What Innovations and Adaptations Have Ensured The Long-Term Survival of The Platform Game Genre

25/01/2019 Thesis Draft v.
10 - Google Docs

What innovations and adaptations
have ensured the long-term survival
of the platform game genre?

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1pZkCza1-nRLjjX7ePMxeqzw4lLEE-AN-jzcOxjifnR0/edit# 1/50

25/01/2019 Thesis Draft v.10 - Google Docs

Author:
Stephen Borland
Title of Thesis:
What innovations and adaptations have ensured the long-term survival of the platform game
genre?
Course Title:
Game Design BA
Year of Graduation:
2019

1

Acknowledgements

A thanks to supervisor Florian Stephens and tutor Christopher Lowthorpe for advice and
guidance, class members and friends for answering survey, and to Andy Borland for proof reading
work.

I declare this is all my own work and the sources used have been referenced according to Harvard
standards.

2

Abstract

An exploration into the innovations and adaptations that have evolved the conventions of the platform
games genre; from the game mechanics, graphical adaptations, hardware technology, and marketing
strategies.
Starting in the 80s, arcade machines whose coin-op selling method led to homing Donkey Kong
(Nintendo, 1981) with their single-screen platformer gameplay. First-party exclusives such as Super
Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985) whose combination of mechanics from previous platformer-like games
modernised the conventions of platformers.
Moving into the 90s, 3D Graphic capable consoles such as Nintendo 64 whose 64-bit processor hardware
enabled Super Mario 64 (Nintendo, 1996) to take platforming into a 3D space. Tomb Raider (Core Design,
1996) also reflected an evolutionary split from 3D Platformers to action-adventures by combining
adventure and combat elements with platforming.
In the 00s, third-party exclusive platformer titles from Sony such as Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy
(Naughty Dog, 2001) further revolutionised platforming in a 3D space with improved camera controls and
utilisation of animation techniques. Digital distribution enabled Sega and Nintendo to revive their 2D
platformer franchises and take advantage of mobile technology.
The goal is to understand why those innovations and adaptations changed the conventions of the
platform game genre and what influences they now have on those conventions today. This has been
achieved through secondary research of scholars and thinkers inside game design from Chris Crawford
(1984) to more recently Scott Rodgers (2014). Along with primary research in the form of analysing games
from watching, playing and comparing them to explore ideas given by the secondary research while
media such as films outside of video games will be used to another perspective to the topic of genre.
The research ultimately exposes the frailty between game genres (and genres in general) and the
similarities they share in each other’s characteristics, including player’s expectations of genres
continuing to evolve over the years.

Keywords:
Platform-games; Platformers; Genre; Conventions; Adaptations; Evolution; Mechanics

3

Contents

Acknowledgements 1
Abstract 2
Contents 3
Introduction 3
80s 8
Space Panic (1980) 9
Super Mario Bros. (1985) 11
90s 15
Super Mario 64 (1996) 16
Tomb Raider (1996) 18
00s - Present 25

Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy (2001) 26
Sonic Dash (2013) 29
Conclusion 32
Bibliography 35
Ludography 39
Table of Figures 41
Appendix A - Definitions 42
Appendix B - Quotes 45
Appendix C - Research 47

4

Introduction

This dissertation explores the topic of platform games (or platformers) with regard to the innovations that
have evolved them through the years from their conception in 1980s arcade machines to the modern era
of mobile gaming, and why those innovations have been crucial to their survival while also changing
their conventions and characteristics in the process.

The structure for which to answer the topic in question will begin with a brief inquiry into what defines a
platform game, from looking to the established dictionary publishers Oxford, Chambers and Collins; to the
views of recent video game scholars such as Scott Rodgers (2014); in comparison to the views of early
video game scholars in Chris Crawford (1984). A step-by-step analysis of each decade (1980s, 1990s,
2000s - present) will be investigated to simplify their evolutionary steps, with some background
information of each era, to lay down some foundations for the rest of the thesis.

Starting with definitions, a platform game according to the online version of the Oxford English Dictionary:

“a type of video game featuring two-dimensional graphics where the player controls a character
jumping or climbing between solid platforms at different positions on the screen.” (Oxford, 2018)

Oxford (2018) uses ‘jumping’ or ‘climbing’ to describe the forms of controlling or moving of a character
between ‘platforms’ which is similar to the Collins (2018) definition (appx. A.1), in terms of the player
‘controlling’ (moving) a ‘figure’ (character) while going through a series of ‘obstacles and problems’
(between solid platforms) on a ‘screen’.
Chambers (2018) applies the more vague definition (appx. A.2) that doesn’t focus on a character or figure
but the idea of levels that increase in difficulty which can be represented by ‘obstacles’ and ‘problems’ as
seen in Collins (appx. A.1).
Carreker (appx. A.3) and Burgun (appx. A.4) fall in line with the Oxford (2018) definition with regard to
using ‘jumping’ to describe the act of controlling the character from ledge (platform) to ledge - Donovan
(2010) also refers to ‘jumping’ as being a “hallmark” of the platform game genre.
Burgun (2013) did not want to include Platformers as genre of video games in Game Theory because there
is only one kind of game involved - “jump from platform to platform to get to the end of the level”.

5

Burgun (2013) also expresses a criticism for defining video-game genres in general (appx. B.1) and is
shared by Apperley (2006) and Newman (2004). Genre theorist Chandler (1997) also refers to one theorist's
genre may be another's sub-genre or even super-genre: Rodgers (2014) classes Platform games as a
sub-genre to Action (p. 20 - 21), whilst Apperley (2006) classes ‘Action’ as an genre that consists of two
major subgenres: first-person shooters and third-person games.
Burgun (2013) feels ‘genres’ such as ‘Action’ are simply too broad to have any meaning, and ironically his
point is proven when he states that ‘3D Third-Person Action’ games (a genre he separates from platformers
with games like God of War (Santa Monica Studio, 2005)) involves the player becoming good at the game
by memorizing AI patterns, monster spawn positions, and level geometry - platformers share these same
characteristics and are visually highlighted (appx. A.5) in an example of Crash Bandicoot ‘N’ Sane Trilogy
(2017) gameplay.

Apperley (2006) believes the established genres of video games, while being substantially different from
literary or filmic genres, still emphasize representation over any notion of interactivity. Platform games
could be considered a ‘representation’ through what Newman (2004) refers to as ‘platforming’ suggesting
a particular type of ‘action’ - jumping across platforms to get from the start of a level to the end - yet
Newman feels defining gameplay with this level of simplicity reveals ‘platform game’ to be a “misnomer”
(appx. A.6).

Apperley (2006) defines ‘third-person’ through ‘interactivity’ rather than ‘representation’ - the
interaction of third person means they are played with avatars that are fully visible to the player. Though
broad, platform games could be categorised under this third-person definition, especially with the the
use of the word ‘avatar’ that Burgun (2013) used in describing the platform genre, and the idea of that
‘avatar’ being ‘visible’ to the player on the screen - ‘screen’ being a keyword Oxford (2018) and Collins
(2018) used in describing platform games.
In contrast, Jumping Flash! (Exact, 1995) and Alpha Waves (Atari SA, 1990) are first-person games that are
also considered a platform game by Loguidice and Barton (2009), especially with the former allowing
players to see the character’s feet and shadow to help guide their landings across platforms (p. 17).

Apperley (2006) also makes a link to his distinction of ‘Action’ as being made along the lines of the ‘mode’
genre, which refers to the categories suggested by King and Krzywinska (2002), as the player’s “perceptual
engagement” with the game environment such as shooting in shooters. In the same way, ‘platforms’
represent the game environment the player ‘engages’ with in platform games.

6

Crawford (2003) uses single-screen games of the arcade era (late 70s and early 80s) such as Donkey Kong
(Nintendo, 1981) and Space Panic (Universal, 1980) to define platform games (appx. A.7) even though
Crawford (1984) had not even recognised Platform games as a category under his ‘Taxonomy of Games’.
Instead, Crawford (1984) had classed Donkey Kong under the category of ‘Miscellaneous games’ because he
states that a number of games did not fit into his taxonomy very well. Also interestingly, he describes
Donkey Kong as a “race game with intelligent obstacles” - the use of the word ‘obstacles’, though vague,
definitely hints towards the Collins (2018) definition (appx. A.1).
The video game magazine article (Electronic Arts, 1983) did not use the term ‘platform games’ back in
1983 either, but as the article title suggests - ‘The Player’s Guide to Climbing Games’ - categorizes
platform games like Donkey Kong and Space Panic under ‘Climbing Games’ (p. 10). The magazine article
also links the popularity of climbing games closely paralleling the ‘maze-chase craze’ oriented games
such as Pac-Man (Namco, 1980) - Rogers (2014) defines ‘maze’ genre through the terms ‘collecting’,
‘power-ups’ and ‘avoiding enemies’ that are also found in platformers (p. 10).
Crawford (1984) similarly references Apple Panic (Brøderbund Software, 1981) in his ‘Miscellaneous games’
category to being like a ‘maze-game’, and as the name suggests, Apple Panic is an unofficial spinoff to
Space Panic (Universal, 1980) with the same ‘climbing’ gameplay.

The Side-Scrolling era of games leads onto the first selected era to be explored, which is the 1980s (p. 8),
building on these definitions including most notably Super Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985), a game that
Swink (2009) said the “notion of the platformer game” had been so well established from (p. 13).

Moving onto the 1990s (p. 16) delves into the arrival of three-dimensional space in platform games with
the likes of Super Mario 64 (Nintendo, 1996), while linking back to games in the 1980s that were a part to
that inception, and in doing so, clashing with some of the definitions including Oxford (2018) who stated
that platform games are a “type of video game featuring two-dimensional graphics”. However, Stanton
(2015) completely separates Super Mario 64 from previous Mario platforming titles (p. 17).

The turn into the 2000s (p. 20) saw a new line of 3D platformers arrive on the PS2: Jak and Daxter
(Naughty Dog, 2001), Ratchet & Clank (Insominic, 2002), Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus (Sucker
Punch, 2002) - each providing new blood to the 3D platformer formula from improved 3D animation,
mixing combat, and mixing stealth respectively. Stanton (2015) refers to these particular platformers,
which were third-party exclusives on the PS2, representing Sony’s genuine drive to maintain the volume
of third-party support (appx. B.2) that was prominent on the PS1, with the inclusion of Crash Bandicoot
(Naughty Dog, 1996).

7

Nintendo and Sega maintained a dependence on their respective first-party titles Super Mario Bros.
(Nintendo, 1985) and Sonic the HedgeHog (Sega, 1991), as first-party software made up a huge part of
their sales. Nintendo’s over-reliance on first-party titles over third-party cost them in the 2000s with their
central franchise of Super Mario Sunshine (Nintendo, 2002) falling short as a successor to Super Mario 64
(Nintendo, 1996) as believed by Stanton (2015). Burgun (2013) also criticises Super Mario Sunshine for
breaking what he calls the ‘tension of the jump’ (appx. B.3) because the game gave Mario what was
essentially a jetpack that let him hover at any time, until he lined up perfectly with where he wanted to
land, which Burgun believes completely destroyed the tension of the jump - ‘jumping’ being a key feature
of platform games definitions as seen in Oxford (2018) and Carreker (2011).

The arrival of the Xbox 360 (in 2006) and PS3 (in 2007) lead to AAA titles - referred to as the ‘highest
quality’ of video games by Carreker (2011) who relates the word to ‘Topshelf’ (appx. A.8) - such as
Uncharted (Naughty Dog, 2007) and Assassin's’ Creed II ( Ubisoft Montreal, 2009) which are considered
action-adventures (with the latter also being an open-world game) by Rogers (2014) but they also embody
some mechanical elements in their gameplay that could be related to platform games (p. 18).

An explosion of indie games in the 2010s saw platformers being ‘retro-revived’ alongside digital
distribution stores that enabled these indies to be downloaded to a worldwide audience - allowing small
teams and in some cases individuals to reach a home-console audience, which had previously been a
remote possibility as described by Stanton (2015). Indie Game: The Movie (2012) documents some of these
‘indies’ including the 2D platformers Braid (Number None, 2008) and Super Meat Boy (Team meat, 2010)
who reached massive success on Microsoft’s Xbox Live Arcade (digital distribution store) for the Xbox 360.
Both of game’s developers were influenced by the platform games of the 80s and 90s, including Super
Mario Bros. (1985) - Burgun (2013) quotes the game’s lead designer for Super Meat Boy, McMillen (appx.
B.4), highlighting the influence Mario had on the ‘feel’ of the game.
A degree of caution has to be taken about this ‘retro revival’, which Reynolds (2012) refers to as
“retroactively creating genres that never actually existed as recognised entities during the period” - the
conventions they possess may not be a throwback but just an illusion as Reynolds suggests.
This ‘retro-revival’ has sparked Sega into a revival of their own through re-releasing a line of SEGA Mega
Drive and Genesis Classics, on Valve’s Steam (digital distribution service), including emulations of Sonic
The Hedgehog (Sega, 1991). The games are also accessed via an ‘interactive 3D hub space’ which is a
virtual library based on a bedroom of an early nineties SEGA fan - essentially a platform within another
platform (Steam), changing the way platformers from older generation can be played.
Mobile gaming has become another avenue of digital distribution, encouraging Sega and Nintendo to
bring their retrospective Sonic the Hedgehog and Super Mario Bros. franchise onto Google Play and iTunes,
adapting the way their platforming franchises are played in the process due to touchscreen technology.
8

80s
9

Space Panic (1980)
Hardware Innovation (action) Convention Change (reaction)
Arcade machine (coin-op) Ladder-climbing platforming Spawned the 2D platformer

genre

Fig. 1 - Image of Space Panic taken from (The Log Book, 2018)
10

Space Panic (Universal, 1980) has been referred to as the “granddaddy of all platform games” by
Crawford (2003) who described the game as some floors and a variety of bad guys chasing the player who
could climb ladders up and down between floors (fig.1). Donovan (2010) calls Space Panic a “ladder
climbing, platform action”, agreeing with Crawford, as the first game that could truly be described as a
platform game even though he admittedly states it lacked the jumping that became a “hallmark of the
genre”.
The game used a coin-op arcade system, first introduced by Computer Space (Nutting Associates, 1971),
whereby players spend money (through inserting coins) to play the game. On top of the in-game lives
system, if the player loses all their lives, they will have to insert another coin to continue playing - a
marketing strategy to entice consumers to feed the machine more money.

Donkey Kong (Nintendo, 1981) was attributed by Crawford (2003) as the game that changed the
platform game concept from Space Panic by making the floors ‘tilted’ so that they connected with each
other like a ‘long ramp’, and the bad guys were rolling barrels that the player would leap or ‘jump’ over,
with the addition of ‘special-case’ obstacles. Jumping is possibly the key reason why people identify
Donkey Kong as the first platform game over Space Panic, with 60% of results from a survey (appx. C.2.1)
believing Donkey Kong was the first platformer. Donovan (2010) also makes specific mention to Donkey
Kong as being the game that ushered in the platform game era and declared that the game’s success was
followed by numerous single-screen platformers including the follow up, Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1983).

Frogs (Gremlin, 1978) - not to be confused with Frogger (Konami, 1981) - was the first game to make use
of a jumping mechanic in gameplay with Donovan (2010) describing the game as a ‘jumping game’ where
you control a frog that must jump up to catch insects - most likely the reason he named Frogs as a
‘forefather’ to the platform game genre.

Lode Runner (Brøderbund, 1983) was another noteworthy single-screen platform game that featured
what Donovan (2010) called “excellent ladder-based action” - ladders being a key feature that connects
these single screen platform games together (fig. 1) and (Internet Archive, 2018). The difference that
separated this ladder-based platform game from others was highlighted by Donovan as being one of the
first games to feature a level editor.

11

Super Mario Bros. (1985)

Nintendo Entertainment Combining conventions from other Modernised the 2D platformer

System (cartridge) platformers genre

Fig. 2 - Image of Super Mario Bros. taken from (Nintendo, 2018a)
12

Pitfall! (Activision, 1982) was one of the first games that used a ‘panning effect’, whereby the character
would reach the edge of the screen and then the next screen would be loaded with a short delay (almost
like a slideshow effect), which is not to be mistaken with ‘side-scrolling’, forcefully stated by Loguidice
and Barton (2009). In contrast, Stanton (2015) considers Super Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985) to be the
first video game where levels smoothly scroll from left-to-right - the camera would track the character
sideways through level without having to load a new screen.

Swink (2009) also believes Super Mario Bros. (1985) established the “notion of the platformer game”,
through following on from many of the conventions in previous platforming titles including:
● Jumping (fig. 2) continued from Donkey Kong (Nintendo, 1981) and Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1983)
● ‘Mascot’ character (p. 23) ‘Mario’ originated from ‘Jumpman’ in Donkey Kong (Nintendo, 1981)
● Jumping onto enemies to kill them functions similar to Joust (Williams Electronics, 1982)
● Jumping over ‘pits’ to avoid falling to your death as seen in Pitfall! (Activision, 1982)

While also putting their own twist on earlier mechanics such as:
● Mushroom collectables developed from the egg collectables in Chuckie Egg (Nigel Alderton,
1983), gave the player points and adding the twist of giving extra lives - taking the lives system
featured in previous arcade platform games such as Space Panic (Universal, 1980) a step further
(p. 11)

Joust (Williams Electronics, 1982) was ascribed by Loguidice and Barton (2009) as being the first time
where the play mechanic of being higher than your enemy to overcome them was introduced - a “key
concept when jumping on enemies” in Super Mario Bros. (1985).
The previous title, Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1983) oddly used the gameplay mechanic in the complete
reverse by having the player hit the platform underneath enemies to knock them out and then proceed to
kicking them off the platform.

Pitfall! (Activision, 1982) also introduced the premise of avoiding falling down pits by jumping (and
swinging) over them - Burgun (2013) highlighted the central theme of platformers including Super Mario
Bros. (1985) is based around the idea that if you fell off a platform (or missed a platform on a jump), you
would fall to your death or lose a life (or the game).

Chuckie Egg (Nigel Alderton, 1983) was a ladder-based platformer in the same vein as Space Panic
(Universal, 1980) and Donkey Kong (Nintendo, 1981) but introduced the concept of collectables, whereby
player go around collecting eggs to score points - collectibles in the form of mushrooms were also used in
Super Mario Bros. to give the player points, and extra lives.
13

Super Mario Bros. 3 (Nintendo, 1988) was one of the first platformers to have multi-directional
scrolling, meaning the camera could move along both the x and y axis with the player’s character, in
comparison to only moving along the x axis in Super Mario Bros. (1985).

Stanton (2015) believes this completely changed the way the player approached the gameplay in Mario as
levels now asked the players to “explore up and down as well as left and right” - a key feature that Stanton
believes earned the game a place in Stanford University History of Science and Technology list of the 10 Most
Influential Games of All Time (appx. B.5).

Other features that improved upon the Super Mario Bros. (1985) ‘formula’ included:
● improved soundtrack
● minigames
● hidden items
● overview map outlining levels in each world
● two-player mode (where players take turns clearing levels or compete against each other)

Super Mario Land (Nintendo, 1989) was the first game in the Mario franchise to be released on a
handheld console, the Game Boy (released in 1989). The game’s control scheme was based on the NES:
Nintendo Entertainment System from 1983 that was used by Super Mario Bros. (1985), allowing for the
franchise to easily transition their conventions from console to a portable format.

The Gameboy Color released in 1998 with the fairly obvious improvement of being able to display 16-bit
color (instead of the previous monochromatic display), allowing for the re-release of Super Mario Bros.
(1985) in the form Super Mario Bros. Deluxe (Nintendo, 1991), to make a transition from console to
handheld in full colour.

The Game Boy Advance released in 2001 with increased the graphical capabilities to which Stanton (2015)
claimed were comparable to SNES: Super Nintendo Entertainment System from 1991 - another
improvement that gave Nintendo's platformer console games a successful transition to handheld, such as
the SNES port Super Mario Advance 3: Yoshi’s Island (2002).

14

The act of ‘jumping’ is a key convention of platform game definitions, including the description set by
Burgun (2013) of “jumping from platform to platform”. Burgun also adds to this description with his
section ‘Protect the Jump’ (appx. B.3) where he talks about platformers generally work by having a “very
clear pattern of tension and release: the jump” - jump is their core mechanism.
Bionic Commando (Capcom, 1987) went against that convention of ‘jumping’ and replaced it with
‘swinging’ in the form of a grappling hook. Instead of what Burgun (2013) referred to as ‘tension’ coming
from the jump, in this game, the tension comes from the ‘swing’.
Jumping and swinging are in a sense the same as they both are a means to allowing the player to
overcome obstacles. In that regard, it doesn’t matter if the player jumps, bounces or swings, as they are
just tools that allow the player move over obstacles.

Stanton (2015) puts Super Mario Bros. (1985) success as leading to a host of “woefully designed
platformers” featuring Mario clones through the early 90s and picks out the Bubsy, Zool and Cool Spot
series of games.
Sonic the Hedgehog (Sega, 1991) origins were perhaps no different, as Sega had ordered their
development team to come up with a character that could fill the role of ‘console mascot’ for the Sega
Mega Drive (also known as the Sega Genesis), released in 1989.

Sonic the Hedgehog (1991) did however put a new twist on the platformer gameplay which simply put, was
speed and momentum. Stanton (2015) emphasises that the real selling point was the ‘speed’ at which
Sonic could move through the levels, which the designers emphasized themselves with features like loops
that required Sonic to be moving quickly. Stanton also quotes Yuji Naka, creator of Sonic the Hedgehog,
highlighting the game’s speed aspect (appx. B.6).

Loguidice and Barton (2009) also agree with Stanton (2015) by referencing how Super Mario Bros. 3
(Nintendo, 1988) encouraged ‘careful exploration’ while Sonic the Hedgehog (1991) encouraged running
through levels as “quickly as possible”, which was often the only way to gain enough ‘momentum’
through the loops to get the highest rings - especially along with springboards and other high-speed
launching devices, there's “no shortage of encouragement to feed a player’s need for speed”.

Another selling point that Stanton (2015) pointed out in Sonic the Hedgehog (1991) was the bright visual
palette and large sprites, which “distinguished it from the vast majority of SNES games” - made possible
by 16-bit graphical capabilities of the Sega Mega Drive.

15

90s
16

Super Mario 64 (1996)
Nintendo 64 (cartridge) Addition of free-roaming elements Modernisation of 3D platforming

in a 3D space conventions

Fig. 3 - Image of Super Mario 64 taken from (Nintendo, 2018)
17

Super Mario 64 (Nintendo, 1996) is iconic for moving the Mario franchise from a two-dimensional
space into a three-dimensional space with Donovan (2010) calling the game “a complete reinvention of
the platform game and series for the 3D era”. Kohler (2016) also highlights Super Mario 64 for taking
advantage of the Nintendo 64’s advanced graphics processing power by being “one of the first 3D
adventure games”.

The first existence of platforming in a 3D space can strangely be seen in Antarctic Adventure (Konami,
1983) and Congo Bongo (Sega, 1983) that had featured platforming mechanics in 3D-isometric graphics.
Loguidice and Barton (2009) pick out I, Robot (Dave Theurer, 1983), a ‘hybrid’ shooter that featured maze
and platforming (jumping) elements as the first commercial video-game with flat shaded 3D
polygonal-graphics. Alpha Waves (Atari SA, 1990) represents another polygon-based platform game with
first-person jumping and multi-object interactions - Donovan (2010) goes far as saying the game was
“platforming’s first, and rather odd, move into 3D”.

Loguidice and Barton (2009) see Super Mario 64 (1996) as representing the best transition of a 2D
platformer to a 3D space, but Stanton (2015) believes there is almost nothing in common between the 2D
Mario games and the world created for Super Mario 64. Stanton stresses this point by saying Crash
Bandicoot (Naughty Dog, 1996) only took ‘cues’ from 2D platformers and created a 3D version of “such
structures” - referred to as 2.5D (appx. A.9). In contrast, Stanton believes Super Mario 64 provided a level
of freedom never seen before in a 3D game, allowing the player’s camera to rotate fully around the z-axis,
so they could fully explore the entirety of 3D space (fig. 3) without restriction. Just as Super Mario Bros. 3
(Nintendo, 1988) added elements of nonlinearity, Super Mario 64 (1996) added elements of free-roaming.
Kohler (2016) emphases that just running through levels to find the ‘exit’ was no longer the goal - Mario
had to explore the worlds around him and accomplish many, varied tasks to find secret stars scattered
around the levels. However, Loguidice and Barton do not necessarily see Crash Bandicoot’s 2.5D structure
and “polish and ability” to capture that 2D side-scrolling platformer feel in 3D as a negative. Rather,
Super Mario 64 should be seen as a deviation from this 2.5D structure into a free-roaming structure.

Burgun (2013) criticises 3D platformers in general for making players having to translate so many
different angles (and camera angles) without the use of depth perception, making jumping prombalatic
(appx. B.1.7). Banjo-Kazooie (Rare, 1998) was a 3D Platformer in a similar vein to Super Mario 64 (1996)
that added a gliding mechanic in the form of a character ability whereby the sidekick character who lives
in the backpack of the main character, can flap its wings to grant a little more airtime. Stanton (2015)
believes this mechanic solved the problem with 3D platforming that was shared by Burgun, which is the
difficulty for players to judge distances in a 3D space - though potentially destroyed what Burgun calls the
‘tension of the jump’ (appx. B.1.3) in the process by giving the player more control while in mid-air.
18

Tomb Raider (1996)

PlayStation (CD-ROM) Combination of action elements Creation of the action-adventure

(combat), puzzle solving, and genre
platforming elements in a 3D space

Fig. 4 - Image of Tomb Raider taken from (GOG, 2018)
19

Tomb Raider (Core Design, 1996) was innovative for combining platforming, puzzle solving and mix of
combat, spawning the Action-Adventure genre of video games in the process or what Stanton (2015) called
a new breed of 3D adventure. The game helped to build the conventions of platforming in a 3D space with
the game’s unique traversal mechanics such as:
● Sidestep
● Roll/Reverse
● Hop Back
● Walk

Mark Brown (Game Maker’s Toolkit, 2015) lists the steps of the traversal mechanics in Tomb Raider
(1996), explaining how these mechanics work together:
Step 1: Line up the jump
Step 2: Get a run up (after walking backwards)
Step 3: Run and jump
Step 4: Grab button

These mechanics provided a strong emphasis on players slowly ‘negotiating’ their next moves and
positioning Lara around the camera so they could carefully place jumps onto other platforms
successfully, as Stanton also stresses. Loguidice and Barton (2009) described the movement mechanics in
Tomb Raider as being the most important feature from a gameplay perspective for their “superb control
and response”. Mark Brown (Game Maker’s Toolkit, 2015) criticizes an increased amount of ‘automated
control’ in the later Tomb Raider (Crystal Dynamics, 2013), as contradicting the original game’s steps and
allows:
● immediate acceleration and ultra-responsive jump so don’t need run up and jump
● moving in mid-air so don’t need to line up jump (recover from mistakes more easily)
● automatically grabbing ledges

Mark Brown (Game Maker’s Toolkit, 2015) believes that giving the player more automated control removes
some of the tension of the jump, falling in line with literal ‘tension of jump’ (appx. B.3) by Burgun (2013)
that is so important in platform games - possibly the defining feature that separates platformers from
action-adventure.

The evolution from Tomb Raider (1996) to Tomb Raider (2013) can also be depicted through the
chronological order of other games in the franchise:
● Tomb Raider III: The Adventure of Lara Croft (Core Design, 1998) - adding automated movements
(monkey bars)
● Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness (Core Design, 2003) - removing the grab button/stronger
focus on combat
● Tomb Raider: Legend (Crystal Dynamics, 2006) - removed the run up
20

Stanton (2015) believes the evolutionary change in Tomb Raider (1996) is what attributed to being the
“defining influence” for Uncharted: Drake’s Fortune (Naughty Dog, 2007) and action-adventure genre as a
whole - Rodgers (2014) agrees that Uncharted is an Action-Adventure game.

When the game director for Uncharted, Amy Henning was interviewed (Sony Interactive Entertainment
Europe Limited, 2019) on the game, they said that they wanted to “embrace the action adventure genre in
sort of its classic form but in a contemporary context”. The co-president at Naughty Dog, Wells (appx.
B.8), describes the game through three pillars of gameplay:
● Traversal platforming mechanics - that they admit to having already explored heavily in past
games including Crash Bandicoot and Jak and Daxter
● Combined with fast action “over-the-top gunplay”
● Mixed in with the “hand-to-hand melee combat”

Wells considered this a “combination of mechanics and interactions that you really haven't seen put
together before in the same way” which links in with Rodgers (2014) definition of Action-Adventure:

“combination of genres features an emphasis on combat, item collection and usage, puzzle solving,
and long-term story-related goals.”

Action-Adventure can also be separated into the two parts:
- ‘adventure’ in Action-Adventure, represents a mix of story content in the form of “long-term
story-related goals” in same way Stam (2000) believes that one of the common ways of
categorizing films includes genres based on story content such as adventure films (appx. B.9)
- ‘action’ element can be based on Rogers (2014) listing Action-Adventures as a subgenre to Action -
a genre of game that requires “hand-eye coordination to play” according to Rodgers, with
Carreker (2011) agreeing Action are “video games that focuses on eye-hand coordination
challenges”.

The several subgenres of Action listed by Rogers (2014) includes both of his definitions of Platformers
(appx. A.10) and Action-Adventures:
● Action-Adventure
● Action-Arcade
● Beat ‘em up/ hack ‘n’ slash
● Endless Runner
● Fighting
● Maze
● Platformer
● Sandbox
● Stealth
21

Rogers (2014) listing Platformers as a sub-genre next to Action-Adventure almost represents a

genre-cousin relationship, and in fact, there are platformers that expose this cousin-like relationship by
combining with other subgenres:
- Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus (2002) combines Stealth, in form of what Rogers refers to as
an “emphasis on avoiding enemies rather than directly fighting them”, with platforming -
stealth-based platforming as described by Donovan (2010).
- Assassin's Creed II (Ubisoft Montreal, 2009) could equally be considered an action-adventure or
open-world game, due to Rogers defining open-world (or what he calls ‘Sandbox’), as containing
puzzle solving and combat (appx. A.11) alike to Action-Adventure.

Rogers (2014) identifies ‘mascots’ (the player’s character) as an important mechanism in the platformer
definition (appx. A.10), and are expressed through the ‘console mascots’ (p. 20) of Sonic the Hedgehog and
Mario. Burgun (2013) does use not ‘mascot’ in his own definition of platformers but refers to an ‘avatar’
(appx. A.4).
What’s important is that both a ‘mascot’ and ‘avatar’ serve essentially the same purpose of connecting
the player to the gameworld through a physical character, as seen through a quote from Apperley (2006)
who references the agreement between Schliener (2001), Atkins (2003), and Consalvo (2003) of arguing:

“the player identifies with their avatar, even through they are viewed in the third person. The avatar
acts as a virtual prosthetic that acts as the connecting point between the player and the virtual
environment”.

Action-adventure titles make good use of a central character who connects the ‘player’ with the ‘virtual
environment’ such as Nathan Drake in Uncharted, Lara Croft in Tomb Raider and Ezio in Assassin’s Creed.
Just like Mario and Sonic are thrown on the cover of their retrospective games as the ‘mascots’, Nathan
Drake and Lara Croft are thrown on their covers, emphasising the importance of these central ‘mascot’
characters to both sub-genres in marketing as well as the gameplay.

In the survey conducted for thesis, over 50% thought Tomb Raider (1996) was not a platformer (appx.
C.2.2) but by using the definitions set by Rodgers, the correlation between both sub-genres can still be
seen between Tomb Raider (1996), Uncharted (2007), and Assassin’s Creed II (2009) meeting the
requirements of both sub-genres on some basic level.

22

Tomb Raider
Fig. 5 - Image of Lara Croft taken from (Steam, 2018)

Action-Adventure
Combat Item Collection and Puzzle Solving Long-term

Usage Story-related Goals
Dual-wielded pistols which Finding secret medkits Spatial puzzle solving: Lara Croft (fig. 5)
can be used to kill enemies stashed around the levels Finding secret switches to recovering the Scion
such as bats or wolves - which can be used to heal open doors and working out (mysterious
video (Kawaii Games, 2017) the player later on - video the quickest route to reach artefact)
(NTAGameGuides, 2017) the door before it closes -
video (Andrew Williams,
2017)

Shooting and fighting may Collectables/ Power-Ups Jumping through obstacle Mascot Character
also be involved course-like environment
Platformer

23

Uncharted: Drake’s Fortune
Fig. 6 - Image of Nathan Drake taken from (PlayStation, 2018a)

Action-Adventure

Shooting enemies - video Picking up special weapon Solve physial puzzles: Player Nathan Drake (fig. 6)
(theRadBrad, 2016) and using it against positioning statues in the finding the location
enemies - video correct order as shown in their of El Dorado
(theRadBrad, 2016) in-game notepad - video (treasure)
(Video Games Source, 2015)

Shooting and fighting Collectables/ Power-Ups Jumping through obstacle Mascot Character
may also be involved course-like environment
Platformer

24

Assassin’s Creed II
Fig. 7 - Image of Ezio taken from (PlayStation, 2018b)

Action-Adventure

Sword fighting - video Buying weapons and Spatial puzzle solving: Ezio (fig. 7) finding the
(Luke Stephens, 2018a) armour in shop to use in Finding the quickest route location of Eden
combat - video (Luke possible to catch target (mysterious artifact)
Stephens, 2018a) before they get away - video
(Luke Stephens, 2018b)

Shooting and fighting Collectables/ Power-Ups Jumping through obstacle Mascot Character
may also be involved course-like environment
Platformer

25

00s - Present
26

Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy (2001)

PlayStation 2 (DVD) Adapting 3D platforming to an 3D cameras could be

analog camera system / utilising freely-controlled via analog
2D animation techniques in 3D controls / 2D animation techniques
space were viable in 3D space

Fig. 8 - Image of Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legend taken from (PlayStation Store, 2018)
27

Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy (Naughty Dog, 2001) represented Naughty Dog’s move from the 2.5D
structure of Crash Bandicoot (Naughty Dog, 1996) into a true 3D space. The player in Jak and Daxter could
now actively control the camera with the right analog thumbstick of the PS2’s DualShock 2 controller, in
comparison to the fixed 2.5D camera in Crash Bandicoot.

In defence of Crash Bandicoot using a fixed camera, the first PlayStation controller with analog capitablies
was the Dualshock controller released in 1997 (a year after Crash Bandicoot) - the game was only designed
with the original PlayStation controller in mind (released alongside the PlayStation console) which had no
analog thumbsticks to exclusively rotate the camera. This change in camera systems did not change the
convention of breaking boxes to retrieve ‘collectables’, demonstrated through:
1. Crash Bandicoot spin attack ability - video (GarlandTheGreat, 2013)
2. Jak and Daxter spin kick attack ability - video (World of Longplays, 2011)

Mechanically, Jak and Daxter followed on from Tomb Raider (Core Design, 1996) in terms of jumping and
grabbing onto ledges to pull yourself up, but this action was automated similar to Tomb Raider (Crystal
Dynamics, 2013) - moving the gaming into action-adventure territory (p. 22).
Aesthetically, Jak and Daxter enhanced the ‘jump’ in a 3D space through utilising the animation
techniques previously seen 2D animation such as the ‘squash and stretch’ (squashing and stretching
animated objects to exaggerate motion or show impact), set out by Thomas and Johnston (1981) -
discussed in-depth in video (PlayFrame, 2016). This expressed the movement and weight of the player’s
character in Jak and Daxter (fig. 8) compared to the rigid animated bodies of Mario (fig. 3) and Lara Croft
(fig. 4) in Super Mario 64 (Nintendo, 1996) and Tomb Raider (1996) respectively.

The ‘rolling-long-jump’ mechanic was another extension to the ‘jump’, whereby players hold the
shoulder buttons (on the Dualshock 2 remote) to roll whilst moving, and then pressing the jump button to
spring their character forwards and upwards over to other platforms - demonstrated best in the tutorial
of sequel Jak II (Naughty Dog, 2003) in video (SpottinGames, 2012). You could argue that the mechanic is
a glorified jump - practically works in the same way as jump in terms of being a very clear pattern of
‘tension’ and ‘release’ as put by Burgun (2015), but was at least a fresh animation that made getting from
platform to platform visually pleasing.

28

Daxter (Ready at Dawn, 2006), a spinoff of the Jak and Daxter franchise, took the 3D platforming that
was featured in Jak and Daxter on PlayStation 2 onto handheld in the form of the PSP (PlayStation
Portable). The PSP was attributed as an extremely powerful handheld console comparable to the PS2 by
Stanton (2015), especially with the technological innovations that included an analogue stick that worked
similar to the PS2’s Dualshock Controller.
This enables Daxter to recreate the 3D platforming gameplay found on the PS2 equivalents, even though
the PSP lacks a separate analogue stick for the camera, the PSP used the shoulder buttons to rotate the
camera instead (but only from left to right).

The PSP also used optical discs, allowing for the technological capabilities of larger storage for larger
scale gameplay such as the 3D platforming in Daxter - another feature to make 3D Platformers on the PS2
accessible to a handheld market, continuing their conventions in a new format.

PlayStation Vita came with the much-improved digital store through marketing innovation that involved
the clever strategy of signing up popular indie 2D platforming titles such as Spelunky (Derek Yu, 2013),
Rogue Legacy (Cellar Door Games, 2014), and Guacamelee (DrinkBox Studios, 2013) which were perfectly
adapted for Vita’s OLED screen as Stanton (2015) highlights.

The Vita improved upon the PSP’s controls by adding more functions to the controller including an
additional analog stick and two extra bumper buttons, essentially giving the same capabilities as a PS3
controller - a capability that was enhanced by the remote play feature, enabling PS3 games to be played
on the Vita when linked via the PS3.

This seamless cross between the PS Vita and PS3 can be seen through the 3D platformer Sly Cooper:
Thieves in Time (Sucker Punch, 2003), which used a cross-save feature to enable players to play the game
on PS Vita and then continue the game with the same save file onto PS3.

In terms of the gameplay, the extra analog stick made controlling the camera in a 3D platforming space
with the same ease as the PS3 controller - eradicating the PSP’s camera issues through the lack of one.
The improved controls also gave the capability of fully replaying former PS2 platformer titles such as Jak
and Daxter through the HD remake Jak and Daxter Collection (Naughty Dog, 2012).

29

Sonic Dash (2013)

Smartphones/Google Play/ Moving conventions of platformers Platformers can be played on

iTunes (digital distribution on smartphones through endless smartphones with touchscreen
stores) runner genre controls

Fig. 9 - Image of Sonic Dash taken from (Sega, 2018)
30

Sonic Dash (Hardlight, 2013) is Sega’s second attempt at bringing the Sonic franchise onto mobile
platforms after Sonic the Hedgehog Classic (Sega, 2009). The difference between both attempts was that
Sonic the Hedgehog Classic was essentially remastering the original Sonic the Hedgehog (Sega, 1991) onto
mobile while Sonic Dash was exclusively made with the sole intention of being on mobile.

The difference between both titles can be seen through Sonic the Hedgehog Classic using a virtual
touchscreen gamepad - a digital representation of a controller the player can control via touch - so the
player can control the game in similar fashion to the original controller of Sega Genesis that the Sonic the
Hedgehog (1991) original came out on.
The problem of using a virtual touchscreen gamepad is that you are simply adapting a control scheme
from one platform (that uses a gamepad) to another completely different platform (that uses touch
control) without taking into consideration the differences between both platforms.
On the other hand, the controls for Sonic Dash completely reflect the utilisation of the platform the game
is played on, as the player has to swipe the screen to move left and right, and tap the screen to jump
while the game moves forward automatically in a 3D space in ‘endless runner style’ (fig. 9) - Rogers (2014)
links Endless-Runners (appx. A.12) to Platformers as both being a subgenre to Action. This exemplifies the
game’s developers knowing the limitations of the touchscreen as they can only do so many different
control schemes - swiping, tapping. The camera’s perspective is also utilising the limitations of the
controls as the player only has to control moving from left to right while the game moves forward for
them.

A lot of the features that Sonic Dash uses (and most likely were inspired from) were seen previously in
Temple Run (Imangi Studios, 2011), in terms of being an endless runner that uses platforming
elements and swiping/tapping to control the player.

Sonic Mania (Christian Whitehead, 2017) is a another retro revival of the classic Sonic The Hedgehog
(1991) games by bringing “retro fast-paced platforming into the future through pixel perfect 2D graphics
running at 60FPS” - reads the Steam (2017) store page. The game was also built in the Retro Engine, a
multiplatform game engine developed by Australian programmer Christian Whitehead, an independent
developer who was Lead Developer & Programmer for Sonic Mania. The Retro Engine was “stylistically
designed to deliver features from the 32 bit console generation” successfully giving Sonic Mania that
retro aesthetic - as the developer’s webpage reads (Whitehead, 2016).

31

Nintendo has followed Sega’s suit by releasing their own central franchise of Mario onto the mobile
market with Super Mario Run (Nintendo, 2016) becoming the first time Nintendo had made a game for a
controller they had not designed which in this case was the iPhone (touchscreen mobile platform), as
reported by Christophe Haubursin in a interview (Vox, 2017) with Shigeru Miyamoto (Creator of Mario).

The game functions in the same endless runner style of Sonic Dash (Hardlight, 2013), but the camera
follows Mario side-on in 2.5D fashion, keeping in with the original Super Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985) 2D
side-scrolling gameplay. The same conventions of jumping in the original have also been adapted
through the the player tapping the screen to jump, while tapping and holding makes Mario jump higher.

Shigeru Miyamoto on Super Mario Run (from translation) in interview (Vox, 2017) talked about how over
time, not as many people have been playing Mario games because the “controls got too difficult”, and
believes Super Mario Run is a game “anyone can play, from first-time players to the most experienced
ones” - the simple controls of the mobile has brought back Miyamoto’s design philosophy of making fun
games that everybody can play, just as reported by Kohler (2016), Satoru Iwata also went along with this
philosophy in Nintendo’s annual report for 2004 (appx. B.10).
Christophe Haubursin describes this as a “shift from immersiveness to accessibility”, ensuring the same
platforming principles as highlighted earlier are surviving by tapping into a rising market in mobile, as
the Statista graph provided in the (Vox, 2017) suggests - a more recent Statica (2019) graph also showing
the market rising.

While news (Blake, 2019) of Nintendo turning their efforts to the mobile market and potentially moving
away from their console hardware past, the arrival of the Nintendo Switch has become their new flagship
console, with third-party platformers such as Sonic Mania (Christian Whitehead, 2017) and Mega Man 11
(Capcom, 2018), and retro-indie platformers such as Shovel Knight (Yacht Club Games, 2014) and Spelunky
(Derek Yu, 2008) being released with massive success - in contrast to what Stanton believed was Nintendo
slipping behind Sony in terms of third-party titles in previous years. The success of Shovel Knight is
documented in a blog post from the game’s developer (Yacht Club Games, 2018), stating the game sold
faster on Switch than on any other platform (selling around 110k during the launch month), breaking the
record set for the PC platform selling 70k in the first month (appx. C.1.1) and becoming a third of
platform sales (appx. C.1.2).
On top of this, the survey (appx. C.1.3) conducted showed that 30% had played their last platform game
on the Switch, with 20% on PC using Steam, and PS4 with 15%, with the remaining being other platforms
- this is extremely promising and shows the beginnings of a new avenue for third-party/indie platform
games to thrive on (possibly continuing another retro rival), offering new horizons in the evolution of the
platform game genre.
32

Conclusion

The platform game genre and its conventions have changed drastically over the years, starting in the 80s
with the primitive beginnings of Space Panic’s single-screen ladder-climbing gameplay, that used a
lives-based coin-op system.
Super Mario Bros. side-scrolling gameplay further cemented the platformer (and their conventions) as the
genre known today, through combining the conventions of its predecessors including jumping in Donkey
Kong, collectables in Chuckie Egg and the premise of pits in Pitfall!.
The move into the 90s was met with 3D being fully embraced in platformers, completely turning the
genre’s mechanics on their head with new forms of free-roaming interaction for the player, but drew
criticism from Keith Burgun for making jumping prombalatic.
Tomb Raider represented an ‘Evolutionary Split’ from 3D platformers to Action-Adventures, with the
former putting emphasis on environmental traversal and the latter on combat, they still share
similarities in each others’ mechanics, including mascots.
The transition into the 2000s saw titles such as Jak and Daxter iron out the issue of controlling the
character in a 3D space, by taking advantage of the additional camera controls on the Dualshock 2
controller provided on the PS2.
A retro revival during the 2010s in the indie scene has seen a resurgence of 2D Platformers of old, with
Sega capitalising on their established franchise of Sonic the Hedgehog through the increased accessibility
of Sonic Dash (Hardlight, 2013), from outlets of digital distribution onto mobile platforms.
This review of platform games has explored why game mechanics, graphical adaptations, hardware
technology, and marketing strategies have evolved the conventions of the platform game genre. More
research into games that were missed should also be investigated to widen perspectives, whilst the future
effects of the Switch console, Virtual Reality and Cloud Gaming offer new horizons for the further
development of the platform game genre.

33

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17/01/2019).
36

PlayFrame (2016) The Animation of Jak & Daxter - #1 - SQUASH & STRETCH. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BbP6Jsh8M6Y&t=1168s (Accessed: 17/01/2019).
PS Nation (2017) Crash Bandicoot N. Sane Trilogy gameplay. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyNqDYfE6ME (Accessed: 17/01/2019).
SpottinGames (2012) Jak II (HD Collection) Walkthrough - Part 1. Available at: https://youtu.be/gUVpH7WuwTE?t=579
(Accessed: 17/01/2019).
theRadBrad (2016) Uncharted Drake's Fortune Walkthrough Gameplay Part 2 - Shipwrecked (PS4). Available at:
https://youtu.be/YqBdHcXW1Wk?t=800 (Accessed: 17/01/2019).
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etc). Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g6Eh53msh2w (Accessed: 17/01/2019).
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(Accessed: 03/08/2018).
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https://youtu.be/9lpq3zVXs9A?t=430 (Accessed: 27/12/2018).
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3R9X6kka5WY&t (Accessed: 27/12/2018).
Vodcast
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https://www.playstation.com/en-gb/games/uncharted-drakes-fortune-ps3/ (Accessed: 24/11/2018).
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(Accessed: 16/07/2018).
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05/09/2018).
Collins (2018) Definition of 'platform game'. Available at:
https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/platform-game (Accessed: 16/07/2018).
Internet Archive (2018) Lode Runner [m color Ralf Bertenburg]. Available at:
https://archive.org/details/a8b_Lode_Runner_1983_Broderbund_US_m_color_Ralf_Bertenburg (Accessed: 18/01/2019).
Oxford (2018) Definition of platform game in English. Available at:
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/platform_game (Accessed: 16/07/2018).
Steam (2017) Sonic Mania. Available at: https://store.steampowered.com/app/584400/Sonic_Mania/ (Accessed:
05/09/2018).
Whitehead, C. (2016) Retro Engine. Available at: https://christianwhitehead.com/?page_id=51 (Accessed: 20/10/2018).

37

Ludography

Activision (1982) Pitfall! [Video game]. Activision.
Atari SA. (1990) Alpha Waves [Video game]. Atari SA.
Brøderbund Software (1981) Apple Panic [Video game]. Brøderbund Software.
Brøderbund Software (1983) Lode Runner [Video game]. Brøderbund Software.
Capcom (1987) Bionic Commando [Video game]. Capcom.
Capcom (2018) Mega Man 11 [Video game]. Capcom.
Cellar Door Games (2013) Rogue Legacy [Video game]. Cellar Door Games.
Christian Whitehead (2017) Sonic Mania [Video game]. Sega.
Core Design (1996) Tomb Raider [Video game]. Eidos Interactive.
Core Design (1998) Tomb Raider III: The Adventure of Lara Croft [Video game]. Eidos Interactive.
Core Design (2003) Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness [Video game]. Eidos Interactive.
Crystal Dynamics (2006) Tomb Raider: Legend [Video game]. Eidos Interactive.
Crystal Dynamics (2013) Tomb Raider [Video game]. Square Enix.
Dave Theurer (1983) I, Robot [Video game]. Atari.
Derek Yu (2008) Spelunky [Video game]. Mossmouth.
DrinkBox Studios (2013) Guacamelee! [Video game]. DrinkBox Studios.
Exact (1995) Jumping Flash! [Video game]. Sony Computer Entertainment.
Gremlin (1978) Frogs [Video game]. Sega.
Hardlight (2013) Sonic Dash [Video game]. Sega.
Imangi Studios (2011) Temple Run [Video game]. Imangi Studios.
Insomniac Games (2002). Ratchet & Clank [Video game]. Sony Computer Entertainment.
Konami (1981) Frogger [Video game]. Konami.
Konami (1983) Antarctic Adventure [Video game]. Konami.
Naughty Dog (1996) Crash Bandicoot [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Naughty Dog (2001) Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Naughty Dog (2003) Jak II [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Naughty Dog (2007) Uncharted: Drake's Fortune [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Naughty Dog (2012) Jak and Daxter Collection [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Namco (1980) Pac-Man [Video game]. Namco.
Nigel Alderton (1983) Chuckie Egg [Video game]. A&F Software.
Nintendo (1981) Donkey Kong [Video game]. Nintendo.
Nintendo (1983) Mario Bros. [Video game]. Nintendo.
Nintendo (1985) Super Mario Bros. [Video game]. Nintendo.
Nintendo (1988) Super Mario Bros. 3 [Video game]. Nintendo.
Nintendo (1989) Super Mario Land [Video game]. Nintendo.
Nintendo (1991) Super Mario Bros. Deluxe [Video game]. Nintendo.
38

Nintendo (1996) Super Mario 64 [Video game]. Nintendo.

Nintendo (2000) Super Mario Sunshine [Video game]. Nintendo.
Nintendo (2002) Super Mario Advance 3: Yoshi’s Island [Video game]. Nintendo.
Nintendo (2016) Super Mario Run [Video game]. Nintendo.
Number None (2008) Braid [Video game]. Number None.
Nutting Associates (1971) Computer Space [Video game]. Nutting Associates.
Rare (1998) Banjo-Kazooie [Video game]. Nintendo.
Ready at Dawn (2006) Daxter [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Santa Monica Studio (2005) God of War [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Sega (1983) Congo Bongo [Video game]. Sega.
Sega (1991) Sonic the Hedgehog [Video game]. Sega.
Sega (2009) Sonic the Hedgehog Classic [Video game]. Sega.
Sucker Punch (2002) Sly Cooper and the Thievius Raccoonus. [Video game]. Sony Computer Interactive.
Team Meat (2010) Super Meat Boy [Video game]. Team Meat.
Ubisoft Montreal (2009) Assassin’s Creed II [Video game]. Ubisoft.
Universal Entertainment Corporation (1980) Space Panic [Video game]. Universal Entertainment Corporation.
Vicarious Visions (2017) Crash Bandicoot ‘N’ Sane Trilogy. [Video game]. Activision.
Williams Electronics (1982) Joust [Video game]. Williams Electronics.
Yacht Club Games (2014) Shovel Knight [Video game]. Yacht Club Games.

39

Table of Figures

Figure Name Page
1 Image of Space Panic…………………………………………………………………… 9
2 Image of Super Mario Bros…………………………………………………………… 11
3 Image of Super Mario 64……………………………………………………………… 16
4 Image of Tomb Raider………………………………………………………………… 18
5 Image of Lara Croft…………………………………………………………………… 22
6 Image of Nathan Drake……………………………………………………………… 23
7 Image of Ezio…………………………………………………………………………… 24
8 Image of Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy………………………………… 26
9 Image of Sonic Dash…………………………………………………………………… 29

40

Appendix A - Definitions
A.1
Collins English Dictionary (2018) definition of Platform game:
“a type of computer game that is played by moving a figure on the screen through a series of obstacles and
problems.”
A.2
Chambers Dictionary (2018) definition of Platform game:
“a computer game in which the object is to progress to the next level, which is usually more difficult to complete
than the one before.”
A.3
Dan Carreker (2011) definition of Platform game:
“a genre of video games that involved getting from one point in the game world to another by jumping from ledge
to ledge.”
A.4
Keith Burgun (2013) definition of Platformers:
“platformers are real-time video games that involve navigating an avatar through space, usually jumping from
platform to platform.”

41

A.5
Crash Bandicoot ‘N’ Sane Trilogy (Naughty Dog, 2017) features in the (fig.):
1. memorizing AI patterns
2. monster spawn positions
3. level geometry
Fig. - Screenshot (fig.) of Crash Bandicoot ‘N’ Sane Trilogy (Naughty Dog, 2017) gameplay taken from video (PS
Nation, 2017)

42

A.6
James Newman (2004) on Platform game:
“The very name ‘platform game’ suggests a particular type of action - jumping across platforms to get from the
start of a level to the end - yet, even defining the gameplay with this level of simplicity reveals ‘platform game’ to
be a misnomer. How can it be that in a platform game the player frequently finds themselves racing in a
minecraft, or flying through the skies either in an aircraft or because they have been shot out of a cannon and
have a winged cap, which as everybody knows, in the videogame world, allows one to fly?”
A.7
Chris Crawford (2003) definition of Platformers:
“the screen shows from the side what is in effect a building with four or five floors. The player enters the screen at
one corner and must get across the screen by moving between floors. Numerous obstacles block his progress.
Sometimes called running, jumping, climbing game. Later versions of this genre are sometimes called side
scrollers because the levels in the game extend across many horizontal screen lengths.”
A.8
Dan Carreker (2011) definition of AAA:
“A high-quality game intended to appeal to a large consumer base and named for the practice of putting highly
desirable merchandise on shelves that are eye level with the consumer.”
A.9
Dan Carreker (2011) definitions of 2.5D:
1. An art style that gives the impression that objects are three dimensional despite being displayed inside a 2D
environment. Also known as Pseudo-3D.
2. A 3D scene created by a series of flat (2D) images.
3. A classification of video games in which the gameplay environment exists as multiple 2D layers stacked upon each
other, giving the appearance of a third dimension.
A.10
Scott Rodgers (2014) definition of Platformers:
“platformer games usually feature a mascot character jumping (or swinging or bouncing) their way through an
obstacle course-like environment that often includes platforms of some sort. Shooting and fighting may also be
involved. There might be a pirate ship. At one time, the platformer was the most popular subgenre in gaming.
Nintendo's Mario titles (Super Mario World, Mario 64, and Super Mario Galaxy), Sly Cooper series,
LittleBigPlanet series, Super Meat Boy series.”
A.11
Scott Rodgers (2014) definition of Sandbox:
“Also called “open-world” games, these are action games with non-linear gameplay that takes place in very large
game world. Sandbox games offer a variety of activities from driving to puzzle solving to shooting and melee
combat. Grand Theft Auto series, Saint’s Row Series, Lego Marvel Super Heroes, Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, Red
Dead Redemption”.
A.12
Scott Rodgers (2014) definition of Endless-Runner:
“In these games, the player character constantly runs (or flies or swims or rockets) through a “never-ending”
environment. To stop is to die! Canabalt, Jet Pack Joyride, Temple Run series”.
43

Appendix B - Quotes
B.1
Keith Burgun (2013) on genres:
“Many games have added new features or some new spin to the core mechanism, but in a way, you can say that
all of the games are really different expressions of the same core game. Then again, perhaps that could said of
most video-game genres - or even all genres in any medium! But I think that this characteristic is a little bit more
pronounced in platformers.”
B.2
Ellie Gibson’s interview with the former president of Sony Europe, Chris Deering, in PS2: The Insider’s Story (2013)
highlights positive attitude towards third-party software:

“Ken Kutaragi, was very pro third-party and had said we should never allow [first-party games] to have more
than a third of the software market or we’d drive away other investments”.
B.3
Burgun (2013, p. 125 - 126) talks about ‘Protect the Jump’:

“Just about every platformer gives players at least some leeway to change their trajectories while in midair (there
are some exceptions, such as the earlier Castlevania games). However, you have to be extremely careful with this
feature, because if you give the player too much control you destroy the mechanism of the game. If I can just “fix”
my jump completely while mid-ar, how can there any tension> Remember that tension comes from anticipation,
and if I have complete control at all times, there is nothing to anticipate, everything is immediate.”
B.4
Quote from Team Meat’s lead designer Edmund McMillen on Super Meat Boy as seen in Keith Burgun (2013):

“It feels to me better than Mario, which was in my mind the perfact way for a platformer to feel. It [Super Meat
Boy] feels like Mario, but in a lot of ways, a lot of aspects of it feel better. It feels faster. It feels like I have more
control especially in the air. I feel like I have complete control over the character, and that is...number one with a
platformer…”
B.5
Richard Stanton (2015) on Super Mario Bros. 3 (Nintendo, 1988) being in the Stanford University History of Science and
Technology list of the 10 Most Influential Games of All Time:

“Several industry insiders were consulted, each of whom picked some games. Christopher Grant, the editor of
Joystig.com, was one consultant, and when asked why he selected Super Mario Bros. 3, he said that the game was
important for its nonlinear play, a mainstay of contemporary games, and new features like the ability to move
both backward and forward (scroll left, as well as right).”
44

B.6
Yuji Naka, creator of Sonic the Hedgehog, talking about the game’s speed aspect:

“when you play Mario, however good you are, it always takes let’s say 30 seconds to go through a level. Now my
idea with Sonic was that you get better you can learn where things are and clear the stage quicker. So when I was
programming it I thought about how to push that speed factor, so it was more about trying to make it feel
different from Mario in the hands, and having a more fluid movement than in Mario which can occasionally feel a
little jagged, stop-start.”
B.7
Keith Burgun (2013, p. 127 - 128) on why ‘3D Platformers Are a Bad Idea’:
“...in a platformer your spatial positioning is absolutely crucial information: pixel-perfect precision in
jumps can mean the difference between life and death. Yet in a 3D platformer, players have to translate so
many different angles without the use of depth perception in order to make jumps that more often than not,
they miss jumps simply due to missing information.”

B.8
Evan Wells in Uncharted: Drake’s Fortune - Behind the Scenes Interview (Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe
Limited, 2019):

“So the gameplay in Uncharted is unique. We clearly wanted to bring together elements that were in other games
but combine them in a way that you never seen in a single game before. So we have three pillars of gameplay: we
have out traversal platforming mechanics, that we have explored heavily in our past games - in crash bandicoot,
and in jak and daxter - but we wanted to combine that with some really fast action over-the-top gunpla, and then
mix it in with the hand-to-hand melee combat as well. A combination of mechanics and interactions that you
really haven't seen put together before in the same way”.

B.9
Robert Stam (2002) on the different ways of categorising films:
“While some genres are based on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy,
melodrama) or from other media (the musical). Some are performer-based (the Astaire-Rogers films) or
budget-based (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black
cinema), location (the Western) or sexual orientation (Queer cinema). (Stam 2000, 14).”
B.10
Satoru Iwata on Nintendo's design philosophy in Nintendo’s 2004 ANNUAL REPORT (Nintendo, 2004):

“Increasingly complex games with intricate game controls, while popular with avid game enthusiasts, are not
what the majority of the game-playing public is seeking. Most players are not looking for games that require them
to invest large amounts of time and energy, instead most want games they can enjoy periodically, when there’s a
free moment of in their day.”
45

Appendix C - Research
C.1
Blog post (Yacht Club Games, 2018) documenting the success of Shovel Knight (Yacht Club Games, 2014)

C.1.1
Sales of Shovel Knight over the months on each platforms
C.1.2
Sales of Shovel Knight according to percentage of sales on each platform
46

C.2
Results from a survey on the topic of platform games, conducted with a class of Game Design BA students at the
University of the Arts, and social groups via Steam and Facebook who play video games. These two groups were
deliberately chosen on the bias they have a basic understanding of video games, rather than random members of the
public, so the questions are more likely to be relevant their understandings.

C.2.1
What was the first platform game?
C.2.2
Is the original Tomb Raider a platform game?

47

C.2.3
Last Platform you Played a Platformer on?
48


49

What Innovations and Adaptations Have Ensured The Long-Term Survival of The Platform Game Genre

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00s - Present 25

Table of Figures 41

Appendix A - Deﬁnitions 42

Appendix B - Quotes 45

Appendix C - Research 47

Space Panic (1980)

Hardware Innovation (action) Convention Change (reaction)

Arcade machine (coin-op) Ladder-climbing platforming Spawned the 2D platformer

Super Mario Bros. (1985)

Hardware Innovation (action) Convention Change (reaction)

Nintendo Entertainment Combining conventions from other Modernised the 2D platformer

Super Mario 64 (1996)

Hardware Innovation (action) Convention Change (reaction)

Nintendo 64 (cartridge) Addition of free-roaming elements Modernisation of 3D platforming

Tomb Raider (1996)

Hardware Innovation (action) Convention Change (reaction)

PlayStation (CD-ROM) Combination of action elements Creation of the action-adventure

Rogers (2014) listing Platformers as a sub-genre next to Action-Adventure almost represents a

Fig. 5 - Image of Lara Croft taken from (Steam, 2018)

Combat Item Collection and Puzzle Solving Long-term

Uncharted: Drake’s Fortune

Fig. 6 - Image of Nathan Drake taken from (PlayStation, 2018a)

Combat Item Collection and Puzzle Solving Long-term

Assassin’s Creed II

Fig. 7 - Image of Ezio taken from (PlayStation, 2018b)

Combat Item Collection and Puzzle Solving Long-term

Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy (2001)

Hardware Innovation (action) Convention Change (reaction)

PlayStation 2 (DVD) Adapting 3D platforming to an 3D cameras could be

Sonic Dash (2013)

Hardware Innovation (action) Convention Change (reaction)

Smartphones/Google Play/ Moving conventions of platformers Platformers can be played on

Company Annual Report

Nintendo (1996) Super Mario 64 [Video game]. Nintendo.

Figure Name Page

1 Image of Space Panic…………………………………………………………………… 9

2 Image of Super Mario Bros…………………………………………………………… 11

3 Image of Super Mario 64……………………………………………………………… 16

4 Image of Tomb Raider………………………………………………………………… 18

5 Image of Lara Croft…………………………………………………………………… 22

6 Image of Nathan Drake……………………………………………………………… 23

7 Image of Ezio…………………………………………………………………………… 24

8 Image of Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy………………………………… 26

9 Image of Sonic Dash…………………………………………………………………… 29

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