Rhetorical Device

ACOLOUTHA Accismus may be genuine. It may also be false modesty.
In a fuller game, the first person offers something, which

Description:
the second refuses. The first insists then the second
Substitution of reciprocal words, where each word could reluctantly accepts.
be substituted in each other's contexts.
A: 'Here, have one.'
Example: B: 'No, I shouldn't.'
A: 'Go on, it's ok.'
1. John ran down the road. B: 'Well, if you insist...thank you.'
2. Jane hurried to work.
Classification: Falsehood
1a. John hurried down the road.
2a. Jane ran to work.
Discussion: ACCUMULATIO
Acolutha is similar in form to a synonym, but it is not a Description:

synonym, in which two words are equivalent in
The bringing together of a number of points into a
meaning. In acolutha, rather than having
powerful conclusion or climax.
the same meaning, the words have replaceable meaning.
Example:
Acolutha is the opposite of Anacoloutha, which is the
substitution of non-reciprocal words. I have talked about weather patterns, the rising sea
levels, and the natural patterns of high tides. Together
Acolutha comes from the Greek word
this means that at the next full moon where there is a
'acolouthos', meaning 'following, attending upon'.
force ten storm, then New York is in great danger of
Category: Substitution being flooded.
Come in, sit down, get your pens out and let's make
some magic!
ACCISMUS
Discussion:
Description:
The word literally means the 'accumulation' of many
Feigned or pretended refusal of something which is points. This bringing together either hammers home a
actually desired. repeated or previous point, or may synthesize a new
Example: meaning.
How kind, but you need it more than me. The accumulation may be through a set of sentences,
phrases, words or other grammatical units. The order is
No, I don't want it now! not as important as the collective effect.
Discussion: In storytelling, the climax is a classic point of
accumulatio, where multiple tensions are resolved,
Accismus happens when a person refuses something that
meaning is created and the reader thrilled. This does not
they really want. Why would they do this? A very
happen just at the end of the story and can happen in
common reason is because they are being offered
chapters or even individual paragraphs or sentences.
something where acceptance would break
some belief or value, for example where to accept would In speeches, which are often a form of storytelling, the
be to take something that another person needs more. need to create memorable points make accumulatio a
powerful device.
Refusal may happen with the intent of slighting the
person offering. Thus, for example, a man offers flowers Accumulatio is also used to describe over-use of words
to a woman who he has annoyed. She turns her nose up and repetition of sentences or phrases that say essentially
at them, even though they are her favorites. the same thing.
Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

i.e. Stylistic or Rhetorical Device Prof. Maya Roxas Irarum
Accumulatio is also known Nothing there but light and fire.
as Congeries and Accumulation. Obscuring all but my desire.
Classification: Meaning, Repetition Discussion:
Although acyron may be used unintentionally, the prime
reason for its use is in highlighting what is really
ACUTEZZA intended by means of the contrast principle.
Description:
When you see acyron, you may be initially confused,
Acutezza is the use of wit or wordplay. which grabs your attention and causes you to pause and
reflect on the real meaning. Acyron is in this way
Example: popular with poets.
Like Apollo, storms across the town. Then apologizing Classification: Reversal, Meaning
for the devastation.
She would! Two short planks, perhaps?
ADIANOETA
You say you have evidence, but evidently you do not.
Description:
Discussion:
Adianoeta occurs where a word or phrase is used with a
Sometimes just the cleverness of how words are used is clear meaning, yet a second, more subtle, meaning also
enough to persuade. Like a lawyer in court keeping the exists.
jury entertained whilst subtly influencing their thought
processes or a poet dazzling through perfect stanzas, wit Example:
and wordplay are a form of entrancing beauty that can
'That play was rubbish!'
make up for a lot of fallacious underlying logic.
'Indeed, sir. When I think of the play, I shall think of
The sharper wit may use many figures of speech and you.'
rhetorical devices in a single sentence. The meaning may
I go with your heart.
not even be clear on the surface and the purpose may just
(I am giving you my love - or maybe I am stealing your
be to establish the speaker's superiority. The real effect
affection, taking it away with me).
in the end is how the listener's mind is changed across
the whole intercourse. Discussion:
'Acutezza' is Italian for sharpness or acuity. This is a subtle and clever way of playing with words
and meaning.
Classification: Humor
Adianoeta may be used in insults, where the obvious
ACYRON meaning is harmless, yet the second meaning (which
Description: may be denied) is insulting.
Acyron is where a word is used which is opposite to the The multiple meanings possible also makes it popular
normal word that should be applied. with poets.
Example: Classification: Meaning
I am as sad as a sand boy.

(The actual saying is 'happy as a sand boy' – i.e. the
ADJUNCTION
speaker is not sad).
Description:
Blind am I to your face.
Beauty gone to God's disgrace. Adjunction is the placement of the verb at the start of the
phrase or sentence.

Example:
Sings the bird as we walk on by. ASTEISMOS
Angry am I, storms across the sky. Description:
Good, it is, that fights the master with his dark lord. Asteismos is expression of emotion, often negative
emotion, in a polite way.
Discussion:
Example:
The placement of verbs, nouns and other parts of
speech in sentences is a curious structure that varies Dear Sir,
across languages. For example in English one says
'happy man' but in French they say 'homme heureux'.
You have insulted my wife and I hereby challenge you
Meaning is constructed as we read and we predict ahead to a duel.
what might be there, so is it better to know first that the Your most obedient servant,
subject is a man or that the descriptor is happiness? The
latter certainly seems easier as you have to store the
Charles Hawtrey
'happy' and later apply it to the 'man'.
Discussion:
Putting the verb first in a sentence gives it primacy,
emphasizing it. It also is an unusual structure and so Emotions are catching. When you express them,
grabs attention of readers, making them pause and think. particularly if they are negative or strongly expressed,
then others also experience the same or complementary
Classification: Rearrangement
emotions.
In many countries, there are strong social rules about
ADYNATON being polite and against expressing strong emotion in
public. This can result in asteismos, where negative
Description:
emotions are converted into formal expressions by
Adynaton is a declaration of impossibility, often in an which they may be acceptably portrayed.
obviously exaggerated comparison.
These expressions may well include a neutralization of
Example: the infectious effect of the emotion by portraying them
in a relatively mild form.
It is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a
needle than a sinner get into the kingdom of heaven. Classification: Emotion
You've got as much chance with her as I have of

becoming president.
AETIOLOGIA
Discussion:
Description:
When something happens or is said that we consider
Aetiologia is the justification or explanation of a claim
highly unlikely, we are shocked and want to express our
or statement by showing cause and effect.
extreme emotion. Adynaton allows us to do this
by exaggeration. An easy way of doing this is by using Example:
a contrasting comparison.
I will not repent, for I am a true and good person as all
Adynaton may well be used in a critical or cynical who know me will tell.
context, where concern for the other person's feelings is
She did leave early, but it was because her manager
not high on the speaker's list of priorities.
called her and there were customers waiting.
Classification: Distortion, Meaning
He broke the rules. He must be punished.

Discussion: You stupid, foolish, idiotic, daft little boy!
There is a deep human need to appear rational and Discussion:
hence explain, which leads us to include cause-and-
Aganactesis is often an uncontrolled (or perhaps
effect reasoning in our arguments. In effect we think
partially controlled) outburst and, as such, has a certain
'They may think I just made that up -- perhaps I'd better
honesty about it. It often includes aspects of anger,
explain better.'
horror and frustration. It shows something of the
Causal explanation can often be spotted through cause speaker's real feelings and can cause surprise and shock
linking words such as 'because', 'as', 'for', etc. (and hence change). Even if they apologize, what is said
cannot be unsaid.
Aetiologia is perhaps not so much a 'figure of speech' as
a 'figure of reasoning'. This natural quality may also be taken up deliberately,
feigning the outburst in order to say things that would
Classification: Reasoning
not be otherwise socially acceptable. When a person
becomes aroused and makes such outbursts, then it is
generally accepted that they are 'temporarily insane' and
AFFIRMATIO unable to follow values and social norms.
Description: Classification: Emotion
Acting as if a point has already been questioned,
challenged or disputed.
ALLEGORY
Description:
Example:
An allegory is the sustained and extended use of
I would answer any questions about this by saying: just a metaphor across a whole sentence, paragraph or entire
look at the evidence. It is overwhelming and discourse or narrative.
indisputable.
Example:
This is the right way. There is no alternative.
I feel like a dog today. I rolled out of my basket and
Discussion: munched on some biscuit-like cereal. Scratching as I got
Affirmatio is a pre-emptive method of avoiding on the train, I sniffed a passing female. Aruooo! Down
challenge that acts as if a point has been questioned. If boy!. . .
someone does challenge the point you can then look Orwell's 'Animal Farm' is an allegorical work about
confused and say 'I thought I have already addressed society in general and Soviet communism in particular.
that'. It may well also prevent people from challenging
as they realize that this conflict could arise. Discussion:
Classification: Reasoning An allegory takes the idea of a metaphor, where one

thing is taken to represent another, and stretches it out
into a longer context than a metaphor might normally be
AGANACTESIS used. An allegory also appeals to the imagination more
than a metaphor, which tends to have a more rational
Description: basis.
A feeling of deep indignation leads to an exclaimed Short 'teaching' stories, such as fables and parables, are
outburst. often allegorical, as this alternative form softens the
lecturing tone of a direct presentation. Allegories are
Example:
likewise useful in business presentations keeping them
Good grief! What on earth are you doing?! interesting whilst also making the message more
palatable.
Longer stories may also be allegories. Criticism of ALLUSION
politics, religion and other subjects that are likely to
Description:
cause the writer problems can be written in a suitably
cloaked form. In some ways all stories can be viewed as Allusion is an indirect reference to something.
allegories as they are representations of their authors'
inner thoughts. Example:
It is easy to over-do an allegory, wringing out every last She's a very good friend of his...
drop until the towel of meaning is twisted and torn. It is What are you looking at?
better to select the metaphor carefully, then use it
appropriately, lightly and persistently. It was a hot and steamy day. Jake shifted uneasily as
Manny walked past, eyeing him coldly.
Allegory comes from the Greek 'allos' meaning 'other'
and 'agora' or 'place of assembly'. 'Agoreuein' means ‘to Discussion:
speak in the assembly’. Its origin is hence very much in
Allusion is commonly used in speech where it would be
public speaking and oratory.
considered rude or otherwise socially hazardous to make
Classification: Substitution, Meaning direct reference.
The thing alluded to may require some form of prior
knowledge. In this way, it can be used as a signal to
ALLEOTHETA friends whilst others may not understand what is being
Description: said.
Alleotheta involves substitution of one case, gender, Allusion uses the principle of association to connect a
mood, number, tense, or person for another. vague item to something more specific, or one clear item
to another. In this way, when you start a commonly
Example: known phrase, the rest of the phrase is alluded to and
may be left out.
When he wore a dress she looks delightfully female.
By making an incomplete description, a tension is
I could be dancing yesterday, under the hot, dark moon.
created as the person seeks the closure of completion and
Living her down, strutting to their tune.
hence thinks harder about that to which the speaker may
Every dog has their day. be alluding.
Discussion: Prose and poetry often make use of allusion, hinting at
things that the reader may discover.
Substitution can cause confusion and hence
draw attention and challenge meaning. This is a sliding Allusion comes from the Latin word 'allsus' meaning to
scale, where sometimes the substitution is obvious and play with'.
sometimes it is very subtle.
Classification: Reference
In poetry, the confusion effect may be used deliberately
in almost nonsense verse, yet an underlying meaning is
still there to be discovered in what may be seen as a ALLITERATION
game between the author and the reader.
Description:
Alleotheta is sometimes used as a general category,
including antiptosis and other ennallage. It is also known Use a sequence of words in which the initial letter is the
as allotheta, alloeosis or alloiosis. same.
Classification: Substitution, Meaning The words can be next to one another or spaced out.
Example:
Health, happiness and hope for the New Year!
I want this, wish for this and wonder if it can be done. Amphibology is consequently found in much deliberate
humor, where the flexibility of the language is played to
Good grief! That's not the number. Run and recover the
delightful effect.
real one!
Concern for Amphibology can be found in philosophy,
Bye-bye baby, baby bye-bye.
where true meaning is sought, yet ambiguity is found at
Discussion: every turn. It also is common in poetry, where
manipulation of meaning is core.
Alliteration acts as a simple hammer, beating home the
point. Although it may be used at the speed of Amphibology comes from the Greek, where 'amphi'
the jackhammer, it is more subtle. Combining means 'on both sides', 'bolos' means 'throw' and 'logos'
alliteration as a triple can be very effective. means 'word'. Thus Amphibology means 'throwing
words about on both sides', or 'mixing up words' and
The effect of alliteration can be almost poetic, making it hence 'ambiguity'.
pleasant and comfortable on the ears.
Amphibology is also known
Note that some letters have softer sounds (eg. H) and as amphiboly, amphibologia (the more correct Greek
some have more percussive sounds (eg. B). These will form) and also ambiguitas (because of the ambiguity).
have correspondingly softer and harder effects.
Classification: Meaning, Distortion
Alliteration is also called homoeoprophoron,
adnomination, agnomination and annomination.
Classification: Repetition AMPHILOGY
Description:
AMPHIBOLOGY Amphilogy is talking around a subject to avoid being

harmed.
Description:
Example:
Amphibology is where there is ambiguity in the
grammatical structure, often including mispunctuation. I know I don't talk much about football, but that doesn't
mean it is meaningless to me. In fact I can watch it for
Example: hours. (I don't like football, but saying this would result
King Harold walked and talked, ten minutes after he was in my being criticized and maybe ostracized).
dead. (Should be King Harold walked and talked. Ten Let's go somewhere else. That restaurant is so boring and
minutes after, he was dead). I didn't really like the food there last time. (It is too
Medical services here. You won't get better. expensive for me. I can't afford it).
Wanted: chair for a person with a wooden leg. Discussion:
Discussion: When talking about ourselves, we may have secrets that,

if other knew, would lead to us losing out in some way.
Amphibology is different from more general ambiguity, The esteem of others is so important to us that, when
as amphibology refers to the use of grammar rather than pressed, we will still avoid talking about a subject,
directly through words. even if others know about it.
Amphibology can easily appear by accident, typically And so we will try to avoid the subject, make excuses or
through careless copywriting. It can also be used for otherwise not say things we do not want to say. This can
deliberate effect. When you offer multiple meaning, be true even if we know that others know that we know.
you confuse and create attention and deeper thought, When the lump in the carpet is obvious, we still pretend
which is often desirable. it isn't there as we sweep our problems out of sight.
Classification: Hidden
AMPLIATIO Discussion:
Description: When we make things apparently bigger and more
significant, we draw attention to them (and in doing so,
Ampliatio involves taking something that is identified in
take attention away from other areas). This can be a
one place and extending it elsewhere. In particular taking
desirable thing in persuasive situations.
something in the present and extending it so it reaches
into the past and/or the future. Amplification also uses the principle of contrast in the
way it pushes opposing things apart in a form
Example:
of polarization. It is therefore useful to have something
Once a fool, always a fool. in opposition by which the thing being amplified appears
larger than ever.
We still call him Billy the Baker, even though he's now a
plumber. Classification: Amplification
She said what? Well, she probably said it before

anyway.
ANABASIS
Discussion:
Description:
Stretching the meaning of something into other contexts
Anabasis is stepwise increasing of sense or emphasis in
effectively 'amplifies' it. This works by the
each phrase or sentence.
using assumption principle, assuming that because
something is true now it is also true at other times. Example:
The stretching can be certain or it can be probabilistic, We must respond. We must fight! We must overcome
for example where it is guessed that something that this evil enemy!
happens today might happen again in the future (or
Are you there? I can hear you! There -- I see you!
might have happened before).
Good, better, best!
This effect can be stretched to assume that because
something works in one context it will also work in other Discussion:
contexts.
Anabasis uses the recency principle, where we
Classification: Exaggeration remember best that which is said last or most recently.
Spoken as a rising crescendo, it can also give power to
the conclusion of a paragraph or speech.
AMPLIFICATION
Anabasis can be used to show growing confidence,
Description: perhaps as a speaker is encouraged by positive responses
to earlier but weaker assertions.
This is a term used for general amplification,
enhancement or exaggeration of an argument in order to Anabasis is the opposite of catabasis, which is a stepwise
draw attention to it or make it seem more than it really decreasing of emphasis.
is.
Anabasis is Greek for 'ascent' or 'going up'.
Example:
Classification: Amplification
I waited days, through wind, rain and freezing hail, just
to be first in line to see the most wonderful, beautiful
person that anyone could ever behold. ANACEPHALAEOSIS
I have seen many plays and some of them were dreadful, Description:
but that was the absolutely worst performance I have
ever been forced to suffer. Anacephalaeosis is a recapitulation or summary of the
facts in a situation or argument.
Example: themselves from the group, which is a very scary
prospect.
So, to summarize: You will take David, I will take
Jennifer and we'll meet at 7pm. If I am in an audience and the speaker uses anacoenosis
and I do not agree yet do not speak up, then I may
She is the best I have heard, she is consistent and I am
suffer cognitive dissonance between my thoughts and
sure she will win.
actions. As a result, I am likely to shift my thinking
Discussion: toward the speaker's views in order to reduce thistension.
A summary provides an opportunity to do two important Anacoenosis comes from the Greek, 'nakoinoun',
things in an argument. First, it allows you to remind meaning 'to communicate.'
others of the key points, repeating and emphasizing
these. It may also draw a line under the argument, saying
'this is the end' and effectively forbidding anyone else
from contradicting you.
ANACOLOUTHA
Anacephalaeosis is also spelled 'Anakephalaeosis'. It
Description:
comes from the Greek 'ana' meaning 'back' and 'cephale',
meaning 'head'. Substitution of nonreciprocal words, where one word
may be substituted for another, but the second word
Classification: Repetition
could not be substituted back in the original context.
Example:
ANACOENOSIS
She opened her thoughts to him.
Description: She opened her heart to him.
Anacoenosis is asking the opinion of others in a way that Heart is used as a substitute for thoughts. You could not
demonstrates a common interest. substitute thoughts for heart, though.
Example: Discussion:
Do you not think we can do this now? This often works when one word is a higher form of
another word. Thus 'human' is higher level than 'John',
Now tell me, given the evidence before us, could you
so where John is used 'human' could be used, but not
have decided any differently?
vice versa. As in the example above, metaphor is often
What do you think? Are we a bit weary? Shall we stay used.
here for a while?
Anacolutha is the opposite of Acoloutha, which is the
Discussion: substitution of reciprocal words.
Anacoenosis typically uses a rhetorical question where Acolutha comes from the Greek word
no reply is really sought or required, thus softening what 'acolouthos', meaning 'following, attending upon'. 'Ana'
is really a statement or command. reverses this form.
Asking a question that implies one clear answer is to put Category: Substitution
others in a difficult position. If they disagree with you,
then they risk conflict or derision. In particular if you
state the question with certainty, then it makes ANACOLUTHON
disagreement seem rude.
Description:
Particularly when used in a group, this uses social
Anacoluthon occurs in a sentence when syntax changes
conformance. If there is an implied agreement by all and
and the logical sequence does not progress as expected.
one person openly disagrees, then they risk isolating

Example: Are you ready to buy this now?
If you had come then I am not there. Discussion:
When the light shines—if you ever return. Anacrusis is less a grammatical figure and more a name
for the pattern that appears in particular in songs.
I ran South and West is where the heart is.
Nevertheless it is useful in understanding the impact of
Discussion: emphasis.
Anacoluthon typically occurs when the expectation Within a sentence, emphasis is normally placed on key
created by the start of the sentence is not fulfilled. When words. These are the words that the speaker wants the
we hear something, we tend to predict ahead, and listener to pay particular attention to. Other words fill in
grammatical syntax helps us do this. The sentence thus and give context. They may also be used to create subtle
does not flow easily, although two parts of the sentence influence.
may well be logically related.
Classification: Meaning
Anacoluthon can occur when the sentence breaks into
two, typically using punctuation such as a dash. It may
also be turned on a word that has meaning both in the ANADIPLOSIS
first part and the second part. Another way of creating
Description:
change is to change the tense.
The repetition of a word sequence used at the end of a
Anacoluthon can be a simple error, although it is also
phrase or sentence at the start of the next phrase or
used for deliberate effect, often causing
sentence.
mild confusion and hence attention. It may also be used
in poetry and prose to make readers pause and think Example:
about any hidden meaning.
If you are going to play wolf, play wolf like the real
Anacoluthon is sometimes confused with Anacoloutha. thing.
Just to make matters worse, the plural of anacoluthon is
'anacolutha'. I would but run away. Run away, perhaps today. Perhaps
today I will. I will run away.
It comes from the Greek 'an', meaning ‘not’, and
'akolouthos,' meaning ‘following’. It thus means 'lacking Will you come with me? Come with me to a better place.
sequence'. A place where we can be together forever, forever where
we can do what we know must be done.
Classification: Distortion, Meaning
Discussion:
When something is repeated, a pattern is created. We are
ANACRUSIS programmed to recognize patterns and so we pay
attention.
Description:
Repetition emphasizes. It hammers home the message
Anacrusis is the lack of emphasis on the first few words
that 'this is important'.
of a sentence.
Anadiplosis is a typical device that is used when
Example:
building a climax, with words set up in increasing
In the town where I was born... (from Beatles importance. Spoken, this is likely to be done with rising
song 'Yellow Submarine' - 'town' receives the first tone.
emphasis; 'In the' is the unstressed anacrucis).
Anadiplosis comes from the Greek word for 'doubling'
When I was young my father said, 'Son I have something or 'repetition'.
to say...

ANALOGY You know, I knew a chap like Simon once. Very
annoying, he was.
Description:
The last time I met Susan we had a lot of fun. Here she
Analogy is a figure where an item is compared with a
comes now...
similar other.
Discussion:
Example:
It is often impolite to express emotion directly,
The atom is like a miniature solar system.
particularly in some cultural contexts. Using recall lets
The train came out of the tunnel like a bullet from a gun. you take an ostensibly neutral stance in the present
whilst talking about the emotions you have felt in the
Discussion: past, typically in a similar situation to that which you are
Analogy works on the assumptive principle that if two experiencing or considering.
items are similar in some respects then other attributes In prose or poetry, this may be used in the form of an
will also be similar. This can be helpful when thinking elegy, dirge, lament or other sorrowful recall,
about a situation and a number of scientific discoveries deliberately intended to evoke a sympathetic response.
have been assisted by analogous thinking.
Classification: Emotion
Analogy is different to a metaphor in that the metaphor
says 'A is B', whilst the analogy says A is like B'. The
comparison is thus not as strong. Saying 'A is B' means
ANANGEON
'A is the same as B in all respects', whilst saying 'A is
like B' means 'A is the same as B in some respects'. Description:
Using analogy is hence not as strong a comparison as
Anangeon is the admission of a charge, but then
using metaphor and consequently may be more
excusing it by stating its necessity.
acceptable in situations where direct equating is not
appropriate. Example:
Analogy has also been described as a 'shared Yes, I shot him, but it was kill or be killed.
abstraction', a form of induction and a hidden deduction.
Indeed I kissed her, but if I had turned away it would
In argument, comparisons taken from an analogous field have embarrassed the poor thing.
may be drawn in to explain and justify arguments. Using
analogy in this way easily becomes fallacious. Sorry about the noise but I need to get to work.
Analogy comes from the Greek 'analogia', meaning Discussion:

‘according to a due ratio’. We all have a need to be 'right' and 'look good'. This
Classification: Reference leads to the need to explain, and so we will seek to
justify actions that we know other disapprove of.
If we do something that is against our values, we
ANAMNESIS experience the cognitive dissonance of conflicting
beliefs and actions. Again, we need to justify our
Description:
actions, including to ourselves.
Anamnesis is the expression of (often negative)
Interrogators will encourage and play along with
emotions by way of recall from memory.
anangeon in order to get a confession. Those who seek
Example: to convert people will also use it in confessional practice,
typically supplying the reason that the person was corrupted
He was a much loved fellow. Those that knew him by their environment (and so distancing the convert from their
remember his laugh, his sense of fun. And now he is past).
gone, taken away, forever from us.
Classification: Falsehood
When it is obvious what the omission is, then
anapodoton can be used to avoid having to say
ANAPHORA something that may cause embarrassment or criticism.
Description:
Classification: Omission
Anaphora is the repetition of words at the start of
successive clauses, phrases or sentences.
ANASTROPHE
Example:
Description:
Run, run, run little piggies!
Anastrophe is a reversal of a normal word order, with
Three blind mice! Three blind mice!
words or phrases being juxtaposed.
Now is the time for action. Now is the time to take up
Example:
arms. Now is the time to fight for your country.
Blessed are the meek. (vs. The meek are blessed.)
Blessed are the good and blessed are the poor.
Good, it is. Strong in the force, you are. (Star Wars'
Discussion:
Yoda speaks in anastrophe!)
The primacy effect says that things at the beginning
Tripping the light fantastic.
are remembered. Repetition also enhances memory.
Anaphora thus has a powerful effect on hammering Discussion:
home an important point. It thence provides the bedrock
Anastrophe retains the meaning of a sentence whilst
on which subsequent words are built.
creating a little attention-causing confusion as the
Anaphora is an partial inversion of anadiplosis, which listener spends a little more time than usual working out
repeats words at the end. what is being said.
More generally, anaphora can also mean a reference A typical anastrophe is created by putting an adjective
back to a previous term. Thus subsequent repetitions are after a noun rather than before it (or adverb after a verb),
references back to previous similar words. In this form, such as 'He's a man happy' instead of 'He's a happy man'.
exact repetition is not needed, for example 'Joe is a man, Another way is to put the verb at the end of the sentence,
he is good.' ('he' refers back to 'Joe'). such as in the Yoda example above.
Anaphora comes from the Greek 'ana' meaning 'up' or Anastrophe has a slightly foreign and archaic feel and is
'back' and 'pherein' meaning 'to carry.' common in poetry. Using it too much, however, opens
you to parody (perhaps as in the fun had at Yoda's
expense).
Anastrophe comes from the Greek 'anastrephein',
ANAPODOTON meaning 'to turn up', or 'to turn back', which in turn
come from 'ana', meaning 'up', and 'strephein', meaning
Description: 'to turn'.
Anapodoton is omission of clause for deliberate effect. Classification: Rearrangement
Example:
Now that just goes to show! ANESIS
Discussion: Description:
When something is omitted from a sentence, we have to Anesis is the use of a concluding phrase or sentence that
guess what that something is. This may be deliberate or somehow diminishes what has previously been said.
unconscious.
Example: Antanaclasis comes from Greek 'antanaklasis', meaning
'reflection' or 'echo'.
He was one of the most admired men of his time, yet he
had one terrible, fatal flaw. Antanaclasis is also known as Antilogy.
This is the best mixer money can buy, although it does Classification: Repetition
not have a great reputation for reliability.
I love you without question. I adore you, above all
ANTANAGOGE
others. But I'm not sure I want to go out with you.
Description:
Discussion:
Antanagoge occurs where a negative point is balanced
Anesis seems like a contradiction and it is, yet it is heard
with a positive point.
surprisingly often, perhaps where a person says
something, realizes they have said more than they Example:
intent, and then tries to retract or reduce the effect.
Yes, I know I've lost my job, but I'm so looking forward
If done badly, it can damage the speaker's reputation as to spending time at home.
others see them as inconsistent.
So you live alone? It must be nice to be able to do what
Anesis is an effective opposite of epitasis. you want.
Classification: Reduction You are doing good work, though you are not involving
others enough. I still think you can become our most
valued team member.
ANTANACLASIS She died, and her enemies cried, 'How glad we were to
Description: know her.'
Antanaclasis is the repetition of a word, where the word Discussion:

has different meanings each time.
When we talk or think about negative things we
Example: experience uncomfortable feelings associated with that
thing. This is particularly true if it is a memory, but also
If we do not hang together, we will hang separately. happens empathetically when others talk about negative
Those who are not fired with enthusiasm, will be fired, things.
with enthusiasm. As a result, we often avoid talking about negative things,
Will you have your will, Will? Then perhaps you will both because of the effect on us and also because of the
write your will. effect on others (there is a strong social rule about not
causing emotional distress to others). If we must say
Discussion: something negative, then we will balance it up with
something positive.
The effect of anatanaclasis is an initial confusion as a
word just used, and hence with one meaning already If we must criticize another person, one method is to
in short-term memory, is repeated with a different soften the blow by starting with a positive comment. We
meaning. This causes the listener to pause and think, may also end with a positive, 'sandwiching' the negative
thus creating attention to what is said. with positive comments before and after.
Using antanaclasis displays an overt cleverness that Antanagoge may also be used as a deliberate device in
perhaps seeks to impress the listener with the verbal poetry or prose to highlight an obvious negative under
dexterity of the speaker (though if the listener detects the guise of a positive. This uses the contrast principle to
arrogance, perhaps it is the speaker that will get throw the negativity into stark relief.
impressed by the listener ;).
Classification: Falsehood, Hidden
ANTHIMERIA When the first clause is spoken, it may not be
particularly noticeable. However, when the second
Description:
clause is given, the repetition is immediately noticed.
Anthimeria is the use of one part of speech instead of This is a form of emphasis.
another part.
Initially the antimetabole may seem confusing, forcing
Example: the listener to review what was said in order to make
sense of the full meaning.
I am not inhelpful. ('in-' instead of 'un-'.
Using antimetabole can have a punchy, significant
Go safe. ('safe' instead of 'safely'). impact. It is thus very popular, particularly in political
Be silence. Be peaced. Find the nature of the innocent speeches.
fleeced. Antimetabole is a type of chiasmus, though with a
Discussion: tighter, more specific form.
Sometimes anthimeria is used by accident, when the It is also used as a word to describe an epanados that is
speaker does not have full grasp of the language. also an antithesis.
Sometimes also it is a colloquialism that is used within Antimetabole is sometimes called antistrophe, although
particular cultural contexts ('teen-speak' often uses this this word also has other meanings.
form).
Classification: Repetition, Reversal
Substitution or language modification of any kind may
attract attention, which may be desirable. The simple
modification of anthimeria may also be a deliberate
ANTHYPOPHORA
regression to child-like language that says 'I am not a
threat to you.' Description:
Anthimeria is popular in poetry, where substitution Anthypophora is arguing with oneself, for example
evokes emotion of mild confusion yet the intended asking questions and then answering them.
meaning is not too difficult to discern.
Example:
Anthimeria is also called 'antimeria'.
Hmm. I could go to the party or stay in with you. What
Classification: Substitution shall I do? I think I'll stay here.
Is the Republican party the best? I think not. Why else
were they beaten? Because they are no longer in touch
ANTIMETABOLE with the people.
Description:
Who are you? You are my friend. Why did you betray
Antimetabole is the repetition of a clause, with reversed me? Because you are not my friend.
wording in the second clause.
Discussion:
Example:
Anthypophora uses the principle of rhetorical
We eat to live, not live to eat. questions to ask questions which the speaker wishes to
answer. Sometimes this happens when nobody else is
Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you asking the questions and sometimes when nobody is
can do for your country. -- J.F. Kennedy answering questions posed. Often it is used for
It is not even the beginning of the end but is perhaps, the deliberate effect.
end of the beginning -- Winston Churchill One use of anthypophora is to neutralize critics by
Discussion: asking questions that the critics may ask and then

providing an answer, thus taking the wind out of their ANTIPTOSIS
sails before they get going.
Description:
Another use is to appear neutral by addressing both sides
Antiptosis is translation of one case into another, using
of an argument. However, this is done by using
'of' in the linkage.
questions from the opposing side, often phrased weakly,
and then providing strong arguments for the desired Example:
position.
The folly of man (vs. the foolishness of man)
Anthypophera is also known as Hypophora. Sometimes
the meanings are separated, with hypophora as the The depth of water (vs. the deep water)
statement or question and anthypophora as the reply. In the fullness of time (vs. in full time)
Classification: Reasoning Discussion:
Antiptosis uses preposition 'of' more like a conjunction,
ANTIPHRASIS joining things together, rather than showing
membership. The connection can be used to join and
Description: hence extend or enhance meaning, in the manner of
an analogy.
Antiphrasis is the use of words in a sense opposite to its
real meaning. Antiptosis is very similar to hendiadys, where two words
are typically linked by 'and'. For example the hendiadys
Example:
'The kingdom and the glory' becomes the antiptosis
Oh, I am so beautiful! My long nose and pimple so 'The kingdom of glory'.
attractive!
Antiptosis is also similar to hypallage, where two words
I am but a child of sixty years. and cases are exchanged along with a reversal of sense
and relationship.
That is the worst performance I have seen. Oh, look at
your face! -- actually I loved it. A 'case' is a noun, pronoun or adjective, often marked by
Discussion: inflection, which is related in some way to other words
in a sentence, such as 'deep' and 'depth'.
When something does not make sense,
'Antiptosis' is also used to describe the simple joining of
it surprises people, making them stop and think about
what is really meant. A reversal is a very simple puzzle words by 'of'.
to solve, so people will generally get the meaning quite Classification: Reference
quickly.
Irony uses incongruity to create wry humor. The reversal
in antiphrasis is hence a very easy way of creating ironic ANTIRHESIS
statements. Description:
Antiphrasis can also be used for sarcasm, reversing Antirhesis is rejection of an argument because it is bad
something to show that you know well what is intended. in some way.
Antiphrasis comes from the Greek 'anti', meaning Example:
'opposite', and 'phrasis', meaning 'diction'; also
'antiphrazein,' meaning 'to express by antithesis or You may say that Jane does not agree, but she is not
negation.' even on the team!
Classification: Reversal, Meaning How can you suggest that? It would be very wrong to do
that to her.
That's a nice argument. It's a shame that it is invalid.
Discussion: Antisthecon is sometimes
spelled antistoechon or antistoecon.
Common reasons for using antirhesis is because the
argument being rejected has a logical flaw, promotes It comes from the Greek 'anti-', meaning 'against' and
something minor as being major, or is wicked or bad in 'stoicheon', meaning 'letter order.'
some way.
Classification: Distortion, Substitution
In argumentation, as well as promoting your own case,
you also need to demolish your opponent's argument.
Antirhesis is a way of doing this. ANTISTROPHE
Classification: Reduction, Reasoning Description:
Antistrophe is the repetition of words at the end of
successive phrases or sentences.
ANTISTHECON
Example:
Description:
I told you do to it, again. Like last time, I had to repeat
Antisthecon occurs where a word is altered by changing
myself again. Why do I have to always have to say
a sound, syllable or letter within it.
things again and again?
She is the object of my affection and love, just as I am
Example: the object of her affection and love.
'Parse the sorlt!' he said, in his lovely country accent. I know the best party. The Democrats are the best party.
I will vote for the best party.
Auntie's-the-con; uncle's the pro.
Discussion:
Mary, Mary, are you vary good? Do you cary wood for
the fire? Repetition of a word of phrase creates a pattern and so
draws attention to it. Repetition is thus a powerful tool
Oh loook, it's a skelington!
that is used in all kinds of persuasive speech and action.
Discussion:
When a word is at the end of something, whether a
Antisthecon can occur where an incorrect pronunciation sentence or a list, the recency effect occurs, whereby we
or spelling of a word is used. There is a range of words are more likely to remember it.
like this, from 'seccetry' for 'secretary' to 'definate' for
Antistrophe thus uses a combination of repetition and
'definite'. These typically happen when a person spells
recency to create a powerful linguistic form.
the word in the way they pronounce it.
Puns use antisthecon when they change the spelling or
sound of a word for humorous effect.
The distortion of antisthecon may cause confusion and ANTITHESIS
hence a pause to think harder about the meaning.
Description:
Antisthecon is a form of metaplasm, which is a general
Antithesis is the use of an opposite in order to highlight
term for changing of a word's spelling.
a point.
Antisthecon is also known as wrenched rhyme, where
Example:
the word is distorted in order to rhyme in a poem (eg.
'love' may be pronounced 'lerv' to rhyme with 'serve'. It has been said we are good, but I say we are bad.
This may be bad or clever poetry (often depending on
your point of view). In many ways, the old are young.
She is very intelligent -- far from stupid.
Discussion: Thus, for example, when you name a person as an
animal, then they gain qualities of the animal. When you
Antithesis uses the contrast principle to draw attention to
name them as a famous person, they gain the attributes
something. When an opposite to what might be expected
of that person. Context counts! Calling a person Tiger on
is given, it is usually a surprise and hence causes the
the golf course is very different to using that name in the
listener to slow down and figure out the puzzle
bedroom.
presented.
In using antonomasia, there is an element
Antithesis may simply include the negative or may be
of hypocatastasis, where a characteristic of a stated name
done as a form of repetition, stating both the positive and
describes the act of a person being talked about.
criticized negative case.
Classification: Substitution
Argument is often described as thesis, antithesis and
synthesis where, briefly, an idea is put forward (thesis),
it is debated (antithesis) and the idea is consequently
improved (synthesis). APHAERESIS
Description:
The principle of antithesis may also be used more
broadly, for example where a character in a play acts in Aphaeresis is the omission of letters from the start of a
contrary ways, or where two characters have word, typically removing a complete syllable.
diametrically opposite positions, thus highlighting each
other. Example:
Litotes, where someone might say 'I am not unhappy' is The king hath cause to plain.
a form of antithesis as 'unhappy' is the opposite of the Can I 'scape this dull place?
intended 'happy'.
'tis a 'normous place!
Classification: Reversal
Discussion:
Removing letters at the start of a word and still keeping
ANTONOMASIA it pronounceable usually means that a complete syllable
Description: must be removed. To remove more than one syllable
would make most aphaeresis incomprehensible, so the
Antonomasia is the naming of a person not with their single syllable deletion is most common.
given name but another name of some form.
In written text, the missing letters may well be indicated
Example: with an apostrophe.
Easy, tiger! In speech, parts of words are often dropped from
laziness or to allow faster speech. In poetry and metric
Hello, Bruce. (There is some mysteriously humorous
prose it is used as a device to keep the rhythm.
about Australians and the name Bruce)
Classification: Distortion, Omission
Excuse me Tarzan, could you please come down from
that tree.
Discussion: APHORISMUS
What is in a name? A great deal, actually. Every word is Description:
a little package of meaning, and when we take a word
and attach it to a person, then all the meaning of the Aphorismus is questioning or challenging the meaning
word is transferred to the person. In the manner of of a word.
the metaphor, connection of two things creates a Example:
powerful new meaning.
Call yourself a man? You're acting like a boy!
That's not a car, it's a lawn mower! Euphemisms are words that are used to replace words
we cannot say. The toilet is thus called, the 'John', the
Is that 'music' is these days? How impoverished you
'loo', the 'little room' and so on.
must be.
Sometimes we try to describe things by what they are
Discussion:
not. Sometimes we may use metaphor.
Words are little packets of meaning that have all kinds of
Sometimes a fairly direct reference may be used,
connotations by which we enrich and extend the
typically mentioning the initial letter, such as 'the f-
language. For example, 'man' may also mean 'strong',
word'.
'independent', 'chivalrous', and so on.
Apophasis does not go as far as making no reference,
This gives plenty of scope in challenging the meaning of
such as the Emperor's nudity in the story of 'The
a word by challenging one of the extended elements.
Emperor's New Clothes'.
Thus, for example, a man who is not 'strong' may have
his manhood challenged in an ad hominem attack that Classification: Reference
implies that failure to comply with one added meaning is
failure to comply with the basic meaning or denotation
of the word. APORIA
Classification: Questioning, Meaning Description:
Aporia is pretending to doubt something.
APOPHASIS Example:
Description: Maybe I am stupid, or something. Maybe I am not
paying attention here. Or maybe you are talking rubbish.
Apophasis is talking about something without directly
mentioning it. Now, ladies and gentlemen, would you say that was the
worst joke I have told? Or was it the best joke? Funny,
Example:
that. I can't tell either.
I'm just going .. er.. to the .. um .. little room .. back
Discussion:
soon. (going to the toilet)
Expressing doubt prompts others to empathetically
You know who is doing you know what with you know
consider how something may be doubted and so sows
who else!
seeds of uncertainty in them. This causes confusion and
He's not going out with Jane, and not with Susan. But leads others to seek certainty, which the speaker can give
I'm not allowed to say who he is going out with. with subsequent statements (and which are thus less
likely to be challenged).
Discussion:
Doubt may thus be used as the start of an argument,
There are times when it is impolite to mention
clearing the decks for the speaker's real intent. The doubt
something or using the word could get you into trouble.
may be sustained or, more often, the speaker proves
Seeking not to embarrass ourselves or others, we thus
themselves wrong by showing the doubt to be
talk around the forbidden words or subjects.
unfounded.
Sex, bodily function, interpersonal differences, religion
Aporia often appears in the form of a rhetorical question.
and so on are typical of subjects where there are plenty
of social taboos and political incorrectness for the Aporia is also called Dubitatio or Dubitation.
unwary to go astray. Those in the know either avoid
Classification: Questioning, Falsehood
the topic or talk delicately around it.

APOSIOPESIS Example:
Description: (to camera) He's getting angry. Now we'll have some
fun!
Aposiopesis is stopping a sentence before it has been
grammatically completed. Heaven tell me, why does he speak thus?
Example: O, I do not know what to do? What should this be, do
you think?
I wandered lonely as a...
Discussion:
If I gave you what you wanted, would you...
An apostrophe steps out of normal speech, allowing the
This is the best since...
speaker to express a thought or feeling that does not fit
If you touch her I'll, I'll... into the normal speaking context. The apostrophe is
typically a question, an explanation or an expression of
Discussion: frustration.
We all have a deep need for the comfort of certainty, In speech, apostrophe may well include a physical
which translates into completion of activities and even turning away from others in a symbolic show of
sentences. Completing a sentence (or anything) gives the speaking to another imaginary person or concept. This
desired comfort of closure. Hence when a person does allows the speaker to say things that they may well not
not complete a sentence, we feel a strong compulsion feel able to say to the person or persons present.
first to think about what the ending might be and, if they
do not speak further, to fill the silent void, most probably In drama, the 'aside' is a common device where the actor
with our guessed completion. speaks directly to the audience, perhaps to tell them his
or her thoughts or act as a narrator in some way. In
Using aposiopesis, one usually starts a sentence and then movies, the actor will look directly into the camera.
stops, leaving a 'pregnant pause'. This invites the other
person to complete the sentence, either in their In classic drama or poetry, an apostrophe may be
imagination or even speaking out loud. signalled by prefixing it with the word 'O'.
The completion of the sentence may also be rhetorical, 'Apostrophe' is Greek for 'turning away'. It is also known
where both speaker and audience know the answer and it as apostrophatio or exclamatio.
needs not be said, for example when a person is being
Of course an apostrophe is also a word for a a
suggestive.
grammatical symbol.
Aposiopesis may also imply that the speaker is so
Classification: Emotion, Reference, Questioning
overcome by emotion (from passion to anger) they are
unable to speak further. It can also signal modesty or
uncertainty.
APPOSITION
Aposiopesis is Greek for 'becoming silent'.
Description:
Apposition is the use of two elements, where the second
explains or modifies the first.
APOSTROPHE Example:
Description: Eleri, oh light of my life, igniter of passion!
Apostrophe is breaking off from normal speech and Look here at my brothers, my killers.
speaking to an imaginary person or even to an abstract I looked up into the grim sky as the rain washed clean
quality or idea.
my weary face.

Discussion: ASSONANCE
Apposition may be used in developing a theme or idea, Description:
where the first part give initial information and next part
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds across
(or parts) develops further meaning. In this way, a
words, particularly in stressed syllables.
complex situation can be explained in 'bite-sized'
chunks, each layer adding more subtly and depth. Example:
This process makes apposition useful in stories and How now, brown cow.
prose where the development of meaning is a core
process. Newly cut the yew stuck, quivering, in the morning dew.
Classification: Meaning The pale, fat man would say that they can, but would
they say that too?
Discussion:
ARCHAISM
When a sound is repeated, it creates a pattern and hence
Description: the pleasure of recognition. In rhyme, the final sounds of
words are repeated in successive sections. Assonance
Archaism is the use of outdated language.
can be more subtle, creating patterns more
Example: surreptitiously and hence sneaking up on the conscious
mind and perhaps adding the excitement of surprise.
Thou art a dolt!
Assonance can be over-done (perhaps as in the examples
Henceforth, you are banned from this place.
above) and can also be more subtle, with sounds spread
I'm having a really magic time! across multiple phrases or sentences and maybe at
regular intervals, thus creating additional subtle
Discussion: patterning.
Language evolves, sometimes quickly and sometimes Assonance is common in poetry poetic prose. It may also
slowly. Words appear and words go out of common be used in public speaking to create a more impressive-
usage. At some point they become considered 'old- sounding speech.
fashioned' or quaint.
Some words get associated with particular texts, for
example 'thee' and 'thou' may be associated with the
Bible or Shakespeare. Some words persist in particular
ASTERISMOS
contexts, where they retain particular meaning, for
example the use of 'henceforth' and 'notwithstanding' are Description:
still common in legal documents.
Asterismos is the use of a prefix word to draw attention
Archism may be used deliberately to evoke a particular to subsequent words.
effect, and older words are still used in poetry and some
Example:
literature to give an antique feel. Older words may also
be used to give an impression of erudition. Behold, I come to show you the way.
Classification: Meaning Lo, they came upon the stable.
Listen, you are not helping!
Discussion:
The prefix word effectively says 'look out, here's
something important', thus verbally grabbing attention. It
is followed by a comma that creates a pause, further
creating a brief tension before launching into the main Asyndeton done well is terse and direct. Done badly, it is
point. harsh staccato.
Asterismos is common in Biblical passages and literary In grammar, syndetic means 'connected by conjunctions'.
plays, where it is often used to signal an important point. Related figures are syndeton (the use of a conjuction)
and polysyndeton (the use of multiple conjunctions).
Asyndeton is popular in speeches, where the 'and' in a
list is often missed out. It is also used in poetry and
ASYNDETON literature to add terseness.
Description: Asyndeton is also known as brachylogia.
Asyndeton is a figure of speech where conjunctions are Classification: Omission

omitted from a series of related clauses.
Example:
AUREATION
I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar)
Description:
...we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the
Aureation is the use of decorative language.
landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the
streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never Example:
surrender... (Winston Churchill)
In misty moments of glory she deigned to cast her dewy
I will buy you a drink; you do not deserve it. eyes upon my visage.
Discussion: Down, cast, I was, thrown on the garbage pile of life's
fell and despondent emptiness.
Conjunctions join clauses into complete sentences and
include words such as although, and, as, after, before, Discussion:
because, but, if, nor, since, that, until, unless, yet. They
Flowery, ornate language is common in some forms of
send signals about how the clauses work together. When
poetry and 'purple prose'. It is often explicitly intended
then are omitted, they cause a certain amount
to paint vivid pictures, although the underlying intent is
of confusion, forcing the person to review what was often to impress the reader with the linguistic skills of
just said. Asyndeton can thus be used as a form of the author.
light emphasis.
The problem with aureation is that it can
Where the conjunction is omitted there may well be a easily confusion and irritation rather than wonder.
pause, which appears in written text as
a comma or semicolon. This may act as a signal to the Classification: Distortion
listener or reader to think again about the meaning.
You cannot just omit any conjunction. If you take the
AUTOCLESIS
sentence 'I'll see you when you get home', omitting
'when' leaves nonsense. The clauses must stand alone Description:
and the listener must be able to make sense of how they
Autoclesis is introduction of a topic by refusing to talk
are connected.
about it.
One of the most common forms of asyndeton is the
Example:
omission of the word 'and' in a list. This
creates surprise as the word 'and' is usually a signal that You know I'm not going to talk about Mike's affair.
the list is about to end.
Don't ask me about what happened today!

What? The job? Sorry, I can't talk about it...No, BDELYGMIA
really...Oh, well, if you insist, what actually happened
Description:
is...
Bdelygmia is sequence of abusive phrases or statements.
Discussion:
Example:
When we refuse to talk about something it makes other
intrigued and they are more likely to want to talk about He is loathsome to the eye and ear, disgusting all decent
it. This can permit a person who, either by promise or people with his ill manner and vitreous, poisonous
social convention feels unable to talk about the subject, tongue.
open up and speak.
You horrible, horrible man! How could you treat her like
When something is begun, then we seek completion in that? What would your mother say? What were you
order to gain closure. In this way when we find that thinking? I cannot believe anyone would be so cruel!
someone knows something and is holding it from us, we
will become interested and even try to persuade them to Cigarettes are a filthy, horrible, disgusting habit. They
talk. pollute the air and poison children. Their purveyors are
evil, wicked and mendacious promoters of death.
Classification: Reduction, Hidden
Discussion:
The 'litany of abuse' of bdelygmia often includes quite
AUXESIS elaborate language and multiple adjectives and appears
Description: quite often in various texts and speeches. It indicates the
speaker's violent opposition to something or someone. In
Auxesis is the enhancement importance. its extremeness, it indicates that the speaker is so
horrified and appalled at such a terrible transgression
of values that they have temporarily lost control over
Example: what may be a normally mild and civil manner.
I fell over and was wounded! By implication, the subject of the speech is deigned to be
particularly bad, wicked and evil, and that others should
If you stay late you'll be a hero. avoid them and not support them in any way or else be
She is good. He is better. They are best. subject to the speaker's continued ire.
You can and you will do this. When used in response to some attack, this is known as a
'tiger defense', sending the message 'if you attack me, I
Discussion: will attack you back even more fiercely!'
When we exaggerate something, we make it bigger and, Done badly, however, or if the subject defends themself
by comparison, other things appear smaller. It says 'me well, bdelygmia can rebound on the speaker, portraying
first' or 'you are the best' or otherwise enacting them as intolerant, offensive, dogmatic and otherwise an
conceptual queue-jumping, putting something in front of unpleasant and nasty person.
others which actually have a better claim to importance.
Classification: Amplification, Attack
Auxesis also appears when a sequence of phrases are
arranged in order of importance. As each item is read,
importance clearly increases in contrast with the BOMPHIOLOGIA
previous item. In effect, this can be a hidden form
of repetition. Description:
Classification: Exaggeration, Distortion, Repetition Bomphiologia is bombastic, bragging speech.

Example: Brachyology is also called brachylogia, particularly
where a conjunction is omitted.
I am, quite simply, the greatest and most accomplished
narrator you will find in the Northern Hemisphere (I Classification: Reduction
have no interest in the South).
You, sir! Come hither. Now look at this sorry chap.
Does he not, in his common garb, tell you how inferior BREVITAS
his classes are and how superior we are? Description:
I earn a great deal more than you, you know. No, don't Brevitas is the use of a concise statement to say a lot
ask me how much, because I don't talk about it. But let's more.
just say I bought another Ferrarri last week. It's the new
model, of course. Example:
Discussion: Sh*t happens.
Sometimes people have more money or power than Looking good!

sense and it goes to their head, but in a way that can be Really something.
either irritating or vaguely comic.
Big guy.
The bombast is a person who sits in the middle of their
own world. They love nothing more than an attentive Discussion:
and admiring audience whilst they spout about anything
Brevity is the soul of wit. Short and sweet. Saying
that takes their interest or confirms their superiority,
something in few words may leave quite a bit to the
talking loudly and at length.
imagination, but then your imagination is smarter than
Classification: Attention you. When the saying is well known, then not even the
imagination is needed.
The words used can be given more meaning by simple
BRACHYOLOGY body language such as a wink or a shrug. The
Description: surrounding context also may be very important.
Brachyology is the condensation of a phrase or sentence. By stripping back surrounding words, brevitas exposes
the core meaning of what is said, thus enhancing it and
Example: increasing attention to it.
To me! A simple form of brevitas is with a verb-noun
combination, although other combinations may be used
Love, hope, charity.
such as adverb-verb and adjective-noun.
I want out.
Classification: Reduction
Discussion:
Brachyology is typically accomplished by removal of
words. Terseness in speech gives emphasis, stripping CACEMPHATON
away unnecessary words and leaving the key words that Description:
convey the core meaning.
Cacemphaton is the use either of crude words or
Brachyology is a general term for otherwise words which sound bad.
condensation. Ellipsis is often used to mean the same
thing. Asyndeton and Zeugma are types of brachyology. Example:
Praegnans constructio is a form of brachyology where Far too smelly. (sounds like 'fart to smelly')
two clauses are condensed into one. Thou crotch stitch.
I had preservative on toast (in many languages, CATABASIS
'preservative' means 'condom')
Description:
Discussion:
Catabasis is the steady decrease of emphasis or sense.
Although cacemphaton can just be intentional vulgarity,
Example:
it is often accidental.
And then I will come before you, and the wise will
Cacemphaton may arise from what is known as 'false
follow and others will be left behind.
friends', where a word in one language translates badly
or means something different into another language or Man bites dog! Jeffrey Evans was in court yesterday for
dialect. For example 'warm' in Dutch means 'not cold' biting a dog in the park. He was remanded in custody
(which includes 'hot'). This can be a splendid source of until a later date.
jokes and amusement.
We shall destroy! We shall, at least break something.
Sometimes cacamphaton is useful in confusing and Well, maybe we'll shout a bit.
shocking in order to get attention. At other times it is to
be avoided in order to sustain harmony. Discussion:
Cacemphaton comes from the Greek for 'evil speech'. This uses the principle of primacy, where things listed
first have particular impact and are more likely to be
Classification: Distortion remembered. By adding emphasis to the beginning,
catabasis increases this effect.
Catabasis works well in speech, where verbal emphasis
CACOPHONY
can be used to add strength to the words. This can make
Description: it useful for politicians and other speech-makers.
Cacophony is the use of unpleasant sounds for particular The first item in a catabasis can act like a headline,
effect. summarizing the key message. Subsequent items add
layers of information but with the earlier ones being
Example:
more important. In this way, newspapers make
Lick, crack, sick, hack. The beggar harried her open significant use of catabasis.
back.
Catabasis can also be used for comedic effect, for
Crash, bang, clang! example showing early bravado collapsing into effective
retraction.
We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who
work your wicked will. -- Winston Churchill Catabasis is the opposite of anabasis, which is a stepwise
increase in emphasis.
Discussion:
The Latin word for Catabasis is Decrementum.
The unpleasant sounds of cacophony can be used to
deliberately indicate to invoke negative emotions such as Classification: Attention, Reduction
disgust, distress and fear.
Grammatical nonsense can be used, breaking up the flow
CATACHRESIS
of normal sentences, beyond elegant figurative styles.
Description:
Hard consonant sounds ('b',’d’,’t’, etc.) have a
percussive effect and can hence be used to add to Catachresis is the use of word or a figure of speech
cacophony, perhaps with deliberate assonance. incorrectly, breaking the rules of usage.
Classification: Distortion, Emotion Example:
Her laughing feet fell overboard with amazement.

He looked at the price and his pockets ran dry. Discussion:
She grabbed the bull by the horns of the dilemma. Cataphora is a form of forward reference where vital
information is initially omitted, only to be added in
He was as happy as a corpse.
subsequent text.
Discussion:
When something is started but not completed, we feel
When we listen to normal speech we do not think about the tension of the Zeigarnik effect as we seek closure.
how correct it is. However, when something is said that The inadequate information in the initial word thus
breaks the rules of language it is immediately clear and causes increased attention.
so grabs our attention.
Catachresis can be used in a number of ways, for
example:
Using a word outside its normal context, where it CATEGORIA
appears wrong. Description:
Creating a contradiction or paradox. Categoria is the direct description of another person's
Substituting one language element for another. faults.
Using mixed metaphor. Example:
Using a simile that does not work. You are lazy, careless and unlikable. Why should I trust
you?
It is common in literature where it may be used for
alarming effect, for example 'I will speak daggers to her' Wrong again! Your arguments are always full of holes.
- Hamlet. I accuse you, sir, of being a cad and a liar. A blackguard
Catachresis is related to Malapropism, where a word that and bounder of the first degree. A man who does not
sounds similar is used (often with comic effect). deserve the title of gentleman.
Catachresis comes from the Greek word meaning 'the Discussion:

wrong use of a word'. There are a number of social rules which say we must
The Latin name for catachresis is Abusio. 'save face', protecting others from embarrassment. By
breaking such rules and naming their faults directly, a
Classification: Distortion person calls them to account, forcing them to explain
themselves or otherwise.
Breaking social rules can also
CATAPHORA
cause surprise and confusion where, in that uncertain
Description: moment, a persuasive request can have effect.
Cataphora occurs where a word used is not initially clear Classification: Attack
and is explained by a subsequent word or words.
Example:
CHIASMUS
If you like it, you can stroke the puppy.
Description:
This is John. He's the teacher you wanted to meet.
Chiasmus is a reversal of words in consecutive phrases.
Example:
She gave me hope and hopefully I gave my loyalty.

I thought you good, originally, but your originality is not Classification: Hidden
that good.
He who sheds the blood of man, by man, shall his blood
be shed -- Genesis 9.6 CLIMAX
Description:
Discussion:
Climax is the arrangement of words in increasing order
The general pattern of chiasmus is A B, B A. This may
of effect.
be extended to multiple words and can even be ABCD,
DCBA. The repetition of words may be in a different Example:
sense and with alternative individual, as well as
collective, meaning. We'll collect pennies in tens, hundreds and millions!
Power starts small, becomes significant then becomes
Repetition acts as a form of emphasis, drawing attention unstoppable.
through creation of a pattern of similar words.
The confusion caused, forces the listener to review what We'll fight them in the country, in every town and every
was said in order to make sense of the full meaning. Its street. We shall not surrender!
impact makes various forms of chiasmus popular with Love creates happiness, happiness creates joy, joy
speech-makers. creates enlightenment.
Chiasmus includes antimetabole and anadiplosis, Discussion:
although the reverse is not true.
'Climax' in this usage creates the word in its common
Chiasmus is also known as Epanodos. usage, building up to a climax. A well-built climax
Classification: Repetition, Reversal, Grammar increases expectation and so tension with each item in
the list.
As words are added to the sequence, a pattern is set up,
CLEDONISM first of a similar theme and then of increasing
importance and impact.
Description:
Climax may be used with other devices such as
Cledonism is the use of circumlocution to avoid saying
the triple or anadiplosis.
unlucky words.
The opposite of climax is anti-climax, where tension is
Example:
release in a disappointing way.
Actors often refer to Shakespeare's 'Macbeth' as 'The
Climax is also known as Gradation.
Scottish Play'.
Climax is the Greek for 'ladder'.
Mentioning the devil is sometimes thought to be heard
by the devil, so people would talk about 'Old Nick' or Classification: Amplification
'the evil one'.
CONSONANCE
Discussion:
Description:
Superstition has been about for many centuries and is
still rife. One superstition is that saying certain words Consonance is the repetition of a consonant across
will bring calamity of some sort. This brings a dilemma words, particularly at the word ending.
for people who want to use the word, so they find a way Example:
to indicate to others what they mean without saying the
word itself. Take the book back.
Cledonism is also a kind of divination. Run for fun and everyone.

Seven virgins have moved there.
Discussion: Example:
Consonance is a subtle form of rhyme, creating Madam becomes Ma'am (pronounced 'marm') (and
a repetitive beat across a sequence of words. The effect originally from the French 'Ma dame')
can be both poetic and also hypnotic, relaxing others and
Discussion:
perhaps drawing attention away from persuasive content.
Contraction of words is often culturally situated and the
Consonance is a kind of opposite of Assonance, which is
use thus indicates that the speaker is from a particular
the repetition of vowel sounds.
cultural context. The vowel combination is typical of
Classification: Repetition many 'upper class' cultures, where speech is moved
further back in the mouth and vowels are lengthened.
Classification: Distortion
CORRECTIO
Description:
DIACOPE
Correctio is the use of a corrective extension to a
statement. Description:
Example: Diacope is the repetition of a word or phrase with only a
few other intervening words between the repetition and
He is the best warrior in the region -- nay, the entire
the original use.
country!
Example:
You have not considered the meaning of this -- or at
least not though much about it. Fire, hot fire, burned across the town.
Discussion: It will be done. By hook or by crook, it will be done.
Correctio is typically used as a form of 'Why?' he asked, 'Why?' And well he might.
exaggeration, amplifying the initial statement with
Discussion:
extended scope or value. In the correction, repetition is
also being used to hammer home the point. Diacope can be done in a form where the repetition is
done almost as a correction to add more descriptive text.
The correction may also be used to say something
Another form is as a bracket, starting and ending a
controversial, then retreat to a more acceptable position.
section with the same words.
Having made the first statement, the 'cat is out of the
bag' and listeners are forced to consider this meaning. Repeating a word is a form of emphasis,
The correction then gets in quick before a criticism is drawing attention to a work by simply stating it again
made. (and thereby creating a pattern).
Correctio is also known as Metanoia. Diacope is Greek for 'cutting in two'.
Classification: Meaning, Repetition, Amplification Classification: Repetition
CRASIS DIALLAGE
Description: Description:
Crasis is the contraction of a word or words, often into a Diallage is the consideration of arguments from different
form that has two vowels that combine to make a longer viewpoints to and then turned to make a single point.
sound.

Example: within the sentence. Likewise confusion may arise from
the potential ambiguity or misunderstanding of a word.
John says we need to go South. Jane wants to go West.
What is important is that we can't stay here. When the speaker wants to be sure that understanding is
unambiguous they may use Distinctio to achieve this
If we put up our prices, then revenue may increase but
goal. To the listener, this can appear rather forced as the
sales will drop. If we put effort into marketing, then we
speaker makes significant issue of the point.
may well more but margins will be thinner. Maybe we
can combine these, funding marketing through an In changing minds, Distinctio can be used deliberately to
increase in prices. sustain attention on a particular item. If this is a
relatively unimportant point, then perhaps the speaker is
Discussion:
seeking to distract the listener from some other point.
In negotiation and other forms of argument and debate, it
Classification: Meaning, Amplification
is common for people to take sides and polarize their
positions. With a collaborative facilitation, the parties
are brought together and the best of both arguments are
combined for a solution that helps everyone. DYSPHEMISM
Description:
Diallage uses this principle, combining diverse
viewpoints. In persuasion this can make the speaker Dysphemism is the use of extreme words instead of
seem fair and even-handed. It can also defuse opponents more moderate or accurate words.
if you are seen to consider their position.
Example:
Diallage comes from Greek and means 'through making
other than it is'. She was beating me up with really horrific words.
Classification: Rearrangement Gambling is a tax on losers.

The government are idiots.
DISTINCTIO Discussion:
Description: When an extreme word is used it amplifies the meaning

and thus grabs attention. It says 'this is important, please
Distinctio uses reference to multiple meanings of a word listen!'
or other elaboration to highlight or enquire about which
particular meaning is intended. The use of swear words is common in dysphemism and
it is often a signal that the person using it is emotionally
Example: aroused. This can be a threat situation and hence
encourages other people to pay close attention.
When I say hot, I do not mean she was warm -- I mean
she was very sexy! Dysphemism is an opposite of euphemism, where a mild
word is used.
Now when you say 'rough', do you mean difficult or do
you mean harsh, because both make sense, although I Classification: Amplification, Substitution
would have thought the latter most appropriate.
DYSRHYTHMIA
Now becoming invisible is impossible. And by
impossible I mean beyond possibility within our current Description:
technologies. Dysrhythmia is the breaking of a rhythmic pattern.
Discussion Example:
When a word can have more than one meaning, the I will come, I will conquer, I will rule, but I will not stay
intended meaning is usually clear from the context forever.

Cleaning the house, cleaning the car, dirt in the garden. ECPHONESIS
Dirt can be good. Dirt can grow plants. Your dirt needs
Description:
tender care.
Ecphonesis is an exclamation that is used for emphasis
Running, jumping, thumping, bumping. Bashing,
and grabbing attention.
crashing.
Falling, failing. Example:
Ending.
Lo! The angels are with us.
Discussion
Look out! I'm going to be down your street tonight.
Patterns are set up by repetition, with two or three
instances used to create the rhythm. The repetition may Stupid! Stupid! Are you going to associate with someone
be through such as words, syllables or sounds. All it that stupid??
takes is a small disturbance and the pattern, which may Discussion:
remain in some form, is changed.
Making a sudden sound is a simple way of
When we hear patterns, we start to predict what will grabbing attention, and such exclamation is commonly
happen next. When that pattern is broken, we are used method in language and speech, where there are
surprised, which creates the stimulation of arousal and even special words for this purpose.
consequent attention.
Exclamation words largely by the contrast principle,
Classification: Repetition where there may be a contrast between such as the sound
volume of the exclamation vs. prior quiet, or the
shocking quality of words used vs. expected politeness.
DYSTMESIS
Ecphonesis is also called Ecphonema.
Description:
Classification: Attention
Dystmesis is the insertion of one word into the middle
of another word.
Example: ELLIPSIS
Fan-bloody-tastic! Description:
Congrat-amazing-ulations, young man. Ellipsis is omission of words from a sentence or phrase

without losing the essential meaning.
I lovely-ove it!
Example:
Discussion:
John, that way; Jane, there. (vs. 'John go that way; Jane
Dystmesis implies that the speaker is so overwhelmed stay there.').
with emotions they have lost some control over language
or otherwise cannot find the words to express how Good meeting. (vs. 'It was a good meeting)
strongly they feel, and thus have to invent a new When ready. (vs. 'You can start when you are ready')
word.
Discussion:
Insertion words are often swear words and effectively
add the strong emotion that is often associated with There is a lot of redundancy in language and it can be
them. surprising how much can be left out without losing much
meaning, particularly when there are contextual clues as
Dystmesis is often culturally bound, being found more to the real meaning.
often in some parts of society rather than others.
Sluicing ellipsis is the removal of the end of a sentence,
Classification: Distortion, Amplification typically when it would mean repeating previous words,
such as She ran, but I don't know why, which should Changing pronouns, for example, changes the
more correctly She ran, but I don't know why she ran. relationship with another person. Changing 'you' to 'she'
distances the the other person, putting them the world at
Verb-phrase ellipsis is the removal of a verb and
large where everyone sees them, as opposed to the 'you'
associated words, such as I like it. You too?, which
of an intimate conversation. The reverse is also true and
should be I like it. Do you like it too?
talking about another person as 'you' makes the
Noun-phrase ellipsis is removing nouns and associated relationship personal.
words, such as I have six dogs, whilst Mike has
Switching between active and passive voice changes
two. (Mike has two dogs, of course).
meaning. 'I did it' is a clear admission of responsibility,
Absolute ellipsis is where a significant amount of whilst 'It was done by myself' distances the speaker from
information is omitted, such as Caesar's last words 'Et tu, the act.
Brute'.
Enallage is the Greek word for 'interchange').
Relative ellipsis is where a missing word is supplied by
Classification: Substitution, Distortion
the context, for example I'm the small supplier. He's the
big, or where there is a reference back to a previous item
using words like 'it' or 'he'.
ENJAMBMENT
An ellipsis that omits all verbs from a sentence is
Description:
called scesis onamaton. For example Me Tarzan, you
Jane. Enjambment is the breaking of a phrase or sentence at an
unexpected point, typically in verse.
Ellipsis can be deliberately nudged into ambiguity to
cause confusion and hence attention or distraction. Example:
Ellipsis comes from the Greek meaning 'to leave'. I would come to
you, with your weeping
hair and deep
and dismal eyes.
ENALLAGE I want to know that...I am really...sorry.
Description: Discussion:
Ennelage is the substitution of one grammatical form for Breaking a line of verse or putting a pause into a
another. sentence makes the other person pause. In that pause,
they will likely review what has just been said, reflecting
Example:
on what was said and rehearsing for what is to come.
They is happy. (vs. they are happy)
Enjambment adds an unexpected element to this,
Look at you! She who is beautiful. (vs. you are causing surprise, confusion and thereby
beautiful) additional attention. With an unusual break in what you
say, you can therefore add suspense, sustain attention
It was done by myself. (vs. I did it) and emphasize certain words.
We was robbed! (vs. We were, or I was) Enjambment comes from the French 'enjambement',
Discussion: meaning 'straddling'.
Enallage may well be accidental and a result of the Classification: Attention

speaker having a limited grasp of the language. It may
also be done as a deliberate ploy to make a point or have
a particular effect, directing attention differently.

ENUMERATIO Buy this car and you'll be glad you decided to buy this
today.
Description:
The king is dead; long live the king!
Enumeratio takes a simple statement and expands it,
breaking it down into parts and emphasizing the detail. A question for which there is no answer is still a
question, but an answer for which there is no question is
Example:
no answer.
Original: I want to expand the business into overseas
Discussion:
markets.
Repeated words do not have to be exactly at the start and
Enumeratio: I have grown up with this business and it
end and a word or two outside them still creates
now needs to grow beyond our current borders into the
epanalepsis.
green fields of opportunity in markets away from these
shores, where we can excite new customers and build Repetition is a form of emphasis, and repeating final
further on our outstanding success so far. words thus acts to hammer home something at the
beginning.
Original: I will go to town now.
Words at the beginning are more memorable due to
Enumeratio: I am going down to the station to catch the
the primacy effect, whilst words at the end are
train to town where I shall go ot the bank, visit the
remembered more often due to the recency effect.
hairdresser, buy some flowers, then catch the train back
Repeating the same words at the start and at the end thus
so I can be here for five o'clock, just before Richard and
has a 'double whammy' amplification.
Jane come.
Chiasmus is related as it is 'nested double-epanalepses'.
Discussion:
Classification: Repetition, Amplification
In the dictionary, 'enumeration' is creation of a numbered
list. Without the numbers, this process is similar in the
way it breaks a subject down into detail. By this method
EPANADOS
you can forcibly emphasize key
points, exciting and motivating your audience. Description:
The breakdown can give information, show cause and Epanados is the repetition of words from earlier in a
effect, predict events and describe specific actions. phrase or sentence in the reverse order.
A simpler alternative use of enumeratio is when you Example:
want to provide additional information and clarity by
breaking an action down into a number of stages or Love is right because there is only one right love.
steps. A right is given, which gives you right.
Classification: Amplification Mad, bad and sad they say, but I'm just sad that such bad
things are said by those who can only be mad.
EPANALEPSIS Discussion:
Description: Reversing something is to create a pattern. We are

particularly good at spotting patterns and epanados thus
Epanalepsis is the repetition of a word or words at both becomes a code, a puzzle, something to be spotted and
the beginning and end of a sentence or clause. understood. Repetition also emphasized, and it hence
acts as a relatively subtle attentional device.
Example:
An epanados which is also an antithesis is called
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
an antimetabole.

Epanados comes from the Greek, meaning a return or a I'm a banananana
rising way. 'cos I go nana-nana
Classification: Reversal Discussion:
Sometimes misspelling like this is accidental. It may
also be faked for humorous effect. It may also be used in
EPANORTHOSIS a poetic sense, to create a sound or beat or make lines of
Description: a poem align.
Epanorthosis is emphatic correction, mid-sentence, of Changing the spelling of a word changes its sound and
what has just been said. causes confusion and hence holds attention.
Example: Classification: Distortion
I have had two...no, that's three...heart attacks.

Let me give you a gland--sorry--a hand. EPISTROPHE
The time is coming--actually it has already arrived! Description:
Discussion: Epistrophe is where a set of lines, phrases, clauses, or

sentences end with same word or words.
When a correction is made, it draws attention to the
words, although it may also cause confusion and lose Example:
meaning.
Looking good, feeling good.
A key part of epanorthosis is immediate correction,
Are you hot? I am.
within the same sentence. Of course you can also use the
Are you raging? I am.
correction to move off onto another topic.
Are you ready? I am.
Epanorthosis can also include the 'Freudian slip' where a
The time is now, the need is now, we must act, now!
person accidentally says what they are really thinking.
Of course this may be deliberate even though it should Discussion:
always appear as accidental.
Repetition creates a pattern and hence the comfort of
The immediate, in-sentence corrective form means that familiarity. It also causes attention to the repeated words,
epanorthosis is very largely used in speech and is which may be used to hammer home a point.
unlikely to be found in written text.
Words at the end of a phrase or line may also benefit
'Epanorthosis' comes from Greek meaning to 'set right from the recency effect, where more recent items are
again'. more likely to be remembered.
Classification: Distortion, Attention Epistrophe is often combined in a triple, with a point
being repeated three times.
This powerful final emphasis makes it popular with
EPENTHESIS speech-writers, who may use it towards the end of the
Description: presentation to build up and the end on the key point.
Epenthesis is the addition of letters to the middle of a Epistrophe is sometimes called antistrophe, although this
word. word also has other meanings. It is also called epiphora.
Example: Classification: Repetition
I was visitating her.

Happipily bounciling along.
EPITROPE powerful, though simple form of expressing something
very vehemently.
Description:
Classification: Amplification, Repetition
Epitrope is the admission of wrong or concession of a
point in order to gain something else.
Example: EROTEMA (Rhetorical Questions)
Ok. You can drive there. I'll drive back. Description:
I was wrong to ask for help when you should be Rhetorical questions are not really questions, but
volunteering. statements given in question format.
You know, I guess I can't add up. But then I can afford Discussion:
not to mind.
Public speakers often use rhetorical questions in the
Discussion: middle of speeches. Of course, the audience cannot all
answer, but the intent is to engage them in thinking and
In arguments or presentations, it is common to provide
consider what answer they would give if they could.
some form of negotiation, where giving in on something
is done for the purpose of gaining something more In figures of speech, rhetorical questions are known
valued. as Erotema.
This plays to the need for fairness and distributive Gaining agreement
justice, where we will accept something that is not
Rhetorical questions are often intended to make the
necessarily desirable, but where it is deemed fair. In this
listener agree with the speaker as the answer is
way, epistrophe offers the listener a tacit bargain of
obviously yes. Even if the listener does not say the word,
accepting a point in a deal that is based social capital.
they will think it. And once they start agreeing they are
Epitrope can be used for irony, where the speaker is not more likely to keep doing so.
really conceding, but is actually making a contrary point.
Is the Pope a Catholic?
Classification: Reasoning Is the sky blue?
Is this a great product?
Hedging
EPIZEUXIS
We use rhetorical questions sometimes when we want to
Description:
make a statement but are not confident enough to assert
Epizeuxis is the repetition of a word with increasing a point. The question format thus allows others to
vehemence. disagree, but is not necessarily seeking agreement.
Example: Isn't that wonderful? Is it a shade of blue?
No! No!! NO!!! NO!!!! Self-talk
Oh, my son, my son, what will you do, my son?? Sometimes when you ask questions, you are really
asking them of yourself rather than the other person.
I am lost, lost, lost unto the darkening seas. This is particularly noticeable when you give the answer
soon after asking the question.
Discussion: What is that? A bird, I'd say. What type? Maybe an

eagle? I think so. What a lovely flight path.
Repetition is a form of emphasis, which coupled with
added emotion in the voice makes epizeuxis a very

Multiple questions You are connecting to person A
When you ask multiple questions at once, you seldom Person B seeing you as being worthy
expect them all to be answered, and perhaps none of
Person B wanting to be like you
them.
Person B connecting to A, like you
They become particularly rhetorical when you do not
give time for the other person to answer. Classification: Emotion
Where have you been? What time do you think this is?
Do you think you can come home late like this and
nobody notice? EUCHE
Terminating statement Description:
Another way that stopping the other person from Euche is the expression of emotion through prayer or
answering is to put a statement of some sort immediately mock-prayer.
after the question. Example:
There is hence no space for the person to answer the Heaven save us from such fools!
question and they are directed more by the final
statement than the question. You have wronged her sorely, may God forgive you.
Can you see? Look there! Discussion:
Classification: Reasoning When a person prays, it is a very personal thing and, in

many contexts, an unchallengeable expression (to
challenge prayer is to challenge religion). Expressing
ETHOPOEIA emotion though prayer thus enables an emotion to be
expressed in a way that forbids reaction.
Description:
Prayer forms can verge on blasphemy where they are
Ethopoeia is putting oneself in the place of another, in take the form of outbursts or take in vain the name of a
particular to understand their feelings. religious figure.
Example: Classification: Emotion
If I were Jane, I'd weep for weeks in anguish for the loss.
How might they feel? What is it like to stand in their EUPHEMISM
shoes and walk that final mile alone?
Description:
Discussion:
Euphemism is the substitution of a 'harmless' word for
Empathy is a very real effect and mirror neurons in our one that might offend.
brains are specifically designed to make us feel what
others are feeling. Example:
By showing empathy with one other person, you signal I'm going to the loo.
your general good character to all who are listening. In I'm going to the john.
this way, ethopoeia can be used to build trust and I'm going for a tinkle.
demonstrate integrity. I'm going for a pee.
Ethopoeia also allows you to create empathy in other He showed me his thing. Scary.
people for the person you are empathizing with. A way They did 'it'.
this works is as follows:

Discussion: She was talking B.S., really, but I couldn't tell her.
In polite society there are words that are forbidden, I'd like to GTTT. You know! (go to the toilet)
typically around body functions and sex though also
Discussion:
covering religion and other areas where others may be
offended. Using such words can hence be embarrassing In the niceties of society, there are social rules that
and risk censure. forbid the use of certain words, such as swear words and
mentioning certain parts of the body. When you want to
Alternative words are therefore created to allow people
use such words, one way of getting around the dilemma
to converse about the delicate topic without being
is to use initial letters.
admonished.
When you do this, the listener is forced to spend time
Taboos are a core part of many cultures and are coped
guessing what the letters mean. Some combinations are
with in many ways, including euphemism.
so common, it is easy to guess. Others need more
Euphemisms can take various forms, including: thought. The use of obscure combinations can turn into a
social game.
Generalizations ('thing')
Classification: Reduction
Indirection ('go to the bathroom')
Onomatopoeia ('tinkle')
EXEMPLUM
Abbreviations, often child-like ('loo')
Description:
Mispronunciation ('darn')
Exemplum is the use of examples to support an
Words with other meanings ('john')
argument.
Physical descriptive ('pinky')
Example:
Foreign words ('derriere')
You should give me you full support, just like Simon
Technical or scientific terms ('urinate') here.
Abbreviations ('SOB') Many people have learned to do this. You can too.
Softening ('he sounded stupid') Bugs Bunny eats carrots and I think they make him
happy. Eat up!
Trivializing ('quickie')
How could we do it out here? The Greeks and Persians
Euphemisms themselves may also become taboo and of old did not need great machines but used their
thus not allowed (e.g. 'crap'). ingenuity. All we need is our minds and the resources
Classification: Substitution, Reduction around us.
Discussion:
EUSYSTOLISM An important way that a person can be persuaded is

through the use of evidence. Exemplum does this by
Description: quoting an example as proof of what is presented.
Eusystolism is the use of initial letters to avoid having to Examples can be specific, with the name of a person and
use embarrassing or forbidden words. a full story. You can even get the person involved to be
there in person to tell what happened. Examples can use
Example:
props and other devices to enliven the presentation.
He's just a B.F. That's all I can say. An awful, horrible, Examples may also be brief and vague or even fictitious.
B.F.

EXERGASIA Example:
Description: I gave it to the person who was sitting next to me, John
Stone.
Exergasia is restating a point in different words.
I was going to see my friend in London, sitting on the
Example:
train.
We must return. We need to go home now as it is the
Succeed in life, you can.
end of the holidays.
Discussion:
I think they should take time to analyze the situation and
discover the many variants that they may be discovered A common reason why extraposition happens is that
and so understand the possibilities and choose the best when we are speaking, we have to decide what to say in
way forward. In other words, they should explore all 'real time', which often leads to errors.
options.
A typical example is where we want to name a person,
Discussion: but we forget their name when we should use it, but then
remember it, so we use a vague reference instead and
When we say something, we may not be sure that the
then add the name to the end of the sentence.
other person has fully understood what we said, so we
repeat ourselves. Using different words has several Another example is where we think of something we
benefits: want to say and so put it earlier in the sentence as we
think of it (and so pushing other words to the end).
It helps the other person save face (they would be
embarrassed if we insinuated they were unable to As extraposition is commonly used and accepted, it may
understand the first statement). also be used for deliberate effect, for example by putting
an important phrase or subtle command at the end of the
It avoids the embarrassment of us looking silly or
sentence where the recency effect will make it more
insulting.
memorable.
It gains the benefit of repetition, hammering home the
The rearrangement in extraposition also has the effect of
point.
making the other person think more about what is said in
Restatements are often in the form of elaboration, adding order to create full meaning. It is thus also
new information. This supports the saving face and an attentional device.
allows you to first give a headline to let the other person
get the big picture, then provide fill-in information.
Restatement may also be with a summary at the end,
especially after a longer initial exposition. Another form FICTIO
is when jargon has been used, translating this into 'plain
Description:
English'.
Fictio is the attribution of human traits and qualities to
animals.
Example:
EXTRAPOSITION
"Who are you?" thought the dog, as he quizzically
Description: turned his head and wondered what to do next.
Extraposition is the moving of a word or phrase to the The lion looked around and smiled at his wives. He was
end of the sentence, away from its natural position. the luckiest lion in the whole savannah, and he knew it.

"My poor sweet baboo!", cried the starlet, hugging her Rowan Atkinson, in his 'Mr Bean' shows often used
poodle. "Shall we go shopping for boo-kins? What glossolalia to sound like he is saying something. This
would you like today? Another nice coat?" 'verbal miming' increased his appeal in many different
countries without need for dubbing or subtitles.
Discussion:
People also sometimes take to glossolalia when they run
We live and think as humans. Naturally, of course
out of things to say, particularly in the middle of a
because we are human. In living this way, it is
sentence.
impossible for us to know what it is to be an animal. It is
also even more impossible for animals to know what it is Classification: Meaning
to be human.
In our need to understand the world around us and
HENDIADYS
seeking to understand animals, particularly those with
which we have some emotional connection, we often Description:
find it helpful (although not accurate) to think of them
thinking in the way that we think. In doing this, we can Hendiadys is the use of two words linked by
then use the mental mechanics that we use for interacting a conjunction to express a single, more complex idea.
with other humans, where 'theory of mind' involves a Example:
process in which we respond to how we think the other
person is thinking. The heat and sun of midday (vs. the hot midday sun.)
Fables are teaching stories in which animals play the Sound and fury, signifying nothing (vs. furious sound,
parts (the most famous of these are by Aesop). Putting signifying nothing).
animals in place of humans can make lessons easier to
The man and the strength and the joy of it all. (vs. 'the
accept.
joyful, strong man).
Fictio is also commonly called Anthropomorphism.
Come up and see me sometime (vs. Come up to see me).
Discussion:
Hendiadys is a form of emphasis, created by using a
GLOSSOLALIA word structure that is relatively unusual, thereby
grabbing attention. In effect, the conjunction both
Description: divides and joins, making two separate things as one.
Glossolalia is fabricated, meaningless speech. A typical hendiadys is to replace a noun-adjective pair
Example: with two nouns joined by a conjunction. In effect, one
thing is divided into two by the conjunction and can be
Oh, glaffobalbaness! The fliggit is fanging in the frubor, seen as a form of polysyndeton.
you knowsta!
Hendiatris is the same as hendiadys but using three
Rangliness is more famish that you might expact. words to mean one thing. This allows you to also use the
power of a triple.
An old children's TV show in the UK, call 'Bill and Ben'
had puppets saying things like 'Flobbodop, little weeed!' Hendiadys comes from the Greek phrase meaning 'one
through two'.
Discussion:
It is sometimes known as 'two for one' or 'figure of
Glossolalia is a very onomatopoeic word. Using it means
twinnes'.
using words that sound important and meaningful, yet
are meaningless at the same time. Classification: Substitution, Attention
The purpose of glossolalia can be as a fill-in for acting,
where the actions are more important than the words.
HETEROSIS Discussion:
Description: When the ends of words are similar, the principles
of repetition and recency are being used, creating pattern
Heterosis is a figure of speech where one form of verb is
effects and thereby gaining attention.
exchanged for another form.
Homoioteleuton is not often the same as rhyme, as the
Example:
ends of the words are seldom stressed.
I know the game has not yet started, but I know we have
Verb tense endings such as '-ing' and '-ed' are an easy
won.
subject for homoioteleuton, as are adverbs with '-ly' at
Well, I says to him, I says. 'What are you doing?' Then the end, adjectives with '-est' and so on.
he looks at me and I think, 'Duh!'
I throwed the ball over the fence.
Discussion:
HOMOPHONE
A classic form of heterosis is where what happened in
Description:
the past is described using the present tense. This is
because the present tense is more immediate and sustains Homophones are words that are spelled differently yet
greater attention. have the same (or very similar) pronunciation.
Emotions are tense-specific, for example anger and Example:
sadness are often about the past, whilst fear and hope are
His death, which happen'd in his berth,
about the future. By changing the temporal nature of the
At forty-odd befell:
verb, you can change associated emotion.
They went and told the sexton,
Children often use verbs incorrectly and hence express and The sexton toll'd the bell.
heterosis. Children and child-like positions are likewise
(From 'Faithless Sally Brown' by Thomas Hood)
illustrated in literature.
Discussion:
Heterosis is also used to describe other forms of change,
such as gender and mood. The general principle of homophones is at the heart of
many puns, where the confusion (or maybe not) leads to
a review of what was heard until the wit is realized.
The unexpectedness and confusion can be used in
HOMOIOTELEUTON persuasion to distract and otherwise enable key
messages to be slipped past the person's guard.
Description:
Classification: Hidden, Attention
Homoioteleuton is the repetition of word endings.
Example:
HYPALLAGE
He's the maddest, baddest, and maybe saddest person I
know. Description:
Learning anything is better than willy-nilly foolishness. Hypallage is the reversal of the syntactic relationship of
two words.
I ran easily and quickly on the strangely firm surface.
Example:
He danced the happy road home. (he is happy, not the
road)

Male entrance. (the entrance does not have gender) Classification: Rearrangement
A careless remark left her crying in the dark. (the remark
is not careless -- the person who said it was)
HYPERBOLE
Discussion:
Description:
It is surprising how jumbled you can make a sentence
Extreme exaggeration, often with the intent of making a
and the meaning still appear. Reversals and
point or stimulating emotions.
rearrangements like this cause us to pause to work out
the real meaning, although this is usually not difficult. Example
Hypallage often creates a metaphor, such as the 'happy This box weighs a ton!
road' that can add depth to the meaning, such as the
implication that as the person is happy then everything My love is as great as the greatest mountain. It is as deep
else, even the inanimate road, is infected by his or her as the deepest ocean. It reaches around the world and
happiness. brings you to me.
A common form of hypellage is the transferred epithet, That was so hilarious I laughed my head off. Oh,
where a modifier (typically an adjective) is applied to the goodness it was incredibly, unbelievably funny. I still
'wrong' word in the sentence. This is a common mode in think my head is somewhere else. Maybe that is why I
poetry and literature. won't be going back there again.
Classification: Reversal, Rearrangement, Grammar Discussion

The obvious exaggeration of hyperbole clearly tells the
listener that something is going on, and that the
HYPERBATON exaggeration is not to be taken literally.
Description: A common meaning is that the speaker has been
surprised and that the hyperbole is being used to convey
Hyperbaton is the rearrangement of a sentence or phrase,
something of the emotion experienced.
moving an item to a place other than its correct
syntactical position. The exaggeration of hyperbole often is intended to prove
more extreme emotions in its targets. Hyperbole may
Example:
thus be used as a prod to try to get people to feel
I will you kiss. something where a more accurate description would be
less likely to evoke the desired response. This form is
Her hair let loose and sunny,
often found in gossip and by amazed children.
warmed the withering day.
The exaggeration of hyperbole may have positive intent.
On your set, get marks, go!
It may also be used in irony, painting something large
Discussion: when you really mean it is small.
Hyperbaton can be used for deliberate effect, rearranging Hyperbole may also be used to push things to the limit,
a sentence to change the meaning or to gain attention. and is often used in conflict, such as when a person
The trick is to sustain the meaning whilst causing accuses another of 'never' doing what is wanted and
momentary confusion whilst the audience works out 'always' doing what is wrong.
what is being said.
Hyperbaton also allows for key words to be placed for
maximum emphasis -- usually at the start or end of a
sentence.
The Greek word 'hyperbaton' means 'transposition'.

HYPOCATASTASIS pet or diminutive name likewise makes them smaller
(literally diminishing them).
Description:
The critical factor in such reduction is whether only the
Hypocatastasis is a direct and implied comparison.
person is reduced to a child or whether the speaker also
Example: regresses to the child state. The former is an act of
domination, whilst the latter is an act of liberation and
Fool! Idiot!! Moron!!! trust.
Discussion: Classification: Reduction, Falsehood
In analogy, a comparison says 'like', in metaphor it says
'is'. In hypocatastasis there is no verb: the comparison is
implied. This gives a sequence of intensification: HYPOTAXIS
Analogy: You are acting like a dog. Description:
Metaphor: You are a dog. Hypotaxis uses subordination of clauses to show

relationships.
Hypocatastasis: Dog!
Example:
Arguably, many words in themselves display
hypocatastasis. The words 'cretin', 'imbecile' and so on I had a drink because I was thirsty.
have a medical history with separate clinical descriptions
When I go out, I feel happy.
of how each is less than normal. Thus doctors may
historically have discussed whether a patient is a cretin If you have passed the test you can drive by yourself.
or an imbecile.
Discussion:
Hypocatastatis is often delivered as an outburst where
In constructing complex sentences, Hypotaxis is a very
the verb that would make it an analogy or metaphor is
common principle. With complexity, you make people
omitted.
think more about what you said. You can make your
Classification: Comparison, Emotion, Meaning, words flow and give a smooth easiness to your
Omission sentences.
Relationships you can show include:
HYPOCORISM Cause-and-effect: A leads to B
Description: Conditional: If A then B
Hypocorism is the use of baby-talk, pet names and Set-membership: A is a part of B
diminutives.
Hypotaxis is the 'opposite' of Parataxis.
Example
Classification: Grammar
Oh, Sannie baby!
Ah, diddums. Does your ickle finger hurt?
HYPOZEUXIS
Let's diddly do it, Dickey boy!
Description:
Discussion
Hypozeuxis is the use of parallel clauses, each with a
Using baby talk is an invitation to temporarily regress subject and predicate.
to child-state, where uninhibited ways of behaving are
Example:
acceptable. It may also be used as an insult, suggesting
the other person is a child. Giving a person a child-like I came, I saw, I conquered.
Michael rode, Susan sewed, the family thrived whilst
others just survived.
ILLEISM
The good man smiles as the bad man scowls and the
Description:
indifferent man passed by.
Illeism is referring to oneself in the third person.
Discussion:
Example:
Zeugma is the sharing of a subject (noun) or predicate
verb between clauses (eg. 'I came, saw and conquered'). We are grateful for your gifts, good sir.
Hypozeuxis is the opposite of this, as every clause has
its own separate subject-predicate (or noun-verb) pair. I am the king. He is displeased.
Whilst much speech abbreviates, hypozeuxis is more Discussion:

precise, making it more difficult for the listener to be Referring to yourself in the third person detaches
confused. At the same time, a pattern is often created, yourself from that person. This can make the speaker
especially if the clauses are of the same size, so seem objective. It can also be used to highlight an
drawing attention. exalted position position, letting the speaker put
Hypozeuxis comes from the Greek 'hypozeug', meaning themselves on a pedestal (and figuratively stand below
'to put under the yoke'. the pedestal in worship of him- or herself).
Classification: Grammar, Repetition, Attention In this way, Illeism is sometimes talked about in
common parlance as 'the royal we' as kings and queens
use this. Queen Victoria famously said 'We are not
amused.' This also makes illeism a prerogative of royalty
HYSTERON PROTERON
and usage by common people may thus be seen as bad
Description: form (Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was known to
use it upon occasion). Mark Twain said "Only kings,
Hysteron proteron is reversing of the temporal sequence
presidents, editors, and people with tapeworms have the
in order to put of important ideas first.
right to use the editorial 'we'."
Example:
I conquered, I saw, I came.
We can win by fighting hard.
INCLUSIO
She brought me up well and gave birth to my life.
Description:
Putting on my shoes and socks.
Inclusio is the bracketing of a passage of text with the
Discussion: same set of words at the start and end.
When things happen it time, it is often the latter events Example:

which are the most important, yet narrative is often
Do not weep for me when I am gone. Weep for the lost
given in the sequence of activities. Hysteron proteron
people in the world. Weep for the hungry children. Weep
breaks this rule, putting the important things first.
for the homeless people. But do not weep for me when I
By this deliberate reversal, hysteron proteron am gone.
draws attention to the important point, so giving
We will prevail. Though they will throw all their great
it primacy.
might at us. Though we will be hard pressed. We will
Hysteron proteron is a form of Hyperbaton, which prevail.
describes general rearrangements of the sentence.
Classification: Reversal, Rearrangement

Discussion: Innuendo can also be produced without language, using
gestures and substitute items such as melons.
This is a form of repetition that also makes use
of primacy (words at the beginning tend to be Sexual innuendo is also used in flirting and may be
remembered) and recency (words at the end tend to unwelcome.
remembered too). This makes it a powerful device for
speech-makers and it can be seen in many classic
political speeches.
A visual form of this can be seen in adverts, where a IRONY
product or key message is repeated early and late in the
production. Description:
Classification: Repetition Irony occurs when there is incongruity between what is

said/done/meant/perceived.
Example:
INNUENDO
Ironically, my wife's name is the same as my mother's.
Description:
Well that's as delightfully clear as mud.
Innuendo is 'saying something without saying it', often
implying something negative or politically incorrect, I caught the last train in time. Unfortunately it was going
through allusion or insinuation. back to where I had started.
Example: Discussion:
She's got a great future in front of her! Irony is a core component of a dry sense of humor,
where wit is appreciated but is unlikely to raise a laugh.
Is that a gun in your pocket or are you just pleased to see
me? Verbal irony is incongruence between what is said and
what is meant. For example saying, 'Oh, that's a nice big
Know what I mean? Nudge, nudge! Wink, wink! hat' when you mean that the hat is too big.
Discussion: Dramatic irony include incongruence between a
character's deeds and surrounding events. It usually
When you are prevented from saying something due to
occurs when the audience can see an ironic situation that
social norms, such as when certain words are forbidden
the characters cannot, such as where Romeo kills
or even from politeness, then it is common to try and get
himself because he believes Juliet to be dead (she is
others to understand by using metaphor of some kind.
actually only drugged). Dramatic irony can be tragic or
If the person using innuendo does not get the response humorous.
they require, it is not uncommon for them to increase
Situational irony occurs where there is incongruence
their attempts, exaggerating the innuendo or using
between events such as where a boy gives up wooing a
further suggestion.
girl and leaves town just as she realizes that she loves
An advantage that innuendo gives the person using it is him.
that it deniable, should they be called out for making
Irony is similar to sarcasm, although sarcasm is directed
improper suggestions.
at a person and is more of an attack, whilst irony is more
Sexual innuendo is common, particularly in drama that of an amused observation.
written in times when explicit language could not be
Classification: Distortion, Hidden
used. Used well, it can create a humorous situation, for
example by referencing sexually-related parts of the
body.

ISOCOLON As kenning is typically used in mythological prose and
verse, it can be quite obscure and use strange
Description:
combinations of words and other devices and figures.
Isocolon occurs where parallel parts of a sentence are the
Many devices and figures of speech are Roman or Greek
same length.
in origin. Kenning comes from the tradition of old Norse
Example: and Icelandic mythology. The Old Norse word 'kenna'
means to know, recognize, perceive, feel, show or teach.
Veni, vidi, vici. (I came, I saw, I conquered) The Scottish word 'ken' means to know or understand
I converse with God, I hear the Devil, I choose myself, I and comes from the same origin.
act alone. Classification: Omission, Distortion
Remember the past but look to the future.
Discussion: KOLAKEIA
Repetition of any pattern of sounds gives a statement a Description:
beat, thus playing to the mind's ability to recognize and
pay attention to patterns and appreciate harmony. Kolakeia is the use of flattery to distract the listener from
Isocolon uses this aspect to give power to words. something.
Where there are three items, this is known as tricolon. Example:
Isocolon comes from the Greek 'iso', meaning 'same', That's a wise thought. Can we explore that more? The
and 'kolon', meaning member. other stuff can wait.
Classification: Repetition Yes I know it's not all there. You're very perceptive, you
know. Do you get that from your parents?
I say, you do look good today. Can we talk about this
KENNING thing here?
Description: Discussion:
Kenning is the use of circumlocution instead of a simple There is little more interesting to most people than
noun. themselves, and to be told they are wonderful gives a
Example: welcome boost to their sense of identity. It is no surprise
that attention to the person makes that person pay more
He is the feeder of the bloody battle axe (= he is a attention to themselves and, consequently, less to other
warrior). things.
The clashing ring-feast of the darken day (midwinter There is also a pattern of exchange here: I tell you how
festival). wonderful you are and you ignore that I am changing the
subject.
Discussion:
Circumlocution is talking around a subject rather than
just naming it. Not naming something creates mystery
and the confusion of uncertainty, thus encouraging
others to pay attention in order to better understand. LITOTES
Talking around the subject can also be a form of verbal Description and method:
painting, using visual and sensory images that otherwise If you want to affirm something as true in an
would describe a dull subject. understated, quiet way, you can do this by taking the

opposite of what you want to say and then turning it effect. A malapropism hence may be a longer or more
back into a positive by negating it. uncommon word rather than something that is relatively
simple and common.
Example:
Malapropism can be seen as evidence of ignorance
Oh well, that is not an unimportant thing.
(which it may be), but deliberate error in speech can be
That's not bad. used for specific effect. It is typically funny in some
way, and may be used to distract a listener whilst
Discussion: important other detail is slipped through.
Litotes is a fancy name for a common twist of the A neural cause of Malapropism occurs where memory
language where a person expresses an affirmative by access is based on sound-alike and a mental error occurs
negating its contrary. In effect, this is a double negative. when we try to recall the right word.
When twists, such as this, are put into language, it often Another use in changing minds is to lull the other person
acts as a form of apologetic, expressing a certain amount into a false sense of security by appearing unintelligent
of embarrassment at having to say this thing. so they drop their guard and perhaps igve away
Twists also make the listener think harder to work out important information or do not analyze your other
what is really being said. This can be deliberate use words for persuasive content.
of confusion or seeking to sustain attention. The word 'malaprop' actually comes from the French
The use of litotes can also give away the speaker's bias, 'mal propos', meaning ‘inappropriate’.
as saying 'not bad' implies that you are thinking more Malapropism is also known as Dogberryism (after
about bad than good. Constable Dogberry in Shakespeare's Much Ado About
A synonym is meiosis (which is also used to describe Nothing) or Acyrologia.
cell-division, in which it is also spelled meioses). Classification: Grammar, Humor, Distortion
Classification: Distortion. Reversal
MEIOSIS
MALAPROPISM Description:
Description: Meiosis is an understatement, making less of something
Malapropism is the use of an incorrect word that is that it actually it.
similar in sound to the intended word (often with Example:
humorous effect).
What they called a 'riot' was really high spirits, just
Example: people having fun.
You did that on porpoise! (vs. purpose) Don't worry, I'm fine. It's only a scratch.
I am prostate with grief. (vs. prostrate) Discussion:
What are you incinerating? (vs. insinuating) Making something smaller reduces chance of people
With all that money, he must be quite effluent. (vs. being distracted by it or focusing on it. If you want
affluent) others to pay attention to something then you may well
want them not be distracted.
Discussion:
Meosis is also common in polite society, where it is
Mrs. Malaprop is a character in Richard Brinsley considered rude to draw attention to one's own problems,
Sheridan’s (1751-1816) play 'The Rivals'. She regularly which may hence be downplayed. In a curious reversal,
makes mistakes in the use of words, often with the intent by downplaying something that others know is
of appearing clever but actually resulting in the opposite significant, you actually draw attention to it.
There are words that diminish, such as 'just', 'only', Example:
'simply' and so on. Inserting these as modifiers makes
Past, present and future.
what is said less important. Spotting them is a a useful
method for identifying meiosis. I am everyone I have ever been. I am a little boy, lost on
the beach. I am a confused teenager, raging at the world.
Meiosis is the opposite of Auxesis.
I am an adult, trudging my path.
'Meiosis' comes from the Greek word meaning 'to make
I want to thank everyone who helped with this
smaller'.
production, including the door staff, the make-up artists,
Classification: Reduction, Reversal the costumiers, the lighting engineer…
MERISM Discussion:
Description: By taking time to describe something in more detail than
might normally be expected, merismos acts as a form of
Merism is referencing something by listing its
emphasis, indicating importance and asking the audience
constituent parts or multiple descriptors.
to reflect on the subject.
Example:
Polar merismos occurs where a full description is
Flesh and bone (the body). shortened by describing only boundary or start and end
states. Sometimes this is written by describing the end
Search every nook and cranny (= look everywhere). state before the start. For example, 'man and boy',
Sun, sea and sand (a holiday destination). 'omega and alpha', 'now and again'.
Discussion: Merismos comes from the Greek word meaning

'division'.
Describing something by just naming it is can be quite
bland. When you want to be brief, then a fuller Merismos is also called 'Distributio', 'Digestio' or
description is also less than satisfactory. Merism fills the 'Discriminatio'.
gap, giving a very brief and possibly creative Classification: Meaning
description.
By listing parts, the description is lengthened, thus
drawing attention to the subject. In particular, attention METALEPSIS
is drawn to the parts lists (which may or may not be
Description:
important).
Metalepsis is the description of something through the
Common merisms are found in the English language
use of a weakly-related item.
where they are used as a form of Metaphor.
Example:
Merism is also often found in legal documents where
multiple very similar words are used to ensure a subject Angels' feathers on the mountainside. (Angels have
is fully covered ('last will and testament'). white feathers, snow is white, patches of snow are like
feathers).
Classification: Reference, Amplification
He forced a silence with a leaden hand. ('heavy handed'
approach combined with 'lead is heavy').
MERISMOS Through mists of time the old train belched forth. (Old
Description: steam train creates 'mist').
Merismos is where something is described or referenced

in its entirety.
Discussion: Types of metaphor: Ways of classifying metaphors.
By making the meaning of something less clear, you Absolute metaphor: Separated subject and vehicle.
cause confusion and thus force the listener to pause and
Active metaphor: New and not established.
think about what you really mean. Metalepsis is thus
an attentional device. Complex metaphor: Multi-layered.
Metalepsis may use various mechanisms to distance the Compound metaphor: With many parts.
target subject from the words used, including:
Concrete metaphor: Using physical comparisons.
Chains of relationships.
Dead metaphor: Normal language, no longer recognized
Chains of cause and effect. as metaphor.
Linked figures of speech. Dormant metaphor: Weak connection between vehicle
and subject.
Strained or extended metaphor.
Dying metaphor: Unfashionable cliché.
Classification: Attention, Hidden
Extended metaphor: One subject, many sub-elements.
Implicit metaphor: Incomplete description.
METAPHOR
Mixed metaphor: Mismatched combination of
Metaphor is one of the most complex and powerful tools
metaphors.
of language and hence gets a section all to itself.
Pataphor: Extreme form of metaphor.
Discussion:
Root metaphor: Unrealized basic driver.
Metaphor basics: Understanding metaphor.
Simple metaphor: Single meaning and linkage.
Metaphor definition: The basics of what metaphors are.
Submerged metaphor: Use a part as a metaphor for
Parts of a metaphor: The individual elements of
something else.
metaphors.
Synechdochic metaphor: Use a part as metaphor for the
How metaphors work: How metaphors work in practice.
whole.
Physical metaphors: Taken from the 'real world'.
Speech parts and metaphor: Metaphor in grammar.
Metaphors and things: Making concepts concrete.
Adjective metaphors: Enhancing noun metaphors.
Metaphors and space: The power of three dimensions.
Adverb metaphors: Enhancing verbs.
Metaphors and time: Casting time into space.
Noun metaphors: Standard A is B metaphor.
Metaphors and energy: Different forms of energy,
Prepositions and metaphor: Using prepositions to extend
different metaphors.
metaphor.
Sensory metaphors: That directly address our five
Verb metaphors: Metaphors of action.
senses.
Using metaphor
Metaphors and touch: Addressing what we feel.
Creativity and metaphor: Making the strange familiar
Metaphors and sight: Addressing what we see.
and the familiar strange.
Metaphors and sound: Addressing what we hear.
Everyday use of metaphor: Embedded in the language
Metaphors, taste and smell: Addressing the gustatory and culture.
senses.

Metaphor and politeness: Using euphemisms to avoid Rearranging letters in words can be done for effect.
embarrassment. There are also some words where this is commonly done
in error.
Poetry and metaphor: Stimulating with word painting.
Interestingly, you can rearrange all the letters in each
Therapeutic use of metaphor: Helping people explore
word in a sentence and still make sense of it.
and heal the inner world.
Ilngtretisney, yuo cna rarerargne lal teh ltetres ni ecah
wrod ni a scenntee adn slitl mkae snese fo ti.
METAPLASMUS …although keeping the first and last letters of most
Description: words in place helps the process. Nevertheless it shows
how metathesis is not that obfuscating.
Metaplasmus is the deliberate misspelling of a word.
Example:
Elizabeth can be spelled as Liz, Eliza, Lizzie, Beth, Bet,
etc. METONYMY
Oh frigging heck! Description:
I'm feeling hippy. I feel like wild six. Metonymy is the use of one item's name to represent
another item. In particular the representing item usually
Discussion: has a close association with the represented item.
Words can misspelled because the writer has literacy Example:
problem. They may also be deliberately misspelled for a
reason, such as: Henry invaded France. (Henry represents Britain)
Creating a diminutive of a person's forename. The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen represents
words. Sword represents military power).
Euphemism, where forbidden words are hidden in
misspelling. I'll just Google it. (using Google instead of search).
Puns, where humor is created through the double- Discussion:

meaning of the original word and the misspelled word.
Metonymy is quite close to metaphor, but with a more
These are the four ways to misspell: addition, omission, specific use. Metonymy uses names, whilst metaphor
substitution and rearrangement. can indicate any representation.
Classification: Distortion Metonymy substitutes the contained for

the container, the effect for the cause. The connection
may sometimes be rather distance, as in metalepsis.
METATHESIS Metonymy can be used in a number of associations, for
Description: example:
Metathesis is the rearrangement of letters within a word. Cause represents effect
Example: Container represents the contained
He frevently plied his ardour. A greater thing represents a smaller thing
That is not revelant. An author represents the book
You're a carzy driver! The sign represents the signified
Discussion:
A common use of metonymy is in synecdoche, where a Example:
part represents the whole, for example the monarch
We are not amused. (Queen Victoria)
being described as 'the crown'.
We will now retire to one's repose.
Metonymy comes from the Greek 'metonymia' meaning
'a change of name'. Discussion:
Classification: Substitution The most famous use of nosism is by the English
monarch, where the 'royal we' is quite common. Because
of this tradition, it is considered very bad form for
NARRATIO anyone else to use it as it seeks puts one on a par with
the monarch. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was
Description:
known on occasion to use the term and was criticized in
Narratio is the presentation of essential facts. the press for doing so.
Example: 'Nosism' can also generally mean 'conceit', which is the

underlying emotion in use of the 'royal we' by ordinary
I was about 20 yards away. I saw the man hit the woman people.
in the head once. She fell down, then he kicked her in
the midriff twice and walked off. Nosism is also used in editorials where the editor writes
'we' and implies the newspaper or magazine as a whole
You have asked me for this seven times before. I have when it is actually just the editor's viewpoint.
said no each time. I do not agree and will not agree.
Nosism and Illeism are similar terms.
It has full ABS and traction control. With 170 bhp at
your disposal, you are unlikely to need more power. The Nosism comes from the Latin 'nos' meaning 'we' (and
roadholding has been reported as excellent in this article. which is the origin of the French 'nous').
And I have never had any customer come back with any
Classification: Falsehood, Reference
complaints.
Discussion:
OEONISMOS
Sometimes simple facts are the most persuasive way of
speaking. They provide incontrovertible evidence and Description:
play to needs for certainty. They also present the speaker
Oeonismos is the expression of emotion through wishing
as honest and trustworthy, such that the listener is less
or hoping.
likely to question something which the speaker
later asserts. Example:
Factual approaches are particularly important in certain Wouldn't it be lovely if we could all be together at
contexts, such as in law courts and scientific Christmas.
presentations. They are also useful in
general argument as they are difficult to deny or oppose. I hope he leaves soon, otherwise I might just land one on
him!
I wish he would leave me alone!
Discussion:
NOSISM
Hope is a form of desire, and wishing is often the
Description: expression of hope by other means. It is often positive in
form although it can also have negative aspects.
Nosism is referring to oneself in the plural.

Wishing is relatively harmless, particularly in positive For instance, saying, “The gushing stream flows in the
form, and is thus offers a way of expressing emotion in a forest” is a more meaningful description than just
socially acceptable way. saying, “The stream flows in the forest.” The reader is
drawn to hear the sound of a “gushing stream” which
Classification: Emotion
makes the expression more effective.
In addition to the sound they represent, many
ONOMATOPOEIA onomatopoeic words have developed meanings of their
own. For example, “whisper” not only represents the
Description: sound of people talking quietly, but also describes the
Onomatopoeia is defined as a word, which imitates the action of people talking quietly.
natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that Onomatopoeia and Phanopoeia
mimics the thing described, making the description more
expressive and interesting. Onomatopoeia, in its more complicated use, takes the
form of phanopoeia. Phanopoeia is a form of
Example: onomatopoeia that describes the sense of things rather
The buzzing bee flew away. than their natural sounds. D.H Lawrence in his poem
“Snake” illustrates the use of this form:
The sack fell into the river with a splash.
“He reached down from a fissure in the earth-wall in the
The books fell on the table with a loud thump. gloom
And trailed his yellow-brown slackness soft-bellied
He looked at the roaring sky.
down, over the
The rustling leaves kept me awake. edge of the stone trough
And rested his throat upon the stone bottom.
The different sounds of animals are also considered as
examples of onomatopoeia. You will recognize the And where the water had dripped from the tap, in a small
following sounds easily: clearness
He sipped with his straight mouth…”
Meow
The rhythm and length of the above lines, along with the
Moo use of “hissing” sounds, create a picture of a snake in the
Neigh minds of the readers.
Tweet Classification: Sound and Meaning
Oink
OPTATIO
Baa
Description:
Discussion:
Optatio is making an exclamation in the form of a wish.
Generally, words are used to tell what is happening.
Onomatopoeia, on the other hand, helps the readers to Example:
hear the sounds the words they reflect. Hence, the reader I wish you'd shut up! I need quiet to read.
cannot help but enter the world created by the poet with
the aid of these words. The beauty of onomatopoeic O, begone! Wouldst thou not leave thy brother in peace?
words lies in the fact that they are bound to have an
Rain! We need rain! I pray for rain!
effect on the readers’ senses whether they are understood
or not. Moreover, a simple plain expression does not
have the same emphatic effect that conveys an idea
powerfully to the readers. The use of onomatopoeic
words helps create emphasis.

Discussion: PARACHESIS
An exclamation is often a mark of frustration, where our Description:
goals are not met and we are left wanting. It is but a
Parachesis is the repetition of a similar sound across
small step to include in the exclamation either a full
multiple words.
statement of what is wanted or perhaps just a hint of the
wish. Example:
This form can be useful in making a request of others, as The man began to understand.
an exclamation is often accepted as only a semi-
voluntary thing at best and therefore may be forgiven. It was roughly the stuff of a simple kerfuffle.
Classification: Excess I see the sky and cannot deny.

Discussion:
OXYMORON Parachesis is a general term for repetition of sounds

across words and so includes other forms of sonic
Description: repetition such
as alliteration, consonance and assonance. Parchesis is,
Oxymoron is where adjacent and connected words
however, looser than other methods and can be used in
appear to form a contradiction.
more generalized ways.
Example:
As with other similar forms, parachesis invokes the
There was a deafening silence. principle of repetition and so may be used for such
purpose as gaining attention, creating focus and building
The cold fire of her stare nailed him to the wall.
emphasis.
Such foolish wisdom! Such wise folly! Where did I ever
see such juxtaposition?
Discussion:
PARADEIGMA
Oxymorons are often surprising in that the contradiction
illustrates some wisdom or unexpected truth. This may Description:
be done deliberately to put over a message or create
Paradeigma is the listing of examples in order to
some other dramatic effect.
generalize.
Oxymorons can also be used to create confusion, and so
Example:
grab attention, distract the listener or give a moment of
inattention in which persuasive words may be added. You didn't call last week or the week before or the week
before that. You never call me!
Sometimes fun is poked at legitimate terms by
describing them as oxymorons, such as 'military The train is late again. The buses have also been late.
intelligence' and 'government initiative'. And the roads are a nightmare. Clearly the government
is incapable of managing its transport policy and we
Oxymoron comes from the Greek oxys, meaning sharp,
should elect a different party.
and moros, meaning dull.
That's the third rude child from that school I've met. It
must be a very bad school. We certainly mustn't send our
children there.
Discussion:
Something is not proven as happening always just
because it happens once or even a hundred times,

although we often and easily create generalizations in Example:
this way.
I always lie. (If the person is a liar, then this is true,
Because this false reasoning is so common, paradeigma which makes them not a liar).
may be used in persuasive talk (at least with those who
Death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die. (how can
are less likely to challenge) to create a generalization
death die?)
from which desired items may be created as 'facts'.
Youth is wasted on the young. (but how can young
Classification: Falsehood, Reasoning
people know the value of youth without not having it?)
Discussion:
PARADIASTOLE
On being presented a paradox, most people pause and try
Description: to work out what it means. In this way it uses the
principle of confusion to distract them and so gives
Paradiastole is the conversion of a vice into a virtue,
opportunity for persuasion.
typically using a euphemism.
Paradoxes may be self-referential, contradictory and
Example:
circular. They may also use half-truths or falsehood,
I am not so much arrogant as you say as confident, although the listener may be initially distracted from this
which perhaps you are not. fallacy by the confusion of the paradox.
You call her ugly because you do not see her beauty. Paradoxes can be used as explanations, such as the
circular paradox known as the 'grandfather paradox'
Yes, I know it does not work all the time, but that is which is used to discount the possibility of time travel.
what makes it interesting. In this conundrum, a person travels back in time and
Discussion: kills their grandfather before he has children, so
preventing the person being born (and also from killing
To be accused of vice is to be accused to of transgressing the grandfather).
social values and so risk being ostracized. People thus
accused may well seek to reframe what is being called a Paradoxes can appear to be false but actually be true,
vice into a virtue, effectively doing a reversal. such as a person having their fifth birthday after living
twenty years (if they are born on February 29th in a leap
Sales people may use paradiastole when they turn year).
an objection into a benefit.
Paradoxes may be deliberate puzzles and are common in
Paradiastole may also be used in an ironic or sarcastic philosophy, where pedants spend time musing upon their
sense, such when a person committing a foolish act is construction and how feasible solutions may be derived.
praised as being a genius. Poets likewise delight in the twists of a paradox and seek
to place them in matching linguistic settings. Authors
Paradiastole comes from the Greek 'para', meaning 'next
also use paradoxes to create excitement, confusion and
to' and 'stole', meaning 'dressing up'.
enlightening lessons.
Classification: Reversal
An antinomy is a false paradox that is arrived at by using
accepted forms of reasoning. A dialetheia is a paradox
that is both true and false at the same time, such as when
PARADOX you say 'I am both in the room and outside the room',
Description: whilst you are standing in the doorway.
A paradox is a statement (or set of statements) where a A moral paradox occurs where values conflict, for
seemingly impossible contradiction is presented. example where a person is faced with the choice of
killing another person or letting a loved one die.
PARAENETICON: Paralipsis is also spelled as Paraleipsis.
It comes from Greek paraleipein ‘to leave on one side’,
Description:
‘to omit’, which itself comes from para ‘beside’
Paraeneticon is the expression of emotion through and leipein ‘to leave’
exhortation, telling or asking others to act in some way.
Example:
Get out of here! Get out of my sight!!
PARALLELISM
Can you feel the vibes? I think you can be creative now.
Description:
Get those juices flowing...
Parallelism is the use of repeated patterns in separate
Stop! Don't say it!! I can't stand to hear it!
parts of a sentence.
Discussion:
Paraeneticon is a way of issuing a command. It often
Example:
voiced in the form of an uncontrollable outburst,
particularly of anger. Being an outburst, it is more The good that I hear does not match the bad that I see.
socially acceptable in that the person is clearly not fully
He loves to live; I live to love.
in control of themself. This is also a clear signal of the
strength of the emotion the person is feeling and I know you lie, I accuse you of lying, I will show you
consequently the implied importance of the situation. are a liar.
Paraeneticon need not be an outburst and can be more Discussion:
controlled, although its essence is still that emotion of
some form is being expressed. Repetition of a pattern creates emphasis, multiplying
attention to each part referenced and thus the power of
Classification: Emotion sentence.
Pattern repetition can be simple and obvious, making
them easy to see. Patterns can also be subtle and overt,
PARALIPSIS
making them difficult to perceive.
Description:
Various forms of parallelism include:
Paralipsis involves suggesting, by deliberately concise
Parallel subjects: The silent canal and the peaceful
treatment, that much of significance is omitted.
towpath led us on.
Example:
Parallel objects: I will search every city, town and
I will speak only about his good side. village until I find you.
This is not really about how much it will cost. Parallel verbs and objects: Turn out the lights of life,
draw the curtains of time, close the door on existence.
Not to mention her family, of course.
Parallel verbs and adverbs: He was publicly kind and
Discussion:
privately mean.
When we say little about something that obviously
Parallel phrases: Look to the mountains where you can
deserves more, we leave the unsaid things hanging in the
see the peaks.
air for all to know. In this way we can avoid
embarrassing or difficult discussion in we might be Parallel sentences: Lift me up! Help me ascend!
challenged.
In saying that we will not talk about something, we have
to mention that thing, thus drawing attention to it.
PARAPROSDOKIAN understanding. Clauses are generally shorter than
sentences. Therefore multiple independent clauses have
Description:
a staccato effect, giving more punch and (perforce)
Paraprosdokian is the use of words at the end of a phrase having less flow.
or sentence that change the apparent initial meaning.
Conjunctions connect clauses together into sentences
Example: and help create flow, yet if the clause is complete, the
conjunction has less effect and may be omitted.
I am most disgusted that you were not rewarded for your Parataxis occurs with or without the conjunction.
wonderful work.
Parataxis is the 'opposite' of Hypotaxis.
Take my hand, I don't want it.
Classification: Grammar, Rearrangement
Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.
Discussion:
PAREGMENON
When we listen to what someone is saying, we
constantly predict ahead, trying to work out what they Description:
are going to say. It is thus relatively easy to set up
Paregmenon is the repetition of words which have the
expectation and then dash it. This causes confusion and
same root.
hence makes the person review and re-think what you
are really saying. Example:
The confusion and subsequent realization of Verily, you are very well verified.
Paraprosdokian makes it a popular formula with comics
Happily, happiness makes others happy too.
and other humorists.
Society is the socialisation of the unsociable.
Paraprosdokian comes from the Greek words for
'beyond' and 'expectation'. Discussion:
Classification: Attention, Meaning, Humor Repetition is a simple way of grabbing attention, much
as a hammer hitting a nail. This can be make more subtle
in many ways and paragmenon is one way of doing this.
PARATAXIS
Description
Parataxis is the use of multiple independent clauses, with
or without conjunctions. PARENTHESES
Description and method:
Example:
Use parentheses () to add further information to a
We went to the park and we sat down and we had a cup
sentence that is clearly separated from the rest of the
of tea.
sentence. This creates a 'sentence within a sentence'.
In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
Parenthesized text can include multiple sentences, but
And the earth was without form and void; and darkness
should not run on for too long.
was upon the face of the deep.
Aside
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Use parentheses to indicate 'asides', comments which
Discussion:
may have a secretive element to them, which are thus
An independent clause stands alone, with an individual spoken at a lower volume (and perhaps with a
meaning. After a complete 'chunk' of meaning, we often conspiratorial hand to the side of the mouth).
pause for a moment to integrate it into prior
Example: assume others will 'get what we mean', although this is
often far from true.
She is going with John (you know, the handsome one) to
the conference. (aside) As we face ambiguity all the time and seek certainty, we
tend to make assumptions to 'fill in the
Discussion:
gaps'. Vagueness may be used in a persuasive context
Parentheses () are curved brackets that add additional where resolution of uncertainty by the subject is
information to a sentence. The parenthesized contents predictable and their assumptions desirable.
may completely be removed without changing the
Parisology also allows you to imply and insinuate things
meaning of sentence.
without getting into trouble, as you can always deny
When a parenthesis appears to a reader, the current text your intent and possibly accuse the other person of
is 'paused' whilst the parenthesized text is processed. To unfair attack.
keep the paused text in memory requires cognitive effort
Parisology comes from the Greek 'parisos' meaning
to stop it fading. Thus any inserted text should usually
'almost equal' or 'balanced', and 'logos', meaning 'word'.
be kept short in order to reduce this effort and any
chance of forgetting the main text. Classification: Omission, Distortion
As an 'aside', parentheses are more conspiratorial
than dashes or commas.
PARISON
Other forms of bracketing include [square brackets],
Description:
{braces} and <angle brackets>. Square brackets give a
greater degree of separation and are sometimes used for Parison is corresponding structure in a series of clauses.
third-person commenting of text. Braces are used in
some technical situations. Angle brackets (really only Example:
greater-than and less-than signs) are often used to signify I have lived and loved across a long life
something that is to be replaced, such as in a form where And I still live for love and long for more life.
<surname> is to be replaced (including the angle
brackets) with somebody's surname. He that has saved will be safe.
He that has failed will be a failure.
He that has loved will be loved.
PARISOLOGY Discussion:
Description: Parison can be found across sentences and clauses,
Parisology is the use of equivocal or ambiguous where the same word may be found in different forms or
language. nouns, adjectives, verbs and so on may match one
another.
Example:
Parison creates patterns that stimulate recognition of
Happy men and women walked in the park (are the these and hence attention and, hopefully in certain poetry
women happy?) or prose, some measure of delight.
The results of the experiment have value, I think. (What Classification: Repetition
value? How much value? To who?)
It can be done. (What? By who?)
PARISOSIS
Discussion:
Description:
Ambiguity is often caused by incomplete language. It
would be hard work to explain in detail everything we Parisosis is where two or more clauses have the same
mean, and so our speech gets severely attenuated. We number of syllables.

Example:
I came, I saw, I won. PAROMOIOSIS
My cup runneth over, but never tomorrow. Description:
Elephants and mice; they're terribly nice. Paromoiosis is the creation of similar sounds across two
clauses of similar size.
Discussion:
Example:
Many patterning methods that use repetition do it by
sound, such as consonance or parachesis. This stands out Dancing and play, prancing all day.
and it is easy to detect, which is not always what you
So you can buy one or two and have fun.
want.
Good for you, could be true!
A more subtle way of using patterns is to repeat the
number of syllables. This is popular with poets and those Discussion:
who want to create unnoticed influence. It can give a
'feeling' of harmony without conscious knowing of how Paromoiosis can a relatively subtle method of
this happened. creating repetition or it can be very obvious and appear
forced. In persuasion as in prose, subtly generally is a
Classification: Repetition better idea.
Note that the matching of sounds across the two clauses
does not have to be exact, although it can be.
PAROEMION
Paromoiosis includes matching of sounds at the
Description: beginning, end or in selected places.
Paroemion is the excessive use of alliteration. Classification: Repetition
Example:
The big, bad boy bent backwards by blindly bumping PARONOMASIA
Brian.
Description:
Six shrouded saints sailed serenely by.
Paronomasia is the use of similar-sounding words to
Now, now, you naughty noodle! I've never known new cause confusion, often for humorous effect.
boys not be nice!
Example:
Discussion
You can tune a file system, but you can't tune a
Alliteration is the repetition of the initial letter in a fish. ('tuna fish' - from a Unix manual)
sequence of words and is a very common method of
We egged on the runners, but the yolk was on us.
setting up a pattern of repetition. It is very easy for the
less experienced writer or speaker to latch onto this and, I've a library in my trousers. Now there's a turn-up for
quite simply, over-do it. It is particularly noticeable the books!
when the author uses words that do not fit particularly
well but which are chosen simply to fin into the ever- Discussion:
weakening structure. Humor is based on the unexpected, and setting up
Anything can be over-done and this is a useful warning confusion through ambiguous use of words is a classic
with regard to all the other figures and devices of speech, and usually inoffensive source of wit.
that whilst judicious use is effective, a point comes Paronomasia is the basis of puns, which is a short word
where it turns to be unsubtle and crass. that is less (or maybe more) punishing.
Classification: Repetition Classification: Hidden, Humor
PARRHESIA Discussion:
Description: There are many reasons why a person may not want to
tell the truth. Perhaps the lover fears rejection or whistle-
Parrhesia is speaking boldly and candidly.
blower thinks they might get sacked. Often, we fear the
Example: reprisals of others for breaking social rules. We may also
want to kindly spare someone the pain of the
It is true! The king has lost his mind and we must act to uncomfortable truth.
save the kingdom.
In literature and poetry, there can be much eloquence in
I have no idea what you are saying. You are talking talking around a subject. Rather than stating something
nonsense, just to fill the space in front of you. simply, the writer paints with words, extracting a greater
Discussion: beauty and sympathy from metaphor and pattern. To
write is to evoke emotions, and, whilst simple words
When a person speaks as if something is true or enable understanding, they often do so coldly.
important, then others are more likely to believe them. In
contrast, if we are hesitant and use uncertain language, Periphrasis is also known as circumlocution,
then others are less likely to believe us. circumdiction, periphrase and ambage.
When spoken well, then this is assertiveness, when done Classification: Hidden
badly, it can seem like aggression.
Speaking freely requires either boldness or trust or both. PERISSOLOGIA
In many societies there are many rules about 'saving
face' for others and behaving with dignity. In others, Description:
speaking the truth can get you arrested.
Perissologia is the excessive use of words.
In Greek, parrhesia means not only to speak freely, but
Example:
also to speak boldly and even be obliged to tell truth for
the common good. Courage is thus saying what must be My dearest sir, it is a delight to see you in such stirling
said, even when it may be lead to personal harm. and excellent health. Never, I say, have I set eyes on
such a fine specimen of man who sets my mind a-
Classification: Amplification
dancing with pleasure. (= hello)
Would that I could sing my heart, the birds and bees
PERIPHRASIS would faint with the sounds of such ecstasy that burns
my very soul in sacred flame! (= I'm happy)
Description:
Discussion:
Periphrasis is circumlocution, talking around the subject
rather than directly what perhaps might be said in the Sometimes you can go too far. Where a certain amount
circumstances. of delightful wordplay can spice up the language, there
is level beyond which listeners get confused, bored or
Example: irritated. Or all three.
It is not that James is welcome or otherwise, or that he is The net result is that meaning may be lost or distorted.
sometimes here or not. I do wonder, though, if he might
be thinking what it's all about. (= I don't like James) Perissologia can stem from anxiety, resulting in people
who do not know when to stop. It can also be used by
When I am with you, my toes tingle and my knees are people who like the sound of their own voice or who do
weak. The world is a better place altogether and I find not want to listen to others. It can in this way be used for
myself giving my fortune to beggars, and I am a beggar filibustering (talking to use up available time and so
before you, craving a smile, a whim. (= I love you) block other people).

Perissologia includes stating the obvious and use of PLEONASM
redundancy where brevity suits best. It can also happen
Description:
when a person says something, then wonders if their
audience understands and decides to explain in Pleonasm is the use of unnecessary words.
excruciating detail.
Example:
Perissologia is also known as prolixity, verbosity and
garrulousness. It has also been called, rather vulgarly, Your future prediction is null and void.
'verbal diarrhoea'. The sound of the music is loud.
Classification: Grammar, Distortion, Hidden It's a puppy-dog, not a kitten-cat!
Discussion:
PERSONIFICATION The use of pleonastic words and phrases is very variable.
Description: Sometimes they become accepted jargon. Pleonasm may
also indicate the use of tired, old and clichéd words and
Personification is the attribution of human characteristics general sloppy language. Proponents of Plain English
to inanimate objects, events or abstract ideas. and concise writing are often strong opponents of
pleonasm.
Example:
The simplest test of a pleonasm is when you can
The wire tripped me up.
eliminate words without changing the meaning of the
This is a happy house. sentence.
Democracy is taking its revenge upon Communism. Pleonasm may also lead to repetition of the same thing
through different words.
Discussion:
Syntactic pleonasm occurs where grammar makes some
We all have a need to explain what happens around us,
words optional, such as 'I heard (that) you have been
giving meaning and sustaining our sense of control. As
promoted.'
we naturally understand the world from a human
perspective, with human thought and emotions, we often Semantic pleonasm is stylistic redundancy, and is often
apply these in our explanations as we describe events based on convention, such as 'up north' and 'free gift'.
and thoughts. They can also be unique to dialects, such as 'tuna fish' in
US English and 'by there' in Welsh.
One place why personification happens is where we
make mistakes, such as bumping into tables or getting 'Pleon' is Greek for 'more than'.
wires mixed up. Rather than blame ourselves, we blame
the situation or thing where we erred. In order to
attribute blame, we have to assume it has consciousness
and human fallibility. Of course this is nonsense, but we
still very commonly do it. PLOCE
Personification is also called Prosopopoeia. The Description:

personification of animals is Ploce is moving between specific and general meanings
called Anthropomorphism or Fictio. of a word.
Classification: Meaning, Falsehood Example:
He is more English than the English.
That is a very dog-like dog.
It was a sheep amongst sheep, a follower the follower.
Discussion: Discussion:
Some words are used both as a singular and plural and Polysyndeton may be used to deliberately separate and
so can be used in this initially confusing form -- which is slow down listing or other description as the
of course the reason for using it. When the reader conjunctions separate and so highlight each item.
encounters two words the same but with apparently
Polysyndeton is also common in verbal speech, where a
different meanings, they pause and pay more attention.
person extends a sentence by re-using multiple
In some ways, the ploce is the reverse of the isocolon. conjunctions.
Whilst the polyptoton repeats the same word in different
Done well, polysyndeton creates connection and flow.
forms, the isolcolon repeats the same form in different
Done badly, it creates monotony and loses meaning.
words.
Polysyndeton can have an implication of summation or
Classification: Attention, Repetition
combination, so 'one and two and three' really means six.
Likewise 'Mike and Jen and me' indicates a more
cohesive group than 'Mike, Jen and me'. In this way,
POLYPTOTON polysyndeton can be used to indicate a collective without
Description: naming it.
Polyptoton is the repetition of the same word with the Classification: Grammar, Repetition, Omission
same meaning, but in a different way, varying such as
case, mood, tense, person, degree, number and gender.
PRAECISIO
Example:
Description:
I love, loved, will always love you.
Praecisio is making a point by remaining silent.
She hated him, despised him, utterly detested him.
Example:
Fight the good fight.
A defendant in court refuses to speak on the grounds that
Love is an irresistible desire to be irresistibly desired.
they have nothing to defend against.
Discussion:
A modern poet composes a poem that is just silence for
Repetition emphasises, though simple repetition can be a sixty seconds.
little boring and obvious. Polyptoton adds interest and
Discussion:
perhaps some concealment by repeating something in
different forms. In a clamorous world where everyone is shouting to get
attention, a novel reversal that can get attention is to the
opposite of shouting -- saying nothing, even in the face
of provocation.
POLYSYNDETON A trick with using Praecisio is to use the context as

frame to provide the meaning, such as the soundless
Description: defence in the courtroom that actually speaks volumes.
Polysyndeton is the use of multiple conjunctions close Actors also use Praecisio to communicate through body
together. language. A lot can be said with a gesture or a look or a
Example: positioning of the limbs.
And you and I and our cats and dogs, together again. Classification: Hidden
She is so rich and so beautiful and so very stupid.

Tom or Dick or Harry and Jack or Jill or You.
PRAETERITIO Discussion:
Description: When you are presenting an argument or seeking to
persuade people, they may easily disagree and so seek to
Praeteritio is mentioning something whilst saying it
challenge you. They may also have unanswered
cannot be discussed.
questions that you may want to answer for them.
Example:
By pre-empting questions, you can also
Not to mention your salary, but I do think you can afford increase bonding by showing that you understand the
this. other person.
He is clearly guilty, to say nothing of his previous Sales people often use procatalepsis in objection-
record. handling, where they defuse customer reasons not to
buy.
I'm not allowed to talk about whether you did know her
already, so let's discuss how she reacted to you. Procatalepsis is a form of Anthypophora, where a person
answers their own question.
Discussion:
Sometimes social or other substantive rules prevent the
speaker from explicitly making a point. Praeteritio is a
tricky device that lets them say something whilst
PROLEPSIS
pretending that they are not. Praeteritio is, in this way,
popular with lawyers who slip in inadmissible evidence Description:
whilst effectively recognizing that it is not allowed.
Prolepsis is anticipatory referral to a future event.
Having brought something up, drawing it to
Example:
the attention of the listener, to then suddenly move away
from the subject leaves it open and incomplete, which Say that again and you're fired!
leads them only to think about the mystery even more.
When we make our first million, we'll celebrate in style.
Classification: Reference, Omission
I believe you will succeed.
Discussion:
PROCATALEPSIS
Much of how we think is in anticipation of the future --
Description: in fact neural scan studies have shown that if our brains
have nothing to do, then that is what it does (the rest of
Procatalepsis is raising an objection to one's own
us call it daydreaming). Anticipation is thus very natural
argument and then answering it.
and it appears often in speech.
Example:
Anticipation is also assumptive, working on the principle
This is a stupid question. Or is it? If we look closer we that what is stated will actually come true, which is one
can find some important points here. of the methods that can be used in changing minds.
So who needs ice removal in a warm climate? Well the Classification: Reasoning
night can get very cold. And of course when it's hot
every day, you may want to head for the cooler hills!
Of course you know this already, so why am I pointing it PROPARALEPSIS
out? Well recent research has added new detail... Description:
Proparalepsis is the addition of extra letters to the end of
a word.

Example: Classification: Distortion, Attention
Thanks muchly.
I can call spirits from the vasty deep. PROVERB
Just call me happinessish! Description:
Discussion: A proverb is a short statement that contains a wisdom or
truth of some kind.
Adding letters to the end of a word stretches it,
holding attention, perhaps deliberately for exaggeration Example:
or humorous effect. This form of distortion is often
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
easiest to interpret as the person hears the main word
first, and only has to figure out what the suffix means (if Time is the greatest healer.
anything).
You do not change minds; you facilitate the process
The word endings added are often endings found on whereby people do it themselves.
other words, transposed to convert the word type, for
example to make a noun an adjective ('horseish') or a Discussion:
verb an adverb ('bigly'). Proverbs are often used to explain or point the way
Classification: Distortion towards an effective action. Traditional proverbs contain
old wisdoms and folk truths that have been honed to
teach enduring lessons.
PROSTHESIS The form is also used to frame an important point,
utilizing the structure that speaks the truth of known
Description:
proverbs to imply that the new point is equally true.
Prosthesis is the addition of letter at the start of a word to
A proverb is also known as a saying, adage, maxim or
create a new word.
sententia.
Example:
I shall beweep thy reprisoning.
He is enclouding the issue; I cannot understand.
PSITTACISM
I am un-enchanted and ex-chained.
Description:
Discussion:
Psittacism is parrot-like repetition.
When we read or listen to others speak, our common
Example:
lexicon makes it easy to understand what they are
saying. However, when a new word is presented, we Who's a clever person? Who's a clever person? You!
have to pause and pick it apart to try and work out what
it means. This makes prosthesis an excellent device for That's right, that's right, I'm sad and blue.
focusing attention. (other person says 'I want to go out') You want to go out.
Sometimes prosthesis is used where a more correct word Good to hear. Let's go.
is available, for example 'unenchanted' rather than (other person says 'I'll be there in time') In time, you'll
'disenchanged'. get whatever you want.
In writing, a hyphen may be used between the original
word and the new addition in order to show the reader
that this is a deliberate change and make it easier for
them to read it.
Discussion: There are several types of pun, including:
Parrots do two forms of repetition: repeating the same Homophonic puns use homophones - words with similar
sentence, and copying what the other person says, word sounds to the intended words, such as 'Irish stew, in the
for word. name of the lore.'
Repeating the same sentence is a form of emphasis, Homographic puns use words that are spelled the same
sending a signal that 'these words are important' and may but have different meanings, such as 'Lie down, fibber!'
be used for gaining attention to the words being
Heteronymic puns use the same spelling but different
repeated. Some people have a habit of regularly
pronunciation, such as 'Husband and wife, rowing for
repeating the last few words you say, which can also be
England.'
rather annoying.
Compound puns contain more than one pun word, such
Parroting as repeating back the words that the other
as 'Your son's bright!'
person has said is a simple way of building rapport. This
needs care as mimicking can be seen as an insult or crass Puns are the bread and butter for many comedians,
and rather blunt method of attempted persuasion. especially those who avoid crass insults and seek loftier
linguistic laughter. Much has been said about puns,
A subtle device is to use the last words that the other
including that it is the lowest form of wit, which rather
person said, but in a different way, almost as if you are
flies in the face of the idea of the erudite user.
picking up where they left off.
Shakespeare literally used thousands.
Puns are also popular with advertisers, who use them to
grab attention and raise a smile, such as 'Have a break.
Have a Kit-Kat.' Journalists sometimes use truly groan-
PUN worthy puns in their headlines.
Description:
Classification: Humor, Hidden, Substitution
A pun is a play on words, usually done for deliberate
humorous effect.
REPETITIO
Example:
Description:
The pun is mightier than the word.
Repetitio is the simple repetition of a single word.
Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious
summer by this son of York. Example:
When does Ella faint? When she blows her trunket. It's a mad, mad, mad world.
Discussion: Vanity of vanities: you are vain, he is vain, all is vanity.
Puns often make use of ambiguity and similar sounding Discussion:
words. The idea is generally that the person sees two
Repetitio simply means 'repetition' and is a general term
different possible meanings and suffers a moment of
for repeating a single word or variants of the same word.
confusion before realizing which is the real one (if there
is one to be chosen). Often one meaning is most obvious Repetition is a form of emphasis in which attention is
whilst the second meaning is hidden, which can lead to gained. We are very good at pattern-matching and it
quite sly amusement as a pun is targeted at some people, does not take long to spot the repeated word pattern and
over the heads of others who are simply confused (or then start to wonder what it means.
may just miss it altogether).
Sometimes puns must be spoken to be understood and
sometimes they have to be seen in the written form.

RHYME Example:
Description: Later, alligator! (Instead of 'see you later, alligator')
Use words that rhyme, repeating sounds across multiple Not here. Not now. (Not do what here and now?)
words.
Car. Now. (instead of 'Get into the car now).
Use a complete poetic meter or just words with similar
Discussion:
sounding ending scattered through the sentences.
Scesis onamaton is a typical form in colloquial and
The ending of words that 'rhyme' can be exact tonal
casual speech and is used by authors to portray informal
matches or can be just similar.
situations and relationships.
You can also use internal rhyme, where letters and
The lack of a verb limits its use to contexts where the
sounds are repeated across a sentence.
verb is obvious. A typically use is in a command, where
Example: the action required is indicated by body language, such
as a pointing finger meaning 'go' or a beckoning crooked
Are you going out tonight? If I come, things will be
finger meaning 'come here'.
alright.
The relaxed state the Scesis onamaton creates may also
Are you going out tonight? Knowing it's right is good, of
lead to the other person falling into an unguarded state
course.
where a persuasive message may be slipped.
Are you going out tonight? Please don't stay out too late.
Are you going out tonight? How far will you go? Will
you get to Mike's?
SENTENTIA
Discussion:
Description:
The more like a poem the words are, the less natural it
will seem. This should be a deliberate decision. For Sententia is the quoting of apparent wisdom to imply
more subtle communication, scatter the rhyming words truth.
randomly through the speech or use a repeating meter
Example:
but do not use words that exactly match.
You know what they say, 'Life is for living.' So let's get
Shakespeare often ended major speeches with a rhyming
back to my place and do some real living!
couplet -- two lines that rhyme and which spell out the
key point. My father always told me that the wise man works
smarter, not harder, which is why I think I need a break.
The words or syllables that rhyme may receive
emphasis, making them stand out and pulling their 80% of knowledge is tacit, so no matter what I write, I
connection together. cannot pass on all I know.
One of the most complex forms of rhyme is found in the Discussion:
Welsh cynghanedd.
A sententious person regularly quotes aphorisms, which
are pithy sayings that appear to embed wisdom.
Aphorisms include traditional sayings that are handed
SCESIS ONAMATON
down 'from your grandmother', such as 'early to bed,
Description: early to rise, makes a person healthy, wealthy and wise.'
Scesis onamaton is the omission of the only verb in a Wisdoms appear in various forms, but often they are
phrase or sentence. short sayings that are not intended to be challenged, even
though they may be serious fallacies. This can make

them particularly useful in persuasion where you want to SPOONERISM
make a point without question.
Description:
Spoonerism is the exchange of letters or sounds between
two words, often with comic effect.
SIMILE Example:
Description: Search every crook and nanny! ('Search every nook and
cranny')
A simile is a comparison of two two things, where
attributes of one is transferred to the other. Bum on caby, fight my liar. (v'Come on baby, light my
fire').
Example:
Gets low, folks. ('Let's go, folks').
As deep as the ocean.
Discussion:
He look like a fish out of water.
A common form of Spoonerism is the transposition of
You seem as happy as a duck in a deluge.
initial letters, although other letters and even sounds may
Discussion: be exchanged.
When trying to describe something, it is often difficult to Spoonerism can just be a speech error and is named after
convey the idea, so stealing attributes of something else the Reverend William Archibald Spooner (1844–1930),
where the idea is clear is a way of communicating your Warden of New College, Oxford, who often made this
idea. slip. It is also used plays where characters also have this
affliction but make amusing Spoonerisms.
A simile is not the same as a metaphor. Simile takes
some attribute of the object and applies it to the subject. Classification: Rearrangement
A metaphor takes all of the attributes of the object and
applies them to the subject. The simile says 'A is like B
in some way'. The metaphor equates, says 'A is B in all SUBREPTION
ways' or 'A = B'. Thus:
Description:
Simile: You are like a dog.
Subreption is deliberate misrepresentation of facts, often
Metaphor: You are a dog. through concealment.
Some similes are quite explicit, such as 'as wet as rain', Example:
whilst others are less clear, such as 'as wet as a bereft
You were there. You were alone. You did it.
politician'.
I was there, but I was busy. How am I expected to see
Similes may be shortened, almost to metaphor, such as
things when I am busy? It's a big place.
'he was like a sword, reaching right to the real problem.'
Others are more specific, 'his mind was like a sword, The candle was burning. Light was emitted. There were
cutting through irrelevant data to find the real problem.' hence photons in every corner of the room.
Similes often use stereotypes, where the comparison is Discussion:
known by common assumption, such as 'He's as honest
as a politician'. A common political phrase is 'being economical with the
truth'. Subreption happens often in situations where there
Ironic reversal can be used to imply the opposite, such as is a lot at stake as people try to put their interests in the
'as wet as the summer Sahara'. best possible light. This can happen in many places,
from courtrooms to scientific journals.

An important factor is often that subrepetion is hidden Discussion:
and it is intentional that the listener kept in the dark.
A lot of the shape and sound of a word is in its
This deception may be achieved by various persuasive
consonants. This means that vowels can be more easily
means, such as distraction or assumption.
removed, including from short words.
Subreption comes from the Latin word 'subreptio',
Synaloepha is most common in the set of words like
meaning 'theft'.
'won't', 'can't' and so on, where the 'o' is removed from
Classification: Hidden, Reasoning the word 'not'. It is also used more creatively in poetry,
where a common synaloepha is in the removal of 'i' from
'it'.
SYMPLOCE Classification: Distortion, Omission
Description:
Symploce is using the same words at the start and the
SYNCHYSIS
same words at the end of successive sentences.
Description:
Example:
Synchysis is an alternating word sequence of the form
If the argue, we well resist. If they fight, we will resist. If
A-B-A-B.
they invade, we will resist.
Example:
I cannot begin to love you. I cannot recommend anyone
else to love you. Young man, boy old.
Discussion: Golden happy ring girl.
Symploce is a combination of anaphora (repeating words I run and shoot, fast and accurate.
at the start of a sentence) and epistrophe (repeating
Discussion:
words at the end of the sentence). The effect is a
powerful repetition that hammers home an important Synchysis is a rather odd form that typically appears in
point. poetry, where words are rearranged such that alternate
words should be read together. It asks the reader to think
This is an interesting example of how figures of speech
hard, concentrating on and reviewing the words until the
can be combined into an even more effective form.
pattern and so the meaning is discovered.
This can be so confusing that it may be necessary to
emphasise the words that go together so the reader or
listener can understand better what is intended.
SYNALOEPHA
Synchysis has an A-B-A-B structure, in contract
Description
to chiasmus, which has an A-B-B-A form.
Synaloepha is the contraction of two words by the
Classification: Rearrangement, Hidden
elimination of a vowel.
Example:
SYNCOPE
Don't! I won't!
Description:
Take't; 'tis yours. What is't?
Syncope is the omission of letters from the middle of a
Would you betray's?
word.

Example: Syndeton is the opposite of asyndeton, where
conjunctions are omitted.
The ship's fo'c'sle (forecastle).
Classification: Attention, Excess
She's ta'en away me precious heart!
Will I be gi'ing ye me f'tune? Not li'ley?
SYNECDOCHE
Discussion:
Description:
Letters are often missed from the middle of words
during speech to speed up talking. It can also be used to This is the use of an associated item to represent
change the sound of the word for poetry or stylized something. Thus:
prose. Removal can be complete syllables or single
A part of something may stand for the whole.
letters (typically consonants).
A single item may represent a whole group.
Syncope often appears rustic in style, and is thus used as
a device to characterize 'simple, country folk'. A concept may represent a connected concept.
Some languages and dialects make more use of syncope Example:
than others (eg. Scottish).
Let me see thy righteous spirit!
Classification: Distortion, Omission
We're out here, looking for the big cats.
For dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return.
SYNDETON
Discussion:
Description:
By representing one thing as another thing, the listener
Syndeton is the repeated use of conjunctions. has to pause and think hard about the association,
especially when it is tenuous and conceptual, as
Example:
synecdoche may be.
You and I and a dog named Boo.
Synecdoche is a broader term than metonymy, which
I want Sue and Jim and Terry and Mark to be on my deals in nouns and more direct connection. Synecdoche
team. deals in ideas as well.
Until the world ends, until the universe dies, until all is Thus, for example, metonymy may used 'head' or even
lost, I will love you. 'crown' to represent 'king'. Synecdoche could use
'country' or 'spirit'.
Discussion:
My lord, oh spirit of the nation!
Conjunctions are joining words that show connection
between things, the most common being 'and'. When a Classification: Meaning, Substitution
list is given, then convention is that only one 'and' is
used, with commas between all except the last two
items. Thus we say 'A, B, C and D'. Syndeton replaces SYNESIS
the commas with conjunctions ('A and B and C and D'),
emphasizing the connection and dwelling more on the Description:
words being connected (so drawing attention to them). Synesis is the unification of words and ideas.
Syndeton may may also be used to create emphasis with Example:
conjunctions other than 'and', such as the use of 'until' in
the example above. We, the people.
The cogs are the clock.

Let's buy these.
Discussion: Example:
Synesis is the pulling together of things. It makes You fool! You dolt! You unmitigated idiot!!
separate items into one item or at least joins them in
That is worthless, useless and of no value.
some way so they are thought of together.
I want him, desire all that he means, cannot live my life
It is often used invisibly in normal speech, which makes
without him beside me always.
it a simple yet powerful device in changing minds. If
you say 'we' then you are connecting yourself with the Discussion:
other person, so your beliefs and actions must also be
theirs. Repetition of the same point is called tautology and is
usually to be avoided. However when it is deliberately
Many words describing items which are actually done, it can be used to create emphasis and make
assemblies of individual parts, such as 'government', something small seem larger than it would otherwise.
'car', a fact that may be indicated in words, making
implicit synesis explicit. Classification: Amplification, Repetition
Synesis can be used to deliberately bring things together

that do not usually go together, for specific effect, such TAPINOSIS
as 'A zoo of statues, cars and moving bars'.
Description:
Tapinosis is the use of speech in understatement and
making something smaller than it actually is.
SYNIZESIS Example:
Description Hah! You say your team won! More like the other team
Synizesis is where contiguous vowel sounds in a single lost.
word are pronounced separately. Yes, I know I saved the boy, but I didn't really think and
Example: anyone would have done the same.
Appeal, Leona, Moria. Discussion:
Discussion: What we want and what happens in the world are seldom
in alignment. We thus adjust what we say and think,
Synizesis is typically used in poetry, where the sound making some things more important and others less
can be even more important than the immediate important. Tapinosis is about the latter diminishing
meaning. activity.
Synizesis may be understood as a contrast to the We often compare ourselves with others, even to the
dipthong, where successive vowels are merged together, extent of defining who we are through those with whom
such as 'encyclopaedia'. we do and do not associate. In this way we want
ourselves to be more important than others, and that they
Classification: Sound
are less important than us. As a result, we may use
tapinosis to downplay the achievements of others in
order to make ourselves feel good.
SYNONYMIA
Modesty, on the other hand, is about understating and
Description:
downplaying the importance of our own achievements in
Synonymia is the repetition of synonyms or synonymous order to help others look good (and also to avoid
phrases in order to emphasize. accusations of arrogance).

Tapinosis is also spelled with an 'e': Tapeinosis. TMESIS
Tapinosis is also known as 'Abbaser'. Description:
Classification: Distortion, Reduction Tmesis is the insertion of one word into another.
Example:
TAUTOLOGY Abso-bloody-lutely stupid!
Description: Any-old-where you find it.
Tautology is the unnecessary repetition of meaning Be you ware of the dangers.
within a sentence.
Discussion:
Example:
The breaking up of the word in tmesis draws attention to
I can't believe I'm seeing it with my own eyes. it by adding emphasis. It makes the reader slow down
and piece together the divided word and so think more
It's a new and innovative idea.
about it. The inserted word is hence often a swear word,
If you don't get any better, then you'll never improve. to add visible and unavoidable emotion.
This arboretum, this collection of trees, is very beautiful. Tmesis can also be used for comic effect, with the
exaggeration over-done. Exaggeration is often used in
Discussion: comedy in this way. Swearing is also used in comedy to
Tautology can be repetition of a single word or of shock and destabilize.
phrases or sentences. The main point in it is that The key part of tmesis is splitting of the word and
meaning is reproduced. insertion of another word. It does not always have to
Tautology is often used in error, including when people have strong emphasis, such as 'be you ware' instead of
are trying to use 'clever' language which they do not 'you beware'. However, the device, by its very use, still
really understand. Another place it appears in formal draws attention.
language where the writer is being overly explicit. The word 'tmesis' is sometimes is used to indicate
It can happen deliberately where the speaker is trying to 'skipping text'.
make sure the other person understands and so is using Tmesis comes from the Greek word for 'cutting'.
different words in case the listener does not understand
the initial (and usually more complex or jargon-based) Classification: Distortion, Attention
word.
Tautology can happen where abbreviations include
TRICOLON
words which are repeated, such as 'The BPS System',
where 'BPS' means Business Processing System'. It can Description:
also occur across languages, for example 'chai tea',
Tricolon is the use of three successive sentence parts of
where 'chai' is Hindi for 'tea'.
equal length and increasing power.
Tautology comes from the Greek word meaning
Example:
'redundant'.
I came, I saw, I conquered. (veni, vidi, vici - Julius
Classification: Repetition, Excess
Caesar)
We will fight! We will kill!! We will destroy!!
I like her, love her, need her forever.

Discussion: Mesozeugma, also called conjuntum, is where a verb in
the middle governs parallel clauses either side of it, such
The isocolon combines the Triple with Climax to use the
as 'Nothing would cause him fear, not threat nor danger.'
power of repetition with increasing force.
Hypozeugma is where a late verb governs earlier
To be a true isocolon, the phrases should be of exact
clauses, such as 'What makes a person think carefully,
length, so the Latin version of Caesar's famous words is
and what makes them cautious, is fear.'
an isocolon, whilst the English translation is not quite
there ('conquered' is two syllables). Synezeugmon also called adjunctum, is where the verb
is joined to more than two clauses, such as 'I saw there
Classification: Repetition, Amplification
the laughter, the great gaiety, the very picture of joy, the
epitome of happiness.'
ZEUGMA Verb zeugma is the most commonly described form and

is often assumed to the only meaning of 'zeugma'.
Description:
Noun zeugma
Zeugma is the joining of two or more parts of a sentence
with a common word, usually a verb. Noun zeugma, or Diazeugma is where a noun governs
two or more verbs. There are two types of diazeugma:
Example:
Diazeugma Disjunction is where the subject is at the
She wore a pink hat and a beatific smile. start of the sentence, with subsequent verb clauses, such
In the morning, happy she was, and in the evening and as 'My family is happy, well-fed and kind to each other.'
dark night too. Diazeugma Conjunction is where the subject is in the
Time makes older adults wiser and younger adults less middle of the sentence, such as 'Afraid and unhappy, the
wise. boy stood alone in the world.'
Walking up and down. Other forms
Discussion: Other variants of zeugma include the opposite,

of hypozeuxis, and syllepsis, where clauses are not
Zeugma uses ellipsis in omission of the second verb or parallel, neither in meaning nor in grammar.
noun. Thus rather than saying 'walking up and down'
you should really say 'walking up and walking down.'
Zeugma is thus a convenient abbreviation of language Zeugma comes from the Greek word for 'yoke', implying
and appears often and unconsciously in speech as we are the joining of words.
economical with words. It may also be used deliberately
for conciseness or other effect. Classification: Omission
Zeugma also uses parallelism in that there are multiple

clauses in which the joining word applies.
The way things are linked together can be used to comic
effect, such as 'He held a high rank and an old notepad.'
Verb zeugma
There are three types of verb zeugma, depending on
whether the verb is at the start, middle or end of the
sentence:
Prozeugma, also called praeiunctio or injunctum, is
where an early verb governs later clauses, such as 'Fear
makes us cautious, resentful and sometimes dangerous.'

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ACOLOUTHA Accismus may be genuine. It may also be false modesty.

In a fuller game, the first person offers something, which

Acolutha is similar in form to a synonym, but it is not a Description:

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Example: Classification: Meaning

I am as sad as a sand boy.

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

You've got as much chance with her as I have of

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Classification: Reasoning An allegory takes the idea of a metaphor, where one

AMPHIBOLOGY Amphilogy is talking around a subject to avoid being

Wanted: chair for a person with a wooden leg. Discussion:

Discussion: When talking about ourselves, we may have secrets that,

She said what? Well, she probably said it before

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Analogy comes from the Greek 'analogia', meaning Discussion:

Antanaclasis is the repetition of a word, where the word Discussion:

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Description: Eleri, oh light of my life, igniter of passion!

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Description: Asyndeton is also known as brachylogia.

Asyndeton is a figure of speech where conjunctions are Classification: Omission

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Classification: Exaggeration, Distortion, Repetition Bomphiologia is bombastic, bragging speech.

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Discussion: Sh*t happens.

Sometimes people have more money or power than Looking good!

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Using mixed metaphor. Example:

Catachresis comes from the Greek word meaning 'the Discussion:

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Cledonism is also a kind of divination. Run for fun and everyone.

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Classification: Rearrangement Gambling is a tax on losers.

Description: When an extreme word is used it amplifies the meaning

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Congrat-amazing-ulations, young man. Ellipsis is omission of words from a sentence or phrase

Enallage may well be accidental and a result of the Classification: Attention

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Description: Reversing something is to create a pattern. We are

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Example: Classification: Distortion

I have had two...no, that's three...heart attacks.

The time is coming--actually it has already arrived! Description:

Discussion: Epistrophe is where a set of lines, phrases, clauses, or

Example: Classification: Repetition

I was visitating her.

Example: Isn't that wonderful? Is it a shade of blue?

No! No!! NO!!! NO!!!! Self-talk

Discussion: What is that? A bird, I'd say. What type? Maybe an

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Terminating statement Description:

Can you see? Look there! Discussion:

Classification: Reasoning When a person prays, it is a very personal thing and, in

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

EUSYSTOLISM An important way that a person can be persuaded is

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by:

Classification: Reversal, Rearrangement, Grammar Discussion

Figure of Speech Researched, compiled and simplified by: