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Maria M. Langleben
Summary
eral objectives: (a) to make the T consistent with the R's own background,
with his special kind of reasoning — i.e., to adjust the T within his own
beliefs and disbeliefs; (b) to reveal internal structuring inherent in the T
that makes it specific and unique among the other T's. If a R works hard
enough in both directions, the T becomes maximally connected for him.
But even the smallest efforts invested in the T can make it connected for a
given R; this is the last assumption. No matter how poor the achievements
of a R are, it is for him to decide whether the T is connected enough for his
aims.
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I shall suggest here an overview of the barriers that a T puts forth for
a R to overcome. After each of the barriers the R can stop and not work
further, which means that he is satisfied with the connectedness that is,
objectively, partial. An objectively complete connectedness is achieved
when all the barriers have been conquered.
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used for the exposition of contextual meanings (by the procedure suggested
in Langleben 1981). Thus, contextual meanings for NADEZHDA
NIKOLAEVNA, STAY ALIVE and PETERSBURG are drawn out of (4)
and (5) as follows:
NADEZHDA NIKOLAVNA = this is how Gogol in his letter
called Pushkin's wife, while her name was Natalja Nikolavna.
STAY ALIVE = stay alive through cholera and inundations.
PETERSBURG = a place that was visited by cholera and inun
dations in 1831.
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3. The R who successfully achieves these two stages can start appreciating
the content of a T. Two higher stages of reading are dedicated to the dis
covery of textual structures. The internal structuring of a T should be com
prehended, in order to appreciate the singularity of the T. From the point
of view of objectivity, two types of the internal structures can be discerned:
(1) The structures that can be proved inside the T by dealing with con
ventional fragments of the T, and using conventional meanings of these
fragments. Those are overt structures that are intended by the author as a
means to convey his mandatory message to the R's;
(2) The structures that can only be surmised to exist in a T, since their
discovery involves unconventional fragments of the T, as well as unconven
tional meanings. Also, other T's can be involved. However consistent such
a covert structure seems to be, one can never be absolutely positive that it
was intended by the author of a T. There is always a chance that a covert
structure was not read out of the T, but rather read into it.
Comprehension of the overt and the covert structures of a T makes the
latter macrocoherent for the R; the overt structuring is a compulsory
minimum for macrocoherency, the covert structures are optional.
4. Overt structures
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The overt structures are built up out of content units; therefore, to get
at the structure of a T one has first to divide the T into the content con
stituents. There are two kinds of content constituents that are more or less
independent of each other and of the syntactic units of the T. They are
motifs and events', each of them can be delimited separately, by specific
criteria, and they generally correspond to different fragments of a T. A
motif arises when the same deep proposition (M-proposition) is developed;
an event is recognized when a discrete point on the time axis is fixed. If a T
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is divided both by its motifs and by its events, two autonomous structures
can be achieved: a motif structure (MS), and an event structure (ES), while
a syntactic structure (SS) provides the basis, and mediates between the two,
being generally also autonomous.
5. Motif structures
(6) A clock struck — four or five times — with the vibrations and re-
vibrations proper to a prison. Feet working, a spider — official
friend of the jailed — lowered itself on a thread from the ceiling.
No one, however, knocked on the wall, since Cincinnatus was as
yet the sole prisoner (in such an enormous fortress!).
Sometimes later Rodion the jailer came in and offered to
dance a waltz with him. Cincinnatus agreed. They began to
whirl. The keys on Rodion's leather belt jangled; he smelled of
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least one speech. Two motifs are interfering, if they are discontinuous and
intersecting with each other. The motifs are separate, if they are neighbor
ing, but are neither contiguous, nor convergent, nor interfering. Hence, M-
1 and M-2 are twice contiguous and twice convergent; M-1 and M-3 are sep
arate, M-l and M-4 are convergent; M-3 and M-5 are twice contiguous.
Interferent are M-l and M-2; M-3 and M-5. Now, if we agree to present
each motif by its number, to join the contiguous motifs by solid arrows, the
separate motifs — by dotted arrows, and the convergent ones — by non-
directed lines, then we shall get a diagram where the motif structures (MS)
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of (7) is shown (see Fig. 1). (In Fig. 1, each contact of the motifs is indi
cated by a special link; interference does not need any special indication,
since it arises as a result of moving forth and back by contiguity.)
It can be seen in Fig. 1 that M-l is the most connected motif of (7), and
is therefore its organizing center. There are two areas in the MS that are
loosely connected with each other, but tightly interconnected inside: {M-l,
M-2, M-4} and {M-3, M-5}. Each has its local center and a "supplement",
i.e., M-4 and M-5, respectively, which symmetrically stand out of the struc
ture. The position of M-2 recalls that of M-4 and M-5, since they are the
three motifs that are connected only to one other motif each, in contrast to
M-l and M-3 which make up the axis of the scene (Witches meet —
Witches leave), though M-2 is more firmly incorporated. So the scene is
built up on the above-mentioned axis, with the influential far-reaching lev
ers of LOST & WON, FAIR & FOUL, and RAMPAGE OF ELEMENTS.
Though Macbeth is mentioned only once in (7), he is mentioned also in M-
4, and is one of the speakers for M-5. This makes Macbeth implicitly pre
sent all through the Scene, which suggests one more motif: MACBETH.
6. Retrospection
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"By the sole fact of being accomplished, reality casts its shadow behind it
into the indefinitely distant past: it thus seems to have been pre-existent to
its own realization" (p. 22)
"As reality is created as something unforeseeable and new, its image is
reflected behind it into the indefinite past: thus it finds that it has from all
time been possible, but it is at this precise moment that it begins to have
been always possible..." (p. 101).
Retrospection takes an important place in the philosophy of language by
M. Baxtin (Baxtin 1935):
"...every particular word (expression) finds the object that it is directed at,
as always, so to say, already stipulated, judged, estimated, wrapped in the
haze, or, on the contrary, in the light of the words that were pronounced
already about it by the others. It is entangled and permeated by general
considerations, opinions, estimations, accents by the others. The word
directed at its object enters this dialogically agitated and tense environ
ment of words, estimations, accents that were left by the others, is entang
led in their complicated relationships, merges with some of them,
antagonizes with others,..., — and all this can substantially mold the word,
can be deposited in all the layers of its meaning,..." (p. 89-90)
Reciprocal influence of the words in a context and the role of retrospective
reference in contextual semantics was also noticed by Ju. Tynjanov (Tyn-
janov 1924), who assigned an important role to the regressive direction in
reading.
It seems that the concept of retrospection may become extremely fruit
ful for the content analysis of all kinds of T's. With the aid of this concept,
one can work out efficient criteria for the delimitation of content units. A
method for the content analysis of dialogue was based on the combination
of the progressive and regressive movements in the mutual interpretation of
the speeches (Langleben 1983), proved to greatly facilitate the analysis of
dialogic T's of all kinds. If one can only admit that the only way to under
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stand the past is through the mirror of the present, some practical conse
quences follow that make the MS of a T objectively attainable. One of the
consequences is that a speech in dialogue can be understood only in the
light of a response to it, the other is that, normally, a motif can not arise
without a (recoverable) iteration. These principles proved to be efficacious
also for non-dialogic T's. In the next two sections the examples of the MS's
recovered for short poems and for a prosaic fragment will be shown.
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The first of the poems (9) was written about 1836 (published posthum
ously in 1879). The lines of the poem are numbered (in order to designate
them in the representation of the structure of the poem); the poem is trans
literated and the line-by-line English translation is supplied:
(9) 1)I cuvstva net v tvoix ocax,
And there is no feeling in your eyes,
2) I pravdy net v tvoix recax,
And there is no truth in your speech,
3) I net dusi v tebe.
And there is no soul in you.
4) Muzajsja, serdce, do konca:
Take courage, heart, to the end:
5) I net v tvorenii tvorca!
And there is no creator in the creation!
6) I smysla net vmol'be!
And it makes no sense to entreat!
The syntactic division (the SS) and the division by motifs (the MS) are
shown in Figs. 2a and 2b respectively. It is easy to see that both structures
do not coincide.
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The two strophes of (9) are syntactically well balanced, since each of
them binds up a triplet of sentences into a supersentential unit, with an
additional pairing of the sentences of the 2nd strophe. On the other hand,
the poem is also structured with the aid of the pattern "i" + N1 + "net"
+ "v" + (A) + N2instr "and there is no N1 in N2"). This pattern recurs in dif-
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(12)
1) Molci, prosu, ne smej menja budit'.
Be silent, please, don't dare to wake me up.
2) O, v etot vek prestupnyj i postydnyj
O, in this criminal and shameful age
3) Ne zit', ne èuvstvovat' — udel zavidnyj...
Not to live, not to feel — is an enviable lot...
4) Otradno spat' — otradnej kamnem byt'.
It is comforting to sleep — it is more comforting to be a stone.
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The syntactic and the motif divisions of (12) are shown in Fig. 3a and
3b respectively. The 3rd and the 2nd lines are united by one sentence, while
the 1st and the 4th lines are separate sentences. The same allocation is done
in the original (11), but its 1st line is translated by the 4th line of (12), and
vice versa. As for the MS, there are two motifs in (12): one is "It is comfort
ing to be a stone" (lines 1,3,4), another is "This shameful age" (line 2). The
motif of a "stone" is developed from line to line as follows: "It is good to
sleep" → "It is good not to live, not to feel" = "It is even better to be a
stone". The motif of "the shameful age" is established by the iterations of
the same meaning within one line. The negative idea is manifested twice by
adjectives "prestupnyi" and "postydnyj". The adjectives are brought closer
together by their common sound pattern: [p...st..nyj].
The translation (12) is very close to the original (11), not only line by
line, but also by its SS and MS, which are the same. However, as a result of
different ordering of the 1st and the last lines, the first motif of (11) is
"parla basso", and not "Fesser di sasso". For Michelangelo, "to be a stone"
was a reality; and, being a reality, it served a suitable starting point for the
development of a motif that was to arrive at the metaphoric "speak low".
Tjutchev also develops the motif from the reality to a metaphor, but, since
he was not a sculptor, his reality is "silence" (line 1), and his metaphor is
"to be a stone". Both in (11) and (12) the governing idea of "sleeping" is in
the starting line.
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8. Prose fiction
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One can see in Fig. 4 that M-2 ("The village") has more immediate
connections than any other motif, and is therefore the center of (13). Also,
one can see that there are two groups of motifs that are tightly intercon
nected inside, and are loosely connected to each other: one is {M-l, M-2,
M-3}, another is {M-4, M-5}. The last observation is that this is a closed
structure, since it starts and ends with M-l.
The MS's based on the principle of retrospection are very important
for the contents of a text, but the content structuring of a text is not
exhausted by its motif design. There is another design of a text that can be
considered quite independently of its MS.
9. Event structures
progressive time order, i.e., to reveal a fabula that is hidden by the plot.
Both fabula and plot are made up out of events; both are artistic crea
tions. It is not the case that a plot alone is created by a writer, while a
fabula is just the raw material that belongs to the reality, either real or
imagined. Actually the fabula, and not the plot, is an ultimate and most
refined result of the author's work, — this is because the reader has to find
it out by unravelling the given plot, sometimes with considerable effort.
(Cf. Culler 1980.) One can say that the fabula is mediating between the
raw material of life and the plot. The plot consists of discontinuous
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we will get a reduced list of events that are indicated by capital letters (A,
B, C, D, E, F, G) on the left side of (15). Three generalized events can be
suggested as follows:
(16) (D) The village at the moment of Hadji Murat's arrival.
(E) Up to now Hadji Murat was a brave high-ranked guerilla
warrior.
(G) Hadji Murat arrived at his destination.
If we draw now two diagrams, one for the reader's efforts to find out
the fabula sequence (Fig.5a), the other for the author's efforts to arrange
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the plot (Fig.5b), we shall get two different curves, (forward shifts are
shown by arrows above the letters, backward shifts — by arrows beneath
the letters):
The two curves of Fig. 5 obviously present the same event structure
(ES), and the difference between 5a and 5b seems slight. But for a proper
evaluation of the ES of (15) we need both aspects of it, since the compari
son can be telling. The spiral of Fig. 5b becomes ideal, if one cuts off the
two last events of the fabula (A: "Hadji Murat entered..." and G: "Hadji
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Murat arrived..."). This suggests that A and G could have been introduced
in the plot after the overall disposition was ready. It can also be noticed in
Fig. 5b that each fabula event is integrated in the plot when it shows up in
the sequence, with no suspension. But, as Fig. 5a shows, the reverse does
not hold true. The first event of the plot, i.e., A ("Hadji Murat entered
..."), can be properly adjusted in the fabula only together with two later
events of the plot (i.e., F: "Now he rode with a single murid..." and G:
"Hadji Murat arrived ..."). As a result, the leaps of the outer round of a
spiral are more drastic with Fig. 5a than with 5b.
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(b) those patterns tend to specialize by their functions in a T; (c) the pat
terns, their combinations, and their functioning in a T vary with different
writers and genres.
The discovery of the motifs and their relationships, as well as of the
events and their fabula sequence is based on which signals are conventional
and explicit in the T. Therefore, one can hope to work out the objective
and even precise procedures leading to the exposure of the MS and ES. As
well, comprehension of the overt structures is actually expected of high
school students who are supposed to learn some standard procedures for
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References
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