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Open Stoping at Golden Grove Under High Stress Conditions

Conference Paper · January 2011

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 Open Stoping at Golden Grove Under High Stress Conditions

Colin Thomson & Ernesto Villaescusa

Western Australian School of Mines, Curtin University.

ABSTRACT: Mining at Minerals and Metals Group’s Gossan Hill mine is fast approaching depths of greater than
1000m and an assessment of stoping practices is required to estimate whether current mining techniques can and
should be employed on the orebody below the 1024 level. Through an investigation of rock mass characteristics as
well as stope analysis using the modified stability graph and back analysis of cavity monitoring surveys (CMS),
appropriate stope dimensions and hydraulic radii have been determined. The analysis found stopes would remain
stable if designed with hydraulic radii of less than or within the range of 6 to 8, with any increase above these
values amplifying instability. Maximum allowable dimensions have been determined for the hangingwall of
between 8-25m depending on the number of lifts and rock mass quality. Cablebolting the hangingwall on each
sublevel would enable the extraction of stopes with 25m strike spans but should be confirmed with an economic
analysis along with the optimal number of lifts. The findings of the research conclude that mining below the 1024
level is geotechnically suitable as long as the guidelines described above are adhered to in conjunction with the
sustained use of a continuous retreat sequence.

INTRODUCTION subject to minor wall deterioration owing to the high

Golden Grove is a Western Australian mine site
located approximately 280 km east of Geraldton and
50 km south of Yalgoo in the Mid West region. The
operation there consists of two separate
underground mines, namely Scuddles and Gossan
Hill owned by Minerals and Metals Group (MMG).
The Gossan Hill underground mine, on which this
project will focus, is owner-operated by MMG.
Mining at Gossan Hill is carried out via sublevel
open stoping across several key mineralisations,
stretching from near surface to beyond 1000 m in
depth. The Hougomont orebody is actively being
mined from the 544 level down to the 1024 level
(9828RL-9352RL, 540–1020 m below surface
[10369RL]) and is the mineralisation this research
concentrates on. A continuous retreat sequencing
method is currently in use in the lower Hougomont
region, retreating to the North. As mining has
progressed into the lower levels and as more ore is
discovered at ever increasing depths, stress related
issues have started to arise that could potentially
threaten both the safety and production of the
operation. Mining in the 994 level (9380RL, 990 m
depth) of the Hougomont mineralisation has been
stress levels encountered, resulting in excess dilution
and reduced draw times. Squeezing of drill holes was
also encountered and led to the change from a
primary, secondary sequencing method to a
continuous retreat. As the in-situ stresses are
expected to increase with depth, previous mining in
similar conditions must be analysed to ensure the ore
below the 1024 level can be extracted safely and with
minimised stress induced consequences. Analysis of
previous stoping in the lower Hougomont region
(9623-9352RL, 750-1020 m depth) has been carried
out, including 11 extracted stopes of similar
stratigraphic position and applied stresses. Analysis
of these stopes should provide an estimate of future
stope performance.
Ultimately through an assessment of the geology,
rock mass characteristics, the geotechnical model and
an analysis of previous stoping, an appraisal can be
made of the geotechnical suitability of mining the ore
below the 1024 level (9352RL, 1020 m depth).
 METHODOLOGY
A simple methodology was followed to produce a
result, which included the following tasks:
1) Assessment of current mining methods and
conditions,
2) Determination of site geological conditions,
3) Classification of rock mass and building of a
geotechnical model,
4) Validation of uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS) data via point load testing,
5) Stope stability and back analysis to
determine the affect of stope geometry on
stability, and
6) Assessment of geotechnical suitability of
mining for the ore below the 1024 level.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Both the Gossan Hill and Scuddles deposits are
volcanogenic massive sulphides hosted within the
Warriedar Fold Belt, part of the Yalgoo-Singleton
greenstone belt within the Southern Murchison
Province of the Archaen Yilgarn block (MMG, 2010).
Dacitic and rhyodacitic volcanics of the Scuddles
Formation are the main rock types of the
hangingwall and bedded tuffaceous volcaniclastic
rocks of the Golden Grove Formation make up the
footwall (Smith, 2003).
The Gossan Hill mineralisations are steeply dipping
to the west, hosted in a horizon of thinly bedded
chert and tuff. The deposit consists of a number of
lenses of Zn and Cu mineralisation, extending over a
strike of 400 m and a width of 20 m. The Cu occurs in
magnetite rich epiclastic rocks stratigraphically
below the Zn ore (Smith, 2003). Deposits are
commonly associated with footwall stockwork
(stringer sulphides containing Cu) and
chalcopyrite/pyrite mineralisations overlain by
banded massive sulphides (most often Zn bearing
massive sulphides). The primary rock units found are
dacite, dolerite, massive sulphides, chloritic
sediments, sediments, rhyodacite and rhyolite
(Louchnikov, 2011).
Locally in the lower Hougomont region, the orebody
is steeply dipping to the west (>80°) with a thickness
ranging between 1.8 and 14 m. The footwall consists
mostly of sediments classified in the GG6
stratigraphic unit while the hangingwall is mainly
formed from rhyodacite of the SC2 unit
(Louchnikov, 2011). Volcanic intrusives are present in
the area with a dacite intrusive bounding the
orebody in the South and a dolerite intrusive cutting
across the orebody. For the purposes of this research,
the dolerite intrusive has been assumed as beyond
the scope of the project and hence the footwall has
been assumed as totally made up of GG6 sediments
and the hangingwall made up of rhyodacite.
ROCK MASS CHARACTERISATION
A characterisation of the rock mass has been carried
out to determine the in-situ properties of the rock
mass. Determination of geological discontinuities has
been performed as well as an estimation of the intact
rock strength and the in-situ stress regime.
Geological Discontinuities
Large scale discontinuities are present across the
mine, however, none have been discovered within a
close enough proximity of the lower Hougomont
mineralisation to have an effect on the behaviour of
the rock mass.
Small scale discontinuity data collected using
scanline mapping techniques is available, and was
collected during the early stages of mining. As
increasing amounts of shotcrete are used, the amount
of discontinuity mapping has decreased, but where it
has been possible to perform it has generally
confirmed the historic data (Saunders, 2008). Four
main joint sets have been identified across the mine
site including one foliation, two steeply dipping joint
sets and one sub-horizontal joint set. Specific joint set
data for the rhyodacite and footwall sediment rock
units were collected as well and used in later
analysis.
Intact Rock Properties
Intact rock property data has been collected at
Gossan Hill since 1997 and includes a database of
over 213 samples. UCS values obtained from the
mine site were validated against point load testing
conducted on 125 samples collected from Golden
Grove. Samples were collected from ten diamond
drill holes from below the 1024 level. Within each
individual drill hole, samples were taken to represent
the hangingwall, footwall and orebody. Figure 1
shows the UCS values taken from the mine site
database compared alongside the estimated point
load testing results.
 250 Table 2: RQD Values
Mine UCS
Values
200 Zone Footwall Orebody Hangingwall
Tested UCS
Values
UCS (MPa)

150 RQD
93-100 70-100 94-100
Range
100
The NGI-Q (1974) system of rock mass classification
50 was developed based on numerous case studies to
effectively assess rock mass characterisation and
0 tunnel support requirements. It characterises the rock
GG6 (FW) Rhyodacite Massive based on an estimated block size (RQD/J n) and the
(HW) Sphalerite shear strength between blocks estimated as Jr/Ja
(Ore) (Barton et al, 1974) as well as the stress factors Jw/SRF.
For the purposes of the modified stability graph
Figure 1: UCS Data Validation discussed later, the modified Q’ must be calculated
In-Situ Stress rather than Q and is given in Equation 1.
𝑅𝑄𝐷 𝐽𝑟
In-situ stress measurements have been recorded at 𝑄′ = × (1)
𝐽𝑛 𝐽𝑎
Gossan Hill using the CSIRO HI Cell overcoring
method. Five stress measurements have been taken at Where:
Gossan Hill although one has been disregarded due RQD = Rock Quality Designation,
to the proximity of the sample area to the Catalpa
Jn = Joint set number,
Fault. Based on this data, as well as raisebore
breakout observations, stress gradients and Jr = Joint roughness number, and
orientations have been determined. Table 1 shows the
Ja = Joint alteration number.
formula produced from linear regression with depth
below surface (D), as well as the trend and plunge for Table 3 gives the values for Q’ calculated for the
each principal stress. footwall, hangingwall and orebody.

Table 1: In-Situ Stresses Table 3: Q' Values

Stress Footwall Orebody Hangingwall

Principal Trend Plunge
gradient
stress (°) (°) RQD 93-100 70-100 94-100
(MPa)
1 0.07D+6.16 150 05 Jn 3-6 2-6 3-6

2 0.05D+3.48 240 00 Jr 2-3 2-3 2-3

3 0.03D+0.62 330 85 Ja 0.75-1 1-2 1-2

Q’ 31-133 12-150 16-100

GEOTECHNICAL MODEL
Rock Mass Classification Rock Mass Strength

The Rock Quality Designation index or RQD
provides a quantitative estimate of rock mass quality
attained from logging drill core (Hoek, 2007).
MMG has collected RQD values from all diamond
drill holes. Values from the same ten drill holes used
in the validation of the UCS data have been selected
to represent the footwall, orebody and hangingwalls
of the area below the 1024 level. Table 2 shows the
values for each zone.
From a review of the literature, the Hoek-Brown
(1997) criterion for estimating the rock mass strength
has been determined as suitable method to use. The
intact rock properties are determined using Hoek
and Brown’s formulas before being equated to the
linear Mohr-Coulomb envelope to determine the
compressive and tensile strengths of the rock mass as
well as the rock mass modulus. The Hoek-Brown
criterion is given in Equation 2.
 𝑎
𝜎3′ attempts to relate the size of an excavation surface to
𝜎1′ = 𝜎3′ + 𝜎𝑐𝑖 (𝑚𝑏 + 𝑠) (2)
𝜎𝑐𝑖
a calculated stability number N. As Nickson’s
The Hoek-Brown constant mi has been estimated methodology is based on Potvin’s (1988) modified
from the rock geology and the tables provided by stability graph, it is the modified stability number
Hoek and Brown (1997). Table 4 shows the estimated (N’) that is calculated for each surface. N’ is given in
mi values as well as the results of the Hoek-Brown Equation 3.
methodology.
𝑁 ′ = 𝑄′ × 𝐴 × 𝐵 × 𝐶 (3)
Table 4: Rock Mass Strength Results
Where:
Footwall Orebody Hangingwall Q’ = Modified Q Value,
𝒎𝒊 15 19 17 A = Stress factor,
𝝈𝒄𝒎
49-82 31-90 32-58 B = Rock defect orientation factor, and
(MPa)
𝝈𝒕𝒎 C = Design surface orientation factor.
-1.3-(-3.6) -0.4-(-3) -0.6-(-2)
(MPa)
Factors A, B and C were calculated using the in-situ
41 941-89 25 650-94
E (MPa) 29 773-76 942 stress and discontinuity data discussed earlier. A
192 927
minimum and maximum N’ value was calculated
Q’ 31-133 12-150 16-100
using the Q’ range shown in Table 3, and the average
of these two values was plotted on Figure 2 against
Modified Stability Graph the hydraulic radius (HR) of a stope surface, defined
as the area divided by the perimeter. The resulting
Based on a review of the literature, Nickson’s
depth of failure (m) is also shown for each stope
research into the uses of the stability graph,
surface.
published in 1992, was selected as a pertinent
approach to follow. The stability graph method

1000
Modified Stability Number (N')

100

0-1m
1-2m
10
2-3m
3-4m
4-5m
1
>5m

0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Hydraulic Radius (HR)

Figure 2: Modified Stability Graph – Golden Grove Mine

 STOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS determine maximum allowable spans. This is
In his research, Nickson (1992) applied a achieved by rearranging the formula for HR (area
mathematical formula to the transition zone over perimeter), then substituting in Nickson’s
developed by Potvin (1988). A simple manipulation transition line for HR, while holding one dimension
of Nickson’s formula produces the transition fixed. In this case the fixed dimension is the sublevel
envelope shown in Figure 2. As this formula interval of 30m. Maximum allowable spans have
produces an estimate of stable HR, it can be used to been determined for the hangingwalls, footwalls,
North and South walls as well as the stope crowns.

120
Maximum Allowable Strike Span (m)

100

80

60

40

20

0
Footwall Hangingwall Footwall Hangingwall Footwall Hangingwall Footwall Hangingwall
Single Lift Double Lift Triple Lift Quad Lift

Figure 2: Footwall and Hangingwall Maximum Allowable Strike Span

120

100
Maximum Allowable Width (m)

80

60

40

20

0
North Wall South Wall North Wall South Wall North Wall South Wall North Wall South Wall

Single Lift Double Lift Triple Lift Quad Lift

Figure 3: North wall and South wall Maximum Allowable Stope Widths
The results of the footwall, hangingwall and North
wall, South wall have been displayed in Figures 3
and 4. The results of the crown allowable spans have
not been presented, as there were no restrictions on
span length. Calculations have been performed for
single and multiple lift stopes of up to 120m in
height. Figure 3 clearly shows that the hangingwall is
the controlling surface of the stope, as the maximum
allowable span ranges between 8 and 25m, whereas
the allowable strike span for the footwall is between
25 and over 100 m. For the North and South walls it
would appear that the South wall is the controlling
surface. However, South wall failure can be ignored
as the orebody is being retreated to the North and the
previously backfilled stope forms the South wall and
to date, there has been minimal failure along this
contact. Hence the allowable stope widths for the
North wall are between 12 and over 100m, which is
in line with the orebody width of 1.8-14m. This
would suggest that any failure associated with the
North wall is not resulting from the affects of stope
geometry but may be due to other factors associated
with ground behaviour such as the induced stress
system caused by the continuous retreat method.
BACK ANALYSIS OF STOPE PERFORMANCE
A comparative analysis was performed between the
collected Cavity Monitoring Survey files and the
design files in the Vulcan software program. Cross-
sections of each surface were taken and the
maximum depth of overbreak measured. Overbreak
is defined as any materials from outside the designed
stope shape that rills into the stope. The depth of this
failure has been measured perpendicular to each
stope surface, as per the method described by
Villaescusa (2004).
This process was performed on 11 previously mined
stopes in the lower Hougomont region for each of the
five stope surfaces. Figure 5 shows the depth of
failure graphed against the hydraulic radius of the
hangingwall. From the graph the critical HR can be
determined from the trendlines. In this instance the
HRcritical is approximately 7. For the analysis of the
footwall, the HRcritical was approximately 8. Results
from the North wall showed minimal correlation
between an increase in the HR and an increase in the
depth of failure. As mentioned in the stability
analysis, this may suggest that the cause of failure is
not associated with stope geometry and may be due
to factors such as induced stresses. There was
insufficient failure data for the South wall and the
crowns to determine a critical HR. The lack of South
wall failures is due to the sequencing method
whereas crowns have been found to be almost
wholly stable.
10 Depth of
Failure
Depth of Failure (m)
8
0-1m
6
1-2m
4
3-4m
2
HRcritical 4-5m
0 >5m
0 5 10 15
7
HR
Figure 4: Hangingwall Depth of Failure vs.
Hydraulic Radius
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
Based on the collected geological and rock mass data,
a basic geotechnical database has been built and used
to assess the geotechnical suitability of mining the
orebody below the 1024 level. Using the empirical
modified stability graph method, the maximum
allowable stope spans along strike have been
determined as 8-25 m, based on hangingwall stability
and dependent on the number of lifts and quality of
ground. North wall allowable dimensions range from
between 12 and >100 m, again dependent on number
of lifts and quality of ground. As these widths are
concordant with the orebody widths, resulting
failure can be assumed to not be a result of stope
geometry but other factors such as induced stresses.
Stoping back analysis indicated that a hydraulic
radius of up to 6-8 showed minimal overbreak and
that increasing this value would amplify instability.
From the established stope geometry guidelines,
stopes should be designed with strike spans of
approximately 25 m with cablebolts installed at each
sublevel in the hangingwall to maximize extraction
and maintain stability. The continuous retreat
method should continue to be used. Ultimately, the
orebody below the 1024 level is geotechnically
suitable for mining given the above constraints.
Recommendations for further study
As mining progresses deeper and the affects of stress
intensify, knowledge of the in-situ stress regime
becomes paramount. Additional site testing should
be conducted to improve this database to understand
and predict the effects of stress at depth. As
mentioned previously, there are numerous other
factors affecting ground behaviour other than stope
geometry. Further study should be conducted into
quantifying the affects of these factors such as drill
and blast practices, groundwater, time dependent
behavior of the rock mass and induced stresses.
Economic analysis is also required to determine the
affect of overbreak against stope size. This process
will also aid in the assessment of the optimal number
of lifts and help confirm the recommended strike
span lengths.
Potvin, Y, 1988. Empirical open stope design in
Canada, PhD thesis, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver.
Saunders, P (in prep). A mining sequence analysis
and failure criteria application at Gossan Hill mine.
Master of Mining Geomechanics, Curtin University.
Smith, R E, CRC LEME, 2003. Gossan hill cu-zn-au
deposit, golden grove, western Australia [online].
Available from < crcleme.org.au > [Accessed: 5 October
2011].
Villaescusa, E, 2004. Quantifying open stope
performance, in Proceedings of MassMin 2004,
Santiago, Chile (ed: A Karzulovic and M A Alfaro)
pp 96-104 (Mineria Chilena).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the MMG
staff at the Golden Grove site, in particular Wayne
Ghavalas, Soma Uggalla and Adam O’Hare.

REFERENCES
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