Soil Science

Contributors:
Dr. Wilfredo C. Cosico
Dr. Jose I. Clar de Jesus
Dr. Ireneo J. Manguiat
Dr. Eduardo P. Paningbatan
Dr. Pearl B. Sanchez
Dr. Rodrigo B. Badayos

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UNIT I. SOIL GENESIS, COMPOSITION AND DEVELOPMENT
1.1 Soil as a Natural Resources
1.2 Soil Definition
1.3 Composition of Soil
2. Soil Genesis
2.1 Factors of Soil Formation
2.1.1 Parent material
2.1.2 Living organisms
2.1.3 Climate
2.1.4 Topography
2.1.5 Time
2.2 Classes of Rocks
2.3 The Weathering Process
2.4 Stages of Weathering
2.5 The Soil Profile
2.6 Effects of Vegetation on Soil Development
2.7 Effects of Climate on Soil Development
2.8 Effects of Soil erosion and Deposition on Soil Development
2.9 Effects of Drainage on Soil Development

UNIT II. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL

1. Soil Texture
1.1 Classification of Soil Properties
1.2 Functions of the Different Soil Separates
1.3 Determination of Particle Size Distribution
1.4 Field Determination of Soil Texture
1.5 Textural Grouping of Soil
1.6 Importance of Soil Texture to Plants
2 Soil Structure
2.1 Types of Soil Structure
2.2 Formation of Soil Aggregates
2.3 Factors Affecting Aggregation
2.4 Importance of Soil Structure to Plants
3 Particle Density
3.1 Particle Density
3.2 Bulk Density
3.3 Pore Spaces
3.4 Importance
4 Soil Moisture
4.1 The Water Cycle
4.2 Forces Holding Water in the Soil
4.3 Soil Moisture Measurement
4.4 Soil Moisture Constants
4.5 Physical Characterization of Soil Water
4.6 Biological Characterization of Soil Water
4.7 Water in Relation to Plant Growth
4.8 Relationship Between Water Utilization and Soil Fertility
4.9 Practice on Calculation of Soil Moisture
5 Soil Aeration
5.1 Composition of Soil Air

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 5.2 Factors Affecting Soil Air Composition
5.3 Gaseous Exchange in the Soil
5.4 Soil Color
5.5 Soil Temperature

UNIT III. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL

1. Chemical Properties of the Soil
1.1 The Colloidal Fraction of the Soil
1.2 Ion Exchange
2 Nutrient Supply and Availability
2.1 Essential Nutrient Element
2.2 Total Nutrient Element Supply in the Soil
2.3 Forms of Occurrence in the Soil
2.4 Processes of Transformation From Unavailable to Available Forms
3 Soil Acidity
3.1 Sources of Soil Acidity
3.2 Development of Soil Acidity
3.3 Effect of Soil Submerge on pH
3.4 Concept on Active and Exchange Acidity
3.5 Buffering Capacity of Soils
3.6 Problem Soils (Alkaline Soils and Other Problem Soils)
3.7 Effect of pH on Plant Growth
4 Liming
4.1 Principles of Liming
4.2 Liming Materials
4.3 Relative Neutralizing Power of Different Forms of Lime
4.4 Chemical Reactions of Lime
4.5 The Effect of Lime on Soil
4.6 Factors that Determine the Amount of Lime to Apply
5 The Biological Processes in the Soil
5.1 Microorganisms in the Soil
5.2 Production of Toxins
5.3 Production of Growth Stimulating Substances
5.4 Nitrogen Fixation: the N cycle
5.5 Phosphate Solubilization
5.6 Sulfur Transformation
5.7 Pesticide Degradation
5.8 Competition of Higher Plant for Nutrients
5.9 The Soil Organic Matter

UNIT IV. SOIL FERTILITY AND MANAGEMENT

1. Soil Fertility and Management
2. Soil Fertility vs. Soil Productivity
3. Scope of Soil Fertility
4. Concepts of Availability
5. Mechanisms of Ion Uptake
6. Fixation of Soil Nutrient Elements

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 7. Soil Management Practices
7.1 Maintenance of Soil Fertility
7.2 Soil fertility Restoration
7.3 Evaluation of Soil Fertility
7.4 Correction of Nutrient Deficiencies
7.5 Fertilizers
7.5.1 Inorganic
7.5.2 Organic Fertilizers
8. Soil Erosion and its Maladies
8.1 Mechanisms of Soil Erosion
8.2 Factors Promoting Soil Erosion
8.3 The Ills of Soil Erosion
8.4 Control of Soil Erosion
8.4.1 Fertilization
8.4.2 Maintenance of Vegetation
8.4.3 Mulching
8.4.4 Terracing
8.4.5 Contour Farming and Strip Cropping

UNIT V. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND SURVEY

1. Nature and Purpose of Soil Classification
2. Soil Taxonomy
2.1 Concepts in Soil Classification
2.2 Profile Characterization
2.3 Diagnostic Horizons
2.4 Nomenclature in the New Soil Taxonomy

 The fields of study in soil science:

 Soil Fertility
o Study of the status of a soil with respect to the form, amount and availability to
plants of nutrient elements necessary for plant growth
 Soil Physics
o Deals with characteristics, properties or reactions of a soil which are caused by
physical forces and which can be described by equations
 Soil Chemistry and Mineralogy
o Study of the original rocks and minerals which constitute the materials from
which soils are derived
o Characterization of the reactions of the nutrients in the soil and in the soil
solution
 Soil Microbiology
o Characterization of important groups of microorganisms in the soil and their
role in the physical and biochemical changes
 Soil Conservation and Management
o Protection of the soil against physical loss by erosion or chemical deterioration
o Totality of all tillage operations, cropping practices, fertilization, liming, etc.
conducted on a soil for crop production

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 Land Use
o Deals with the utilization or allocation of lands for general or broad purposes
such as agriculture, forestry, settlement and military reservation.
 Soil Genesis, Morphology and Classification
o Deals with the structural characteristics, mode of origin and systematic
arrangement of soils
 Soil defined as:
 A thin portion of the earth crust which is a mixture of organic and inorganic
materials formed from the weathering or rocks and minerals and whose properties
are conditioned in various degrees by the influence of climate, living organisms
(plants and animals) and relief acting on the parent material over a period of time. It
serves as a medium for plant growth.
 Soil Components
 The four major components of a typical soil are:
o Mineral matter (45%)
o Organic matter (5%)
o Air (20-30%)
o Water (20-30%)
 Mineral matter is composed of weathered rocks and minerals
 Organic matter of decayed plant and animal bodies
 The gases are found in the pores and is composed of
o Oxygen (20%)
o Nitrogen (78%)
o CO2 and other gases (2%)
 Water is also in the pores that contain dissolved gases and nutrients
 Terms and definitions:
 Soil Profile
o The cross-section of soil from surface to bedrock showing the different soil
horizons
 Soil Horizons
o Layers of soil that are almost parallel to the surface with distinct range of
properties which different from the other layers
 Three pedogenic horizons are A, B and C horizons.
o A-horizon
 Zone of major biological activity
 Zone of organic matter accumulation
 Dark in color due to humus
 Zone of leaching (eluviation)
o B-horizon
 Zone of accumulation (illuviation) of clay and carbonates
 Lighter in color
 Finer in texture than A-horizon
o C-horizon (parent material)
 Soil Pit – A 1m x 1m x 1m volume of soil, excavated to show the soil profile
 Pedon “SOIL”- the smallest unit of studying soil individual
o Mature soil – have well-developed A, B and C horizons
o Young soil – have A and C horizons
o Old soil – have A, B and C horizons with very deep B and C horizons
 Regolith – the A, B and C horizons

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  Solum (True Soil) – the A and B horizons
 Parent Material – the C horizons, the weathered rock or unconsolidated sediments

 Two approaches in studying soils (Pedology; Edaphology)

 Pedological approach
o Study of soils for their taxonomic classification
o Is the study of soils as they occur in nature with principal interest on
characterization and differentiation of their properties and with only minor
emphasis on their practical use
 Edaphological approach
o The study of soil fertility
o Is the study of soils with emphasis on their practical use, particularly the
relationship of soil properties to plant growth

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 SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

 Soil from rocks

 Where does Soil Come From?
 Soil is everywhere!
 But how does it develop?
 What causes one soil to be productive and another to be poor?
 What are the rocks doing in this soil?
 Soil is…
 The soil profile
 And the soil we pick up to feel consisting of sand, silt, clay particles and decomposed
organic matter

 Rock:
 Aggregate of one or more minerals; most
commonly, two or more.
 Classification of rock
o Igneous- originated from magma, a hot fluid
mass or rock melt
o Sedimentary- consolidated fragments of
igneous and/or metamorphic rocks
o Metamorphic- chemically and/or physically
transformed igneous or sedimentary rock by
means of heat and/or pressure

 Examples of Igneous Rocks:

1. Granite (quarts, K-feldspar, biotite)
2. Diorite (plagioclase, amphibole, qtz,)
3. Rhyolite (K-feldspar, quartz, biotite)
4. Gabbro (pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine)
5. Andesite (plagioclase, amphibole, qtz)
6. Basalt (pyroxene, plagioclase, olivine0
7. Obsidian (volcanic glass)
8. Volcanic tuff (fragmental volcanic rocks)

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  Examples of Sedimentary Rocks
1. Sandstone (1/16 to 2 mm)
2. Siltstone (1/256 to 1/16 mm)
3. Shale (claystone) (<1/256mm)
4. Conglomerate (>2mm)
5. Limestone (CaCO3)
6. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
7. Chert (SiO2-quartz)

 Examples of metamorphic rocks

Pre-existing rock Metamorphic

Rock Equivalent

1. Granite Gneiss
2. Basalt Schist
3. Sandstone Quartzite
4. Limestone Marble
5. Shale Slate
6. Conglomerate Meta-conglomerate

 Mineral: Naturally occurring chemical element or compound formed as a product of inorganic

processes.
 Two groups of minerals
a. Primary Minerals – formed at temperatures and/or pressure higher than that
normally encountered at the earth’s surface (one atmosphere and <100C); eg.
Quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, apatite, olivine; components of igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
b. Secondary Minerals – form under conditions of temperature and pressure found at
the earth’s surface by the weathering of preexisting minerals, eg. Clay minerals,
limonite, gibbsite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum, rock phosphate
 Weathering
 The group of processes whereby rocks on exposure to the weather change in character,
decay and finally crumble into soil
 Physical and chemical weathering occur together
 Physical breaks rocks into pieces so more surface is exposed to chemical weathering
which breaks it down further.
 Weathering is controlled largely by climate. The more water available, the more likely
that chemical processes can proceed.
 Additionally, in warm temperatures chemical weathering can proceed even faster
 In arid climates, however, weathering processes move very slowly
 Mechanical weathering will be the dominant process in arid climates; however,
because physical weathering relies on chemical weathering, it will also be quite slow.
 Weathering of rocks produces soil particles
o By looking at the sand grains, we can determine the kind of rocks that physically
weathered to make the sand.
 Silt Grains – the intermediate size soil particles (particles have diameters
between 0.02 and 0.002mm; most slit are quartz

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  Clay Particles – the smallest soil particle; last of the sediments to be deposited
by a stream due to its small grain size; clay size particles are made by a
recombination of minerals or synthesis from elements, not from grinding up of
slit particles; have diameters that are smaller than 0.002mm

 Types of weathering:
o Physical weathering – rocks get broken into pieces but its chemical composition
remains unchanged.
 Processes of Physical Weathering
1. Freeze/Thaw weathering – occurs when temperature freezes at night and
rises during the day. Water expands when frozen which forces rocks open.
2. Biological weathering – roots of plants grow into cracks and force cracks
open.
3. Exfoliation – when rock at earth’s surface is worn away
 After a rock that has formed deep in the earth is exposed at the surface it
expands and gradually breaks into sheets
o Chemical weathering
 Rock broken down by chemical change- water always plays a part.
 It produces clays on which vegetation can grow
 A mixture of dead vegetation, clay, rock fragments of sand and silt size particles
produces soil.
 Common chemical weathering processes are:
 Hydrolysis – Replacement of the basic ions by the hydrogen, with
consequent collapse and disintegration of the structure.
 Hydration – association of water molecules or of hydroxyl groups with
minerals, often without actual decomposition or modification of the mineral
itself
 Oxidation – removal of one or more electrons from an ion or an atom.
 Carbonation – minerals are replaced by carbonates, introducing carbon
dioxide into water.
 Solution – dissolving of simple salts as carbonates or chlorides.
 Chemical weathering tends to weaken rock, thereby making it easier to break.

 Factors Influencing Soil Formation (CLORPT)

 Climate
o Primarily precipitation and temperature
o Climate components that strongly influence soil development
 Temperature – weathering of rocks and minerals and biochemical reaction
increases with increasing temperature
 Precipitation or rainfall – with more rainfall, greater weathering and greater
leaching therefore faster rate of soil development
 Living Organisms
o Especially vegetation, microbes and soil animals
 Flora – Lichen, Moss, and Trees
 Fauna – Mites, Nematodes, Springtales, Earthworms
 Relief/Topography
o Refers to soil’s position in the landscape
o At the summit and shoulder position: horizon development is faster
o Backslope: slower development
 Rainfall will run-off this slope position faster

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  There will be more soil erosion
 Less leaching
o Footslope: soils will collect sediment from upslope that can bury the
horizons and slow down their development
o Effects of topography
 Slope and aspect – determines the amount of solar radiation absorbed
 Parent material interactions – affects the distribution of colluviums and
alluvium
 Salt Buildup- arid areas slats are leached from relatively higher
 Interaction with vegetation- moisture regime is affected by
microtopographic changes which in turn controls vegetation distributions
 Parent Material
o Geological or organic precursors to the soil
o Inorganic (rocks and minerals) and organic material where soils may originate
o Types of Parent Material
 Residual – bedrocks such as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
 Transported – loose materials like sand, silt and clay deposits where soils
developed (alluvium, colluviums, ash, glacial drift, dune)
o Effects of Parent Material
 The parent material is what the soil and the nutrients ultimately come from
 Glacial till tends to reflect the lithology and composition of the material over
which the glaciers passed
 Glaciers passing over sandstones and granites tend to be sandy in
texture
 Illite as clay mineral
 pH and base saturation generally low.
 Loess
 Contains large amounts of slit, about 10 to 20 percent clay
 High base saturation, or are calcareous
 Dominated by montmorillonite with varying amounts of illite and
perhaps vermiculite
 Unsolicited coastal sediments
 Acid
 Variable texture
 They range from sand to clay
 Limestones and dolomites
 If the limestone is a ‘dirty’ one (rich in clay), then clayey and
impermeable soils are the result
 High in pH and base saturation
 If limestone is rich in sand and chert, the soils tend to be coarse, loamy,
gravelly, acid, and low in base status
 If the limestone is rich in iron impurities such as hematite, a red soil
results, generally acid in reaction if in a humid climate
 Sandstones
 Coarse texture and highly permeable
 Low in base status, nutrient reserves, and pH
 Soils tend to be deep
 Granite and granite gneiss:
 Coarse especially in surface horizons

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  Tend to be friable and permeable
 Generally acid and of low base status
 Color tend to be yellow or a yellowish brown
 Clay mineralogy tends to be kaolinitic in warmer, more humid climates,
and vermiculites-illite-montmorillonite in the cooler and/or more arid
climates
 Schists
 Metamorphic rocks rich in mica with varying amounts of quartz, and
with very sall amounts of other weatherable minerals
 Tend to be silty and lsss coarse
 They are high in potassium reserve and generally acidic
 Illite and vermiculite
 Mafic Rocks
 Rich in iron – and magnesium-bearing minerals and calcic plagioclase
feldspars that weather rapidly, yielding a good deal of clay and free
iron.
 Surface soils generally are loam or clay loam
 Dark red or dark brown
 High base status
 Clay minerals tend to be kaolinite and halloysite if the soil is well
drained, but montmorillonitic if the soil is poorly drained or is in a
region with a distinct dry season.
 Volcanic ash
 Dominated by allophane
 Deep soil profiles
 Prominent yellowish brown subsoil colors, with marked “smeary” or
“greasy” feel when squeezed between the fingers.
 Very low bulk density, very light and porous
 High cation exchange capacity
 High phosphate retention
 Time
o The length of time for the soil to form
o It is approximated by the time since the site for soil development became stable
(no significant erosion and deposition)
o Age of a soil is not considered in years but how much development the soil has
undergone.
o Effects of time:
 All soil forming processes occur over a very long period of time
 The time it takes to develop a soil is relative, dependent upon
 Climate
 Vegetation
 Human interaction
o Time as a factor of soil formation
1. Catenas or Toposequence- When soils are developed on the same parent
material and the soils only differ on the basis of drainage due to
variations in relief
2. Chronosequence- A sequence of related soils that differ in certain
properties primarily as a result of time as a soil-forming process

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 3. Lithosequence- A group of related soils that differ as a result of parent
material
4. Climosequence- A sequence of soils that differ as a result of changes in
climatic regimes (temperature and precipitation)
5. Biosequence- A group of related soils that differ primarily due to
variation in kinds and numbers of plants and soil organisms

 Soil Formation
 Refers to all events that bring about changes transforming the original materials, usually
organic or inorganic parent materials, into soil characterized by features seen in its
morphology
 Simonson (1959) describe the process of soil formation into a model

 Four Basic Processes of Soil Formation

 Transformation
 When soil constituents are chemically or physically modified, or destroyed and others
are synthesized from precursor materials. Changes to soil structure, development of
clay minerals, weathering of minerals to elements, chemical reaction
 Translocation
 The movement of organic and inorganic materials horizontally or vertically across a
pedon. Movement from one horizon to another of O.M. Clay, Water, Iron, & Nutrients in
colloidal size, (very small particles) - clay films on peds are evidence of this
translocation = clay (film) coating
 Additions
 Inputs of materials from outside sources (i.e. plant litter, H2O, organic matter, air, soil
particles, salt)
 Losses
 Materials that are removed from the soil profile by leaching or erosion. H2O, organic
matter, CO2 , nutrients by plant removal

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  Soil Profile Symbol
 O-Horizon dominated by organic matter.
 A- Organic-rich, mineral horizon at or adjacent to the surface.
 E- Mineral horizon of maximum eluviation
 B- Mineral horizon of maximum illuviation and formed beneath an O, A, or E horizon.
 C- Weathered parent material.
 R- Underlying consolidated bedrock.

 Relative age of soil

 Young soil: A-Bw-C and/or R
o Slightly to mod. Weathered
 Matured soil: A-Bt-C
o Mod. To highly weathered
 Senile soil: A-Bo—C
o High to extremely weathered
 Naming Soil Horizons
 Soil horizons (layers in the soil) are named to differences between soils can be
identified
 Naming soil horizons takes practice
 Organic Horizons
o O-horizon – organic material (no mineral materials), forest litter, organic
soil or peat soils, or muck
 Oi – undecomposed (fibris)
 Oe – moderate decomp. (hemis)
 Oa – decomposed (sapric)
o A horizon – surface horizons that Accumulate O.M.
 Ap = plowed soil
o E horizon (formerly A2)- Translocation out-zone of Eluviation – Leaching
Out
 Lighter in color than horizons above or below
o B horizons – Translocation in-below an A, E, or O with an accumulation of
clay, iron, humus (O.M decomposed) or carbonates (CaCO3); zones of
illuviation
 Alteration of the original parent material, development of color or
structure
o C and R Horizons
 C – Little affected by pedogenic processes and lack properties of O-A-
B-E- or is the Parent Material
 R – hard rock

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Important Physical Properties

1. Soil Texture
2. Soil Structure
3. Soil densities ( Bulk and Particle density)
4. Soil Porosity (total, macro and micro-porosities)
5. Soil consistency

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 6. Soil Color
7. Soil Water

 SOIL TEXTURE
 It is a stable property, meaning it does not change with soil management or the textural
class of a soil will remain even after 20 or more years from now.
 Soil is particulate
 A soil is composed of primary (individual or discrete) particles which forms the skeletal
framework of a soil mass.
 The term “texture’ refers to the sensation when one rubs the material with the fingers
 It may feel soft, coarse, smooth, powdery or sticky depending on the dominant particle sizes
 Hence, soil texture could be quantitatively determined in right in the field by “feel method”,
in which a moist soil is rubbed in between finger.
 It concerns the primary (or individual) particles which vary in size, shape and composition
 The primary particles are classified into three size groupings called “Soil Separates”. Each
soil separate has a definite size range and distinct characteristics that are exhibited in the
physical properties of a soil.

Diameter range (mm)

Soil Separate Characteristics and Feel
USDA ISSS
SAND 2-0.05 2-0.02 Coarse, gritty, mostly primary minerals (quartz and
feldspars), cubic to spherical in shape

SILT 0.05-0.002 0.02-0.002 Smooth, powdery, mostly primary minerals (quartz,

feldspars), cubic to spherical in shape

CLAY <0.002 <0.002 Sticky and plastic when moist, mostly secondary
“clay” minerals very high specific surface area
hence the most reactive component of the soil,
plate-like or flake-like and some are tubular in
shape.

o Two methods of quantitative determination of soil texture

1. Hydrometer method
2. Pipette method
o Both method employs Stroke’s Law of Sedimentation
V=kd²
Where: V is velocity
d= diameter of primary particle
k= constant
o It influences many soil properties, hence important in soil classification. Some of these
properties are:

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 SAND
Lower total porosity
(more macro-pores)
Low water holding capacity
(droughty)
Very good aeration
Easy to till (light soil)
Non-sticky and non-plastic
Low nutrient holding capacity
(less fertile)
LOAMS CLAYS
High total porosity
(more micro-pores)
High water holding capacity
Poor aeration and drainage
Difficult to till (heavy soil)
Very sticky and plastic
High nutrient holding capacity (more
fertile)

o Depending on the proportion of their sand, silt and clay separates, soils are classified into
three (3) textural groups and twelve (12) textural classes. These are systematically
arranged in increasing fineness as follows:

TEXTURAL GROUP TEXTURAL CLASS

1. SANDS 1. Sand (S)
2. Loamy sand (LS)
3. Sandy loam (SL)
2. LOAMS 4. Loam (L)
5. Silt loam (SiL)
6. Silt (Si)
7. Sandy clay loam (SCL)
8. Silty clay loam (SiCL)
9. Clay loam (CL)
3. CLAYS 10. Sandy clay (SC)
11. Silty clay (SiC)
12. Clay (C)
Note: Loam is a soil texture in which the characteristics and properties of sand, silt and
clay are manifested in the soil in almost equal proportion

o Soil Texture Influence

o Porosity and pore-size distribution
o Water holding capacity and nutrient holding capacity
o Aeration, drainage and infiltration
o Tillage properties
o Root penetration
o Significance of soil texture
 Affects water retention and permeability, movement (infiltration, percolation,
drainability, etc).
 Determine crop suitability
 May indicate native fertility of soil (clayey soils are generally more fertile, sandy
soils are usually K-deficient)
 Affects aeration (sandy soils are more porous)
 Methods of determining soil texture
1. Feel method

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 2. Roll method
3. Hydrometer method
4. Pipette method

 SOIL STRUCTURE
 The pattern of arrangement of individual soil particles into aggregate and the aggregate into
a soil mass.
 The arrangement of soil particles into certain sizes and shapes.
 Effects of soil properties
o Aeration
o Bulk density
o Water movement (heat transfer)
 Soil structure is unstable property
 It deteriorates with poor soil and crop management
 Sustainable soil management depends on how to manage good soil structure
 It influences water transport, air transport and mechanical impedance to seedling
emergence and root growth
 Possible choices of soil structure are:
o Granular
 Resembles cookie crumbs and is usually less than 0.5cm in diameter. Commonly
found in surface horizons where roots have been growing
o Blocky
 Cube-like; edges are sharp and rectangular faces are distinct; some are more or less
rounded
 Common in clayey subsoils particularly in humid regions
 Has considered effect on drainage aeration and root penetration
o Prismatic
 Vertical columns of soil that might be a number of cm long.
 Usually found in lower horizons
o Columnar
 Vertical columns of soil that have a salt “cap” at the top.
 Found in soils of arid climates
o Platy
 Thin, flat plates of soil that lie horizontally
 Usually found in compacted soil
o Single Grained
 Soil is broken into individual particles that do not stick together. Always
accompanies a loose consistence. Commonly found in sandy soils

 Formation of soil structure

o Organic matter- binding agent
o Products of microbial decomposition (gums, polysaccharides)
o Adsorbed cations
 Na- causes dispersion
 Ca- encourages flocculation
o Fine clay (including sesquioxides)
 Aggregate stability
o OM is mainly responsible
o Soils with high kaolinite and hydrous oxides have high stability (eg. Luisiana)

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 o Mechanisms of Na and Ca affects (dispersion and flocculation)
 Soil management related to soil structure
o OM for sandy soils
 Sandy soils have good aeration and drainage but easily become dry or droughty, OM
increases WHC
o Proper tillage of clay soils
 If plowed when too wet, the soil losses structure and become puddle
o Cropping system
 Continuous corn – less water stable aggregates
 Corn in rotation and grass cover – larger aggregates
o Mulching – protects structure from rain

 BULK DENSITY
 Bulk density (BD) of the soil is the oven dry weight per unit volume of soil
o A measure of the degree of compaction of the soil
o An indicator of soil porosity
o An indicator of soil structure
 The more compact the soil, the greater is the bulk density value and less porous it is.
 Lower values of BD is associated with higher porosity and good soil structure
 The formula of Bulk density is:
BD = Ws/Vt
Where:
BD- bulk density in gm/cm³
Ws- oven-dried weight of soil in gm

SOIL SCIENCE page17

 Vt- total volume of soil in cm³

For example:
Given: Ws=150 ;Vt=100cm³

BD= 150g/100cm³= 1.50gm/cm³

 Bulk density is affected by soil texture, structure, organic matter content and location in the
profile affect of soils.
o Sandy soils have higher bulk density because the particles tend to lie closer together
o Fine-textured soils such as silt loam, clay loam and clay are generally well aggregated
and hence have large pores between granules or aggregates giving low bulk density
values
o Soils in the deeper horizons have higher bulk density due to their lower organic matter
content, less aggregate, less root penetration and greater compaction due to the weight
of the overlying layers. Subsoils also tend to be clogged with fine clay, thus reducing
bulk density.

 PARTICLE DENSITY
 Particle density (PD) of soils is the mass (dry weight) per unit volume of soil excluding the
pore spaces within that soil volume.
 Particle density (2.65g/cm³ on the average) indicate the mineral ancestry of the soil.
o A high particle density (greater than 2.70g/cm³) may mean that the soil could have
been derived from heavy minerals like iron bearing minerals.
o A low PD (less than 2.50 g/cm³) may indicate that the soil is high in humus.
 The equation for determining particle density is:

PD = Ws/Vs
Where:
PD- particle density in gm/cm³
Ws- oven-dried weight of soil in gm
Vs- volume of soil solids in cm³
For example:
Given: Ws=150gm ;Vs= 60cm³
PD= 150gm/60cm³= 2.50gm/cm³

o Particle density values of soils have a narrower range of 2.50 to 2.75gm/cm³. for many
calculation the value of 2.65 gm/cm³ is used
o Soils derived from heavy minerals may have particle density values exceeding 2.75 gm/cm³
o Soil with high organic matter has a low particle density.
 Soils with high organic matter content would have low particle density. The particle
density of organic matter is 1.20 to 1.50gm/cm³
 Since organic matter is generally higher in topsoils than in sub-soils, surface soils have
usually lower particle density

 SOIL POROSITY, bulk density and particle density relationships

 The higher the bulk density of soils, the lower is its porosity
 Percent porosity (%PS) is calculated using the equation:

SOIL SCIENCE page18

 %PS= [1-BD/PD] x 100

 SOIL COLOR (show Munsell Soil Color Chart)

 Significance:
o Indirect measure or indication of other properties
o One of the most important soil characteristics for identification, especially if combined
with structure
 Munsell Color Chart- standard color comparison chart
 Hue- the dominant spectral color
 Value- darkness or lightness of a color
 Chroma- gradation of purity of color or the intensity or brightness of a color
 The color of a soil indicates some chemical conditions:
o Dark or black color indicates high organic matter
o Reddish brown color indicates that the soil is high in oxides of iron
o Yellowish brown color indicates that the portion of lowland soil is at oxidized state
o Moist soil is darker than dry soil
o Paddy soil is bluish indicating that it is at reduced state.

 SOIL WATER
 Soil water = Soil Moisture = Soil Solution
 Importance
o Large amount of water is required by plants for transpiration
 One hectare of corn requires 4-6 million liters of water from planting to harvest
o Water is a reactant in photosynthesis
o Water is a universal solvent
o It is a chemical reactant in many important chemical reaction like hydrolysis and
hydration
o It facilitates tillage operation acting as lubricant which makes plowing easy
 Water management is the control of water for optimum crop yield and the best use
(effective) of a limited supply of water
 Basic strategies:
o Conservation of rainfall
o Addition of irrigation to supplement RF
o Removal of excess (drainage)

 Considerations:
o Soil infiltration- nature of pores and water content of soil are major determinants. Also
profile characteristics.
o Tillage gives a rough soil surface which controls runoff.
 Tillage also loosens soil and increases total porosity and thickness of plow layer for
greater water shortage
o Residue mulches
 Placed before the end of rainy season
 Mulch conserves at water by controlling runoff, increasing infiltration, reducing
weed growth and decreasing evaporation.
 Soil moisture content
o The amount of water that is present in the soil
o Three ways of expressing moisture content

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 1. Gravimetric moisture content (% θm) or Moisture Content by weight or mass basis
% θm= [(FW – ODW)/ ODW] x 100
Where:
FW = weight of moist soil
ODW= oven dry weight

2. Volumetric Moisture Content (%θv)

where:
Vw = volume of water
Vs = volume of soil

%θv = %θm x BD/Dw

Where:
BD- bulk density, g/cm³
Dw- density of water, g/cm³

3. Soil Water Depth (Hw)

Hw = θv * Ht
Ht = total depth of soil

o Soil Moisture tension (SMT)

 A measure of the energy state of water in the soil
 Soil moisture that surrounds soil particles is held at varying degrees of tenacity or
energy. The farther away the moisture film from the surface of the soil particle, the
weaker is the energy of attraction between soil and water.
 It is the energy state of water in the soil
 Commonly used unit of SMT is BAR
 Soil moisture coefficients
1. Saturation (SAT)
• Moisture content when pore spaces are fully filled-up with water.
• SMT= 0 bar. ( the water in the soil is loosely held by the particles and it easily
drips with the action of gravity.
2. Field Capacity
• Moisture content of a previously saturated soil allowed to drain until
downward movement is practically zero.
• FC is the upper limit of available water
• SMT = 1/3 bar
3. Permanent Wilting Coefficient (PWC)
• The moisture content when turgid plants begins to wilt permanently
• PWP is the lower limit of available water
• SMT = 15 bars
4. Hydroscopic Coefficient (HC)
• Air dry soil moisture content which is highly dependent on the relative
humidity of the atmosphere
• Water is held at very energy that is not available for plant use.
• SMT= >31bars

SOIL SCIENCE page20

 5. Oven Dry (OD)
• Oven drying condition involves putting the moist soil in an oven at 105-110⁰C
for 24hours

o Important Soil Moisture Calculation

1. Gravitational Water (GW)
a. Computed by getting the difference between moisture content of soil at SAT and at
FC (1/3 bar SMT) as shown below:

GW = Sat – FC
Where:
GW – gravitational water
Sat- saturated moisture content
FC- field capacity
2. Available water capacity (AWC)
a. Computed by getting the difference between moisture content of soil at FC (1/3 bar
SMT) and at PWP (15 bars SMT) as shown below:

AWC = FC – PWP
Where:
AWC- available water
FC- field capacity
PWP- permanent wilting point

 SOIL CONSISTENCY
 The manner in which forces of cohesion and adhesion are manifested in soils at various soil
moisture content
 A soil behaves differently at different soil moisture content, it is hard when it is dry, friable
when it is moist, sticky and plastic when it is wet and viscous ( it flows like liquid) when
supper saturated.
 Physical state of the soil at various moisture levels when subjected to mechanical stress, e.g.
Plowing.
 Affected by OM, texture and nature of clay

 Description:
1. Dry consistency
a. Sandy soil have less loose consistence and crumble easily
b. Clayey soils are hard
2. Most consistency (friable)
a. Clayey soils (esp. Montmorillonite) have narrow moisture range for tillage. Below
the range they are too hard and above the range they become too puddle. Medium
texture soils have wider moisture range for tillage
3. Wet consistence
a. Described as plasticity or stickiness. Plasticity is the ability to be molded. Sandy soils
are non-plastic and non-sticky when wet.

SOIL SCIENCE page21

 Soil Consistency
State of Soild Semi-Solid Plastic Liquid
Consistency
Description of Hard, Harsh, Friable, Mellow, Plastic, Sticky Muddy, Viscous,
Consistency Clod, Solid Soft Puddled, Liquid
SMCL (%MC) OD SL PL LL

SMSC (Soil Moisture Consistency Limits) or Atterberg Limits which can be determined in
the laboratory
OD = Oven Dry
SL = Shrinkage Limit
PL = Plastic Limit
LL = Liquid Limits
PN = Plastic Number = LL – PL

Important Notes:
 At liquid consistency, the soil is easily puddled (good for paddy rice culture). But
puddling completely destroy aggregation and, hence, destruction of soil structure
(very bad if growing upland crops like corn and vegetables)
 At plastic consistency, the soil is plastic, sticky and compaction (good for pottery but
bad effect if soil is cultivated since it is sticky and easily compacted resulting to poor
soil structure)
 At friable consistency, the soil is best for cultivation since it is soft, friable, mellow,
and soil structure is rejuvenated
 At harsh consistency, the soil is very hard, requires very high amount of energy to
pull the plow, resulting to cloddy seed bed.

SOIL CHEMISTRY

Topics covered:
 Chemical nature of soil constituents
 Chemical properties of soils
 Problem soils
 Chemistry of flooded soils

 Chemical Nature of Soil Constituents

 Three phases:
o Solid
 Skeletal framework of soils
 Mixture of inorganic and organic material
o Liquid
 Soil solution, carries and moves dissolved nutrients
o Gas- soil air

 Percentage composition by volume:

Soil Air Atmospheric Air

Oxygen 20.0 21.0
Nitrogen 78.6 78.03

SOIL SCIENCE page22

 Carbon Dioxide 0.50 0.03

 In addition, the soil also contains large and varied amounts of macro and microorganisms
which play an important role in plant nutrition

o A typical soil that is ideal for plant growth is composed of:

 45% inorganic matter
 5% organic matter
 25% water
 25% air

o SOIL COLLOIDS
 Seat of chemical activity or reactions in soils
 Very small particles whose sizes range from 0.2 to 1 micrometer (µm)
 1 µm = 1/1000mm
= 0.001mm
= 0.0001 cm
 Types of soil colloids
o Organic colloids- Humus
o Inorganic colloids- Silicate clays and oxide clays, amorphous clays
 Silicate clays (layer silicates):
• Kaolinite, Montmorillonite
• Vermiculite, Illite
 Oxide clays (Non-silicate clays):
• Fe oxide and hydrous oxide- Hematite, Goethite
• Al oxide and hydrous oxide- Gibbsite, Boehmite
 Amorphous clays:
• Allophone
• Imogolite
o Silicate Clays (Layer Silicates)
 Basic structural units:
 Silica tetrahedron
 Alumina octahedron
 Classification of silicate clays (based on number of tetrahedral to octahedral sheet)
 1:1 type- Kaolinite
o Two sheets are held together by oxygen atoms that are mutually shared by Si
and Al
o Unit layers are held together tightly by H-bonding
 Restricts expansion
 Limits the reactive area to external surface
 Specific surface area: 10-20 m²/g
o Kaolinite
 Little isomorphous substitution
 Low colloidal property
 CEC: 3-15cmolc/kg
 Occur as hexagonal crystals
 Soils high in kaolinite do not smell swell nor shrink on wetting and drying
 Soils dominated by kaolinite are:
 Good bases for roadbeds and building foundations

SOIL SCIENCE page23

  Commonly used in making bricks
 Easy to cultivate for agriculture
 2:1 expanding type:
(Montmorillonite)
o Most common member of smectite group
o Unit layers are loosely held together by weak oxygen-to-oxygen and cation-to-
oxygen linkages
o When saturated with water, basal spacing between layers can approach 20⁰A
(2.0nm)
o Under drying conditions it may be reduced to less than 10⁰A (1.0nm)
o Specific surface (total surface area)is large due to contribution of internal
surface
o Specific surface: 700-800 m²/g
o Flake-like crystals, much smaller than kaolinite
o Derives most of the negative charge from isomorphous substitution of Mg²⁺
for Al³⁺ in the octahedral sheet; CEC: 60-100 cmolc/kg
o High shrink-well capacity
 Tendency for crack formation
 General instability of the soil surface
o Soils dominated by smectites are:
 Very difficult to cultivate because they form aggregates or clods that are
very hard
 Poor bases for roadbeds and building foundations

(Vermiculite)
o Layer structure resembles that of mica from which it is derived
o Aluminum dominated dioctahedral
o Mg dominated trioctahedral
o Capable only of limited expansion; swells less than montmorillonite because of
higher layer charge
 Al3+ substituting for Si4+ in the tetrahedral sheet
 Mg2+ and Fe2+ as the octahedral cations
o Water molecules along with other ions act as bridges holding the unit layers
together rather than apart
o Specific surface: 500-700 m²/g
o Exhibit a high CEC: 110-160 cmolc/kg

 2:1 Non-expanding – Illite (fine-grained mica)

o Chemical composition is similar to muscovite, but contains more SiO₂
and less K
o Contains interlayer K, the unit layers are bonded more strongly than
montmorillonite and vermiculite hence no expansion
o CEC: 20-40 cmolc/kg
o Specific surface: 40-180 m²/g

 2:1:1 or 2:2 Non-expanding type-chlorite

o 2:1 layers alternate with a hydroxide sheet commonly dominated by
magnesium
o No water adsorption between the unit layers hence its non-expansive
nature

SOIL SCIENCE page24

 o CEC: 10-40cmolc/kg

 Oxide clays – Iron oxides, particularly hematite are responsible for the deep
red color of highly weathered soils in the tropics

 Classification under Amorphous Clays

 Allophane
o Noncrystalline; amorphous to x-ray diffraction analysis; exhibit
featureless x-ray diffraction pattern
o Abundant in soils derived from volcanic ash deposits
o Have high phosphate fixation capacity
o Most soils containing allophone have black A horizons, extremely
high in OM
 Imogolite
o First found in weathered volcanic ash or pumice beds in Japan called
imogo
o Chemical structure is better defined than allophone
o Electron microscopy shows the presence of hair-like or spaghetti-
like crystal forms

 Soil Organic Matter (SOM)

 Sum total of all carbon-containing substances in the soil
 Consists of living organisms, dead plant and animal residues and other
organic materials in various phases of decomposition
 Accumulation is affected by temperature, soil moisture, vegetation, soil
texture and cropping system
 Higher in areas with higher effective moisture regime
 Sandy soils accumulate less organic matter than clayey soil
 More accumulation in grassland than forest land due to faster turnover
of vegetative matter and shorter life cycle of grass than trees.
 Cultivated soils contain 2-3% OM.
 Declines when the soil is cultivated because of the enhanced oxidation
and microbial activity brought by the loosening of the soil
 Composition:
o Cellulose (15-60%)
o Hemicellulose (10-30%)
o Lignin (5-30%) – most resistant to decomposition
o Water-soluble fractions: amino sugars, amino acids (5-30%)
o Proteins
o Fats, oil, waxes
 Amount of SOM:
o <1% in desert soils close to 100% in inorganic soils
o 1-5% in top 15cm of typical agricultural soils
 Non-humic substances- undecomposed remains of animals, plants and
microbes that include carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, proteins
 Humic fraction includes amorphous, colloidal, polydispersed substances
with yellow to brown to black color and relatively high molecular
weights that were formed by secondary synthesis reactions.
o Humic Acid (Humus)

SOIL SCIENCE page25

 • A dark, complex mixture of organic substances modified from
original organic tissue
• Not biologically active and is the pool responsible for many of the
soil chemical and physical properties associated with SOM and
soil quality.
o Fulvic Acid
o Humin
 Effects of SOM to Soil Properties
o Biological
• Provides C and energy to soil organisms and thus, increases their
diversity and activity
• Enhances microbial functions such as decomposition and
nutrient transformations
o Physical
• Enhances soil aggregation and aggregate stability
• Reduces plasticity and stickiness of clayey soils
• Increases soil water retention, infiltration rate, water holding
capacity and aeration
• Reduces bulk density and compaction
o Chemical
• Increases CEC of soils
• Increases soil buffering capacity
• Increases soil native supply of N, P, S, etc.
• Reduces Al toxicity by binding the Al ions in non-toxic complexes
• Increases nutrient availability through solubility of minerals by
organic acids and by chelation of metal ions

o Chelate - Greek word meaning ‘claw’

 Soluble organic compounds that bond with metals, such as Fe, Zn and Mn, increasing
their solubility and their supply to the plant roots.

 Important characteristics of soil colloids related to chemical reactivity:

1. Fineness and large specific surface area
2. Presence of electric charges
• Sources of negative charge:
i. Isomorphous substitution- substitution of one ion for another of
similar size within a crystal lattice
 The resulting negative charge is considered a permanent
charge
 Major source of negative charges in 2:1 layer silicates
Montmorillonite: MSi8 (Al4-XMg X) O20(OH) 4
ii. Ionization of exposed –OH groups
 At high pH, the hydrogen of these exposed hydroxyls,
dissociates and the surface of the clay is left with the negative
charge of the oxygen ions
Alkaline mediun: -AL-OH + OH = -Al-O + H2O
 This type of negative charge is called variable or pH-
dependent charge

SOIL SCIENCE page26

  An important type of charge for 1:1 layer silicates, iron and
aluminum oxides and organic colloids
iii. Functional groups of organic colloids carboxyl groups, phenolic-OH,
alcoholic-OH

• Sources of Positive Charge

i. Protonation of exposed hydroxyl groups
 These exposed OH can also adsorb or gain protons
particularly in strongly acidic media and create positive
charges
Acid medium: -Al-OH + H⁺ = -Al-OH2+
 Agriculturally important soils generally possess net negative
charge
 Negatively charged colloids attract cations which become
adsorbed on the surface
 In Humid regions: (H⁺, Al³⁺)> Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺> K⁺> Na⁺
 In arid regions: Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ > Na⁺, K⁺>H⁺
 In general, the order of adsorbability or replacing power of
cations commonly found in soils is: (Al³⁺, H⁺) > Ca²⁺ > Mg²⁺ >
K⁺ = NH₄⁺> Na⁺

o Factors affecting strength of adsorption

 Charge (valence) the higher the valence, the stronger the adsorption
 Hydrated size the smaller the hydrated size, the stronger the adsorption
 Concentration of solution the higher the concentration, the stronger the
adsorption
o Cation Exchange
 The process whereby cations adsorbed on the colloid are exchanged for
those in the soil solution
 The reaction is instantaneous, reversible and stoichiometric (i.e. 1
milliequivalent of one cation is replaced by 1 me of another)

1 meq of Mg2+ is replaced by 1 meq of Ca2+

1 cmol of Mg2+ is replaced by 1 cmol of Ca2+
1 meq of K+ is replaced by 1 meq of Ca2+
1 cmol K+ is replaced by 1 cmol Ca2+

Concept of milliequivalents:
wt of 1 me = __atomic weight___
valence x 1000

Cation Exchange capacity (CEC)

 Sum of the exchangeable cations that a soil can adsorb
 Expressed in terms of me/100 g soil or in cmolc/kg soil
 Significance of CEC: indicator of soil fertility since it reflects the capacity of
the soil to retain nutrients
 CEC determination:
Soil
Saturated with NH₄OAc
NH₄⁺ is replaced by K⁺
SOIL SCIENCE page27
 NH₄⁺ distilled

 Soil Properties that determine CEC:

o Soil Texture – in general, a clay soil will have a larger CEC than a
sandy soil
o Organic matter content – Soils with large amounts of clay and
organic matter have higher CEC than sandy soils low in OM
o Examples of CEC values for different soil textures:
Soil Texture CEC (cmolc/kg soil)
Sands (light-colored) 3-5
Sands (dark-colored) 10-20
Loams 10-15
Slit Loams 15-25
Clay and clay loams 20-50
 Nature of clay colloid
o Two soils of the same amount of clay content may not have the same
CEC.
o If the clay type is dominantly montmorillonite, the CEC is higher
compared to clay which is predominantly kaolinitic
o Base Saturation
 Percentage of CEC that is satisfied by the exchangeable bases
 Percentage base saturation is an important soil property because it is
inversely related to soil acidity
 Generally, as percentage base saturation increases, soil pH increases
 Exchangeable bases: Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+
 Exchangeable Acids: Al3+, H+

% Base saturation = ∑ exch bases x 100

CEC

o Exchangeable Sodium Percentage

 Proportion of the exchange sites occupied by sodium
 Soils with high ESP (>15%) are considered sodic and need to be reclaimed

o Soil pH or Soil Reaction

 pH is the acidity or alkalinity due to relative concentration of H⁺ and OH-
ions
[H⁺] is expressed in moles/L or M

o Determination of pH:
 Electrometric method- by pH meter; more accurate
 Colorimetric method- organic dyes, litmus paper

SOIL SCIENCE page28

 o Effects of soil pH:
 On microbial activity:
o Fungi- unaffected
o Bacteria and Actinomycetes- inhibited at pH 5
 On availability of nutrients:
• N – dec. at pH <5.5
• Ca and Mg – dec. at pH <6.0
• P – dec. at pH <6.0 and >7.0
• K – dec. at pH <6.0
• S – dec. at pH <5.5
• Mo – dec. at pH <6.5
• B – dec. at pH <5.0 and pH >7.0
• Fe, Mn, Zn – dec. at pH >5.0
At pH <5.0 their concentration are usually toxic
o Based on these, the ideal or optimum pH appears to be pH 6.5

PROBLEM IN SOILS
 ACID SOILS
 Sources of Soil Acidity:
o H⁺ and Al³⁺ ions- Al³⁺ contributes to acidity indirectly through hydrolysis
o Al tends to contribute H⁺ through hydrolysis
Al3+ + HOH = Al (OH)2+ + H+
Al(OH)2+ + HOH = Al (OH)2+ + H+
Al(OH)2+ + HOH = Al (OH)30 + H+
o Carbonic acids from OM decomposition
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3
H2CO3 = 2H+ + CO32-
o Organic Acids from OM decomposition
o Mineral weathering
o Acid Rain
o Heavy cropping which removes basic cations (K, Ca, Mg, Na) and replaced by H⁺
from roots
o Long term use of acidifying fertilizers
• Nitrification converts NH₄⁺ to NO₃⁻ and releases hydrogen ions to the soil.
o Forms of soil acidity
• Active acidity- due to H⁺ in soil solution; determined as pH
• Reserve acidity- due to H⁺ and Al₃⁺ in the solid phase
 Measure of the buffering capacity of the soil
 Buffering capacity
o the ability of a soil to resist sudden or drastic changes in pH
o The buffering capacity is high if:
• CEC is high
• Clay content is high
• OM content is high
 Production constraints associated with acid soils:
o Aluminum toxicity – usually damages the root system first
o Mn toxicity – less common than Al toxicity
o Nutrient deficiency – P, Ca, and/or Mo deficiency

SOIL SCIENCE page29

 o Restricted microbial activities – mineralization of organic N, biological
fixation of N
o Incidence of plant diseases – some plants are more likely to be affected by
damping off (fungal disease) and root rot in acid soils

 Management Strategies:
o Reduce acidification
• Minimize the use of acidifying fertilizers
• Reduce leaching of nitrogen by use of split applications of fertilizer
• Return plant material to the soil
o Use acid tolerant crops
• Growing acid tolerant crop will enable continuous production and help maintain
farm income but will not correct soil acidity
• Acid-tolerant crops include:
o Sweet potato
o Irish potato
o Strawberry
o Radish
o Pineapple
o Coffee
o Tomato
• Apply more nutrients
o Since only few nutrients are available, more fertilizers can be used to
maintain production levels
• Apply agricultural lime
o Lime is the only means of correcting soil acidity but the economics of using it
should be carefully considered
o Correcting soil acidity by liming:
• Lime – any oxide, hydroxide or carbonate of Ca or Mg used to neutralize soil
acidity
• Carbonate form:
o Calcitic limestone, Dolomitic limestone, etc.
• Oxide and Hydroxide form:
o CaO, burned lime, Ca(OH)₂, hydrated lime
o Calcium Carbonate Equivalent (CCE) or Relative Neutralizing Value (RNV)
• Capacity of the material to neutralize soil acidity relative to that of pure CaCO₃

RNV/CCE
CaCO₃ 100
CaMg(CO₃)₂ 109
Ca(OH)₂ 136
CaO 179

 Factors affecting effectivity of lime:

• Form or kind of lime: Reactivity is in the order: CaO>Ca(OH)₂>CaMg
(CO₃)₂>CaCO₃
• Size of particles: the smaller the particles the more reactive is the lime

SOIL SCIENCE page30

 • Lime requirement; the amount of liming material required to raise the pH to a
desired level
 Lime Requirement is determined by:
• Required change in pH
• Texture: the finer the texture the higher the CEC and the greater the buffering
capacity
• Crop to be grown
 Acid-tolerant crops include:
• Camote, coffee, pineapple, potato, radish, strawberry, tomato, ubi
 Effect of Lime on the soil:
• Physical – increased granulation because Ca favors flocculation but the effect is
largely indirect due to favorable effect on organisms which decompose OM
• Chemical – neutralization of H⁺ ions; increased availability of P, Mo, Ca, K;
reduced solubility and toxicity of Fe, Al and Mn
• Biological – promotes activity of microorganisms such as those that decompose
OM, mineralize nutrients and fix N (symbiotically). However, it may encourage
potato scab.
 Liming could also have harmful effects, particularly when excessive amounts are
used (overliming).
• These include the decreased availability and development of deficiency of Fe,
Mn, Cu, Zn, P and B
• It could also trigger K and Mg deficiency due to antagonism between Ca, K and
Mg
 Overliming easily occurs on coarse-textured soils with low organic matter.

 ALKALINE AND SALT-AFFECTED SOILS

 Alkaline and salt affected soils generally occur in arid and semi-arid regions where
evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation
 Water from rain is insufficient to leach the base cations that are released from the
weathering of rocks and minerals
 Sources of soil alkalinity:
o Base-forming cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K)
o Carbonates (CO₃²⁻) and bicarbonates (HCO₃⁻)
o Saline and Sodic Soils
• Saline soils are those whose concentration of soluble salts is high enough as to
hamper plant growth
• Salts are mostly chlorides and sulfates of Na, Ca and Mg
• pH usually <8.5; sometimes called white alkali
• specific toxicities due to high concentrations of Na⁺, Cl⁻, etc.
• plant growth is reduced due to osmotic effect
• Sodic Soil have >15% of their cation exchange sites occupied by Na⁺ ions
o pH>8.5
o Soil is highly dispersed
 Dispersed humus carried upward by capillary gives the soil black color (black alkali)
o Reclamation of Saline soils
• Leaching of excess salts out of the root zone (internal and surface drainage and
salt disposal dump areas)
• Retardation of evaporation (use of sulfate mulch)
• Use of salt-tolerant crops

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 • Use of special planting procedures that minimize salt accumulation around the
seed
• Furrow irrigation accumulate salts at the peak of flattened hill
• Staggered planting on sides of hill to avoid salt accumulation in the center of hill
• Alternate furrow irrigation

o Reclamation of Sodic soils

• Replacement of excess Na on the exchange sites by Ca and leaching of exchanged
Na out of the root zone
• Gypsum (CaSO4, 2H2O) cheapest and most commonly used
• Replacing Na with Ca before leaching will stabilize soil structure
• S is likely to be used when the soil contains free lime in addition to too much Na
• Addition of OM is also beneficial
• Deep plowing
o Chemistry of Flooded Soils
• Flooded soils are submerged soils used to grow rice; also known as paddy soils
• Profile:
o The plow layer is a puddle system which results from plowing and
harrowing while the soil is wet
o Underneath is a hardpan which prevents or minimizes the percolation of
water into the subsoil
 Oxidized layer (thin) – aerobic layer; aerobe oxidation reactions
 Reduced layer – anaerobic layer, facultative anaerobes and obligate
anaerobes reduction reactions
 Facultative anaerobes – can live with or without O2
 Obligate anaerobes – can live only in the absence of O2
• Effect of flooding on soil pH and redox potential:
o pH value of acid soils increase on submergence whereas the opposite occurs
in calcareous soils and sodic soils
o for most soils the fairly stable pH attained after several weeks of
submergence is between 6.5 to 7.0
• Difference in chemistry of lowland and upland soils
o Upland or dryland soil are grown to such crops as corn, vegetables, etc.
 Aerobic most of the time
 The nutrient elements exist generally in their oxidized state: NO3-,
H2PO4-, SO42-, Fe3+, Mn4+, and CO2
 Aerobic soil is brown, yellowish brown, or reddish brown
 Organic matter decomposes with CO2 as a major product.
o Lowland or paddy soils are usually grown to rice
 Continuously submerged are anaerobic except for a thin oxidized layer
at the surface
 Nutrients are also in reduced forms like NH4+, H2S, Mn2+, Fe2+, and CH4
 Submerged soil is dark grey or bluish gray
 The major products of organic matter decomposition are methane
(CH4) hydrogen sulfide (H2S), organic acids, alcohols and ketones.
• Effects of pH change:
o In acid soils, increase in pH:
 Depresses Fe, Al, Mn toxicity
 Increases P, Si and Mo availability

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  Enhances microbial activity (pH near neutrality favors microbial
activity)
o In alkaline soils, decrease in pH:
 Increases availability of P as well as Zn and Cu
 Enhances microbial activity
o Redox potential (Eh)- measures the intensity of oxidation and reduction
 Submerged soils are characterized by low or negative redox potentials
 Eh drops to a fairly stable value of +200 to -300mV, depending on the
soil
o Sequential reduction of several soil redox systems in rice soils:
 As O₂ is depleted from the soil, NO₃⁻ is utilized by facultative anaerobes
and is rapidly reduced.
 The reduction of Mn (IV) to Mn (II) takes place during reduction of O₂
and NO₃⁻
 Reduction of Fe(III) only occurs after O₂ and NO₃⁻ are consumed; carried
out by facultative anaerobes
 Reduction of SO₄²⁻ to S²⁻ is carried out by true anaerobic bacteria
 CH₄ is not produced in soils until most of the sulfate has been reduced
o Summary of the major reduction processes involved in flooded soils:
O2 --------- H2O
NO3- --------- N2
Mn4+ --------- Mn2+
Fe3+ --------- Fe2+
SO42- --------- H2S
CO2 --------- CH4

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BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES IN SOIL

Soil Organisms – creatures that spend all/ part of their lives in the soil environment.
Roles:
o Maintaining fertility, structure, drainage, and aeration of soil.
o Breakdown plant and animal tissues (decomposition)
o Conversion of Nutrients into the plant available forms
o Some are pests, but most are beneficial

Classification of Soil Organisms

o Based on Size
 Megafauna – size range – 20mm upward, e.g. moles, rabbits, and rodents
 Macrofauna – size range – 2 to 20mm, e.g. woodlice, earthworms, beetles,
centipedes, slugs, snails, ants, and harvestmen.
 Mesofauna – size range – 100 micrometers to 2 mm, e.g. tardigrades, mites
and springtails
 Microfauna and microflora: size range – 1 to 100 micrometers, e.g. yeasts,
bacteria (commonly actinobacteria), fungi, protozoa, roundworms, and
rotifers.
o Based on metabolism
 Autotrophs – primary producers; self-feeding, organisms that obtain their C
mainly from CO2 2
o Photoautotrophs – obtain energy from sunlight (photosynthesis)
o Chemoautotrophs – obtain energy from our oxidation of various
elements
 Heterotrophs – organisms incapable of making their own food from light
and organic compounds; feed on organisms or remains of other organisms
to get their necessary energy to survive.
o Based on Ecological function
 Herbivores – subsist on living plants
 Detrivores – subsist on dead plant debris
 Predators – consume animals
 Parasites – live off, but do not consume other organisms
o Based on three-domain system
 Adds a level of classification “above” the kingdoms-Domains
 Based on phylogeny or the evolutionary relationship between organisms
 Reflected in the ribosomal DNA
 Two main divisions:
1. Eukaryotic organisms – presence of a true nucleus that is
enclosed in a nuclear envelop; belong to domain Eukarya
2. Prokaryotic organisms – absence of a true nucleus; DNA is
stored in an area termed as “nucleoid”; may belong to either
the domain Bacteria or Archaea
o Domain Eukarya – cells contain membrane-bound nucleus and
organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and chloroplasts;
relatively large and mostly multicellular; e.g.: fungi, mites, other soil
animals
o Domain Bacteria – Consists of prokaryotic cell with cell walls that
contain peptidoglycan; bacteria are the most abundant organisms on

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 earth; Unicellular with a single circular DNA; e.g.: Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria; Cyanobacteria, Azotobacter, Rhizobium
o Domain Archaea – Have cell walls that lack peptidoglycan; Archaeal
membranes contain a substance known as isoprene, which forms
heat-resistance structures and is not present in bacterial cell
membranes; mostly extremophiles—they thrive in physically or
geochemically extreme conditions; can also be found in agricultural
soils. E.g.: Methanobacterium oryzae, Methanosarcina opp.,
Methanosaeta spp., Methanocallales spp.

 Earthworms
 Probably the most significant microorganism
 Eat detritus, soil organic matter and microorganisms found on these materials
 Facilitate aeration and drainage through the channels they create.
 7,000 species worldwide.
 More numerous in fertile and alkaline soils than in infertile and acid soils.
 Influence on Soil Fertility and Productivity
- Earthworms literally “eat their way through the soil” which results to the
development of the extensive system of burrows
- After passing through the earthworm gut, ingested soil is expelled as globular
casts.
 Activity of earthworms enhance soil fertility and productivity
- Earthworms grind and digest the soil and organic materials, making it more
available for decomposing microbes.
- Casts have significantly higher bacteria, organic matter, and available organic
matter compared to the bulk oil
- The burrows increase aeration and improve drainage
- Examples:
Compost worm – Elsenia foetida; Epigeic: live in the litter layer
Pale-pink-red worm – Allolobophora caliginosa; Endogeic: live in the top 10-30
cm of the soil
Night-crawler – Lumbricus terrestris; Aneic: live in vertical burrow up to 1 meter
-the most common species are Lumbricus terrectris and Allolobophpra callignosa

A. MAJOR ROLE OF SOIL MICROORGANISMS

 Responsible for biochemical changes
 Agents in the decomposition of plant and animal residues
 Improve soil structure through aggregation

B. MAJOR GROUPS OF SOIL MICROORGANISMS

 Bacteria
 Actinomycetes
 Fungi
 Algae
 Protozoa

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  BACTERIA
Prokaryotic, single-celled, microscopic organisms; probably the most important in terms of
their effect on soil properties; involved in nitrogen transformation, sulfur oxidation and
reduction, and other chemical processes

 Morphological Grouping
o Cocci (Spherical)
o Rods (Short; Long; Curved)
o Spiral (Vibrio)
 Nutritional Grouping (Based on C and E)
o Heterotrophic (OM as source of C and E)
o Autotrophic
• Photosynthetic (E from sunlight; C from CO₂)
• Chemosynthetic (E from Oxidation of Inorganic compound; C from CO₂)
 Based on Oxygen requirement
o Aerobic- requires oxygen to survive (obligate aerobes)
o Anaerobic – die in the presence of oxygen (obligate anaerobes)
o Facultative – organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is
present, but is capable of switching to fermentation or anaerobic respiration
if oxygen is absent
o Microaerophiles – need low concentration of oxygen
o Aerotolerant – does not need oxygen but is not poisoned by oxygen
 Based on temperature for optimum activity
o Mesophilic (20-45 °C)
o Thermophilic (41-122 °C)
o Psychrophilic or cryophilic (-20-10 °C)
 Based on gram reaction
o Gram staining- differentiates bacteria by the chemical and physical
properties of their cell walls by detecting peptidoglycan
o Gram positive bacteria- thick peptidoglycan layer and is colored purple
when gram stained
o Gram negative bacteria- possess a thin layer of peptidoglycan between two
membranes (diderms). It is colored pink when gram stained.
 Population: 10⁶-10⁹ CFU/g Soil
 Biomass: ~2,000 Kg/HFS

 ACTINOMYCETES
 Branched mycelial structures
 Intermediate between bacteria and fungi
 unicellular and do not have distinct cell-wall, like bacteria
 produce conidia/ sporangia like fungi, but produce a non-septate and a more slender
hyphae
 On culture media, actinomycetes colonies grow slowly, show powdery consistency and
stick firmly to agar surface.
 Very fine hyphae (<1 micron diameter)
 Heterotrophic
 Aerobic; Some microaerophilic
 Major antibiotic producer (e.g. Streptomycin; Erythromycin)
 Acid sensitive (critical pH=5.5)

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  Population: 10⁵-10⁶ CFU/g Soil
 Biomass: ~4,000 Kg/HFS
 Roles:
- Important in the degradation of organic materials in the soil, including lignin
- Contribute to the formation of stable humus.
- Ability to produce antibiotics – streptomycin, neomycin, erythromycin, tetracycline

 FUNGI
 Complex morphology (multicellular; highly branched); usually grow as long threads or
strands called hyphae, which push their way between soil particles, roots, and rocks;
hyphae are only a few micrometers in diameter, but can span in length from a few cells
to many yards
 Heterotrophic
 Aerobic
 Acid-Loving (efficient OM decomposers under acidic conditions); also present in neutral
and alkaline soils and some can even tolerate pH beyond 9.0
 Population: 10⁴-10⁵ CFU/g Soil
 Biomass: ~8,000 Kg/HFS
 Roles of Fungi
 Play an important role in the decomposition of cellulose, hemicellulose,
starch, pectin, and lignin in the organic matter added to the soil; serve as
food for bacteria; a number of soil fungi form mycorrhizal association with
the roots of higher plants and helps in mobilization of soil phosphorus and
nitrogen.
 Mycorrhiza
 A symbiotic association composed of a fungus and roots of a vascular
plant
 The fungus helps the plant to capture water and nutrients (N,P,S)
 Mycorrhizal plants are often more resistant to diseases, such as
those caused by microbial soil-borne pathogens
 Fungi have been found to have a protective role for plants rooted in
soils with high metal concentrations.

 ALGAE
 Principally aquatic, love moist habitat
 Both single-celled and multicellular species are present in the soil
 Aerobic
 Photo-autotrophs
 Blue-Green Algae are capable of Nitrogen fixation – most abundant in tropical soils;
some possess specialized cells known as “heterocyst”
 Excellent host for bacteria due to oxygenating capacity
 Population: 10³-10⁵ Cells/g Soil
 Biomass: ~250Kg/HFS
 Four main classes:
 Cyanophyta (Blue-green algae)
 Chlorophyta (Grass-green algae)
 Xanthophyta (Yellow-green algae)
 Bacillariophyta (diatoms or golden-brown algae)

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  PROTOZOA
 Single-celled animals (20-50 Microns in Diameter)
 Aerobic
 Ingest food through oral openings
 Reproduction: Binary Fission; Budding
 Population: 10³-10⁵ Cells/g Soil
 Biomass: ~100 Kg/HFS
 Types: Amoebae, Ciliates, and Flagellates

PRODUCTION OF TOXINS

A. Types of Toxins
 Organic (e.g. Antibiotics)
 Inorganic (e.g. Heavy Metals: Cd, Hg, Pb, Cu, Zn)

B. Potential Sources of Toxins

 Soil microorganisms
 Plant roots
 Decomposing organic materials
 Sewage sludge

C. Ranking of Soil Microbial Groups in Relation to Antibiotic Production

 1stActinomycetes
 2nd Fungi
 3rd Bacteria

D. Mode of Action of Antibiotics

 Disruption of Cell Wall synthesis, e.g. Penicillin; Cephalosporin
 Disruption of Protein synthesis, e.g. Streptomycin; Chloramphenicol
 Inhibition of Cell membrane function, e.g. Polymixin
 Inhibition of DNA/RNA function, e.g. Rifampicin

INORGANIC PHOPHORUS SOLUBILIZATION

A. Genera of Bacteria Capable of Solubilizing Calcium Phosphate

 Pseudomonas
 Mycobacterium
 Bacillus
 Micrococcus

B. Common Genera of Fungi Capable of Solubilizing Calcium Phosphates

 Penicillium
 Fusarium
 Aspergillus

C. Microbiological means by which inorganic phosphorus is solubilized

 Production of Organic acids
 Nitric acid or sulfuric acid production

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  Flooding resulting in the reduction of Fe in insoluble Ferric Phosphates
 Mycorrhizal association (Related to Organic Acid Production)

D. Types of Mycorrhiza
 Ectotrophic
o Fungus forms a mantle around exterior of the roots
o Hyphae enter into spaces between plant cells
o Examples: Pine; Eucalyptus
 Endomycorrhiza
o Fungus penetrates the cells of the plant
o Examples: Orchids; Coffee; Fruit trees; Rice; Corn

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

A. Definition: Soil Organic Matter refers to the totality of all carbon-containing compounds in the
soil derived from either plants or animals

B. Organic Constituents of Plants

 Cellulose (15-60%)
 Hemicellulose (10-30%)
 Lignin (5-30%)
 Water- soluble fraction, e.g. Amino Sugars, Amino acids (5-30%)
 Proteins
 Fats, Oils and Waxes

C. Decomposition of Soil Organic Matter

 Also called “humification”
o The enzymatic oxidation by soil microorganism under aerobic condition
o CO2, heat or energy and water as the major products
o Anaerobic conditions:
• Decomposition is greatly reduced
• Results in the accumulation of organic matter
• Results in the formation of the partially-oxidized organic compounds such as
organic acids, alcohols and methane gas
o Soil microorganisms derive carbon and energy from the Soil Organic Matter
o Essential nutrients like N, P, and S are released for plant absorption

 Carried out by heterotrophic microflora. Decomposes OM materials (crop residues, animal

manures and other carbonaceous and nitrogenous compounds)
 Reactants are compounds containing carbon and hydrogen plus O₂
 Products are CO₂, H₂O and energy
 Environmental factors affecting decomposition
o Soil pH
• Fungi: unaffected by pH level
• Bacteria and actinomycetes: inhibited at pH 5.5
o Moisture
o Temperature
o Aeration
o Soil Texture
 Physical factors affecting decomposition

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 o Location of residues: Surface vs. Incorporated
o Particle size: Chopped vs. Unchopped
 Chemical Factors affecting decomposition
o C/N ratio
• The carbon-nitrogen ratio of organic materials is a convenient tool for
predicting the rate of decomposition
• 20:1 is the optimum C/N ratio of organic materials for faster decomposition
• If the C/N ratio is above 30:1, the amount of N in the organic material is not
enough to decompose the C
 Soil microorganisms will take N from the N available in the soil
(immobilization)
 Soil microorganisms will compete with the plants for N source
• As decomposition proceeds, the C/N ratio decrease because C is released as CO2
• When C:N ratio falls below 25:1, further decomposition results in
mineralization of the release of N and other nutrients in the plant-available
form.
o Lignin and Polyphenol

D. Compost and Composting

 Composting is the process of creating humus-like organic matter by piling, mixing and
storing organic materials under conditions favorable for aerobic decomposition
 The finished product of composting is compost; used as organic soil conditioner or slow-
release fertilizer
o Stages of Composting:
• Mesophilic Stage (20-40⁰C)
• Thermophilic Stage (above 40⁰C)
• Stabilization/Curing Stage – gradual cooling period
 After composting the C/N ratio of the organic materials is reduced to about 14 to 20:1
 Pathogenic organisms are destroyed during thermophilic stage (50-75⁰C) but heavy metals
(inorganic contaminants) are not destroyed
 Cellulose decomposition
o One of the most abundant OM in nature
o Strongly cellullotoic fungi are represented by species of the genera Aspergillus
Chaetomium, Cuvularia, Fusarium, Memnoniella, Phoma, Thielavia and Trichoderma
o Cellulose-digesting bacteria:
• Bacillus: aerobic, spore-forming, gram-positive rods
• Cellulomones: short gram negative rods that produces yellow, water-soluble
pigments
• Clostridium: anaerobic, non-motile, gram negative rod, which does not ferment
carbohydrates other thzn cellulose: produces a yellow pigment
• Cytophaga: aerobic, long, flexuous rod with pointed ends; abundant on soils
receiving straw or manure

E. Influence of OM on Plant Growth

 As OM decays growth – promoting substances are released, e.g. Vitamins, Amino Acids,
Auxins and Gibberellins, these substances stimulate growth of both higher plants and
microorganisms

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  Allelophatic effect, decomposing crop residues left on the soil surface may inhibit the
germination and growth of the next crop, e.g. wheat residues inhibit the germination and
growth of sorghum.

F. Influence of OM on soil properties

 Biological Properties
o Provides food for the heterotrophic organisms
o Improves SOM accumulation
o Increases microbial diversity
 Chemical Properties
o Increment in CEC
o Increases micronutrient availability through chelation
o Alleviates Al toxicity by binding Al in non-toxic complexes

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  Physical Properties
o Give surfaces horizons dark brown to black colors
o Encourages granulation and aggregate stability
o Helps reduce plasticity, cohesion and stickiness of clayey soils
o Increases infiltration rate and water-holding capacity

NO₃⁻
NH₃ N₂
NO₂
Rain

Nitrate reduction
Erosion or NH₄Fixation
Run-off Silicate NH₄ NO₃
Clay NO₂ (Run-off)

Nitrification

Biological(Or Leaching
ganic N)

SOIL FERTILITY AND MANAGEMENT

PRINCIPLES AND MANAGEMENT OF SOIL FERTILITY

What are the so-called essential nutrient elements? Give their available forms in the soil.
There are 16 nutrient elements that are considered essential for plant growth. The nine
elementstermed as macronutrients (or major nutrients) are C, H. 0, N, P,K, Ca, Mg and S. The other
seven, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo and CI, are called micronutrients (or trace elements) because they are
needed by plants only in very minute amounts.
These elements exist in the soil in two combinations with organic compounds, in the
complex structure of minerals of salts in soil solution. When the organic and inorganic compounds
decompose and the solutes dissociate into their component ions, the nutrients then become
available for absorption by plants or adsorbed on colloid surfaces. Thus, the ionic forms of nutrients
are the forms that are available for plant use.
The elements C, Hand 0 are derived by plants From C02, H20 and free oxygen in the air and
their supply is generally not limiting. The other elements, except nitrogen are derived mostly from
minerals.

 Why are the 16 elements considered essential to plants?

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 The 16 essential elements are so-called because of the following reasons:

1. Plants cannot complete their life cycle in the absence or lack of anyone of the nutrient elements;
2. The nutrient is an integral part of the plant structure and/or participates in one or more
metabolic processes in the plant; and
3. No other element can substitute for that element if it is absent or lacking in supply. Its
deficiency can be corrected by addition of that element.

These are the criteria for essentiality that were set by plant nutritionists and were arrived at
through numerous experimentations in culture solutions as well as field studies. Through the years,
others like cobalt, vanadium, sodium and silicon were added to the 16 but the latter additions are
essential only for specific plants.

Definition of terms:
 Soil Fertility
 The ability of the soil to supply essential nutrients to plants in sufficient and balanced
amount.
 Soil Productivity
 The ability of the soil to produce desired quantities of plant yield.
 Plant nutrition
 The supply and absorption of chemical elements or compounds required by plant
 Nutrients
 Chemical elements or compounds required by plants for normal growth
 Metabolic Processes
 Are mechanisms by which elements are converted to cellular materials or as sources of
energy or to drive reactions

Ionic forms of nutrients that are available for plant use:

ELEMENTS AVAILABLE FORM
1. Carbon (C ) CO₂
2. Hydrogen (H) H₂O, H₂
3. Oxygen (O) O₂
4. Nitrogen (N) NH₄⁺, NO₃⁻
5. Phosphorus (P) H₂PO₄⁻, HPO₄⁼, PO₄⁼
6. Potassium (K) K⁺
7. Calcium (C ) Ca⁺⁺
8. Magnesium (Mg) Mg⁺⁺
9. Sulfur (S) SO₄⁼
10. Iron (Fe) Fe⁺⁺
11. Manganese (Mn) Mn⁺⁺
12. Zinc (Zn) Zn⁺⁺
13. Copper (Cu) Cu⁺⁺
14. Boron (B) Bo₃⁼
15. Molybdenum (Mo) MoO₄⁼
16. Chlorine (Cl) Cl⁻

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  MACROELEMENTS: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, sulfur (CHONPKCaMgS)
o MACRO- absorbed by plants in large amounts
 Microelements: iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc, chlorine
(FeCoZnMoBClMn)

1. Criteria for essentiality

 A chemical element is essential to plant growth if the element is involved in metabolic
processes and the plant cannot complete its life cycle if the element is lacking or absent.
2. Order of relative concentration of nutrient element in plants.
 H (60,000 or 6%) > O > C > N > K >Ca> Mg > P > S >Cl> Fe > B >Mn> Zn > Cu > Mo (1 or
0.1ppm)
3. Functions of nutrient elements in plants
a. Nitrogen
i. Constituents of amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA)
ii. Integral part of chlorophyll molecule
iii. Associated with photosynthetic activity, vigorous vegetative growth, dark green
color of leaves and succulence of tissues.
b. Phosphorus
i. Energy storage and transfer through ATP-ADP conversion
ii. Structural component of nucleic acids, coenzymes, nucleotides, phosphoproteins,
phospholipids and sugar phosphates
iii. As constituent of ATP, P is involved in metabolic processes such as photosynthesis,
respiration, synthesis of proteins, phospholipids, nucleic acids, lipids, cellulose,
hemicelluloses, lignin, pectin etc.
iv. Important in seed formation and development of reproductive parts of plants
v. Associated with increased root growth, early maturity particularly grain
development.
c. Potassium
i. Enzyme activator
ii. Regulates osmotic pressure in roots
iii. Maintains turgor pressure of guard cells and regulates opening of stomata, thus,
controlling photosynthesis and transpiration
iv. Needed in ATP synthesis which is used in translocation of sugars from leaves, N
uptake and protein synthesis
v. Strengthens straw of grain crops and prolongs the life of the flag leaf
vi. Increases pest and diseases resistance
d. Calcium
i. Enhances NO₃- N uptake and regulates cation uptake
ii. Essential for cell elongation and division
iii. Ca- pectate in cell wall
e. Magnesium
i. Constituent of chlorophyll molecule
ii. Structural component in ribosome which are associated with protein synthesis
iii. Associated with energy transfer reactions from AP in metabolic processes like
photosynthesis, glycolysis, TCA cycle (or citric acid or krebs cycle) and respiration

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 f. Sulfur
i. Needed in synthesis of S- containing amino acids, such as cystine, cysteine and
methionine
ii. Needed in synthesis of coenzyme A, Biotin, Thiamin (or vitamin B1) and glutathione
iii. Component of substances like S- adenosylmethionine, formylmethionine, lipoic acid
and sulfolipid
iv. Required for synthesis of chlorophyll
v. Vital part of ferrodoxin, a Fe S protein found in chloroplasts which participates in
oxidation-reduction processes by transferring electrons, e.g. nitrite reduction,
sulfate reduction and assimilation of N₂ by module bacteria
vi. Occurs in volatile compounds responsible for the characteristic taste and smell of
mustard and onion
vii. Enhances oil formation in flax and soybeans
viii. Improves quality of forage by narrowing N/S ratio

MICRONUTRIENT ROLE IN PLANTS

ELEMENTS
Boron (B) Somewhat uncertain but believed important in sugar translocation and
carbohydrate metabolism
Iron (Fe) Chlorophyll synthesis and in enzymes for electron transfer
Manganese (Mn) Controls several oxidation-reduction systems, formation of O₂ in
photosynthesis
Copper (Cu) Catalyst for respiration, enzymes constituent
Zinc (Zn) In enzyme systems that regulate various metabolic activities
Molybdenum (Mo) In nitrogenase needed for nitrogen fixation
Cobalt (Co) Essential for symbiotic nitrogen fixation
Chlorine (Cl) Activates system for production of O₂ in photosynthesis

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NUTRIENT ABSORPTION

I. Mechanism
 Mass Flow- movement of nutrients to the roots due to uptake and transpiration of water
 Diffusion- movement of nutrient ions from a zone of high concentration
 Root interception (Contact exchange)- direct exchange between root surface and colloid
surface. P and K absorption is mostly by diffusion.

II. Active vs. Passive Uptake

 Passive uptake
o Occurs in the outer or apparent free space (AFS) consisting of the walls of the
epidermal and cortical cells of the roots. Uptake is by diffusion and ion exchange, hence
controlled by concentration and electrical gradient. These processes are non-selective
and do not require energy from metabolic reactions in the cell. Passive uptake occurs
outside the casparian strip and plasmalemma as a barrier to diffusion and ion
exchange.
 Active uptake
o Transport of ions into the inner cells that require energy due to the higher
concentration of ions beyond the plasmalemma and into the cytoplasm which is against
an electrochemical gradient. Entry of ions into the impermeable membranes of the
other organs within the complex derives energy from metabolism. The process is
selective in that specific ions are transported by specific carriers.

UPTAKE, TRANSLOCATION AND ASSIMILATION OF NUTRIENTS

I. Nitrogen
A. Uptake
1. Taken up as NO₃⁻ and/or NH₄⁺ but the nitrite is often the predominant form
(because NH₄⁺ is easily oxidized by bacteria in aerobic soil to NO₃⁻ as soon as NH₄⁺
appears).
2. NO₃⁻ uptake occurs against an electrochemical gradient or actively absorbed
(energy requiring)
3. NO₃⁻ and NH₄⁺ uptake differs with pH of medium. NH₄⁺ uptake is optimum at
neutral pH and decreases as pH decreases. NO₃⁻ uptake increases with decreasing
pH probably due to competition with OH.
4. NH₃ is toxic to plant roots; it can penetrate cell membranes
5. Urea which is converted to NH₄⁺ by urease in soil can be taken directly by plants,
though at slower rate than NO₃
B. Translocation and Assimilaton
1. Once N is converted to organic form it remains in this form in the plant
2. Glutamic acids and glutamine are the two amino acids synthesized during reductive
amination
3. Total N in plants is in the form of:
a. Content of plants: 2-4%
b. Protein: 80-85%
c. Nucleic acid N: 10%
d. Soluble amino N: 5%

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 4. N taken up by plant roots is translocated in the xylem to upper plant parts. Nearly
all the NH₄-N absorbed is assimilated in the root tissues and redistributed as amino
acids, NO₃⁻-N can be translocated unaltered to shoots and leaves
5. Biological N fixation (BNF)

II. Phosphorus
A. Absorption and Translocation
1. Active uptake
2. Uptake is pH-dependent. Higher P uptake at low pH (4.0) than at high pH (8.7)
3. Readily translocated up and down plant and quickly assimilated into organic
compounds such as hexose phosphate and uridinedisphosphate
B. Assimilation
1. Orthophosphate (inorganic P) is esterified with OH groups of sugars and alcohols.
Typical example of phosphorylated sugar: fructose-6-phosphate
2. P can also be bound by a lipophilic compound (phospholipids), e.g. lecithin
3. Another organic P compound is phytin (phytic acid) which occurs mainly in seeds.
4. The most important organic P compound is ATP. ATP is synthesized during
respiration, in glycolytic pathway and photosynthesis. In roots, respiration provides
the main source of ATP in green plant tissue, photophosphorylation in
photosynthesis.

III. Potassium
1. Taken up in high rate by plant tissues
2. K is taken up by active mechanism. Of all the essential nutrient cations K is the only one
which can be transported against an electrochemical gradient into plant cell. K in plant is
very mobile. The main transport direction is towards merismatic tissues. Thus when
plant is sufficiently supplied with N and vigorously growing, K uptake is high.
3. The bulk of K mainly taken up during the vegetative stage (in cereals, from tillering to ear
emergence)
4. K uptake and retention in plants are competitively affected by H⁺, Ca⁺⁺, Mg⁺⁺ and Na⁺
5. K accumulation in xylem and mesophyll cells lowers the osmotic potential of cell sap and
increases uptake and retention of water. Thus, plants well supplied with K require
relatively lower amounts of water (more drought resistant). Such plants also have lower
transpiration rate. K in guard cells appear to regulate stomata opening and closing, hence
regulating transpiration.
6. K enhances translocation of assimilates through stimulation of ATP production which is
needed in the loading of photosynthesis in sieve tubes (phloem).

IV. Calcium
1. Content in plants: 0.5-0.8%
2. Ca absorption and translocation is mainly a passive process (mass flow in transpiration
stream). The preferential direction is the shoot apex (actively growing parts)
3. Ca is largely immobile. Once deposited, it is not moved from older to younger leaves.
4. Ca is largely in plant occurs as free Ca⁺⁺ and as Ca oxalates, carbonates and phosphates
usually as deposits in cell vacuoles. In seeds, Ca occurs as a salt of inositol
hexaphosphoric acid (phytic acid). In cell wall it is bound as pectate.
5. Ca content of legumes is higher in dicotyledons than in monocotyledons and also higher
in legumes than in other species.

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 V. Magnesium
1. Taken up in lower amount than Ca.
2. Plant tissue content about 0.50%, DM.
3. Competitive relationships: NH4, K, Ca, Mn
4. Mg moves similarly as Ca in plant, except that Mg (unlike Ca) is mobile in the
phloempassive uptake, transpiration stream.
5. Like Ca, Mg is present in cereal grains as salt of inositol hexaphosphoric acid (phytin or
phytic acid).
6. Mg is the center of the chlorophyll molecule (30% component).

VI. Sulfur
1. Absorbed as SO42- and translocated against an electrochemical gradient (active uptake).
2. Translocation is mainly upward (acropetal).
3. Plant use atmospheric S as S2 (sulfide) by absorption through the stomata.
4. S is assimilated into amino acids cyteine, cystine, and methionine. The first step is
reduction of SO42-.Cystein is the first stable product in which S is present in reduced
organically bound form.
5. S is also a constituent of biotin (associated with CO2 fixation and decarboxylation
reactions) and thiamine (Vitamin B1).
6. In some plant species S occurs as sulphoxides which is responsible for the lachrymatory
factor in onions and odor of garlic.
7. S is also an important component of mustard oil.
Amino acid oxine mustard oil
8. Total S content of plant = 0.2 – 0.5%

VII. Iron
1. Fe is taken up as Fe3+ or as Fe- chelate. However, Fe3+ is reduced before it is absorbed at
the other plasmalemma by a source of electron from within the cell via a cytochrome or
flavin compound. Also, there is a separation of Fe and the chelate prior to absorption
(active uptake).
2. Ions that compete with Fe absorption: Mn++, Cu++, Mg++, K+ and Zn
3. Fe uptake is depressed by high pH, high phosphate and calcium concentrations in
nutrient medium.
Good aeration also depresses Fe uptake due to oxidation to Fe3+
NO3 also depresses Fe uptake
4. Fe is immobile in plant, hence chlorosis appears first in young cells.
5. The major form translocated in xylem is ferric citrate.
6. Another form of Fe in chloroplast is ferredoxin. It is a non-haem iron protein which
participates in oxidation-reduction processes by transferring electrons.
7. Ferredoxin is important as a redox system in photosynthesis, in nitrite reduction, sulfate
reduction and nitrogen assimilation (ferredoxin is stable Fe-S protein).

VIII. Manganese
1. Uptake is metabolically medicated (active uptake).
2. Mg depresses Mn uptake.
3. Liming reduces uptake due to Ca and high pH.
4. Competition is with Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn.
5. Mn is relatively immobile in the plant.
6. Mn is preferentially translocated to merismatic tissues.

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 IX. Zinc
1. Zn content of plants: 10-100 ppm
2. Active uptake
3. Ion competition: Cu, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca
4. Very low mobility
5. High P levels induce Zn deficiency
6. Other Zn metallo-enzymes: glutamic acid dehydrogenase, lactic acid dehydrogenase,
alcohol dehydrogenase and peptidases.

X. Copper
1. Active uptake
2. Ca strongly inhibits Cu uptake
3. Not readily mobile but can be translocated from older to younger leaves.
4. Cu is a constituent of the chloroplast protein phytocyanin which is part of the electron
transport chain linking the two photochemical systems of photosynthesis.
5. Cu-containing enzymes which reduce both atoms of molecular oxygen: cytochrome
oxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase, polyphenol oxidase and laccase.

XI. Molybdenum
1. Form absorbed: molybdate, MoO4-
2. Active uptake
3. Mobility in plant: moderate
4. Plant content: <1 ppm
5. Essential component of two major enzymes: nitrogenase and nitrate reductase
Nitrate reductase catalyzes the reduction of NO3- to NO2- (hence Mo deficiency causes
NO3- accumulation in plants and decreases in soluble amino compounds).
6. Reactions:
a. N₂--------------- NH₃------------------amino acids
b. Nitrate and nitrite reductase

XII. Boron
1. Passive uptake (mass flow) probably a undissociated H₃BO₄
2. Immobile in plants
3. Translocated mainly in xylem and accumulates in leaf tips and margins
4. B forms polyhydroxy compounds, including alcohols and sugars, e.g. boric acid ester

XIII. Chlorine
1. Active uptake
2. Uptake rapid and high amount
3. Uptake competition: NO₃⁻, SO₄²⁻
4. Can be absorbed by leaves as Cl⁻ or Cl gas
5. Not readily mobile in plants

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SOURCES, FORMS, TRANSFORMATIONS AND AVAILABILITY OF NUTRIENTS

A. Nitrogen
1. Sources
 Air = 78% N2 = 3.8 x 1015 tons
 Lithosphere = 18 x 1015 (fixed in rocks and sediments) (atmosphere over 1 ha =
75,000 tons N2
 Mineral = saltpeter (KNO3), rainwater (NO3, NO2-, Nitrous oxide, N2O, NH3)
 Irrigation water
2. Forms
 Organic
- amino acids (30-50% N)
- amino sugars (5-10% N)
- soil OM – 5% N, if OM = 3%
- 1 HFS = 2 x 106 kg
- .03 x 2 x 106 kg = 60,000 kg OM/HFS
- .05 x 60,000 kg = 3,000 kg N/HFS
 Inorganic
NH4+
NO3- Available forms
NH3
mineralization rate: 2% /yr/ha
3,000 kg x .02 = 60 kg N

 N must be combined with H or O to be reactive

 N as NH4+ is easily fixed in clays.
 NO3 – N moves more easily in the soil.
1. Nitrogen was discovered in 1772 by D. Rutherford of Britain but was given the name Azote
(“without life”) by Antoin Laurent Lavoiser (Azobacter is a N-fixing bacterium).
2. Oxidation is addition of O2 and also removal of electrons. As an NH4 or amino (-NH2)
compound, N is highly reduced.
3. Sources of N

a. Atmosphere (ultimate source) – 78% N

b. Symbiotic and non-symbiotic BNF
c. Chilean nitrate
d. NO3- from electrical discharge
e. Industrial fixation (Haber-Bosch process)
f. Organic matter
4. BNF organisms
a. Azobacter
b. Azospirillum
c. Rhizobium
d. Actinomycetes, Frankia
e. Blue-green algae, Anabaena
5. 10 – 20% of NO3- in rainfall is due to lightning. The rest are from industrial waste gases.
Total N from rainfall 1 – 50 lb/A/yr.
6. Industrial fixation of N (Haber-Bosch process)

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 Chemistry of Nitrogen

 N – non-metal common in living organisms

 N – has 5 outer electrons. Combines readily with C compounds in living organisms. It is
found as two atom diatomic molecule, N2 like H2.

 In the simplest N compound, NH3 the 3 bonding electrons are paired with one electron from
a H atom.

Tetrahedron arrangement

 NH3 is dipolar
The 3 unpaired electrons can share electrons with another N atom to produce the N Ξ N
molecule. This triple bond is strong making N2 an unreactive molecule.

7. Forms of soil N
Total N = 0.02 – 0.4%
Organic N = 95% of total N in surface soil
Inorganic N:
NH4+, NO3-, NO2 – most important and 2 – 5% of total soil N.
The rest is N2O (nitrous oxide), NO (nitric oxide) and N2.
 Organic N:
-Protein, amino acids, amino sugars, nitrosamins, purines and pyrimidine derivatives

8. Forms of N absorbed by plants

 NH4+ and NO3-
 NO3- is more abundant in aerobic soils.
 Most plants absorb both.
 NH4+ abundant in reduced layer of paddy soils.

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  Some plants, e.g., tobacco, potato, tomato prefer high NO3-/NH4+ ratio. At low pHNO3-
uptake is high. Roots release HO3-and maintain electroneutrality in the in the soil
solution
 NH4+ is the preferred source since NO3- reduction for protein synthesis needs 2 NADH
per NO3- reduced. At low pH NH4+ uptake is low and high at neutral pH.
 NH4+ uptake reduces Ca, Mg, K uptake but increases uptake of H2PO4-, SO4-, and Cl-. High
levels of NH4+ are toxic to plants but high NO3- more tolerated by plants.
 Uptake of NH4+ lowers rhizosphere pH because of H+ exudation by roots.

 NITROGEN Transformations
o Forms of N in the soil
 Organic N – Amino acids, amino sugars
 Inorganic N
 NH4- (ammonium)
 NO3- (nitrate)
 NO2- (nitrite)
 N2 (nitrogen gas)
 N2O (nitrous oxide)
 NO2 (nitrogen dioxide)
 NO (nitric oxide)
 NH3 (ammonia)
o Nitrogen Transformations
 Mineralization and Immobilization – Aminization, ammonification by heterotrophs
(need organic C as source of energy); conversion of organic N to inorganic N; renders N
available for plant use.

organic N NH4+

a. Aminization

b. Ammonification – result of the breakdown of organic matter such as dead animals

and plants or waste materials like excrement; microorganisms produce ammonia
and related compounds such as a by-product of their metabolisms.

 Fate of NH4+
o Nitrified
o Absorbed by plants
o Used by organisms for further decomposition of OM
o Fixed by clays
o Released to atmosphere as N2

 Amount of N mineralized
o If OM = 4%; % N in OM = 5%
o Mineralization rate = 2% per season

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 o (2 x 106 kg) (0.04) = 80,000 kg OM/ha
o (80,000) (0.05) = 4,000 kg N/ha
o (4,000) (0.02) = 80 kg N/ha mineralized

 Immobilization – conversion of organic N to inorganic N; renders N unavailable for plant

use; happens when available N is used by soil microorganisms and assimilated it into
their bodies
o Factors affecting mineralization – immobilization
o Temperature – both processes are retarded by low temperature
o Forms of nitrogen present – soil microorganisms prefer NH4+ -N over
NO3- N in decomposing a given quantity of plant material
o pH – immobilization of NH4 + increases with increasing soil pH
o Aeration – less N is immobilized in poorly aerated or waterlogged soils
than in well-aerated ones.
 Nitrogen Fixation – the reduction of atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) to ammonia (NH3)
o Industrial Nitrogen Fixation
 Haber-Bosch Process
- Requires very high temperature and pressure
- T = 400 – 500 °C
- P = 200 – 1000 atm
- Catalyst: Osimum + Iron
- Because of the triple bond between the two N molucules
o Biological Nitrogen Fixation
 Can be done by highly specialized groups of microorganisms in the
presence of the enzyme nitrogenase.
 Maybe symbiotic or non-symbiotic
 Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation – an association between a higher plant
(macrosymbiont) and a microorganism (microsymbiont) to acquire N
from the atmosphere; there are about 700 genera and 14,000 species of
plants in the family Leguminosae and most of them can be partners with
Rhizobium in nitrogen-fixing association.
A. Rhizobium-Legume Symbiosis – formation of root nodules
Root-nodule bacteria (Rhizobium sp.)
- Aerobic, gram-negative, non-spore-forming rods, 0.5 to 0.9 µ
wide and 1.2 to 3.0 µ long
- The formation of nodules effective in nitrogen fixation is an
elaborate process subject to many influences, both indigenous
ones supplied by the plant and external factors in the root
medium
- There should be a compatibility between the particular
Rhizobium sp and the host legume.
-
Root-Nodule bacteria Host (s)
Rhizobium leguminosarium Clovers, peas, field beans
R. tropici Phaseolus (Bean), Laucaena
(Ipil-ipil)
R. ciceri Chickpea
Sinorhizobium meliloti Sweet clover, alfafa, fenugreek
S. saheli Sesbania

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 Bradyrhizobium japonicum Soybean
Azorhizobium caulinodans Sesbania

Steps in Root Nodule Formation:

1. Development of root hairs
2. Development of a population of Rhizobium bacteria near the
surface of the roots, in the rhizosphere – due to some
substances secreted by the plant.
3. Curling of root hairs and their infection by the bacteria.
4. Formation of root nodule.

Environmental factors affecting nitrogen fixation:

pH – Rhizobium sp. vary in their sensitivity to pH.
- R. meliloti is very acid sensitive
- R. japonicum can tolerate pH as low as 3.5
Availability of essential nutrients, even trace elements
Ca – assist in the invasion and formation of nodules.
Molybdenum – it helps in weakening the bond between the
two nitrogen atoms of nitrogen gas.
Iron – formation of hemoglobin and initial binding of
nitrogen gas to the enzyme (nitrogenase)
 Presence of available nitrogen (NO3)
 Water and oxygen
- Rhizobia are likely to die rapidly as they dry.
- Sufficient oxygen is important for efficient fixation.
 Toxic chemicals – soil insecticides, fertilizers
B. Azolla-Anabaena Symbiosis
- Main agents of biological fixation in flooded rice fields
- Azolla – water fern; serves as a macrosymbiont; used
extensively as a green manure crop in Vietnam and Southern
China
- Anabaena azollae – nitrogen-fixing blue green algae (BGA);
serves as the microsymbiont
- Heterocysts – the site of nitrogen fixation in Anabaena
 Non-symbiotic – conversion of atmospheric N by microorganisms without
an associated plant host
- Heterotrophic N-fixers
 Aerobic:
o Azotobacter spp. – strict aerobes, mesophiles with
an optimum temperature of 30 °C, gram-negative,
large cocci. The optimum pH is in the range of 7.2
to 7.6, with a minimum at around 6.0
o Derxia spp. – pH range from 5 to 8.5
o Beijerincka spp.- pH range from 3 to 9
 Anaerobic: Clostridium spp. – anaerobes, gram-positive
rods, which are found in soils with pH 5.0 and are still
capable of growth at pH 9.0.

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  Other heterotrophic bacteria reported to fix N2 are
Pseudomonas, Aerobacter, Achromobacter,
Arthrobacter, and Rhodotula
- Autotrophic N-fixers
 Chemoautotrophic- Methanobacillus omelianskii
 Photosynthetic autotrophs
o Blue-green algae (BGA) Anabaena, Anabaenopsis,
Aulosira, Calothrix, Cylindrospermum, Nostoc,
Tolypothrix.
o Photosynthesis bacteria: Chromatium,
Rhodomicrobium, Rhodopseudomonas,
Rhodospirillum
o BGA are believed to help maintain fertility of
lowland rice paddies
o Common BGA in the Philippines are Anabaena
variabilis, Gloethrichianatans, Nostoc commune,
Nostoc carneum, Hapalosophon sp., Anabaenopsis
spp. and Tolypothrix sp.

 Nitrification – biological oxidation ammonia or ammonium to nitrite followed by the

oxidation of the nitrite to nitrate

 Nitrosomonas are obligate Autotrophs and get energy from oxidation of N and C from
CO2. NO2- is toxic to plant roots but do not accumulate because NO2-NO3- is faster than
NH4+- NO2-.1 mole of NH4+ produces 2 moles H+ thus causing acidification.
 Nitrobacter are chemoautotrophic, gram-negative, non-spore forming, short rods,
further oxidizes nitrite to nitrate.
 Nitrification is most rapid when soil is warm (20-30 °C), moist and well-aerated, but I
virtually halted below 5 °C and above 50 °C.
 Nitrate can be lost through denitrification and in leaching particularly in sandy soils,
under heavy rainfall, or where excessive irrigation.
 Excess nitrate leached from soil often ends up in groundwater, lakes, and streams.
 This results to water pollution, such as eutrophication or the excess growth of plant and
algae, and the health problem in infants (methemoglobinemia) and animals.
 NH₄⁺ Fixation
 Vermiculite and illite can fix NH4+. Fixed NH4+ can be replaced (and released) by Ca,
Mg, Na & H but not by K.
 Presence of K+ restricts NH4+ fixation due to competition for fixation sites.
 Gaseous loss of N
o Denitrification - by facultative anaerobic soil organisms; N is lost
through the conversion of nitrate to gaseous forms of N such as nitric
oxide, nitrous oxide, and dinitrogen gas.
- Occurs when the soil is saturated and the bacteria use
nitrate as an oxygen source.
- Pseudomonas, Clostridium, Bacillus, and Paracoccus.

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 


 Total worldwide BNF: 17.2 x 10⁷ tons/year
Crops:
 Food legumes:
 Cowpea
 Soybean
 Peanut
 Trees
 Ipil-ipil
 Acacia
 Kakawate
 Pasture
 Stylosanthes
 Sesbania
 Crotolaria
 Azolla
 450-600 kg N/ha/yr
 Doubling time: 5-7days
 Factors affecting BNF by rhizobia
o Soil pH
o Concentration of NO₃, NH₄, NO₂, Urea
o Ca, P, K, Co, Mo (enhance fixation)

PHOSPHORUS
 Sources, transformations and availability
1. Composition of earth’s crust: % P = 0.11
2. Total soil P (organic and inorganic) 0.02 – 0.15%
3. Forms of organic P (20-25% of total P)
A. Phytin and phytin derivatives- Phytin occurs as hexaphosphoric ester of inositol and
is formed mainly in seeds.
B. N or oleic acids – complex N-P carbohydrate compounds found in association with
cell nucleus (e.g., RNA, DNA)
C. Phospholipids – combination of phosphoric acid and glycerol (e.g., lecithin)
 Availability
o Organic P becomes available through decomposition by microorganisms and like N can
also become immobilized by utilization of microorganisms.
o Phytin is rendered insoluble in acid soils by formation of Fe and Al phytates.
o Nucleic acids can be fixed by clay, especially montmorillonite.
4. Forms of inorganic P
A. Hyroxyapatite – Ca10(PO4)6OH2
B. Fluorapatite – CA10(PO4)6F3
C. Monocalcium phosphate – Ca(H2PO4)2
D. Dicalcium phosphate – CaHPO4
E. Tricalcium phosphate – Ca3(PO4)2
F. Variscite – AlPO4 · 2H2O
G. Strengite – FePO4 · 2H2O

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 5. Conditions of occurrence:
o Acid soils: Fe and Al-phosphates
o Alkaline soils: Ca-phosphates

6 P fractions in the soil- P in the soil may be grouped into 3 fractions: solution P, labile P,
non-labile P
o Non-occluded P- easily to slowly available P
o Occluded P- difficulty available P
 Solution P is in rapid equilibrium with labile P. As solution P is absorbed by
plants or leached out, it is quickly replenished by the labile P.
 Phosphorus adsorption and fixation
 These are mechanisms/processes that render P less available or insoluble

o Precipitation by Fe, Al and Mn ions

 In acid soils high amounts of Fe, Al and Mn may be present in soil solution or
in exchangeable forms. They can react with H2PO4 and form insoluble
compounds as follows:

o Flooding
 Available soil P increases upon flooding (as in paddy soils) due to conversion
of Fe3+ phosphate to the more soluble Fe2+ phosphate and hydrolysis of Al
phosphate.
o Other mechnisms are:
 Dissolution of occluded P
 Hydrolysis of Fe phosphate
 Increased mineralization of organic P in acid soils.
 Increased solubility of Ca phosphate in calcareous soils.
Soil POTASSIUM
1. Availability
 K in most soils is large, 1.9%.
 Generally low in sandy soils.
 Availability of K in minerals:
biotite> muscovite > K-feldspars
2. Available amount from different forms:
• Mineral K: 5,000 – 25,000 ppm
• Non-exchangeable (fixed or difficulty available): 50 – 750 ppm
• Exchangeable: 40 – 600 ppm
• Solution K: 1 – 10 ppm
3. Equilibria and cycling of K in soils
• Fixed K is mainly in clay minerals like illite, vermiculite and chlorite.
• Felspars and micas are very resistant to weathering.
• Unavailable K – 90 – 98% of total soil K
• Slowly available K – 1 – 10%
• Readily available K – 0.1 – 2%
4. Estimate of K availability

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 5. Absorption mechanism- Diffusion accounts for 88 – 96% of K absorption by roots.
6. Fixation of K
 2:1 clays like illitehas high K fixing capacity. Kaolinite, 1:1 type does not fix K. NH4+
has about the same ionic size as K and thus fixed in similar manner.

CALCIUM: Sources and Tranformation

1. Ca content of earth’s crust = 3.64%
2. Inorganic sources:
A. Calcite – CaCO3
B. Dolomite – CaCO3·MgCO3
C. Apatites and Ca-phosphate (Hydroxyapatite, fluorapatite)
D. Feldspars (e.g. anorthite, CaAl3Si2O8)
E. Pyroxenes and amphiboles
Hornblende – H2Ca2Na(Mg, Fe)4·(Al, Fe, Ti)3
Augite – Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,SiO2O6)
F. Gypsum – CaSo4·2H2O

3. Ca content of soils
 Very low in excessively leached soils but may range from 10-20% in limestone derived
soils. Soils of humid regions are low in Ca. Soils of arid regions have high Ca due to low
rainfall and less leaching.
4. Fate of Ca in soils
1. Leached through drainage
2. Absorbed by microorganisms
3. Adsorbed by clay particles and organic colloids
4. Re-precipitated as secondary Ca compound

MAGNESIUM: Sources and Transformations

1. Content of earth’s crust, 2.07%
2. Content in soils
 0.05% - sandy soils
 5% - clay soils
 Podzols and laterites (highly leached) – low in Mg
3. Inorganic sources
A. Ferromagnesian minerals
 Biotite – H2K(Mg,Fe)3Al(SiO4)3
 Serpentine – Mg6 Si4 O/O (OH)8
 Hornblende – H2Ca2Na(Fe,Mg)4·(Al,Fe,Ti)3
 Olivine – (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4

B. Secondary clay minerals

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  Montmorillonite
 Vermiculite
 Illite
 Chlorite
C. Dolomite – CaCO3·MgCO3
 MgSO4

Transformations of SULFUR- 0.06% of earth’s crust

Sources
A. Original sources sulfides in metals contained in plutonic rocks
B. Organic matter (S-containing amino acids)
C. Ca, Mg, Na, K, NH4 sulfates (in arid areas)
D. Atmosphere, as sulfur dioxide (SO2)especially as pollutants of industrial processes e.g., ore
smelting, petroleumrefining.
E. Sulfides in small amounts (in waterloggedsoils) – H2S
F. Pyrites – FeS2
G. Gypsum

1. Organic sulfur
 C:N:S of Scottish calcareous soils = 113:10:1.3
 N:S of Australian soils = 10:1.21 to 10:1.52
 S is immobilized in soil if N:S is too wide. Hence, if straw with wide N:S ratio is to be
incorporated into the soil, S must be added (possibly by using (NH4)2SO4) as source of N
and S.
 Drying of soil enhances mineralization of S
 SO4 = is easily lost by leaching due to its organic nature. Experiments showed that 77-78%
of applied sulfur (as gypsum) is leached.

IRON
Sources and Transformations/Availability
1. Earth’s crust – 5% Fe
2. Total content of soils – 200 ppm – 100,000 ppm
3. Toxic level of available Fe – 300 ppm
4. Sources
A. Ferromagnesian minerals
• Olivine – (Mg,Fe)2SiO4
• Augite – Ca(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6
• Hornblende – NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Mn)5(Al,Si)8 O22(OH)2
• Biotite – K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH,Fe)2
B. Haematite – Fe2O3
C. Ilmenite – FeTiO3
D. Magnetite – FeCO3
E. Siderite – FeCO3
F. Goethite (limonite) – FeO(OH)

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 5. Solubility/availability
A. Soluble forms:
Fe2+, Fe3+, Fe(OH)2+, FeOH2+
B. Precipitation reaction
C. Fe in paddy soils (anaerobic condition)
D. Effect of bicarbonate, P and Ca, Cu and Mn
 HCO3-, P and Ca, Cu and Mncauses precipitation or on/in the plant and causes iron
chlorosis in soybeans. In paddy soils where Fe is present in toxic amounts MnO2
addition can correct toxicity.

BORON: Sources, Transformations/Availability

1. Content in soils: 7-80 ppm (H3BO3 as borate or boric acid)
2. Content in rocks
shale – 100 ppm granite – 15 ppm
3. Sources
A. Tourmaline
 (Li,Na,Mg,Fe)7Al6B3-Si6O27(OH)4
 A flourine borosilicate mineral which is very resistant to weathering
B. Kernite – Na2B4O7·4H2O

MOLYBDENUM – Sources and Transformations/Availability

1. Content in soils
Total: 0.6 – 3.5 ppm
Soil solution: 2 x 10-8 – 8 x 10-8 M
2. Sources
A. Minerals
B. MoS2 – molybdenite (under reduced conditions)
C. Ca – molybdate
D. Hydrated Mo oxides
E. Mo in association with Fe oxide minerals in adsorbed occulded or semi-crystalline forms

ZINC– Sources and Transformation/Availability

1. Soil content: 10-300 ppm (total)
3 x 10-8 – 3 x 10-6 M (soil solution)
2. Sources
A. Ferromagnesian minerals
 augite, hornblende, biotite (Zn substitutes for Fe and Mn which have about the same
ionic radius as Zn, by isomorphous replacement.
B. Salts
1. ZnS
2. Sphalerite – (ZnFe)S
3. Zincite – ZnO
4. Smithsonite – ZnCO3
C. Zn silicates
1. ZnSiO3
2. Willemite – Zn2SiO4
3. Factors affecting availability

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 A. Soil pH
 Increasing pH (6-8) reduce availability (but Zn deficiency does not occur in all alkaline
soils).
B. Soil P level
 High P presumably causes Zn-P precipitation but this is still not very clear.
Nevertheless at pH 6.5-8.5, high P level caused decrease in Zn uptake.
C. Organic matter
 Zn forms organic complexes with OM forming both soluble and insoluble complexes.
Soluble complexes are associated with amino acids and fulvic acids while insoluble
complexes are associated with humic acids.
D. Clay minerals
 The longer the zinc remains adsorbed on the clay surface the less available it becomes.
This happens when adsorbed Zn enters the crystal lattice of octahedral layers and
substitutes for Al3+
E. Carbonates of Ca and Mg
 Zn is strongly adsorbed by magnesite (MgCO3) to a lesser degree by dolomite
(Ca,Mg)(CO3)2 and least degree by calcite (CaCO3). Zn presumably substitute for Mg in
the crystal lattice.

COPPER– Sources and Transformations/Availability

1. Content in soils
Total: 5 – 50 ppm
Soil solution:
1 x 10-8 – 60 x 10-8 M
2. Sources
A. In crystal lattices of primary and secondary minerals
Chalcopyrite – CuFeS2
Malachite – Cu2CO3(OH)2
C. Organic compounds

MANGANESE – Sources and Transformation/Availability

1. Sources
A. Pyrolusite – MnO2
B. Manganite – MnO(OH)
2. Content in soils
200 – 300 ppm (total)
10-6 – 10-4 M (in soil solution)

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 SOIL FERTILITY EVALUATION

Soil Fertility Evaluation

1. Quantitative methods
a) Soil analysis
b) Plant tissue analysis
c) Field fertilizer tests
d) Pot experiments
2. Qualitative methods
a) Nutrient deficiency symptoms
3. Why soil fertility declines

 Quantitative Diagnostic Techniques

o Laboratory Soil Test
 Soil test provide a scientific basis for formulating a sound fertility management
practice.
 It consists of actual chemical analyses of soil samples to determine the amounts of
available soil nutrients.
 From the results gathered, which are compared with the economic optimum amounts,
the soil must contain the amount of nutrients needed in a testing laboratory.
 Soil testing has to be done according to a standard procedure so as to avoid erroneous
interpretation of the test results.
 Four phases of a soil testing program:
 Collecting the soil samples
 Extracting and determining the available nutrients
 Interpreting the analytical results
 Making the fertilizer recommendation.
 Field Sampling:
 Samples should accurately reflect the field’s true nutrient status.
 Except for pH values, soil properties like nutrients vary greatly.
 The required number of subsamples (to make a composite sample) is 15-40
equally distributed in the field.
 This corresponds to 15.8 to 25% error variance.
 For soil test-yield correlations, take 40 subsamples per replicate (block) before
application of fertilizer experiments
 For most crops (annual) sampling depth is 15-25 cm.
 For grasslands, 5-7 cm.

o Plant Tissue Analysis

 The nutrient content in the plant tissue is related to the available nutrient supply of
the soil
 Thus, a chemical laboratory analysis of the plant tissue would reveal the available
nutrient status of the soil on which the plant is grown
 This is the principle behind plant tissue analysis
 When correlated with the results of fertilizer field trials, fertilizer recommendations
using this method become more reliable.
 Sampling of plant parts to be analyzed, however, must be given due attention
 Plant parts to be sampled for different crops vary

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  This depends on the type and age of the crop tissue
 Like visual diagnostic symptoms, the effect of abnormal amounts of soil nutrients may
already have its effect on yield before detection and correction can be made

o Fertilizer Field Trials

 Fertilizer field trials in the farmer’s field are employed to assess the effect of fertilizers
and their interactions with all existing factors of crop growth and development in any
given location.
 These methods are done with appropriate:
 Experimental design
 Efficient cultural methods or techniques
 Proper field layout
 Accurate collection of harvest data
 Observation and proper interpretation of results
 The actual use of plants in field fertilizer trials is unquestionably the most reliable of
the best know biological test.
 Fertilizer recommendations formulated through these methods are generally more
realistic and dependable than the previous methods mentioned when employed
singly.
 For a farmer’s own purpose:
 He/she may want to conduct his own fertilizer field trial
 He/she may have three plots for testing and apply varying amounts of fertilizers
 Based on the yield and growth characteristics of the crop, he/she can determine the
right amount of fertilizers to apply.
 Fertilizer field trials are often used to simulate actual field conditions such that these
may serve as field demonstrations at the same time.
 Advantages of field trials:
1. They are the best way to determine the nutrient needs of crops and soils and for
advising farmers on their fertilizer needs.
2. They will show you how accurate recommendations based on soil and plant testing
are in relation to the yield obtained.
3. They permit an economic evaluation, i.e., the calculation of the return can be used as
the most motivating argument to a farmer to use fertilizers.
4. Demonstrations or simple trials show the benefits of fertilizers to farmers and
agricultural workers.
5. The growing crops can be photographed and the pictures can be used in publicity
and demonstrations for many years.

o Pot Experiment
 Comparison of several fertilizer treatments including a control using small amount of
soil in pots to have a better control of environmental factors
 This is under artificial condition
 Soil is in pot
 Short duration
 Preliminary in nature

 Qualitative Diagnostic Techniques

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 o Visual Symptoms of Nutrient Deficiency in Plants
 Deficiency of a certain nutrient element results in poor growth and hence, low yield
 In extreme cases, this may lead to death of the crops
 The occurrence of nutrient deficiencies may be due to the following:
 Insufficient amount and supply of soil nutrients
 Unavailability of forms of the nutrients present
 No proper balance among different nutrient levels

Crop removal – absorption Erosion – process whereby Leaching – downward

of nutrients by plants. surface soil is carried away movement of nutrient with
by wind or water. water.

Denitriafication – conversion Ammonia volatilization – Fixation – nutrients are

of nitrate to nitrogen gas escape of nitrogen from the temporarily converted to
soil as gas unavailable forms

Immobilization – conversion of an
element form inorganic to organic
form

INORGANIC FERTILIZER

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 I. Introduction
A. Historical Background on Fertilizer Use
 Use of fertilizers (manure) started as early as 800 BC
 First fertilizers used:
o Animal manure, ground bones, wood ashes, guano
 Use of chemical fertilizers started in 1660 Digby’s claim: “By the help of plain
saltpeter, I have made the barrenest ground outgo the richest in giving prodigious
bountiful harvest”.
 Through centuries of ancient and medieval times, men have been deeply interested
in improving crop yield by the addition of various organic and mineral substances
 The foundation for the modern fertilizer industry was laid by Leibig, in 1840.

B. Rationale for the need of fertilizers

 Amount of available nutrients in the soil is not enough to meet crop management for
high yield
 The nutrient in the soil is not present in readily available form
 Nutrient depletion or loss is continuous
 Increased production
 Increased farm income

C. Definition of Fertilizer Terms

1. Fertilizer
o Any substance that is applied to the soil or to the plant to supply the elements
required for the nutrition and growth of plants
2. Single Nutrient Fertilizers
o Fertilizers that supply one primary nutrient
 Also called straight fertilizers
 Examples: urea, ammonium sulfate
3. Multinutrient fertilizers
o Fertilizers containing two or three primary nutrients
 Also known as : complex, compound and mixed fertilizers
 Examples: Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0)
4. Complete Fertilizer
o Contains the 3 primary nutrients which are historically known to be deficient in
most soils
5. Fertilizer Grade
o Weight percentage of the nutrients contained in a fertilizer
o Guaranteed minimum analysis of the plant nutrient in terms of % total N, %
available Phosphoric acid (%P₂O₅) and % soluble potash (%K₂O)
6. Fertilizer ratio
o Relative proportion of each of the primary nutrients N, P₂O₅ and K₂O in a
fertilizer material
o Example:
 14:14:14  1:1:1
 12:24:12
 6:24:24
 20:10:10
D. Classification of Fertilizers

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 A. Inorganic fertilizers
 Any fertilizer product whose properties are determined primarily by its content
of mineral matter or synthetic chemical compounds.
B. Organic fertilizers
 Any fertilizer product of plant and/or animal origin that has undergone
decomposition through biological, chemical and or any other process as long as
the original materials are no longer recognizable, soil-like in texture and free
from plant or animal pathogens
o Pure Organic Fertilizers
 No chemical has been added to the finished product to increase nutrient
content
o Fortified or Enriched
 Has be enriched with microbial inoculants, hormones or chemical
additives to increase nutrient content

PROPERTIES OF COMMONLY USED FERTILIZER

A. NITROGEN FERTILIZER
The basic reaction developed in 1913 in Germany is called Haber-Bosch process:

Table 1. Nitrogen fertilizer and their composition

FERTILIZER FORMULA %N

Urea CO(NH2)2 45 – 46
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2 SO4 20 – 21
Ammonium nitrate NH4 NO3 33
Calcium cyanamide Ca CN3 22
Anhydrous ammonia NH3 82
Ammonium phosphate NH4 H2PO4 11
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 26

B. Phosphorus Fertilizers
 Manufacture:
Ca₁₀(PO₄)₆F₂ + 7H₂SO₄----- 3CaH₄(PO₄)₂-H₂O + 7 CaSO₄ + 2 HF
 OSP contains:
o 20% P2O5, 19-22 % Ca, 10-12% S and traces of Mg, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Cl, Al
o Solubility: 85%

C. Potassium Fertilizers

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  Potassium fertilizers primarily come from mining K mineral deposits so that the main
production processes involved are refining of the extracted minerals. Examples of these
minerals deposits are sylvinite (KCl·NaCL) and langbeinite (K2SO4·2MgSO4)

The common sources of Calcium other than the NPK fertilizers are:
MATERIAL FORMULA % Ca

Calcitic lime CaCO3 34

Dolomitic lime CaCO3·MgCO3 17
Burned lime CaO 70
Hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 50
Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O 22
Calcium chloride CaCl2 36

Magnesium is also contained in such materials as dolomitic limestone which is also a liming
material. However, there are other sources of magnesium namely:
MATERIAL FORMULA % Mg

Kieserite MgSO4·H2O 18.2

Epsom MgSO4·7 H2O 91.0
Langbeinite K2SO4·2 MgSO4 11.2
Magnesium oxide MgO 45
Dolomite CaCO3·MgCO3 12

Chelate is derived from a Greek word meaning “claw”. Simply, the micronutrient is held by
an organic molecule by multiple bonds as if by a claw and shields it from chemical reactions but
retains the availability of the micronutrient to plans. Shown below is the chemical structure of an
Fe chelate, FeEDTA (Brandy, 1984)

FERTILIZER APPLICATION
A. Broadcast – spread uniformly over the soil surface
B. Band – fertilizer is spread on a narrow strip along the side of the row of plants
C. In-the-row – fertilizer is applied along the bottom to furrow
D. Ring – fertilizer is applied around the base of the plant or tree
E. Hole – fertilizer is dropped in holes around the tree
F. Spot – fertilizer is dropped in small amount on the side of each hill or plant
G. Basal – first of fertilizer applied at planting time
H. Top dress – application sometime after plants have emerged
I. Foliar – spraying of fertilizer on leaves
J. Fertigation – application of fertilizer dissolved in irrigation water

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 Fertilizer management that increases efficiency of recovery
 Proper rates/doses
 Right timing of application
 Proper method of application
 Right kind of fertilizer

Fertilizer Computation:
General formulas:

Where:
WF = weight of fertilizer
WN = weight of nutrient (N, P2O5, K2O, etc)
FC = % composition / 100
or: WN = WF x FC

Sample Problem 1:
Recommendation: 90-0-0
How many kg/ha Ammonium sulfate, AS (20-0-0) must be applied?

If urea (45-0-0) is used instead of AS?

How many bags of AS or urea are needed?

Sample Problem 2:
Recommendation: 90-30-0
Fertilizers to be used:
Ammonium sulfate (20-0-0)
Ammonium phosphate (16-20-0)
Solve first for P:

o 150kg AP contains 30 kg P₂O₅ and 24kg N

150 x 0.16= 24kg N
N still needed will come from AS:
o 90-24=66kg N

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 Sample Problem 3:
The fertilizer recommendation for tomato was given at 120-120-120. How many grams of
completer fertilizer CF (14% N, 14% P₂O₅, 14% K₂O) are needed per hill? The plants were spaced
40cm x 40cm.
Solution:
First calculate the amount of fertilizer needed per hectare:

Next compute the number of hills or plants per hectare (1ha measures 10,000 sq. M)

Then,
Kg CF/hill=857 kg/ha/62,500 = 137gm/hill

ORGANIC FERTILIZER

1. Types and composition of organic materials

2. Composting
3. Effects of organic materials on soil properties

 SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

o Composition of Plant Residues
 Water – 75%
 Dry matter – 25%
 C, H, O – 90-95% of dry matter
 Other elements – 5-10% of dry matter
 Organic compounds:
 Cellulose - 45%
 Hemicellulose - 18%
 Lignin - 20%
 Sugar and starch - 5%
 Fats and waxes - 2%
 Polyphenols - 2%
 Decomposability:
 Sugars, starch, simple proteins (most easily decomposed)
 Crude proteins
 Hemicellulose
 Cellulose
 Fats and waxes
 Lignins and phenolic compounds (most difficult to decompose)
 Rice straw is one of the most abundant crop residues in the country and is usually used
with animal manure in compost making.
 Corn stover can be composed but needs to be chopped further for faster decomposition
 Ipil-ipil leaves with their high nitrogen content can also be used as green manure
 Kakawate leaves have more than 4% nitrogen content and can be applied to the soil
directly as N fertilizer

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 o Composting and Treatment Procedures for Organic Wastes
 Composting is the process of allowing organic materials to decompose under more or
less controlled conditions to produce an end product that can be used as a fertilizer
and/or soil conditioner. It is a process by which undesirable properties of organic wastes
such a foul odor, presence of pathogens and other undesirable physical properties are
removed or abated
o Effects of lignin and polyphenols on decay rate
 The higher the lignin content, the slower the decomposition rate.
 Lignin of plant litter = 2-50%
 Phenolics form highly resistant complexes with proteins during decomposition and thus
can slow N mineralization and C oxidation
o Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio
 According to Gotaas, the optimum C/N ratio for organic materials is 30
 If the C/N ratio is high, it slows down the decay rate
o Effects of OM on Soil Properties
 Physical
 Enhances soil aggregation and aggregate stability
 Reduces plasticity, cohesion and stickiness of clayey soils
 Increases soil water retention, infiltration rate, WHC and aeration
 Darken soil
 Reduces bulk density and compaction
 Chemical
1. Increases CEC of soils
2. Increases soil buffering capacaity
3. Increases nutrient availability through solubilization of minerals by organic acids
and chelation of metal ions
4. Reduces Al toxicity by binding the Al ions in non-toxic complexes
5. Increases soil native supply of N, P, S etc.
6. Adsorbs pollutants such as Pb, Cd and Cu
7. Inactivates toxins and pesticides
 Biological
1. Provides C and Energy to soil organisms and thus increases their diversity and
activity
2. Enhances microbial functions such as N fixation, decomposition and nutrient
transformation

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SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION

 Types of Water Erosion

1. Sheet erosion
2. Rill erosion
3. Gully erosion

 Factors affecting degree of soil erosion

1. Rainfall (intensity and distribution)
2. Soil erodibility (texture, structure, bulk density, porosity, infiltration and water retention)
3. Topography (steepness and length of slope)
4. Vegetation
5. Cropping practices
6. Soil conservation practice

 Principles in Soil Conservation

i. Reduction of run-off velocity
ii. Increase in water infiltration and water holding capacity
iii. Reduction of raindrop impact
iv. Increase in soil porosity and aggregation

 Soil Conservation Practices

1. Contour farming
2. Cover cropping
3. Alley cropping (contour strip cropping)
4. Terracing
5. Grassed waterways
6. Farm ponds and check dams
7. Reforestation

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 SOIL TAXONOMY
(A SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION)

Soil Taxonomy
 This formal term refers to the system of classification developed by the USDA Soil Survey.

Individual Soils
 Pedon – A hexagonal column of soil measuring from 1 to 10m2 in top surface area. A pedon is
the basic sampling unit used in soil surveys.
 Polypedon – An essential soil individual, comprising an identifiable series of soils in an area. It is
made up of multiple pedons and has distinctive characteristics that differentiate it from
surrounding polypedons.
 Series – A soil series is a class of soils and the basic units used to classify soils. Nearly 400 soil
series in the Phil.

Principles of Soil Taxonomy

 Classify soils on basis of properties
 Soil properties should be readily observable and / or measurable
 Soil properties should either affect soil genesis or result from soil genesis

Purpose of Soil taxonomy:

1. Organize knowledge about soils
2. Understand relationships among different soils
3. Establish groups or classes for practical purposes.
a. Predicting behavior
b. Identifying best uses
c. Estimating productivity
d. Extending research results

Requirements:
 Temperature Regimes – mean annual soil temperature measured at 50 cm from surface
 Moisture Regimes – number of days when soil contains available water during the period when
soil temperature at 50 cm below the surface is above 5oC
 Diagnostic Horizons – distinct types of horizons that reflect nature of soil formation
 Epipedon – surface diagnostic horizons
 Subsurface diagnostic horizons
 Mineralogy – dominant type of clay minerals
 Particle size distribution – proportion of coarse fragments (2 mm – 74 mm size particles) in
combination with fine fragments (<2 mm size particles)

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  Soil Temperature Regimes:
A. Pergelic – Mean annual temperature (MAT) is <0oC
B. Cryic – MAT is 0oC – 8oC
C. Frigid – MAT is < 8oC (warmer than cryic in summer)
D. Mesic – MAT is 8oC – 15oC
E. Thermic – MAT is 15oC – 22oC
F. Hyperthermic – MAT is > 22oC

• Prefix “Iso” is used if mean summer (June, July, August) and winter (December, January,
February) temperatures differ by <5oC
• Isofrigid – MAT is < 8oC
• Isomesic – MAT is 8oC – 15oC
• Isothermic – MAT is 15oC – 22oC
• Isohyperthermic – MAT is > 22oC

 Soil Moisture Regime

o Measured in terms of the absence or presence of water held at a tension of <15 bars in the
moisture control section by a period of one year
o Soil moisture control section:
10 -30 cm clayey soils;
20 – 60 cm loamy soils; and
30 – 90 cm sandy soils)

a. Aquic moisture regime – Soil is saturated and no dissolved oxygen (reducing regime)
b. Aridic and torric – Soil moisture control section is dry more than half the time when soil
temperature at 50 cm is >5oC; moist for <3 months only
c. Ustic moisture regime – Dry >3 months and continuously moist for at least 3 months
d. Udic moisture regime – Soil is dry for <3 months only
e. Xeric moisture regime – Soil is continuously dry 45 days after summer and continuously
moist 45 days after winter (dry summer-wet winter)

Diagnostic Horizon
Surface (Epipedon) Subsurface
Mollic Argillic
Umbric Natric
Histic Spodic
Ochric Oxic
Cambic

Surface (Epipedon):
o Mollic Epipedon – Thick, dark, soft, surface layer
Characteristics:
Thick – Greater than 10 inches; High base saturation> 50%
Mineral soil; Soils formed under prairie vegetation
o Umbric – Like mollic, but low base saturation
o Histic – Organic Soil - saturated with water, > -% organic matter
o Ochric – Thin, light colored – surface layers that do not fit any of the above

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 Subsurface:
o Argillic – Illuvial horizon of clay accumulation – Bt
o Natric – Same as argillic but with > 15% exchangeable sodium (Na) – Btn
o Spodic – Illuvial accumulation of oxides of Al and Fe (sesquioxides) and OM, red or dark red
color – only found in acid sandy soils, with high rainfall- generally found below E horizon.
Contains a Bhs or Bs horizon
o Oxic – Very weathered layer of only Fe and Al oxides and 1:1 clay minerals, low pH and not
very fertile (found in tropical soils) Bo
o Cambic – Slightly altered layer - not weathered enough to be argillic, Bw horizon
designation or development of color and or structure
o NONE – No diagnostic subsurface horizon present

Soil Taxonomy
 Soils are divided into six distinct categories based on diagnostic characteristics:
A. Fine-loamy mixed, MesicAquicArgiudolls
1. Orders – presence or absence of diagnostic horizons
2. Suborders – subdivide soil order based on moisture and temperature regime
Great Groups – subdivide suborder based on differences between soil horizons
3. Subgroups – typic (central concept of the great group); intergrades or transitional
forms to other orders, suborders, or great groups; extragrades or additional properties
not common to great group characteristics
4. Family – particle size, mineralogy, temperature regime, etc.
5. Series – parent material; kind, number and arrangement of horizons in the profile

 12 Soil Orders
 Entisol  Ultisols
 Inceptisol  Oxisols
 Andisols  Aridisols
 Spodosols  Vertisols
 Mollisols  Histosols
 Alfisols  Gelisols

o Entisol – ent
 Recent soils – minimal development, little horizonation, young soils
 Characteristically have A/C or A/R profiles, exhibit only ephemeral soil development –
largely confined to surface horizon. May have an Ap horizon
o Vertisol – ert
 Inverted – soils with high clay content large shrink swell potential, gradually invert on
themselves; Bss at slickenside
o Inceptisol – ept
 Inception – soil shows the beginning of horizons development little or no illuviation
o Aridisols – id
 Arid regions of the world (19%), <10 in of rainfall, usually contain carbonates
 NaCl Salt accumulates on the surface and in the subsurface
o Mollisols – oll
 Soils with thick, dark, soft surface – mollic + cambic,natric, argillic or none – high base
saturation – soils of the grassland
o Spodosols – od
 Acid sandy soils with thick E and red Bhs – ochric and spodic

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 o Alfisol – alf
 Fertile forested soils with ochric and argillic – high base saturation
 (> 35%) – forested soils
o Ultisols – ult
 Soils more weathered than Alfisols – ochric and argillic – low base saturation < 35% -
redder and more acid than Alfisols
o Histosols – ist
 Peat soils – organic material – histic
 Peat – undecomposed to slightly decomposed OM in waterlogged areas
 Muck – highly decomposed OM
o Andisols – and
 Soils from volcanic volcanicejecta (ash, cinder, pumice, basalt): very light, low bulk
density
 Early-stage secondary minerals (allophane, imogolite, ferrihydriteclays),
 High P fixing capacity
o Oxisols – ox
 Soils with Oxic horizon – highly weathered soils of the tropics.
 Low pH (acid soils); high in 1:1 clay minerals
o Gelisol – el
 New Order as of 1998 - soils with permafrost (formerly Cryochrepts – or frozen
Inceptisols)
 Soils formed in cool climate (pergelic temperature regime)
Any parent material; Often: Glacial drift

Soil Survey - Inventory of the Soil Resource

3 Main Elements:
1) A map showing the geographic relationships of each soil
2) A text describing the soils
3) Tables giving physical and chemical data and interpretations for various uses.

Soil survey
 A soil survey describes the characteristics of the soils in a given area, Usually a Province is
the unit of publication.
 Classifies the soils according to a standard system of classification,
 Plots the boundaries of the soils on a map, the map uses an aerial photo as the base
 Makes predictions about the behavior of soils,
Map Scale:
 Soil maps differ in their scale:
 Map scale refers to how many inches on the map represents inches on the ground -
 Scale of 1:24,000 says 1 inch on map = 24,000 inch on the ground.

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Orders of Soil Survey
i. First order: Very intensive (detailed); Experimental plots, building sites; Minimum size
delineation < 1 hectare
ii. Second order: Intensive (detailed); General agriculture, urban planning; Minimum size
delineation 0.6 to 4 has.
iii. Third order: Extensive; Rangeland, community area planning; Minimum size delineation –
1.6 to 16 has.
iv. Fourth order: Extensive (reconnaissance); For broad land use potential and general land
management; Minimum size delineation – 16 to 252 has.
v. Fifth order: Exploratory; Regional planning, national planning; Minimum size delineation –
252 to 4000 has.

Orders of Soil Survey

o Order 1 = Soil survey - Very detailed
o Order 2 = Semi-detailed
o Order 3 = Reconnaissance survey
o Order 4 = General soil map
o Order 5 = Regional map

Camansa Sandy clay loam

pH – strongly acid
NPK – low
CEC – very high
BS – medium
Source of PM -shales and sandstones with water -worn gravel and sand
Effective soil Depth – shallow
Soil color – yellowish brown, light brown to brown
Dominant relief – hilly to mountainous
Surface drainage – well-drained
Sub-surface Drainage – somewhat well drained
Flooding hazard – None

Tugbok Clay
pH – strongly acid
NPK – medium
CEC – high
BS – medium
Source of PM -igneous rocks, predominantly andesite
Effective soil Depth –deep
Soil color – brown to weak reddish brown
Dominant relief – undulating to gently rolling
Surface drainage – well-drained
Sub-surface Drainage –well drained
Flooding hazard – None

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