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.
The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.

Tangaroa heard him crying.

“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”

Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.

And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”

And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 4

Tangaroa’s Gift

Graduation. Words in pink are used

to sharpen or soften FOCUS
or
to raise or lower FORCE.
FORCE can also be quantified by number, mass or extent.
Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.

So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.

Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”

Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”

“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.

The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.

The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.

The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.

Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”

And he cried.

Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.

So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.

“From the dawn you shall have a tinge of violet……

….and from the sunset a blush of pink,

And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”

And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.
Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.

The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.

Tangaroa heard him crying.

“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”

Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.

And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”

And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 5

CONVICT SHIPS

Blue bold - Intensity (intensifiers)

Purple – Evaluative language (feelings; judgement and appreciation)
Italics – Modality and rhetorical language.
__________________________________________________________________________________
This text shows good technical language but uses evaluative language from Levels 7 and 8
The big ships called hulks were floating gaols. The hulks were over-crowded and cramped; often there
wasn’t room to stand up. A hulk could be up to 65 metres long. On board each hulk there could be 300
convicts. There were many diseases on board and convicts died. Between 1776 and 1795 nearly 2000 out
of 6000 convicts held on hulks, died. The majority died from diseases such as typhoid and cholera.

The convicts were not fed well. The people in charge wanted to keep costs low. The daily diet was made up
of ox-cheek, either boiled or made into soup, pease (peas), bread or biscuits. The biscuits were often
mouldy. Tobacco was supplied as part of their ration and as a reward for good behaviour.

Convicts got up at sunrise and worked very hard for up to 10 hours a day. All convicts were sentenced to
hard labour as part of their punishment and could be forced to work at any manual task such as timber
cutting, brick making or stone cutting.

At higher Language Levels there is more extensive evaluative language, more intensity and modality.
The evaluative language in this text is at Levels 9 to 10
The huge ships, called hulks, were floating gaols. Conditions in these floating gaols were terrible. The hulks
were over-crowded and cramped. Often there wasn’t even room to stand up! A hulk could be up to 65
metres long. This is the same size as 6 buses placed end to end. On board each hulk, there could be up to
300 convicts. Can you imagine 50 people living in one bus, for many months? There were many diseases on
board. The stench was disgusting and the matter on the floors was indescribably awful. Between 1776 and
1795, nearly 2000 out of almost 6000 convicts held on hulks, died due to the appalling conditions. The
majority died from diseases such as typhoid and cholera.

The convicts were not fed very well - in fact – often they were not fed at all. The slightest misdemeanour
resulted in food being withdrawn for 24 hours or longer. The people in charge did not value the lives of
these poor convicts and wanted to keep costs low. The daily diet was often made up of ox-cheek, either
boiled or made into soup, pease (peas), bread or biscuits. The biscuits were either tasteless or mouldy.
Tobacco could be supplied as part of their ration as a reward for a job well done or for good behaviour.
Poor convicts often did hard physical work on board ship just to get a paltry measure of tobacco to pass the
time of day.

On arrival in Australia, convicts got up at sunrise and worked extremely hard for up to 10 hours a day-
sometimes more. All convicts were sentenced to hard labour as part of their punishment and could be
forced to work at just about any manual task such as timber cutting, brick making or stone cutting. Such
were the harsh conditions resulting from something as small as stealing a loaf of bread.
Appendix 6
Subjectivity and Objectivity
While subjectivity is about opinion, objectivity is about facts. The opinion can be a personal opinion or the
opinion of others eg I think; Many people say; Doctors tell us; Historians argue;
Objectivity requires reference to data eg These results show; Due to all the evidence previously stated;
Research tells us; Recent reports confirm that; Recent findings conclusively support…;
Highly Subjective Highly Objective
Moving towards objectivity   
I think that smoking is There is much evidence that Recent Reports indicate 89% of people
really bad for your health. shows us smoking is really bad for admitted to hospitals in 2009 – 2014
our health. suffering from lung cancer had been
smokers at some point in their lives.
I found the PLP very SACE Board believes the skills At the end of 2012, all year 10 students
rewarding. learnt in the PLP improve completed the SACE questionnaire which
students’ ability to be showed that 74% agreed that the PLP was
independent learners rewarding
I liked doing Community Many people say that we should Of 825 students interviewed in December
Service as I think it is a spend more time on voluntary 2013 79.2% of them indicated that they
really valuable thing to community service as it is so found the Community Service activities
do. valuable. valuable and 92.4% said they hoped to do
more in 2014.
Being overweight is a Many doctors say that being Recent findings from the World Health
huge health risk overweight is the major cause of Organisation (WHO) show that high
heart attack. consumption of sugar rather than fat is the
cause of obesity and thus heart attack.
In my opinion. Global Tim Flannery urges us the act This research conclusively demonstrates
warming is a real issue because global warming is a real that the earth’s atmospheric temperature
issue. is increasing.
My dad told me that life One of the many theories is that Sankar Chatterjee (ASTROBIOLOGY
came to earth on a life was brought to earth on a magazine Nov 6th 2013) Professor of
comet. comet. Geosciences and Curator of palaeontology
said “Thanks to heavy comet and meteorite
bombardment, the large craters left behind
not only contained water and basic building
blocks of life but also became the crucible
to concentrate and cook the chemicals to
form the first life”.

Teachers can use Appendix 6 as examples to model the shift across the continuum from subjectivity to
objectivity and/or create
• an ‘information gap’ sheet where facts are quoted in the right hand column and students fill in the left
hand and middle columns with more subjective spoken-like language
• a teaching/learning activity in which students analyse short texts and sort them according to where they
might fit on a continuum from subjectivity to objectivity. Students can then share and justifying their
decisions focussing on the vocabulary choices; the modality; and varying phrases used to express
subjective and objective perspectives.
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
 Vocabulary
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Word Knowledge development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Vocabulary is vital for success with comprehension and fluency. It is also a key component of reading for meaning. It is learned directly through repeated exposure to
new words in conversations, listening to stories, by reading and through media exposure in meaningful contexts. Explicit teaching of vocabulary adds to the vocabulary
growth of all children. Teachers realise the importance of the role of vocabulary and how to directly support its development.
Most of the activities listed below could be adapted to suit a variety of year levels.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Language development from birth to 5 Label items in the classroom. Ask students to point
is vital for a child’s future learning in to/touch a nominated item.
Tell stories that use elaborate language, use
reading and writing. A learner’s use
Across the Discuss the purpose of the item, what it is made of etc. audio books and model good language to also
and understanding of, is developed
years of Have a large picture of a room, a farmyard scene, or a support vocabulary development of all
through opportunities and
schooling shopping precinct that shows numerous objects. Ask students.
encouragement to speak, to
equivalent to students to name particular items and explain what they
experiment with words and to Fill a bag or box with a variety of objects,
end of are and how they are used.
Reception). respond to or pose questions. students select an object (without looking at it
Ask questions which encourage complete answers and first) from the bag and describe it.
Teaching vocabulary in context of the
include spatial terms: eg Where is the …….? It is on the….. Have a box with items that have a
topic and focus genre is paramount.
commonality eg kitchen utensils. Students
Pre-teaching critical vocabulary and What is the name of the ‘thing’ under the table? It is a ……..
choose one and talk about it.
discussing meanings and associated Read picture books. Print vocabulary is more extensive and
concepts before reading a story aloud varied than oral language. Read a text several times as it
or before students read new texts is provides the repeated exposure students need to
essential to ensure new words are in internalise the new vocabulary.
the reader’s oral vocabulary.
Write words related to a theme or topic on cards and have
pictures to match those words on another set of cards.
Students can match the word with the picture.
Tiers of Vocabulary Teach specific words that relate to a topic eg shopping:
create a list of the types of shops that the students know,
See next page.
go to a shopping centre, take photos/write a list of the
shops. Compare lists.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Tiers of Vocabulary
Cont’d Tier 1 – basic and high frequency
Across the words eg said, house, school used in
years of everyday conversation and learnt
schooling reasonably quickly.
equivalent to
Tier 2 – words used by more mature
end of
Reception).
users of a particular age group so will
differ depending on the age of the
children. Words appear more often in
texts but not so frequently in everyday
language. These words should be the
focus of direct instruction as they are
the most useful across multiple
contexts and words that children are
less likely to learn without help.
Tier 3 – words that relate to specific
fields of knowledge (subject specific
vocabulary) and are usually taught as
part of content area literacy.
Activities Expansion
Match the name of the shop with what happens there eg
butcher – where we buy meat.
greengrocer – where fruit and vegetables are sold
newsagency – where we buy newspapers, cards, pens etc
Teach the names of the person in the shop eg butcher,
greengrocer, newsagent
Create a list of shopping items eg cash register, shelves,
counter, display cabinet, trading hours etc
Create a wall chart/word wall/class book of new words
with matching pictures to build vocabulary knowledge.
Collect a variety of pictures or objects eg animals; modes
of transport; flowers; foods and work with students to
sort them into categories. Discuss/explain the categories. Lead students in a hyponymy activity with
Develop further with hyponymy activity topics eg birds – and subsets of birds: crow,
budgie (budgerigar), parrot, kookaburra;
seagull etc.
Ask students for translations of key nouns in their
home/first language. eg if you are doing an information
report on frogs, ask what the word for frog is in
Vietnamese etc. Make a display using the English and
Vietnamese words with an accompanying picture.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7 Continue to introduce and Teach the correct use of words that have different meanings in learning area
teach new vocabulary in contexts eg
Label parts of a plant; an insect; a
context of the focus genre Put it on the table; Write the results in the table.
map; a piece of technology or any
and topic matter. Here is a phone message for you; The message of the story is …….
Across the object relevant to the topic/L A
years of Continue to pre-teach Explain key learning area vocabulary relevant to this language level context.
schooling critical vocabulary and eg English:, fairy-tale, paragraph Provide a topic related text which
equivalent to discuss meanings and Geography: stream, city, contour lines.
the end of year
describes an animal or object with a
associated concepts before History: olden days, memorial, goldfields
3. picture of the animal or object.
reading a text and before Maths: half past, edges, fraction Students label the picture using the
students read new Science: nest, seedling, investigation appropriate vocabulary from the text
Learning Area texts. Check for differing meaning in different Learning Areas. eg a text about camels would have
Teach abbreviations and the full word eg phone –telephone, bike - bicycle, coat, mouth, nostrils, eyelashes etc.
Dan –Daniel Write the words next to the correct
body part.
Students write these word in full
Nov _______________ temp ___________
Ltd _______________ Rd _____________
Km _______________ max ____________
vol ________________ Ave _____________
Explain why words are shortened.
Students write down the full words for these letters Some words are shortened to make
them quicker to say. Some groups of
ACT NT SA WA QLD VIC NZ words are shortened so much that
Use real life objects when practical to assist in the explanation of words eg only their first letter remains.
wood, plastic, metal.
Make a list of different words which express ways of moving eg strolling,
ambulating, waddling, slithering etc. Match the word with the movement of Students can place sticky notes next to
an animal. Which words describe how a person can move? unknown or unfamiliar words. They
Repeat a hyponymy activity (see Expansion Level 1 – 4) with other topics eg can work with a friend, re-read the
fruit; vegetables. Write topic words on cards with accompanying pictures. sentence or use a dictionary to find its
Students group the cards and write a category name for each set of cards. meaning.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10
Continue to teach Provide opportunities for students to use subject specific vocabulary In Maths a student could give instructions
vocabulary in context of during whole class two way information gap activities (barrier games). to the whole class so they can draw the
the focus genre and same geometric shape eg “The circle’s
Across the years Focus on the nouns in a selected text or paragraph. How specifically do
topic matter. circumference is 30 cms” instead of “The
of schooling they define the subject of the text? Is it general or specific? Is the noun
equivalent to the Continue to pre-teach circle has an outside length of 30 cms”
general in the introduction and become more specific as the text goes on?
end of year 6. critical vocabulary and What words are used to make it specific? eg lagoon rather than lake;
Provide a topic related text which
discuss meanings and convict rather than prisoner
describes parts of a system. Students label
associated concepts
Teach the appropriate choice of word for the purpose of the text and the diagram using the appropriate
before students read
audience eg chop up, cut, slice, dissect; move, turn, rotate, oscillate by vocabulary from the text eg a text about
new Learning Area
placing them on a cline from informal and everyday language to formal the skeleton. Write the words next to the
texts.
and technical language correct body part eg cranium, radius, ulna,
Teach abbreviations by matching the short words to the longer versions tibia, sternum, ribs, clavicle etc
and writing them in full:-
Christine petroleum exam Maths
fridge influenza add petrol
addition examination Chris Geoffrey
Geoff refrigerator flu mathematics
Introduce acronyms, see Appendix 1, and review abbreviations. Teach students to use clues in the text (eg
An acronym is a word formed from the first letters of other words and a dash is often used in front of a definition)
pronounced as a word. to help understand particular words eg
eg RAM - random access memory Sophie was bewildered- she didn’t
DOS – disc operating system understand what was happening

Begin a class dictionary of polysemous words which are words that have
multiple meanings eg the word scale can mean to climb, a plant disease, a
measuring instrument or a feature of a fish. Students each add a word.
Introduce the process for dictogloss to develop learners’ confidence to use
topic and specific/technical Learning Area vocabulary. See Appendix 2.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 11 – 12
Continue teaching Teach students to use clues in the text to help understand particular
vocabulary in the context words. A dash is often used in front of a definition eg Sophie was
Across the of the topic being bewildered – she didn’t understand what was happening.
years of studied.
Model ways for students to learn new vocabulary eg underline, highlight or
schooling
place sticky notes next to unknown or unfamiliar words, find the meaning
equivalent to
the end of year
using a glossary or a dictionary, have a guess, re-read the text, find it a
8. second time in the same text where its meaning is more obvious.
Reinforce specific vocabulary by labelling a visual (eg aerial photograph,
map, graph, schematic drawing) relevant to the topic.
By end of year
8 students use
Model using subject specific vocabulary to explain a graphic in a subject
a wide range of text.
new specialist
and topic Reinforce specific vocabulary by labelling items in a practical Learning
vocabulary to Area.
contribute to
the specificity, Continue use of dictogloss, see Appendix 2. Where appropriate focus upon
authority and hyponyms for example in a text about farm birds use poultry instead of
abstraction of ducks, geese, chickens.
texts
Model a process whereby students read a text and then, highlight key
words and suggest different terminology/word forms as possible headings,
before deciding upon the most appropriate ‘Heading’ for each section eg

Engines Locomotion Ground propulsion

There are various means of moving solid bodies along
the ground. This is most often for the purpose of
transporting people or cargo. The system used to
propel ground vehicles often combines of an engine, a
gearbox, axles and wheels.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 13 – 14 Teach vocabulary in context of the Discuss the likely reasons for particular terms being used Deconstruct a text and consider vocabulary
focus genre and L A subject. instead of their synonyms eg traffic police instead of choices in terms of purpose and audience.
transport police /vehicle police.
Across the Pre-teach critical vocabulary and
years of discuss meanings and associated
Develop concept maps using subject specific vocabulary.
schooling concepts before students read new
equivalent to texts.
the end of year
Use cloze exercises needing technical words to complete.
10.
Explicitly teach words encountered in materials being read
in class. Some words and their meanings are more easily
understood through direct instruction.
See Appendix 3 for a suggested teaching sequence.
Refer to Appendix 3 in ‘Sentences’ Teaching
Increase the complexity and difficulty of the activities Strategies in this document.
mentioned in Levels 11-12.
APPENDIX 1
Activity 1: Connect each acronym to its correct meaning.
personal identity number AIDS computer-aided design
really old men ALP apples labelled as pears
goods and services tax CAD read-only memory
Australian Labour Party PIN acquired immune deficiency syndrome
cats and dogs GST person in need
Any infectious disease symptoms ROM volume and tone

Activity 2: Find out the meanings of these acronyms.

UFO
CD
ABC
ie
ISBN
VIP
SCUBA
FIFO
AWOL
UNICEF
ANZAC
Activity 3: Investigate student knowledge of SMS text. Make up some acronyms to suit topic or student level.
APPENDIX 2

DICTOGLOSS*
A dictogloss is a writing activity in which students attempt to reconstruct a short piece of text which the teacher will have read aloud to them. On the first
reading they simply listen to the text. On the second reading they take down key words and phrases and then, with a partner try to reproduce the text
they have just heard. When they have done that, they compare their text to the original text. The idea is to get as close to the register of the original text
as possible.
The aim of the activity is to develop skills for writing in a particular register**. One of the strengths of the activity is that it gives students the opportunity
to negotiate meaning of a shared text with their peers. Another strength is that, in replicating the meanings of the original texts, students will have to use
equally complex nominal groups and a similar level of nominalisation.
How to do it
There are 4 stages in a dictogloss:
• preparing for listening
• listening to the text – the first time, just listening- the second time, jotting down words and phrases
• reconstructing the text
• comparing versions of the text
Preparation
If the students have not done a dictogloss before, give a very brief explanation of the main stages. The next step is to provide a context for the listening
task. This stage includes reviewing the field that is being studied in the unit of work, using a range of multimodal resources. Such preparation helps
students to anticipate what they are going to hear and thus, to listen more actively and effectively.
Listening to the text
Read the text aloud at normal speed. Students listen, in order to understand the passage as a whole.
The second time the text is read aloud, students jot down key words and phrases. Remind students that they won’t be able to write down the text in its
entirety or even to take notes in the normal sense. The task is to record words and phrases that will trigger their memory and allow them to reconstruct
the text with their partner.
Reconstruction of the text
Students work in pairs or small groups to reconstruct the text they have heard, using:
• key words and phrases they have jotted down individually
• their knowledge of the topic
• their collective understanding of how language works.
The text they create should:
• maintain the register of the original text as much as possible (ie same content and degree of technicality and abstraction (field), same degree of
objectivity or subjectivity and certainty (tenor), similar elements being foregrounded (mode))
• be “sound English text” – cohesive and as grammatically accurate as possible. To support students in note taking, the class as a whole, could share the
notes they have taken so they can discuss which were relevant for the reconstruction.

Comparison of versions of the text

Groups share and compare the text they have produced, including a comparison with the original text.
Follow this up with a discussion on the language choices they have made. You may decide to work through particular difficulties the students might be
having with any aspect of language, either with the whole group or with individual students.

Outcomes of the dictogloss

When doing a dictogloss with students, it is not crucial that they reproduce the text verbatim. The idea is to get as close as possible to the original text,
thus replicating the register of that text. For many EALD students, writing in these more formal written registers, often pressures them to plagiarise other
people’s texts.
An advantage of the dictogloss is that it has students actively reconstructing the meanings with their peers rather than just copying out of the text. EALD
students not only have the opportunity to contribute to the task, but they also benefit from listening and talking with their peers.
Another advantage, is that it works very well in helping students to remember the content and can be used at any stage of the curriculum cycle to
consolidate knowledge.

*Teaching ESL students in mainstream classrooms: language in learning across the curriculum pp 151- 153 2012 version

**A term used to refer to combined aspects of specific situations or contexts which influence language choices and meanings. The three aspects which
combine to form register are:
• what the subject matter is (field)
• who is taking part and their relative roles and relationships (tenor)
• how language is organised to create a cohesive text, the medium or channel of communication and whether language is used to accompany action
or as reflection (mode)
from Language and Literacy Levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD students - Glossary
APPENDIX 3
i. Read aloud the sentence or mention where the students first met the word. Show students the word and ask them to say it aloud.
rudimentary
ii. Ask students to repeat it several times. Brainstorm possible meanings with the group. Point out any parts of the word that might help with meaning eg a
prefix or Latin or Greek root. Reread the sentence or refer to the context in which it was used to see if there are any contextual clues.
iii. Explain the meaning explicitly through a student-friendly definition and use of synonyms.
Rudimentary means simple or very basic.
iv. Provide examples, emphasising the target word.
Ben found the test easy because all the questions were quite rudimentary.
Bella speaks rudimentary German because she has only been learning it for three months.
The pilot’s final test was not rudimentary because it covered everything he had learned in three years of training.
v. Ask questions to determine if students understand the word.
Would a doctor have a rudimentary understanding of the human body? Why or why not?
Would a primary school teacher have a rudimentary understanding of the human body? Why or why not?

vi. Provide sentences that students can judge as being true or false.
The high court judge had a rudimentary knowledge of the law. True or False?
The first year apprentice had a rudimentary knowledge of how to build a house. True or False?
vii. Students then write their own sentences to be judged as true or false by other students.
viii. Consciously use the word throughout the day to reinforce the meaning and different ways in which it can be used.1
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS

1
DECS June 2011 Research into practice paper - Understanding the reading process Series 1/1.4
 Spelling
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Word Knowledge development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Types of Spelling Knowledge (See Appendix 1)
• phonological – how words sound
• visual – how words look
• morphemic – how words change form eg jump, jumps, jumped, jumping
• etymological – where words come from
Stages of Spelling Development. (See Appendix 2)
• emerging print concepts
• semi-phonetic – phonic activities eg onsets and rimes,
• phonetic- digraphs, silent letters, prefixes, suffixes
• transitional - spell by using rules/generalisation
• proficient – spell from memory
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 - 4
This is the beginning stage of learning the Assess students’ prior knowledge of words and letter clusters.
Across the stages
relationship between letters and the Introduce selected/relevant letter/s and sound/s related to the Students walk around school and
of schooling sounds they represent. Students begin to genre or topic being taught. look for, draw or write items that
equivalent to the use this knowledge to recognise and read
Teach each letter’s name and its sound. begin with that letter.
end of reception words. They also build skills to blend
Display items beginning with that/those letter/s. Have a ‘sound/s of the week.’
onsets and rimes (eg c-at) and segment
sounds (d/o/g) in words. Through this Whole class or individual activity: Plan activities in different
they become familiar with the consonant- learning areas (where practical) to reinforce recognition of
vowel-consonant (CVC) pattern. These selected letters eg if the letter is “f”, jointly compose an
aspects along with syllables are Information Report including the life cycle about frogs/fish,
components pf ‘Phonological Awareness’ draw frogs/fish, teach songs about frogs/fish, introduce topic
(refer to Big 6) vocabulary related to frogs/fish, move like a frog/fish etc.
Focus on letter formation instruction. It is Read texts. Ask students to identify nominated sounds by
important to teach spelling in context. pointing, using post it notes or highlighting or circling on
photocopied pages.
 Language Discussion
Level
Level 1-4 Cont’d Consider adapting teaching strategies
for New Arrival students (regardless of
their age) whose language system isn’t
alphabetical eg Chinese, Arabic.
The use of symbols as an introduction
may bridge the gap.
Activities Expansion
Teach and make lists of words with the same pattern (CVC) Assess “spelling” by incidental testing
eg. word ending in ‘at’, ’en’, ‘it’, ‘ug’ etc eg “Who can sound out mat?” “Who
can write sun?” “What does h-a-t
Teach recognition and spelling of high frequency words. say?” Use the sounds of the letters,
not the name.
Encourage independent writing by focussing on letter-sound
relationship, listening to and saying beginning, middle and end
sounds and high frequency words.
Say the word and re-read the sentence.
Design writing tasks which focus on writing the words which
start with a given letter.
Teach both capital letters/upper case and lower case. Use
that terminology.
Teach and model correct letter formation. Emphasise correct
starting point and direction. Talk about the shapes of the Make reference to when capital
letters. Trace over the letters. letters are used.
Students can use alternative media to
Create a picture from the letter. eg write a big ‘m’ and add write letters, eg writing in sand,
a head, horns and a tail to create a monster. crayons, chalk on cement, paint, icing
sugar. (Consider teaching the
Write a sentence with each word beginning with the target procedure genre to make the icing.)
letter such as ‘My monster moves‘ under the picture. Make patterns by repeating the letter
eg aaaaa and add antennae and legs
Draw a visual representation of words eg write the word ‘red’
to create an ant
in red; curly in ‘Curlz’ font – curly; ‘hollow’ in font effects -
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 - 7
Teach consonant blends. Compose tongue twisters to encourage correct
spelling and to reinforce letter combination.
Across the years of
schooling
Demonstrate correct pronunciation of blends and then as part of the whole
It is important to use
equivalent to the word.
topic related words and Incorporate into Literacy blocks or
end of year 3. focus on the spelling. Continue teaching of high frequency words.
Guided Reading blocks
Explain how some words Introduce spelling rules eg ‘i’ before ‘e’ except after c or when sounding like
have different meanings an ‘a’ as in neighbour or weigh.
in different learning Introduce mnemonics to help with spelling particular words and rules: “When two vowels go walking,
areas. eg eg because’ big elephants can always understand small elephants. the first one does the talking”.
cycle – a life cycle eg the ‘e’ in beat or the ‘a’ in main.
(Science) or the verb to Introduce suffixes through word building activities eg. add ‘s’; ‘ed’; ’ing’ to
cycle; verbs; and ’er’, ‘est’ to comparative and superlative adjectives.
table – set the table or a Create tables for students to complete
table of information.
word add ‘s’ add ‘ed’ add ‘ing’
look looks looked looking
talk talks talked talking
Use in sentences to reinforce subject-verb agreement.

word add ‘er’ add ‘est’

tall taller tallest
wide wider widest
Focus on
• words in which the last letter is doubled before adding ‘ing’, ‘er’, or
‘est’
• words that drop the ’e’ when adding ‘er’ or ‘est’ eg large – largest
• irregular verbs eg run – ran.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7
Introduce and teach
Cont’d
• long vowel words eg name (magic ‘e’) park, feet
A blend is formed by
• consonant blends eg drop, clap,
Across the years of two sounds that can
schooling • consonant digraphs eg shop, much, thin
be heard eg fl as in
equivalent to the flag. • 3 letter blends eg scr, thr, str
end of year 3. A digraph is made up • diphthongs eg ay (play), ai (tail); ee (feel), ea (real)
of two sounds heard • single syllable homophones eg right/write, saw/sore
By the end of year • compound words eg toothbrush, handbag
2 students:
as one eg ck as in
click. • adding ‘s’ or ‘es’ for plurals
- spell topic
words, new A diphthong is a • topic words: have topic words on display, write their meaning next to the word, break them
words with combination of two into syllables.
regular letter vowels making one • different letter/combination of letters that make the same sound: eg ey; ea; e; y; ie; f; ph.
patterns and sound/syllable eg Activity: circle the words in a given sentence or a text that have the wrong spelling. Rewrite the
some common coin, loud. sentences correctly eg The buoy with the long hare went to bye a new torch.
irregular words
- recognise Teach the letter Use cloze exercises: students choose the correct word to complete sentences: eg
relationships A ____________ (weak/week) has seven days
groupings in context
between words
such as ‘play’,
whenever/where- I’m going to ___________ (read/reed) my book.
‘playing’ and ever practical. Adapt
to suit the ability Use a jumbled letter words activity to emphasise the sound or letter groupings being taught. Ask
‘playground’.
levels of the students to write the letters of that sound first, they can be highlighted on the board, and then ask
students. students to put the remaining letters in order to create the words.
Teach and model the change in the vowel sound by adding an ‘e’ at the end of the word: cat/Cate;
cap/cape; car/care; cut/cute; pin/pine; din/dine; bin/line; Tim/time; pan/pane; tub/tube; hug/huge;
mutt/mute; tap/tape; sit/site; at/ate; rid/ride; gap/gate; hop/hope; etc.
Use these words in poems, or sentences to create a humorous story.
NB adding an ‘e’ in the word also lengthens the vowel: ten/teen; pen/seen etc.
Create ‘Find-a word’ games using the newly spelt words and vocabulary. Use appropriate websites for
word search games eg http://www.gamehouse.com/word-games
 Language Level Discussion Activities Expansion
Level 8 – 10 It is important to teach Jointly compile a list of topic words and their meanings. Examine the origin of words from other languages eg
spelling in context of the Add prefixes and/or suffixes and use them in sentences ‘jodhpurs’ from Hindi
Across the years of focus genre and topic etc. ‘smorgasbord’ from Swedish
schooling equivalent to matter whenever possible.
the end of year 6. Demonstrate how prefixes when added to a word Suffixes form a new word or alter the grammatical
modify or change the meaning of the word eg tie – function of the original word. eg read is a verb but
The following aspects of untie; act - counteract when ‘er’ is added it becomes a noun (reader)
spelling are those
mentioned in the Language Research the meanings of prefixes eg in, un, inter, semi, Word Noun Verb Adjective Adverb
and Literacy Levels trans etc.
rectangle rectangle rectangular
• topic words Complete a table by choosing an appropriate suffix and
• frequently used regular writing the new word in the correct boxes. slow slow slowly
and irregular words Teach prefixes and suffixes by grouping words that have collect collect collectable
• word families and the same prefixes and suffixes eg words ending in ‘ity’.
consonant clusters eg Highlight any changes in spelling and have students say C E L L A R
str, thr, scr the word and using it in a sentence. H R U O H U
• diphthongs Consolidate homophones by focusing on the difference U C A Y O O
• silent beginnings eg kn, in meaning of each pair of words. T F H T E T
wr E T I R W E
Use a word search that includes homophones for listed
• homophones eg to,
words. Join the two words together.
two, too; knew, new Some rules about silent letters before or after certain
• prefixes and suffixes SELLER ROOT SHOOT YEW letters.
and rules HALL RIGHT OUR
silent ‘k’ before ‘n’ knock, knee
o eg doubling when
adding a suffix – get/ Teach silent letters by: silent ‘w’ before ‘r’ wrist, wrong
getting • distinguishing between homophones eg be/bee;
know/no; whole/hole silent ‘g’ before ’n’ gnash, gnaw
o dropping ‘e’ when
adding a suffix • working out the meaning of the word and change silent’ p’ before ‘s’ psychic, psalm
the pronunciation of the word eg sin/sign
Some aspects have been silent ‘l’ before ‘k’ folk, talk
• showing the origins and history (etymology) of a
introduced in an earlier word. eg Plumber from plumbum (Latin for lead) silent ‘b’ after ‘m’ plumber, lamb
Level but the complexity of
the spelling rules and the NB As appropriate highlight the old English prefix/suffix silent ‘n’ after ‘m’ column,
generalisations has of en/em eg enforce; empower; strengthen; lengthen;
silent ‘t’ after ‘s’ listen, whistle
increased. brighten; enlighten etc.
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 11 – 12 It is important to teach spelling in Explicitly teach the spelling of topic words and include “Campaign is easily spelt by breaking it into its
context of the focus genre and the spelling of key topic words to topic assessment syllables. Cam and then pain, but don’t forget to
topic matter whenever possible. criteria. include silent ‘g’ before the ‘n’ like in sign and
align.”
“Permission is a nominalisation so it is no surprise
Across the years that it has that shun sound as the suffix, but in this
of schooling case you drop the t and add ssion instead of just
equivalent to the Students show greater spelling Assign a key multi-syllabic word or a difficult subject ion.”
end of year 8.
accuracy over specific word to each student so they can learn it and
• multi-syllabic words then teach others using a spelling strategy that worked Spelling strategies:
• difficult homophones eg for them.
Spell it like it sounds – breaking words into sounds
practice/practise and writing the sounds they hear
• difficult subject and topic
specific words Research the origins of words (etymomlgy) eg Latin and Spell it by pattern – diphthongs, diagraphs,
• subject specific words with Greek origins. Use dictionaries or websites to suffixes, prefixes, silent letters, compound words.
Greek and Latin roots investigate their meanings. Spell it by rule or generalisation – eg drop the ‘y’
eg sub = under as in subsoil, submarine; before adding ‘er’ or ‘est’.
kilo = thousand as in kilogram, kilometre
Spell it by chunking – break words into syllables eg
Develop word walls to promote vocabulary and spelling in-ter-net
proficiency. Spell it from memory – automaticity

Promote the use of student glossaries.
Use cloze exercise and crosswords using selected
words, and close exercises using extracts from the
texts.
Spell it using mnemonics – using ‘tricks’ to
remember how to spell words eg “parallel” has two
parallel lines (double letter l) in the middle of the
word

May use spelling creatively for Read news report headlines that include puns and Cele-brat is about the birthday celebration of a
effect explain their humour. young misbehaving celebrity
 Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 13 – 14 It is important to teach spelling in Refer to Levels 11-12. Use required or chosen texts as the basis for
context of the focus genre and teaching and learning activities.
topic matter.
Across the years Align the acquisition of spelling with the
of schooling At this level students continue to understanding of the word in context.
equivalent to the
spell most words correctly and
end of year 10.
apply their understanding of
. spelling to spell difficult topic or
subject specific/technical words,
and unusual words.

May use spelling creatively for

effect.
Appendix 1

Spelling: from beginnings to proficiency - DECD 2011.

Appendix 2

Spelling: from beginnings to proficiency Chapter 6 - Teaching and learning activities page 55