Chapter 13

Sequences & Series

13.1 Sequence and Series explanation……………………………………………..p.2

13.2 Tests performed…………………………………………………………………………..p.3-p.6

13.3 Radius of Convergent……………………………………………………………………p.6-p.7

13.4 Taylor Series Expansion……………………………………………………………..p.7-p.9

13.5 Decomposition………………………………………………………………………………..p.9

13.6 Substitution……………………………………………………………………………………p.10

13.7 Integration……………………………………………………………………………………..p.10

13.8 Differentiation………………………………………………………………………………p.10-p.11

13.9 Combination…………………………………………………………………………………….p.11

13.10 Application………………………………………………………………………………………p.11-p.12

13.11 Homework……………………………………………………………………………………….p.12-15

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 Sequence, Series and Series expansion

By now, any students in this level of Calculus have seen the concept of Sequences and
Series in algebra or pre-Calculus classes. I am not going to repeat all the information that
you already know. This is a new way of looking at the Sequences and Series. It preserves
the main fundamental idea of calculus which is continuity of Space and time to make a
meaningful reason why we are covering Sequences and Series in a Calculus class, plus also
why we cover Sequence and Series in absence of complex space.

Think of Sequences ( an ) as a function with an independent variable which is element of

Natural numbers ( Domain : ) and each value of the Sequence is element of Complex
numbers. Almost all properties of functions in Calculus can be applied to Sequences by
keeping in mind that the sequences are not continues functions due the fact that n  .

Series (  a ) are sum of the Sequences (an ) and it analogous to evaluating an integral in
n

Calculus. So, the sum operator similar to integral operator is also a linear operator.

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L[af ( x)  bg ( x)]  aL[ f ( x)]  bL[ g ( x)]

The Sequences similar to functions can approaches to a Number (It is called Converging
Sequence) or does not go to a Number (it is called Diverging Sequence).

The Series similar to evaluation of an integral can approaches to a Number (It is called
Converging Series) or does not go to a Number (it is called Diverging Series).

In almost all the cases in application it is desire for series to converge if it doesn’t then
sometimes there are techniques to make them converge.

In this section we will look at 9 different tests for convergent of a Series. Unfortunately
(sadly) there will be not be much of proofs involved and mostly we base them on logic and
intuition. Lots of the proofs must be done in Complex space which we haven’t study yet.

I will wave my hands on some of these proofs to give them some more sense. Let’s start:

Definition: If the Sequence approaches to a number then it is a converging Sequence. The

underline a number has two properties. a) It is a single number. b) It is a finite number.

lim an  A Number
n

Squeeze theorem: (Without proof) if Sequences an  bn  cn n  n0 and lim an  lim cn  L

n  n 

then they squeeze lim bn  L

n 

Theorem: (Without proof) If lim an  0  lim an  0

n n

Class work set #1

Indicate if the Sequence is Converges or Diverges, if it converges find the limit.

2
a) lim (1  ) 3n  b) lim (Tan 1n)  c) lim Tanh(n) 
n n n n

(1) n (n 2  1) 1
d ) lim  e) lim Sin 1 (n)  f ) lim Cosh( ) 
n n2 n n n

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 1 Sin (n)
g ) lim nSin ( )  i ) lim e n  j ) lim 
n n n n n

Series have different rules than Sequences since they are sum of a sequence then to find
whether they converge and diverge, one must apply some tests on them.

Zero Test #1: If a Series does not approach to Zero then it is a Diverging Series.

lim an  0   an is Diverge. If a function approaches to a limit (not zero) then the area
n

under the curve increases larger and larger as the x goes to infinity.

Geometric Series Test#2: Geometric Series are in the form of  a (r )

1
n1
where n starts
N
a1 (1  r N )
from one. In algebra class we have seen the sum is  a (r )
1
1
n1

(1  r )
and if 0  r  1

then the sum will be a finite number. If the Series has the form of a Geometric Series,
0  r  1 Converges

then check the ratio (r).  . If any number (  1  x  1 ) raised to n  1
 r  1 Diverges

the result is smaller than the number. x n  x
1
Hyper harmonic Series Test #3:are in the form of  p where n starts from one.
n
If the Series has the form of a hyper harmonic Series, then check the exponent (p).
P  1 Converges

 In case P  1 the Series is called Harmonic Series
P  1 Diverges

Telescopic Test #4: Telescopic method is when the series is expanded and the terms
cancel so the series reduces to a limit.

a n b n  (a n  bn )  (a n  bn )

Converge Converge Converge Converge

Diverge Diverge Diverge Need a test
Converge Diverge Diverge Diverge
Diverge Converge Diverge Diverge
Class work set #2

Indicate if the Series is Converges or Diverges. (Use Test zero to Test #4)

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   
1 1
a)  (1  ) n  b)  ( 2 )  c)  Tanh(n) 
1 n 2 n 1 1

1
 Sin 1 ( )
 
Sin (n) 1
d) 1 n2
 e) 
1
1
n  f)  Cosh( n ) 
1
Sin ( )
n
  
1 en n
g )  nSin( )  i)  n  j)  
1 n 1 2 1 n2

1 
 
n 1
k )  2( ) 2 n  l )  ( ) n1  m)  Ln( )
1 3 1 2 1 n 1

 3  10 
1 10 10 Sin 2 (n)
n) 1 ( n ) 2  o) 1 10 (
n
) p)  1 n2


Ratio Test #5: Let a n be a positive term series then Ratio test gives the following
r  1 Diverges
an1 
information about the series lim  r  1 No Conclusion
n a
n 
r  1 Converges
Root Test #6: Let  an be a positive term series then Root test gives the following
 R  1 Diverges

information about the series lim n an   R  1 No Conclusion
n

 R  1 Converges

Integral Test #7: Let a n be change to  f ( x)dx . Integral test gives the following
a

 Infinite Area  Diverges
information about the series.  a
f ( x)dx  
 Finite Area  Converges
Class work set #3

Indicate if the Series is Converges or Diverges. (Use Test #5 to Test #7)


6  2n (n  2)!
 
1
a) 1 4  3n  b) 2 (n  1)! 2n  c)  n(n  2) 
1

 
en 
n 1 n
d)  nTan1 (n2 ) 
1
e) 1 e2n  1  f) ( 1 n2
) 

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 (2n  5)!
  
n
g)    ne  i) n
j)  
1 (3n)! 1 2 n 1
2

Comparison Test #8: Let  a and  b n n be a positive term series.

i) If an  bn and  b Converges, then  a Converges

n n

ii) If an  bn and  a Diverges, then  b Diverges

n n

Limit Comparison Test #9: Let a n and b n be a positive term series.

an
For a known a n if lim  A non-zero number then an and bn are either Convergent or both
n  b
n

Divergent.
Class work set #4

Indicate if the Series is Converges or Diverges. (Use Test #7 to Test #8)

  
Sin 2 (n) 1 1
a) 1 n2  b) (
2 n 1
2
) c)  n(n  2) 
1


Sin(n) 
6  2n 
n
d) 1 n2
 e) 1 4  3n  f) n
2
2
2



1 en  
n2
g)  1
nSin( ) 
n
h)  n 
1 2
i) n
2
2
1


Alternative series

If the terms of a series alternate then the series is called Alternating Series. It is
N
represented as  (1)
0
n
an .

an1  an
 For an alternative Series to converge, two conditions must hold. 
lim an  0
n

 If a n Converges then the Series Absolutely Converges

 If  a n Diverges then the Series Conditionally Converges

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 Otherwise the Series Diverges.

Class work set #5


(1) n 
(1) n 
(1) n (n 2  5) 
(1) n 4 n
a) 1 n3 / 2  1 b) 1 (n  1)! c) 1 (2n  1) d) 1 n  5

( 1) n 
nn 
(1) n 
(1) n1
e) 1 2n ln( n) f) 1 (2) n g) 1 (n  1)2  1 h) 1 3n  4

Radius of Convergent

1
Graph y  , there are two vertical asymptotes at x  1, x  1 . At these points the
x 1
2

function is not defined and its value goes to infinite nearby these points. These points are
Singularity for that function. Any other point on the function gives a finite value so the
function (Sequence) is Converging. Radius of Convergent is the distance from a point to
the nearest Singularity. For the point at x  0.9 then the radius of Convergent is 0.10 to
x  1 . And at point x  0.4 is 0.60 to x  1 .

1
Why do we call this distance a radius? Graph y  , there are two Singularities at
x 1
2

x  i, x  i in Complex plane. This distance is radius of a ball in Complex N- Dimension.

Class work set #6


(3x  1) n 
( x  4) n 
2n ( x  1) n 
( 2 x) n
a) 1 2n b) 1 n c) 1 (3n  1) d) 1 (n  1)!

( x  2) n 
(1) n (2 x  3) n 
(2n)! 
(1) n (3x  1) n
e) 1 4n f) 1 (n  2)2 g) 1 (n  1)3 ( x  1) n h) 1 (n  1)

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 Taylor Series expansion

Taylor Series was introduced by Brook Taylor in 1715, although it was known to James
Gregory at least 45 years earlier. Its importance was not fully recognized until 1755 when
Euler applied it in his development of differential calculus. The proof of the “Taylor
Series” starts with the Fundamental Theory of Calculus.

z z

 f ( x)dx  f ( x)  f (a) so, f ( x)  f (a)   f ( x)dx similarly we have

a a

z
z z

f ( x)  f (a)   f ( x)dx So, f(x) is f ( x)  f (a)    f (a)   f ( x)dx  dx
a a a 

z z
f ( x)  f (a)  f (a)( x  a)    f ( x)dxdx Double integral
a a

z
Repeating the same concept f ( x)  f (a)   f ( x)dx
a


z z z

f ( x)  f (a)  f (a)( x  a)     f (a)   f ( x)dx  dxdx
a a a 

z z z
1
f ( x)  f (a)  f (a)( x  a)  f (a)( x  a) 2     f ( x)dxdxdx Triple integral
2 a a a

Repeating this process for some more terms we have the Taylor expansion

f (a) n 1 n 1
f ( x)  f (a)  f (a)( x  a)  x  a 2  ...  f (a)( x  a)  Rn
2! n  1!
The above formula allows you to find Taylor expansion of (almost) any function near a point.

For the given function f (x )

1- Take the first few differentiation of the function.

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2- Evaluate the derivatives at point “a”

3- Use the above values and value of “a” to write out the expansion

4- If it is possible to write the expansion in a compact form (Sun notation)

You have seen linearization in Cal 1A which is the first two terms of expansion

Isaac Newton used the linearization of a function for a small change in distance compare
to large distances measured, so he did not need to expand the function to more than two
terms of expansion. Others took the concept of expansion and extended to more terms

Classwork set #7

Find the “Taylor Series” of the following functions at x  a  0 (Maclaurin)

a) y  e x b) y  Cosx c) y  Sinx d ) y  xSinx

1 1
e) y  f) y g ) y  Ln(1  x) h) y  Tan 1 x
1 x 1 x2

x x2 x3 xn n
xn
Let’s look at the expansion of y  e x . We have e x  1     
1! 2! 3! n! 0 n!

x x x2
That means e x  1 (at zero) and e  1  (at  away vicinity of zero) e x  1   as the
x

1! 1! 2!
point gets farther. And So on.

Other ways of finding Taylor expansion are as follows: a) Decomposition b) Substitution c)

Integration d) Differentiation e) combination

Decomposition

We have seen in Cal 1B that e ix  Cos( x)  iSin ( x) and Cos(x) /even, Sin (x) /odd function

x x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 (i) n x n
e ix  1  i  i  i   Re-Collecting the real parts and
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! n!
imaginary parts in to two sets
x2 x4 x6 (1) n x 2n x x3 x5 (1) n1 x 2 n1
e x  [1     ]  i[       ]
2! 4! 6! (2n)! 1! 3! 5! (2n  1)!

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 n
(1) n x 2 n n
(1) n1 x 2 n1
ex    i Then we get the expansion for Cos( x), Sin ( x)
0 (2n)! 0 (2n  1)!

(1) x 2 n
n
(1) n1 x 2 n1
n
Cos( x)   and Sin( x)  
0 (2n)! 0 (2n  1)!

Substitution
n
1
We have seen in Pre Cal that x
0
n

1 x
. So, to find Series expansion of

n
1 1
a) Use Substitution x   x then   (1) n x n
1 x 1 x 0

n
1 1
b)
1 x 2
Use Substitution x  x 2
then
1 x 2
 
0
x 2n

n
1 1
c)
1 x 2
Use Substitution x  ( x 2
) then
1 x 2
 
0
(1) n x 2 n

Integration

1
We have seen in Cal 1B that  1  x dx   Ln(1  x)  c . To find Series expansion of

1 n
1 n 1
a) Ln(1  x ) Use integrate of then Ln(1  x)   x
1 x 0 n 1

n
1 1 n 1
b) Ln(1  x ) Use integrate of then Ln(1  x)   x
1 x 0 n 1

n
(1) n 2 n1
1
c) Tan x Use integration of
1
1 x 2
1
then Tan ( x)  
0 2 n  1
x

Differentiation

d
We have seen in Cal 1B that Sinx  Cosx . To find Series expansion of
dx

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 d n (1) n1 x 2 n1 n
(1) x 2 n
a) Cosx Use differentiation of Sinx then Cosx  
dx 0 (2n  1)!
 0 (2n)!
1 1 d n n
b)
(1  x ) 2
Use differentiation of
1 x
then  
dx 0
( 1) n n
x  
1
n(1) n 1 x n 1

Combinatiation

(1) n 2 n 2 n
a) xTan x Use product of x and Tan ( x) then xTan ( x)  
1 1
x1

0 2n  1

n
(1) n1 x 2 n 2
b) xSinx Use product of x and Sinx then xSinx  0 (2n  1)!
The series expansion of a function can be used to find limit of a function or evaluation of
integral (in a very small interval nearby the desire point).

Let’s look at two examples

x2 x3
1  (1     )  ( x     )
1  Cosx  Sinx 2 3! 11 x
a) lim  lim  1
x0 x x0 x x
0.1
0.1 x 2 x 3 0.1
 x e dx   ( x  x )dx (
x
b) 2
 ) /0
0
0 2 3

Application

The value of e,  , and i are the most interesting values to mathematics and Sciences. Lets
find the estimation of each. We have the Series expansion
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 1 1 1 1
ex  1 x  x  x  x  x  ... then e1  1     ...    2.71828153
2! 3! 4! 5! 2! 3! 4! 8! 9!

1 1 1 1 1
tan 1 x  x  x 3  x 5  ...   4 tan 1 (1)  4(1     ...)
3 5 3 5 7

Unfortunately this series converges too slowly to be used for computation.

1 1
This is a better Series   4(tan 1  tan 1 ) .This was introduced by Leibniz in 1674.
2 3

Examples-Approximate ln( 1.2) and Sin (0.1)

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 x 2 x3 x 4 (0.2) 2 (0.2)3 (0.2) 4
ln( 1  x)  x     .. ln( 1  0.2)  0.2     ...
2 3 4 2 3 4

Approximation with only 4 terms ln( 1.2)  0.1822666 which has an error of 18.232%

x3 x5 x7
Sinx  x     ... where x = 0.1
3! 5! 7!

Practice Estimate Sin(46  ), Cos(0.1), ln( 0.9)

Note: in the case of angles, we have to evaluate them in Radians

 
We have work with Hook’s law F  kx and potential energy of Spring PE  (1 / 2)kx2

Potential Energy for spring is a function of x, we can expand the function f (x ) by Taylor
1
Series. f ( x)  f ( x0 )  f ( x0 )( x  x0 )  f ( x0 )( x  x0 ) 2  ...
2!

Maximum potential energy is when f ( x0 )  0 and all the energy is potential, take f ( x0 ) as
1
origin so that f ( x0 )  0 . Then we left with f ( x)  f ( x0 )( x  x0 ) 2 since the second
2
1
derivative is constant at x  x0 ( f ( x0 )  k ) then the Potential Energy is PE  kx 2 .
2

Solving Differential equations

Solve y   1  xy at point (1,0)

x 1 y0 y  1

y    y  xy   1
y   2 y   xy   1
y   3 y   xy   4
1 1 4
y ( x)  0  1( x  1)  ( x  1) 2  ( x  1) 3  ( x  1) 4  ...
2! 3! 4!

Solve the following Diff. Eq Classwork #8

a) y  x  2 y at (0,1) b) y  x  2 y at (1,0) c) y  yx at (0,0)

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 Homework set #4

1- Find the limit of a n as n goes to infinity.

a) an  n  a  n b) an  ln( n  a )  ln( n ) c) a n  arctan( n)

ln( n 2 ) Sin (n) 2

d) a n  e) a n  f) a n  2  ( )n
n n 

2 n
g) a n  (1  ) n h) a n  i) a n  n 2 e  n
n 4n

2- Show that if the series converge or diverge. If it converges find its sum.

   
1 n
a)  3n 8 n1 b) 1 5  2 n c)  d)  arctan n
1 1 1 n2 1

  
1 n 1 1
e) 1 n(n  2) f)  ln(
1 n 1
) g) 2
1
n

2 n 1

3- Show that if the series (Conditionally /absolutely) Converge or diverge.

n
 2  Cos( ) 
Sin n 1
a) n
1 n
b)  1 2n
6
2
c)  n ln n
1


3 
n 
1  5n 
(n  1)!
d) 1 n(n  3) e) 1 (n  1) 2
f) 1 2  4n g)  n! 10
1
n


(1) n 
(1) n 
(1) n 
(1) n n
h) 1 (2n)! i) 
1 2n  1
j) 1 ln( n  1) k) 1 ln( n)

(1) n 5 (100) n
 
(1) n (n 2  3) 
(1) n 3 n
l) 1 n 3  1 m) 1 n! n) 1 (2n  5) o) 1 n  1

(1) n 
nn 
(1) n 
(1) n1
p) n
1 ln( n)
q) 1 (5) n r) 1 (n  4) 2  5 s) 1 2n  1
  1  
1 1 n 1
t) 1 2 n  3n1 u) n 3
1
v) 1 1  n 2 w) n
1
2
Sin 2 ( )
n

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  
3n  1 n  n! 10 n (1) n1

x)  n e n y) ( z)  a*) 1 2n  1
2
)
1 1 2n  1 1 3n

   
1
 5n
ln( n) 1 5
b*) 1 e n c*) 1 n(ln n) 2 d*) 1 3 n  1 e*)
1
2
n

1 4
Cos( ) 
n3 
(1) n n 3

(1) n n n

f*)  n g*)  2 h*) 1 e n j*) 1 n!
1 8n  5n
2
1 n

4- Find radius and interval of convergence for each series

n(2 x  1) n
 
( x  4) n 2 n ( x  3) n
 
xn
a) 1 4n b) 1 n 5n c) 1 (n  3) d) 1 n!

3n x n 
( x  3) n

(1) n ( x  4) n
 
(2n  1)!
e) 
n!
f) 
2n
g) 
1 (n  1) 2
h)  1 n 3
( x  2) n
1 1

n
(1) n ( x  1) n
 
5n x
i)  j)  2
1 n 1 n

5- Find the power series representation for each function and determine the
radius of convergence.

1 1 x2
a) f ( x)  ln( 1  x) b) f ( x)  Arc tan( 2 x) c) f ( x)  d) f ( x) 
x  25
2
1 x2

6- Approximate the following integrals

0.2 0.5 0.5 0.5

1
a)   x 
 x2
dx b) arctan( x ) dx 2
c) 2
e dx d) Cos( x 2 ) dx
0 1 x
4
0 0 0

t t t t
Secx

e) x 2 (arctan( x 2 )dx f)  1  x 2 dx 
g) x 3 e  x dx h) 
2
3
dx
0 0 0 0
x

t t
Sinx 2

i) x ln( 1  x) dx j)
0
0 x dx

7- Show that

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  
1 1
a)  ln( 1 
2 n2
)   ln 2 b)  ( x  3)
0
n

4 x
if 2 x4


P  1 Converges 
1  1
c)   d) 4  (1) n
 1  x  1
2 n(ln( n))
p
P  1 Diverges 0 2n  1


1
e)  (1)
0
n

1 n
 ln 2

8- Find the sum of the following series

  
a)  nx n1
1
x 1 b)  nx n
1
x 1 c)  n(n  1) x
1
n
x 1


n 
n2 
n2  n
d) 2
1
n
e) 1 2 n f) 1 2 n

9- Use the series to evaluate the limit

1 3
Sinx  x  x
x  ln( 1  x) 1  Cosx 6
a) lim b) lim c) lim
x2 x0 1  x  e x5
x
x0 x 0


(1) n
10- Use power series for Arc tan x to show   2 3 0 (2n  1)3n
1/ 2
dx 3
11-
1
Show that 
o

x  x 1 9
2
 then use 3
x 1
to show that

3 3 
1 2 1

4
( 8 )
0
n
[ 
3n  1 3n  2)
]

12- Equal and opposite sign charges a distance d from each other create an
q q
Electrical dipole. The electric field at a point P is E  
D 2
(D  d ) 2

(See the figure)

15 | P a g e
 consta
Use power series of d/D to expand the field and show that Lim E 
D  D3

g 2d
13- The equation for water wave is modeled as v 2  tanh( ) . Show that
2 
 g
v  (if Water is deep)
 2 Where d is the depth of the water.
v  gd (if Water is Shallow )

14- The electric potential V at a point P due to a uniformly charged disk with radius
R , surface charge density  and a distance d from the point is
V  2k ( d 2  R 2  d ) . Where K is Coulomb’s constant.
kR 2
Show that V  for very large d
d
15- Prove Taylor expansions

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