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The Grades of Reading

Maria M. Langleben

Summary

It is assumed that when a text (T) is approved by the person who is in


contact with it, T becomes connected. The efforts invested by the reader
(R) in his quest to make T connected can be graded; his duty is: (a) to ver­
ify the grammatical wellformedness of the T; (b) to check the reasoning of
lexical combinations suggested by the T; (c) to discover overt content struc­
tures intended by the author of the T; (d) to reveal covert content struc­
tures that might be hidden in the T.

Some preliminary assumptions are needed for this paper. It will be


taken for granted here that connectedness is not a permanent and stable
quality of a T, but that it is rather introduced in the T, so that the T
becomes connected due only to the efforts of a R, and only for this particu­
lar R. Another assumption is that the efforts of the R are aimed at two gen­
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eral objectives: (a) to make the T consistent with the R's own background,
with his special kind of reasoning — i.e., to adjust the T within his own
beliefs and disbeliefs; (b) to reveal internal structuring inherent in the T
that makes it specific and unique among the other T's. If a R works hard
enough in both directions, the T becomes maximally connected for him.
But even the smallest efforts invested in the T can make it connected for a
given R; this is the last assumption. No matter how poor the achievements
of a R are, it is for him to decide whether the T is connected enough for his
aims.

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442 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

I shall suggest here an overview of the barriers that a T puts forth for
a R to overcome. After each of the barriers the R can stop and not work
further, which means that he is satisfied with the connectedness that is,
objectively, partial. An objectively complete connectedness is achieved
when all the barriers have been conquered.

1. The first barrier is the confirmation of the fact that a T is composed in


a certain language, that it obeys a certain grammar known to the R. At this
stage, a R only checks phonetic and grammatic regulations of the language,
but some R's are satisfied by the meagre connectedness that can be already
enjoyed. For instance, such a R was N. V. Gogol's Petrushka, the servant of
Chichikov who
"...even had a noble urge for reading books, though didn't bother about
their content ... It was not what he read that attracted him, but rather the
reading itself, or, to put it more precisely, the process of reading, the fact
that the letters were always forming something, a word which sometimes
meant devil only knows what." (N. Gogol. Dead Souls, Ch. 2)

2. At the second barrier, a R fills in the gaps in the surface T, in order to


overcome pragmatic discontinuity between the lexical items that are con­
nected syntactically. Working over a T, the R cannot interfere with the sur­
face T, he can hardly change a letter, or even a comma. But he can do a lot
in the latent part of the T. The R gets a T that is pragmatically discontinu­
ous, with a fair set of riddles to be solved; each of its syntactic and semantic
links should be verified and certified. It is easy to show such riddles of the
T by trying to read a letter that is not addressed to the R. For example:
(1) A.S. Pushkin — to N.V. Gogol; August 25, 1831; Carskoe Selo.
... Your Nadezhda Nikolavna, i.e. my Natalja Nikolavna, thanks
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you for remembering her, and cordially greets you. Embrace


Pletnev for me and stay alive in Petersburg, which seems to be
hard enough to do.
One has to explain the syntactic connections between stay alive and in
Petersburg, as well as between your Nadezhda Nikolavna and my Natalja
Nikolavna. The explanation is a must, since the above-mentioned connec­
tions are given by the syntax, which is tantamount to the demand that a R
should support these connections by some outside information, i.e., to
bridge pragmatically the surface entities that are connected syntactically.
The first of the riddles can be solved as it is done in (2):

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THE GRADES OF READING 443

(2) STAY ALIVE → [A wish to stay alive is normally expressed


when there is a danger to life] → [The danger to life could
be a war] → [There was a war in Petersburg in 1831] →
→ IN PETERSBURG.
With the other riddle of (1), the one about the identity of Nadezhda
Nikolavna and Natalja Nikolavna, we are at a loss, and the solution can
only be suggested if we have access to the previous letter (3) of the same
correspondence:
(3) N.V. Gogol — to A.S. Pushkin; August 21, 1831; St. Petersburg.
... It is unbearably boring in Petersburg. Cholera has dispersed
everyone, and you need a whole month to meet an acquain­
tance... We have here, from time to time, rains and unusually
strong winds; last nights there even was an inundation...
Farewell. Let God save you and Nadezhda Nikolaevna from any
evil and give you health for ever.
Letter (3) makes clear that the right solution to both riddles should be pro­
vided by (4) and (5), as follows:
(4) YOUR NADEZHDA NIKOLAVNA → [Nadezhda
Nikolavna — this is how Gogol in his letter called Pushkin s wife]
→ [Pushkin's wife's name was Natalja Nikolavna] →
→ MY NATALJA NIKOLAVNA.
(5) STAY ALIVE → [A wish to stay alive is normally expressed
if there is a danger to life] → [Very dangerous to life are
cholera and inundations] → [There were cholera and inun-
diations in Petersburg in 1831] → IN PETERSBURG, 1831.
Bridging inferences are built from both ends simultaneously; they can be
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used for the exposition of contextual meanings (by the procedure suggested
in Langleben 1981). Thus, contextual meanings for NADEZHDA
NIKOLAEVNA, STAY ALIVE and PETERSBURG are drawn out of (4)
and (5) as follows:
NADEZHDA NIKOLAVNA = this is how Gogol in his letter
called Pushkin's wife, while her name was Natalja Nikolavna.
STAY ALIVE = stay alive through cholera and inundations.
PETERSBURG = a place that was visited by cholera and inun­
dations in 1831.

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444 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

At this stage, no internal structuring of a T is expected. The R is only


concerned with the justification of the immediate connections between the
surface elements of the T, i.e. with the microcoherence of the T. Charac­
teristic for this stage is the non-uniformity of the justifications that different
readers give to the same surface connections; cf. (2) and (5) above. The R
has to make a T microcoherent throughout', for this, he has to bridge each
surface link, and it is to be done for any T, and not only for some special
points in some obscure T's.

3. The R who successfully achieves these two stages can start appreciating
the content of a T. Two higher stages of reading are dedicated to the dis­
covery of textual structures. The internal structuring of a T should be com­
prehended, in order to appreciate the singularity of the T. From the point
of view of objectivity, two types of the internal structures can be discerned:
(1) The structures that can be proved inside the T by dealing with con­
ventional fragments of the T, and using conventional meanings of these
fragments. Those are overt structures that are intended by the author as a
means to convey his mandatory message to the R's;
(2) The structures that can only be surmised to exist in a T, since their
discovery involves unconventional fragments of the T, as well as unconven­
tional meanings. Also, other T's can be involved. However consistent such
a covert structure seems to be, one can never be absolutely positive that it
was intended by the author of a T. There is always a chance that a covert
structure was not read out of the T, but rather read into it.
Comprehension of the overt and the covert structures of a T makes the
latter macrocoherent for the R; the overt structuring is a compulsory
minimum for macrocoherency, the covert structures are optional.

4. Overt structures
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The overt structures are built up out of content units; therefore, to get
at the structure of a T one has first to divide the T into the content con­
stituents. There are two kinds of content constituents that are more or less
independent of each other and of the syntactic units of the T. They are
motifs and events', each of them can be delimited separately, by specific
criteria, and they generally correspond to different fragments of a T. A
motif arises when the same deep proposition (M-proposition) is developed;
an event is recognized when a discrete point on the time axis is fixed. If a T

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THE GRADES OF READING 445

is divided both by its motifs and by its events, two autonomous structures
can be achieved: a motif structure (MS), and an event structure (ES), while
a syntactic structure (SS) provides the basis, and mediates between the two,
being generally also autonomous.

5. Motif structures

A motif is a minimal constituent of a plot, and it is represented by


such a fragment of the surface T where the same M-proposition is iterated
and developed by synonymic modifications. The surface manifestations of
the same M-proposition are allowed to be distant from each other, so that
the fragment of the T where a single motif is represented can be discontinu­
ous. It is required that the passage from each of the surface synonymic
modifications to the generalized M-proposition should be clear-cut and
easy. When the current M-proposition is dropped, it means that the motif is
over. Motifs are traced back retrospectively, i.e., a single mention of even
the most fascinating idea is not yet enough to make a motif. Only after the
idea was iterated at least twice, do we perceive that a new motif has been
introduced earlier. Let us take as an example a passage from "Invitation to
a Beheading" by V. Nabokov:

(6) A clock struck — four or five times — with the vibrations and re-
vibrations proper to a prison. Feet working, a spider — official
friend of the jailed — lowered itself on a thread from the ceiling.
No one, however, knocked on the wall, since Cincinnatus was as
yet the sole prisoner (in such an enormous fortress!).
Sometimes later Rodion the jailer came in and offered to
dance a waltz with him. Cincinnatus agreed. They began to
whirl. The keys on Rodion's leather belt jangled; he smelled of
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sweat, tobacco and garlic; he hummed, puffing into his red


beard; and his rusty joints creaked [(he was not what he used to
be, alas — now he was fat and short of breath)]. The dance car­
ried them into the corridor. [Cincinnatus was much smaller than
his partner]. Cincinnatus was light as a leaf. The wind of the
waltz made the tips of his long but thin mustache flutter, and his
big limpid eyes looked askance, as is always the case with timor­
ous dancers. [He was indeed very small for a full-grown man.
Marthe used to say that his shoes were too tight for her. At the

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446 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

bend in the corridor stood another guard, nameless, with a rifle


and wearing a doglike mask with a gauze mouthpiece.] They
described a circle near him and glided back into the cell, and now
Cincinnatus regretted that the swoon's friendly embrace had
been so brief.
With banal dreariness the clock struck again. Time was
advancing in arithmetical progression: it was now eight.
The M-proposition "Rodion the jailer dances a waltz with Cincinnatus"
is developed in most of the sentences of the 2nd paragraph of (6). (The sen­
tences where it is not explicit are in square brackets.) Although the first
occurrence ("Rodion ... offered to dance a waltz with him") is quite clear
and informative, the motif is only molded with the second ("Cincinnatus
agreed" (to dance a waltz with Rodion)), the third ("They began to whirl"
(while dancing a waltz with each other)), and all the subsequent iterations
("The keys... jangled", "he hummed", "his joints creaked", "The dance car­
ried them...", "The wind of the waltz", and so on).
Another M-proposition of (6) is developed in two distant paragraphs:
"The clock struck". After the first occurrence we have to wait well through
the 2nd paragraph, until the next occurrence ("the clock struck again")
indicates that the motif of the clock started earlier.
Retrospective back-tracing is the only reliable way for the discovery of
motifs in a T. Though indentations are sometimes helpful, the division of a
T by paragraphs can also be entirely different from the division into motifs.
Moreover, there are many such T's where indentations are spared as a prin­
ciple, e.g., dialogues.
Let us consider the motifs of the opening scene of "The Tragedy of
Macbeth" by W. Shakespeare:
(7) A desert place.
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Thunder and lightning.


Enter three witches.
1st Witch: When shall we three meet again?
In thunder, lightning, or in rain?
2nd Witch: When the hurlyburly's done,
When the battle's lost and won.
3d Witch: That will be ere the set of sun.
1st Witch: Where the place?
2nd Witch: Upon the heath.

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THE GRADES OF READING 447

3d Witch: There to meet Macbeth.


(The cat calls.)
1st Witch: I come, Graymalkin!
(A toad calls.)
All (or 2nd): Paddock calls
All (or 3d): anon!
All: Fair is foul and foul is fair.
Hover through the fog and filthy air.
Exeunt.
By tracing back the iterations in (7) three motifs can be established.
They are listed in (8) where the summarized motifs are printed in capitals
and followed by their surface manifestations. The latter are often elliptical,
and to show explicitly how they are related to the M-proposition one has to
translate each of the speeches into the predicate notation (which, for
reasons of space, is not done here). In accordance with the above principle
of retrospection, each motif has at least two surface manifestations.
(8) M-l: THE WITCHES MEET.
(a) A desert place... Enter three witches.
(b)When shall we three meet again?
(c) In thunder, lightning, or in rain?
(d)When the hurlyburly's done.
(e) When the battle's lost and won.
(f) That will be ere the set of sun.
(g) Where the place?
(h)Upon the heath.
(i) There to meet Macbeth.
M-2: RAMPAGE OF ELEMENTS.
(a) Thunder and lightning.
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(b)In thunder, lightning, or in rain?


M-3: THE WITCHES LEAVE.
(a) The cat calls.
(b)I come, Graymalkin!
(c) A toad calls.
(d) Paddock calls.
(e)Anon!
(f) Hover through the fog and filthy air.
(g) Exeunt.

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448 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

If we are allowed to read further the 1st act of "Macbeth", improve­


ments in the above short list of motifs can be suggested. Firstly, M-2 can be
extended to Scene 3, which starts with the author's remark: "Thunder.
Enter the three Witches". Secondly, one of the speeches of the 2nd Witch
("When the battle's lost and won") is echoed in the closing of Scene 2, as
Duncan ends the Scene by stripping the Thane of Cawdor of his title and
giving it to Macbeth:
What he hath lost noble Macbeth hath won.
If this iteration is recognized, the fourth motif (which starts in (7)) should
be admitted as:
M-4: LOST & WON.
(a) When the battle's lost and won.
(b) What he hath lost noble Macbeth hath won.
Thirdly, when Macbeth first appears on the stage in Scene 3, his first words
("So fair and foul a day I have not seen") are actually related back to the
incantation of the witches. If so, then the fifth motif, analogous to the pre­
vious one, might be introduced:
M-5: FAIR & FOUL.
(a) Fair is foul and foul is fair.
(b)So fair and foul a day I have not seen.
The last two motifs are very important, since they hint at the subtle balance
of the murderer and the victum who are both echoing the witches by their
key speeches: Duncan closing the scene and Macbeth first appearing
onstage.
Now let us consider spatial relationships between the above five motifs
using the following notions. Two motifs are contiguous if they are allotted
two parts of the same speech; they are convergent, if they are sharing at
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least one speech. Two motifs are interfering, if they are discontinuous and
intersecting with each other. The motifs are separate, if they are neighbor­
ing, but are neither contiguous, nor convergent, nor interfering. Hence, M-
1 and M-2 are twice contiguous and twice convergent; M-1 and M-3 are sep­
arate, M-l and M-4 are convergent; M-3 and M-5 are twice contiguous.
Interferent are M-l and M-2; M-3 and M-5. Now, if we agree to present
each motif by its number, to join the contiguous motifs by solid arrows, the
separate motifs — by dotted arrows, and the convergent ones — by non-
directed lines, then we shall get a diagram where the motif structures (MS)

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THE GRADES OF READING 449

of (7) is shown (see Fig. 1). (In Fig. 1, each contact of the motifs is indi­
cated by a special link; interference does not need any special indication,
since it arises as a result of moving forth and back by contiguity.)

Figure 1: The MS of (7).

It can be seen in Fig. 1 that M-l is the most connected motif of (7), and
is therefore its organizing center. There are two areas in the MS that are
loosely connected with each other, but tightly interconnected inside: {M-l,
M-2, M-4} and {M-3, M-5}. Each has its local center and a "supplement",
i.e., M-4 and M-5, respectively, which symmetrically stand out of the struc­
ture. The position of M-2 recalls that of M-4 and M-5, since they are the
three motifs that are connected only to one other motif each, in contrast to
M-l and M-3 which make up the axis of the scene (Witches meet —
Witches leave), though M-2 is more firmly incorporated. So the scene is
built up on the above-mentioned axis, with the influential far-reaching lev­
ers of LOST & WON, FAIR & FOUL, and RAMPAGE OF ELEMENTS.
Though Macbeth is mentioned only once in (7), he is mentioned also in M-
4, and is one of the speakers for M-5. This makes Macbeth implicitly pre­
sent all through the Scene, which suggests one more motif: MACBETH.

6. Retrospection
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Retrospection as a universal principle of human cognition was prop­


ounded by such great minds of the past as W. Dilthey and H. Bergson.
"Historical understanding" advocated by Dilthey in most of his works (see,
e.g., Dilthey 1894) was further applied to history proper by R. Aron (Aron
1948: 132-142). For H. Bergson, retrospective movement that makes the
past dependent on the present, was basic to his idea of duration and change
(Bergson 1946):

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450 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

"By the sole fact of being accomplished, reality casts its shadow behind it
into the indefinitely distant past: it thus seems to have been pre-existent to
its own realization" (p. 22)
"As reality is created as something unforeseeable and new, its image is
reflected behind it into the indefinite past: thus it finds that it has from all
time been possible, but it is at this precise moment that it begins to have
been always possible..." (p. 101).
Retrospection takes an important place in the philosophy of language by
M. Baxtin (Baxtin 1935):
"...every particular word (expression) finds the object that it is directed at,
as always, so to say, already stipulated, judged, estimated, wrapped in the
haze, or, on the contrary, in the light of the words that were pronounced
already about it by the others. It is entangled and permeated by general
considerations, opinions, estimations, accents by the others. The word
directed at its object enters this dialogically agitated and tense environ­
ment of words, estimations, accents that were left by the others, is entang­
led in their complicated relationships, merges with some of them,
antagonizes with others,..., — and all this can substantially mold the word,
can be deposited in all the layers of its meaning,..." (p. 89-90)
Reciprocal influence of the words in a context and the role of retrospective
reference in contextual semantics was also noticed by Ju. Tynjanov (Tyn-
janov 1924), who assigned an important role to the regressive direction in
reading.
It seems that the concept of retrospection may become extremely fruit­
ful for the content analysis of all kinds of T's. With the aid of this concept,
one can work out efficient criteria for the delimitation of content units. A
method for the content analysis of dialogue was based on the combination
of the progressive and regressive movements in the mutual interpretation of
the speeches (Langleben 1983), proved to greatly facilitate the analysis of
dialogic T's of all kinds. If one can only admit that the only way to under­
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stand the past is through the mirror of the present, some practical conse­
quences follow that make the MS of a T objectively attainable. One of the
consequences is that a speech in dialogue can be understood only in the
light of a response to it, the other is that, normally, a motif can not arise
without a (recoverable) iteration. These principles proved to be efficacious
also for non-dialogic T's. In the next two sections the examples of the MS's
recovered for short poems and for a prosaic fragment will be shown.

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THE GRADES OF READING 451

7. The analysis of two poems by F.I. Tjutchev (1803-1873).

The first of the poems (9) was written about 1836 (published posthum­
ously in 1879). The lines of the poem are numbered (in order to designate
them in the representation of the structure of the poem); the poem is trans­
literated and the line-by-line English translation is supplied:
(9) 1)I cuvstva net v tvoix ocax,
And there is no feeling in your eyes,
2) I pravdy net v tvoix recax,
And there is no truth in your speech,
3) I net dusi v tebe.
And there is no soul in you.
4) Muzajsja, serdce, do konca:
Take courage, heart, to the end:
5) I net v tvorenii tvorca!
And there is no creator in the creation!
6) I smysla net vmol'be!
And it makes no sense to entreat!
The syntactic division (the SS) and the division by motifs (the MS) are
shown in Figs. 2a and 2b respectively. It is easy to see that both structures
do not coincide.
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The two strophes of (9) are syntactically well balanced, since each of
them binds up a triplet of sentences into a supersentential unit, with an
additional pairing of the sentences of the 2nd strophe. On the other hand,
the poem is also structured with the aid of the pattern "i" + N1 + "net"
+ "v" + (A) + N2instr "and there is no N1 in N2"). This pattern recurs in dif-

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452 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

ferent word-order realizations, and so another syntactic arrangement can


be seen in (9). Both possible SS's of (9) are different from its MS: Lines 1,
2, 3, 5, make up a motif of "you" (lacking smth), while lines 4 and 6 are
about "me". The "you" is explicit in the lines 1-3, while in the last three
lines both "you" and "me" are implicit. However, the "you" of the 5th line
is underscored by a recurrent combination of sounds [...tftv...tv..] (line 5 is
transcribed as [In' etftvar'énii tvercá]) by which the 5th line is associated with
the first two lines where a pronoun "fvoix" ("yours") is iterated explicitly.
The seemingly same "net v ..." sounds different in the 5th line, with a voi­
ced [v], instead of the unvoiced [f] of the 1st strophe. The 4th and the 6th
lines are allotted to "me" — it is a "me" who entreats, and it is the "me"
who has the heart, in contrast with the "you" who has no soul.
Another poem by F.I. Tjutchev is (12); it is his translation of a poem
by Michelangelo (11) who wrote it as a response to an epigram by G.
Strozzi (10):
(10) Epigramma
di Giovanbattista Strozzi sopra la statua delia Notte.
La Notte, che tu vedi in sí dolci atti
Dormir, fu da un Angelo scolpita
In questo sasso, e perché dorme ha vita:
Destala, se nol credi, e parleratti.
(11) Risposta
di Michelagnolo in persona della Notte.
Grato m'è '1 sonno, e più Fesser di sasso.
Mentre che '1 danno e la vergogna dura:
Non veder, non sentir m'è gran ventura;
Perö non mi destar, deh! paria basso.
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

(12)
1) Molci, prosu, ne smej menja budit'.
Be silent, please, don't dare to wake me up.
2) O, v etot vek prestupnyj i postydnyj
O, in this criminal and shameful age
3) Ne zit', ne èuvstvovat' — udel zavidnyj...
Not to live, not to feel — is an enviable lot...
4) Otradno spat' — otradnej kamnem byt'.
It is comforting to sleep — it is more comforting to be a stone.

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THE GRADES OF READING 453

The syntactic and the motif divisions of (12) are shown in Fig. 3a and
3b respectively. The 3rd and the 2nd lines are united by one sentence, while
the 1st and the 4th lines are separate sentences. The same allocation is done
in the original (11), but its 1st line is translated by the 4th line of (12), and
vice versa. As for the MS, there are two motifs in (12): one is "It is comfort­
ing to be a stone" (lines 1,3,4), another is "This shameful age" (line 2). The
motif of a "stone" is developed from line to line as follows: "It is good to
sleep" → "It is good not to live, not to feel" = "It is even better to be a
stone". The motif of "the shameful age" is established by the iterations of
the same meaning within one line. The negative idea is manifested twice by
adjectives "prestupnyi" and "postydnyj". The adjectives are brought closer
together by their common sound pattern: [p...st..nyj].

Figure 3a: The SS of (12). Figure 3b: The MS of (12).

The translation (12) is very close to the original (11), not only line by
line, but also by its SS and MS, which are the same. However, as a result of
different ordering of the 1st and the last lines, the first motif of (11) is
"parla basso", and not "Fesser di sasso". For Michelangelo, "to be a stone"
was a reality; and, being a reality, it served a suitable starting point for the
development of a motif that was to arrive at the metaphoric "speak low".
Tjutchev also develops the motif from the reality to a metaphor, but, since
he was not a sculptor, his reality is "silence" (line 1), and his metaphor is
"to be a stone". Both in (11) and (12) the governing idea of "sleeping" is in
the starting line.
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

8. Prose fiction

The same method can be applied also to prose fiction. An example of


a simple MS can be served by a fragment of "Hadji Murat" by Lev Tolstoj
(13). The paragraphs of (13) are numbered (P-l, P-2, P-3, P-4), and so are
the sentences (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). The double strokes inside (13) were inserted
at the places where a sentence was divided between the motifs.

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454 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

(13) P-l. 1. It was near the end of 1851.


P-2. 2. On a cold November evening Hadji Murat entered || the
warlike Chechen village of Machket, || where spicy smoke
was rising from the dung-fires.
P-3. 3. The strained chant of the muezzin had just stopped,
and in the pure mountain air, permeated with II the smell
of burning cow-dung, || the guttural voices of men, women
and children who were arguing below by the fountain
could be heard clear above the lowing of the cattle and
the bleating of the sheep as they were distributed by
the sakljas, which were wedged as tight as the cells of
a honeycomb in a hive.
P-4. 4. This Hadji Murat was a nahib of Shamil renowned for
his exploits against the Russians. 5. He always rode
into battle under his own banner, accompanied by dozens
of murids prancing around him. 6. Now, clad in a hooded
cap and cloak, with a gun-barrel jutting out, he rode with
a single murid, trying to attract as little notice as possible
and glancing warily with his quick black eyes at the faces of
the villagers passing by.
P-5. 7. When he reached the center of the village, Hadji Murat
did not take the street leading to the square, but turned left
down a narrow lane. 8. On reaching a saklja dug into the
hill-side which stood second in the lane, he halted and
looked round.
There are five motifs in (13), as follows:
(14) M-l: On a November evening, 1851, Hadji Murat entered the
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

Chechen village (sentences 1, 2, 7, 8).


M-2: The village (sent. 2, 3, 7, 8).
M-3: The smoke (sent. 2, 3).
M-4: Hadji Murat was a brave and proud nahib of Shamil

M-5: Hadji Murat


To estimate the adjustment of the motifs within a fragment of prose
one has to consider its division into paragraphs. The motifs that are pre­
sented by the sentences located in different paragraphs, will be considered

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THE GRADES OF READING 455

separate; those presented by different sentences of the same paragraph are


contiguous; and, as before, the motifs sharing the same sentence(s) are con­
vergent. It is easy to see that the division into paragraphs does not coincide
with the division into motifs. A diagram for the MS of (13) is shown in Fig.
4.

Figure 4: The MS of (13).

One can see in Fig. 4 that M-2 ("The village") has more immediate
connections than any other motif, and is therefore the center of (13). Also,
one can see that there are two groups of motifs that are tightly intercon­
nected inside, and are loosely connected to each other: one is {M-l, M-2,
M-3}, another is {M-4, M-5}. The last observation is that this is a closed
structure, since it starts and ends with M-l.
The MS's based on the principle of retrospection are very important
for the contents of a text, but the content structuring of a text is not
exhausted by its motif design. There is another design of a text that can be
considered quite independently of its MS.

9. Event structures

Another aspect of the content is provided by the specific arrangement


of events in the text. One of the important tasks that a reader has to
accomplish is to disrupt a text into discrete events and to arrange them by a
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

progressive time order, i.e., to reveal a fabula that is hidden by the plot.
Both fabula and plot are made up out of events; both are artistic crea­
tions. It is not the case that a plot alone is created by a writer, while a
fabula is just the raw material that belongs to the reality, either real or
imagined. Actually the fabula, and not the plot, is an ultimate and most
refined result of the author's work, — this is because the reader has to find
it out by unravelling the given plot, sometimes with considerable effort.
(Cf. Culler 1980.) One can say that the fabula is mediating between the
raw material of life and the plot. The plot consists of discontinuous

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456 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

events arranged in a non-progressive order, while the continuous flow of


life is strictly progressive and is not divided into the discrete events. So the
plot seems to have nothing in common with life, and to help them meet
halfway one needs fabula. The fabula should consist of discrete events
arranged in progressive order. By its discreteness fabula resembles the plot,
while progressiveness brings it closer to life.
The digressions of the plot from the fabula as intentional artistic
devices ("prijem") that writers use for different purposes were first studied
by Russian scholars in the Twenties (e.g., Sklovskij 1929, Tomasevskij
1925, Vygotskij 1925); since then, the distinction between fabula and plot
was widely used in literary criticism and research. However, it is worth­
while to talk once more about the effect that the relationships between the
two arrangements of the events have on the content structure of a text.
In his analysis of I. Bunin's short story "The Light Breathing", Lev
Vygotsky (Vygotskij 1925) illustrated the relationships between the plot
and the fabula with a diagram where events, in their progressive sequential
order, were put on the horizontal axis, and then connected by curves show­
ing their order in the plot. By means of this diagram the work done by the
author to dislocate the events is exposed. To show the work that should be
invested by a reader, the diagram ought to be inverted, and the curves will
show the fabula sequence. But before one can start drawing any of the diag­
rams one must decide a very important problem — how to fill in the dis­
crete points on the axes. Each point should correspond to a content unit of
the T, but these units should be quite different from the content units that
were defined above as motifs. If we are going to evaluate the digressions of
the plot from the fabula, we have to use the units that are fit to be mutually
ordered within a general time-span of the T, which means that each of the
units should be capable of being assigned to a certain relative time-space.
This cannot be done with motifs, since a motif arises as a result of iteration,
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

disregarding any time-correlation. Therefore we need another type of con­


tent unit that we can relate to time and which would be suitable as
"events".
A T can be seen as a succession of separate events. For example, for
the fragment (13) above the following list of events (in their textual order)
can be suggested:
(15) (A) (i) Hadji Murat entered the Chechen village.
(B) (ii) Spicy smoke was rising from the dung-fires.

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THE GRADES OF READING 457

(C) (iii) The strained chant of the muezzin.


(D) (iv) The smell of burning cow-dung.
(v) The cattle and the sheep were distributed.
(vi) The lowing of the cattle and the bleating of the sheep.
(vii) The voices ... could be heard clearly.
(E) (viii) This Hadji Murat was a nahib of Shamil.
(ix) He was renowned for his exploits against the Russians.
(x) He always rode into battle under his own banner ...
(F) (xi) Now ... he rode with a single murid ...
(G) (xii) He reached the center of the village.
(xiii) He turned left down a narrow lane.
(xiv) He reached a dug into the hill-side saklja.
(xv) He halted.
(xvi) He looked round.
Some of the (textually) successive events of (15) can be grouped
together as simultaneous. Such are the events (iii)-(vii) that give an instan­
taneous description of the Chechen village at the time when Hadji Murat
entered it. Another group of simultaneous events can be seen in (viii)-(x)
where the occupations and qualities of Hadji Murat before his arrival
in the village are described. For the comparison of a fabula to a plot, the n
events that are (a) simultaneous, and (b) sequentially ordered in the T,
can be replaced by a single generalized event. With this, the above two
groups of simultaneous and sequentially ordered events can be replaced,
respectively, by just two generalized events. One more reduction can be
made in the list (15), with the group (xii)-(xvi), which is ordered sequen­
tially both in the T and in the time-space. Since no deviation of a plot from
the fabula can be expected in this last group of events (as well as in the two
above-mentioned groups), it too can be replaced by a single unit. In effect,
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

we will get a reduced list of events that are indicated by capital letters (A,
B, C, D, E, F, G) on the left side of (15). Three generalized events can be
suggested as follows:
(16) (D) The village at the moment of Hadji Murat's arrival.
(E) Up to now Hadji Murat was a brave high-ranked guerilla
warrior.
(G) Hadji Murat arrived at his destination.
If we draw now two diagrams, one for the reader's efforts to find out
the fabula sequence (Fig.5a), the other for the author's efforts to arrange

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458 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

the plot (Fig.5b), we shall get two different curves, (forward shifts are
shown by arrows above the letters, backward shifts — by arrows beneath
the letters):

Figure 5a: The discovery of the fabula.

Figure 5b: The arrangement of the plot.

The two curves of Fig. 5 obviously present the same event structure
(ES), and the difference between 5a and 5b seems slight. But for a proper
evaluation of the ES of (15) we need both aspects of it, since the compari­
son can be telling. The spiral of Fig. 5b becomes ideal, if one cuts off the
two last events of the fabula (A: "Hadji Murat entered..." and G: "Hadji
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

Murat arrived..."). This suggests that A and G could have been introduced
in the plot after the overall disposition was ready. It can also be noticed in
Fig. 5b that each fabula event is integrated in the plot when it shows up in
the sequence, with no suspension. But, as Fig. 5a shows, the reverse does
not hold true. The first event of the plot, i.e., A ("Hadji Murat entered
..."), can be properly adjusted in the fabula only together with two later
events of the plot (i.e., F: "Now he rode with a single murid..." and G:
"Hadji Murat arrived ..."). As a result, the leaps of the outer round of a
spiral are more drastic with Fig. 5a than with 5b.

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THE GRADES OF READING 459

The content structure of (15) as it appears in the arrangement of events


is quite different from the MS that was suggested above for the same T. So,
the ES is another content structure that reflects another aspect of textual
design, another dimension of connectedness, The ES's can be classified by
the shapes of the curves, and the infinite variety of the latter can be reduced
to a limited number of patterns. For instance, pairs of curves resembling
those of Fig. 5 above can be found in many other stories written by differ­
ent authors in different languages. Mostly, the spiral-like patterns are
found in the opening parts where the events preceding the starting point
of a story should be told in a most effective and concentrated way.

10. The discovery of MS and ES pertains to an advanced grade of reading,


since it involves rather sophisticated intellectual activity. Not all the R's
can, or are always willing to, consciously grasp the MS's and ES's of a T.
However, the information processed at this stage of reading is fairly stan­
dard and is based on the overt cohesion, and, mostly, on the syntax, senten­
tial and super-sentential. The SS of a T makes up its third structure, which
unfortunately, I have no more space to discuss here.
If a R does reach such intensity of reading that allows him to unveil the
content structures of a T, the connectedness of the T will be of a much
higher quality with this R, than with another one who would feel satisfied
after having confirmed that the T is (or isn't) microcoherent. I do not mean
that the advanced R should be aware of precise configurations of the MS
and ES, but I assume that he certainly internalizes them by intuition. So
that at this degree of reading structural features of different T's can be com­
pared and various facets of style can be considered.
Conscious application of the MS- and ES-description seems to be
temptingly conducive for field work in stylistics, since it is quite plausible,
according to the available data, that: (a) there are patterns of MS and ES;
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

(b) those patterns tend to specialize by their functions in a T; (c) the pat­
terns, their combinations, and their functioning in a T vary with different
writers and genres.
The discovery of the motifs and their relationships, as well as of the
events and their fabula sequence is based on which signals are conventional
and explicit in the T. Therefore, one can hope to work out the objective
and even precise procedures leading to the exposure of the MS and ES. As
well, comprehension of the overt structures is actually expected of high
school students who are supposed to learn some standard procedures for

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460 MARIA M. LANGLEBEN

the discovery of the ES and MS. To achieve connectedness at the level of


the overt structures one only needs sound logical reasoning and mastery of
the grammar. However, a T may also contain structures that can hardly be
proved objectively, and which sometimes need a very creative and know­
ledgeable R to find them out.

11. Covert structures

The overt structures exist objectively, and, normally, there are no


doubts that any exposed MS or ES was intended by the author of a T. But
a motif can arise out of (or be supported by) a non-conventional iteration,
i.e., the iteration of such textual elements and features that do not have
conventional meaning. As a result, authorship of this motif can be debated.
An example is provided by the iteration of a syllable [tve] in the poem (9)
by F. Tjutchev (see above Ch. 7.). It was surmised that this iteration serves
to help shape the motif of "you", but one should be aware that nobody can
be absolutely positive that it was intended for that purpose by the poet, and
not just "creatively seen" by the R, as a face can be seen in the patterns of
a carpet. Anyhow, once traced, a covert motif finds its place in the reader's
design of the T; but we can entertain no hope of any exact or quasi-exact
prescriptions for the discovery of such motifs. It needs genuinely profound
reading to notice all kinds of covert motifs that can be assigned to a T as a
result of both intra- and inter- textual iterations. The T becomes superbly
explained and connected. But at this level of reading a R can never be sure
of whether the structures that he finds so insightful are genuinely artistic,
cultivated plants, or if they are, rather, beautiful field flowers.

References
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

Aron, R. 1948. Introduction to the Study of History: An Essay in the Limits


of Historical Objectivity. (Transi. by G. J. Irvin). London: Weidenfels &
Nicolson, 1961. (French original: Introduction a la philosophie de l'his­
toire, 1938, revised edition: Paris, Librairie Gallimard, 1948).
Baxtin, M. 1935. "Slovo v romane" (A Word in the Novel). In: M. Baxtin
1975, 72-233.
. 1975. Voprosy literatury i estetiki (The Problems of Literature and
Aesthetics). Moskva: "Xudozestvennaja literatura".

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THE GRADES OF READING 461

Bergson, H. 1946. The Creative Mind: An Introduction to Metaphysics.


(Transi, by M.L. Andison). New York: The Wisdom Library.
Culler, J. 1980. "Fabula and Sjuzhet in the Analysis of Narrative." Poetics
Today 1-3:27-37.
Dilthey, W. 1894. Descriptive Psychology and Historical Understanding.
(Transi, by I.H. Zaner, K.J. Heiges). The Hague: Martinus Nijhof,
1977. (German original: Ideen über eine beschriebene und zergliederte
Psychologie, 1894).
Goodman, N. 1980. "Twisted Tales, or, Story, Study and Symphony." Crit­
ical Inquiry: 103-119.
Langleben, M. 1981. "Latent Coherence, Contextual Meanings and the
Interpretation of a Text". Text I(3): 279-313.
-—. 1983. "On the Structure of Dialogue". In: Petöfi and Sözer eds, 1983;
220-286.
Petöfi, J.S. and E. Sözer, eds. 1983. Micro and Macro Connexity of Texts.
(Papers in Textlinguistics, v. 45). Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
Tomasevskij, B. 1925. Teorija literatury. (A Theory of Literature).
Moskva.
Tynjanov, Ju. 1924. Problema stixotvornogo jazyka. (The Problem of Poe­
tic Language). Moskva: "Sovetskij pisatel", 1965.
Sklovskij, V. 1929. O teorii prozy. (On the Theory of Prose). Moskva:
"Vyssaja skola".
Vygotskij, L. 1925. "Legkoe dyxanie" ("The Light Breathing"). In:
Vygotskij 1968: 187-207.
. 1968. Psixologija iskusstva. (The Psychology of Art) ed. by Vyach. V.
Ivanov. Moskva: "Iskusstvo".
Copyright @ 1989. John Benjamins Publishing Co.

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