Broadcast Engineering

and Acoustics
I. INTRODUCTION
Broadcast Engineering
Broadcast Engineering is the field of electronics engineering,
which deals with radio and television broadcasting.
Broadcast engineering involves both the studio end and
the transmitter end as well as remote broadcasts.
Broadcasting
Broadcast means to send out in all directions

Radio Broadcasting is the transmission of modulated video

and/ or audio signal to the public using the atmosphere as
the communications medium. It is a one-way wireless
transmission over radio waves intended to reach a
wide audience.
History
The earliest broadcasting consisted of sending telegraph
signals over the airwaves, using Morse code.

Audio broadcasting began experimentally in the first

decade of the 20th century.

By the early 1920s radio broadcasting became a household

medium, at first on the AM band and later on FM.
In 1934, the Federal Communications Commission is
created.

Television broadcasting started experimentally in the 1920s

and became widespread after World War II, using VHF and
UHF spectrum.
In 1945, commercial television was born.

Satellite broadcasting was initiated in the

1960s and moved into general industry usage
in the 1970s, with DBS (Direct Broadcast
Satellites) emerging in the 1980s.
The first known photograph
of a moving image produced
by Baird's "televisor", circa
1926
In 1977, the SMPTE (Society of Motion
Picture and Television Engineers® )
Study Group on High Definition
Television was formed.

The first demonstration of HDTV in the United States took

place in 1981 and generated a great deal of interest.
In March 1990, when it became
clear that a digital standard was
feasible.

In the late 2000’s the transition

to digital television started.
Pioneers of Broadcasting
One of the first signals of significant
power that carried voice and music
was accomplished in 1906 by Reginald
Fessenden when he made a Christmas
Eve broadcast to ships at sea from
Massachusetts.
Reginald Fessenden
(1866 –1932)
 Edwin Howard Armstrong was an
American electrical engineer and
inventor. He has been called "the
most prolific and influential inventor
in radio history".

Armstrong was also the inventor of

Edwin Howard Armstrong modern frequency modulation (FM)
(1890 – 1954) radio transmission.
Television Pioneers
•Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton •Kálmán Tihanyi
•Alan Blumlein •Kenjiro Takayanagi
•Allen B. DuMont •Léon Theremin
•Antonio Quirino •Lubo Micic
•Assis Chateaubriand •Earl Muntz
•Boris Grabovsky •Manfred von Ardenne
•Boris Rosing •Paul Gottlieb Nipkow
•Charles Francis Jenkins •Philo Taylor Farnsworth
•Constantin Perskyi •Siegmund and David Loewe
•David Sarnoff •Ulises Armand Sanabria
•Guillermo González Camarena •Vladimir Zworykin
•John Logie Baird •Walter Bruch (PAL television)
History of Broadcasting in the
Philippines
In 1922, Mrs. Redgrave, an American, began test
broadcasting from Nichols air field with a five-watt
transmitter. (1st Radio Station)

KZKZ (729 kHz AM), a 50-watt station was founded by

Henry Hermann, owner of the Electrical Supply Company in
Manila.(2nd Radio Station)
1924
The first two call letters “KZ” (call sign) was assigned to all
radio stations in the Philippines in accordance with the laws
of the USA applicable to the country, which was then an
American colony.

KZKZ was upgraded to a 100-watt station and its call letter,

KZKZ, were adopted. Later that year, the station was sold to
the Radio Corporation of the Philippines.
In 1926, RCP began constructing two of the largest radio stations in
Asia with the idea of maintaining direct Manila-San Francisco
service. After Philippine independence, it changed its callsign to
DWKZ, but changed in 1960 to DZCA (1170).

In 1929, RCP launched KZRC in Cebu broadcasting with a 100-watt

transmitter, but was later sold to store owner Isaac Beck (It’s now
DYRC owned by the Manila Broadcasting Company).
The first two call letters “KZ” was
used until 1947 when Francisco
“Koko” Trinidad, regarded by
broadcasters and broadcast faculty
and students as the Father of
Philippine broadcasting,
represented the country in a
conference of the ITU in Atlantic City
in USA.
In that conference, Trinidad insisted the change of “KZ” to
“RP” for Republic of the Philippines.
The union rejected it and allow the Philippines to use the
letter “D” (Deutscheland), the German name of Germany.
Types of Radio Broadcast Station
There are four types of radio broadcast station in the
Philippines and these are the following:
◦ Medium Frequency broadcast station (AM)
◦ FM broadcast station
◦ International broadcast station
◦ Television broadcast station
Number Radio Broadcast Station in the
Philippines (2013)
1000

900

800

700

600
AM
500
FM

400 TV

300

200

100

0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Radio Broadcast Standards
In the formulation of technical standards for domestic
broadcasting, the most important considerations must
include:
Prevention of harmful signal interferences,
Provision for better signal quality, and
Properly utilize the broadcast spectrum.
International Telecommunication
Union
3 Sectors and their function
Regulation (ITU-R)
◦ spectrum management and coordination
◦ Radio Regulations

Standardisation (ITU-T)
◦ ITU Recommendations
◦ seamless interworking of systems on a global basis
◦ technical characteristics/specifications, operational procedures, “best” practices

Development (ITU-D)
◦ assistance to developing countries
◦ improving telecoms infrastructure in the developing world
◦ catalyst for forging development partnerships
◦ increasing awareness of today’s technologies
◦ ITU TELECOM
◦ General Secretariat

www.itu.int
Federal Communications
Commission
The Federal Communications Commission regulates
interstate and international communications by radio,
television, wire, satellite and cable in all 50 states, the
District of Columbia and U.S. territories. An independent
U.S. government agency overseen by Congress, the
commission is the United States' primary authority for
communications law, regulation and technological
innovation.

https://www.fcc.gov/
National Telecommunications
Commission (NTC)
•Grant certificates of Public convenience and Necessity/Provisional Authority
•Grant licenses
•Allocate/sub-allocate and assign frequencies
•Type-approve/type-accept all radio communications equipment
•Conduct radio communications examination
•Prepare, plan and conduct studies for policy and regulatory purposes
•Monitor operation
•Enforce applicable domestic and international laws, rules and regulations
•www.ntc.gov.ph/
Kapisanan ng mga Brodkaster sa
Pilipinas
Foremost broadcast media organization in
the Philippines, composed of owners and
operators of radio and television stations
(Regular Members) and the radio and
television stations themselves (Associate
Members).

•www.kbp.org.ph/
The KBP was organized to;
● elevate professional and ethical standards in Philippine
broadcasting,
● promote social responsibility in broadcasting,
● work for the advancement of the broadcast industry and
● protect the rights and interests of broadcasters, seminars and
conferences
Broadcast Engineering
and Acoustics
II. REVIEW ON ANALOG MODULATION
Modulation
The process of modifying the property of a high
frequency electromagnetic wave in accordance to a
signal.
Baseband and Carrier Signal
The baseband signal is the information signal. Also called as
the modulating signal.

The carrier signal is the information being modulated. It is

the signal that is transmitted.
Different types of modulation

A/A A/D D/A D/D

AM
FM
PM
Different types of modulation

A/A A/D D/A D/D

PAM

PDM

PPM

PCM
Different types of modulation

A/A A/D D/A D/D

ASK
FSK
PSK
Different types of modulation

A/A A/D D/A D/D

Unipolar
Polar
Bipolar
Amplitude Modulation
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is
varied by the modulating signal.
Equations of AM Signal
● Modulating Signal
● Carrier Signal
● Amplitude Modulated Signal
Instantaneous value of the modulating
signal
The instantaneous values of modulating signal and carrier signal can be
represented as given below.

𝑒𝑚 = 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑚𝑡)

Where: 𝑒𝑚 = instantaneous amplitude

𝐸𝑚 = maximum amplitude
𝜔𝑚 = 2(𝑝𝑖)𝑓𝑚 = angular frequency
𝑓 = frequency of the modulating signal
Instantaneous value of the carrier signal
𝑒𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 sin(𝜔𝑐𝑡)

Where 𝑒𝑐 = instantaneous amplitude

𝐸𝑐 = maximum amplitude
𝜔𝑐 = 2(pi)fc angular frequency
𝑓𝑐 = frequency of the carrier signal
Instantaneous value of amplitude
modulated signal
𝐸𝐴𝑀 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝑒𝑚
𝐸𝐴𝑀 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑚𝑡)

𝑒𝐴𝑀 = 𝐸𝑎𝑚 sinΘ Where: 𝑒𝐴𝑀 = instantaneous amplitude

𝐸𝑐 = maximum amplitude
𝑒𝐴𝑀 = 𝐸𝑎𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑐𝑡) 𝜔𝑐 = 2(𝑝𝑖)𝑓𝑐 = angular frequency
𝑓𝑐 = frequency of the carrier signal
𝑒𝐴𝑀 = [𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑚 𝑡)]sin(𝜔𝑐𝑡)
Modulation Index and Percentage of
Modulation
Modulation index is a number lying between 0 and 1, and is the
ratio of the amplitude of the modulating frequency to the amplitude
of the carrier frequency. It is very often expressed as a percentage
and is called the percentage of modulation.

Overmodulation refers to conditions where in the modulation index

is greater that 1, causing distortion to the amplitude modulated
wave.
Modulation Index
𝑚 = 𝐸𝑚 / 𝐸𝑐

𝑚 = modulation index
𝐸𝑚 = amplitude of modulating frequency
𝐸𝑐 = amplitude of carrier frequency
Percentage of Modulation
%𝑚 = (𝐸𝑚 / 𝐸𝑐 ) ∗ 100%

𝑚 = percentage of modulation
𝐸𝑚 = amplitude of modulating frequency
𝐸𝑐 = amplitude of carrier frequency
Frequency Spectrum of the AM Wave
The modulated carrier has new signals at different
frequencies, called side frequencies or sidebands.

The sidebands occur in the frequency spectrum directly

above and below the carrier frequency.
Upper and Lower Sidebands
𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚
𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 – 𝑓𝑚

where:
𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 = upper sideband frequency
𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 =lower sideband frequency
𝑓𝑐 =carrier frequency
𝑓𝑚 =modulating frequency
`
Frequency Spectrum of AM in Spectrum
Analyzer
Derivation of the AM equation with the
sideband terms
𝑒𝐴𝑀 = [𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑚𝑡)]sin(𝜔𝑐𝑡)
𝑒𝐴𝑀 = 𝐸𝑐 [1 + 𝑚sin(𝜔𝑚𝑡]sin(𝜔𝑐𝑡)
𝑒𝐴𝑀 = 𝐸𝑐sin(𝜔𝑐𝑡) + 𝑚𝐸𝑐sin(𝜔𝑚𝑡)sin(𝜔𝑐𝑡)
𝑚𝐸𝑐 𝑚𝐸𝑐
𝑒𝐴𝑀 = 𝐸𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐𝑡 − 𝜔𝑚𝑡 − cos(𝜔𝑐𝑡 + 𝜔𝑚𝑡)
2 2
Fourier Theory
Fourier Theory states that any complex
periodic wave can be decomposed into a
set of sinusoids with different
amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth is a measure of the width of a range of
frequencies, measure in hertz.

The bandwidth in am can be measured by subtracting the

lowest frequency of the signal from the highest frequency
of the signal.
𝐵 = 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 – 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵
𝐵 = (𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 ) – (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 )
𝐵 = 2𝑓𝑚

where
𝐵 = bandwidth
AM Power
In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified by a power
amplifier and fed to the antenna with a characteristic
impedance that is ideally, but not necessarily, almost pure
resistance. The AM signal is really a composite of several
signal voltages, namely, the carrier and the two sidebands,
and each of these signals produces power in the antenna.
The total transmitted power PT is simply the sum of the carrier
power Pc and the power in the two sidebands PUSB and PLSB:

You can see how the power in an AM signal is distributed and

calculated by going back to the original AM equation:
Now, remember that Vc and Vm are peak values of the carrier and
modulating sine waves, respectively. For power calculations, rms
values must be used for the voltages. We can convert from peak to
rms by dividing the peak value by sqrt of 2 or multiplying by 0.707.
The rms carrier and sideband voltages are then
Double Sideband Modulation
The first step in generating an SSB signal is to suppress the carrier,
leaving the upper and lower sidebands. This type of signal is referred
to as a double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSSC or DSB) signal. The
benefit, of course, is that no power is wasted on the carrier. Double-
sideband suppressed carrier modulation is simply a special case of
AM with no carrier.
Single Sideband Modulation
In DSB transmission, since the sidebands are the sum and difference
of the carrier and modulating signals, the information is contained in
both sidebands. As it turns out, there is no reason to transmit both
sidebands in order to convey the information. One sideband can be
suppressed; the remaining sideband is called a single- sideband
suppressed carrier (SSSC or SSB) signal.
SSB signals offer four major benefits.
1. Spectrum space
2. Power consumption
3. Narrow bandwidth, less noise
4. Resistance to selective fading
Disadvantages of DSB and SSB
The main disadvantage of DSB and SSB signals is that they are harder
to recover, or demodulate, at the receiver.
To solve this problem, a low-level carrier signal is sometimes
transmitted along with the two sidebands in DSB or a single
sideband in SSB. Such a low-level carrier is referred to as a pilot
carrier.
AM Circuits
Questions
True or false? The modulating signal appears in the output spectrum of an AM
signal.

What mathematical operation does an amplitude modulator perform?

What is the name of the circuit used to eliminate the carrier in DSB/SSB
transmissions?

What signals does a balanced modulator generate? Eliminate?

Angle Modulation
Is a modulation technique which varies the phase angle of a
high-frequency carrier signal in proportion with the
instantaneous amplitude of a modulating signal.
Forms of Angle Modulation
∙ Frequency Modulation (FM)
- is an angle modulation method which the frequency of a
carrier signal is varied in proportion with the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

∙ Phase Modulation (PM)

- is an angle modulation method which the phase of a carrier
signal is varied in proportion with the amplitude of the modulating
signal.
General Waveforms
Frequency Modulation
Frequency Deviation
Is used in radio to describe the maximum instantaneous difference
between an FM modulated frequency and the nominal carrier
frequency.
Modulation Index
Modulation is generally expressed in terms of the modulation index.
The modulation index is the ratio of the frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency.

When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the

maximum modulating frequency are used in computing the
modulation index, mf is known as the deviation ratio.
𝑚 = Δ𝑓 / 𝑓𝑚
Percent modulation
It is the modulation index, expressed as a percentage.

% 𝑚 = (Δ𝑓 / 𝑓𝑚) ∗ 100%

Problem
What is the maximum modulating frequency that can be used to
achieve a modulation index of 2.2 with a deviation of 7.48 kHz?
Frequency Spectrum of an FM
Wave
In AM wave, it is easy to tell what frequencies are present in
the modulated wave. Unfortunately, the situation is quite
complicated, mathematically for FM.

In FM, there is an infinite number of side bands.

Bessel Functions
Are canonical solutions to Bessel’s differential equations.

To describe and FM wave, the only solution involves the use of Bessel Functions
Bandwidth Requirements
The bandwidth of an FM wave is given by the following
equation, formulated through Carson’s Bandwidth Rule.

𝐵𝑊 = 2(𝑚 + 1) 𝑓𝑚

𝐵𝑊𝐹𝑀 = 2(Δ𝑓 + 𝑓𝑚)

Example
Find the bandwidth, given the following parameters.
1. Δ𝑓 = 75 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑚 = 50 𝐻𝑧

2. Δ𝑓 = 75 𝐾𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑚 = 500 𝐻𝑧

3. Δ𝑓 = 75 𝐾𝐻𝑧 𝑓𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
FM Circuit
Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the
input of a VCO.

A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic

oscillator whose oscillation frequency is controlled by a voltage input. The
applied input voltage determines the instantaneous oscillation frequency.
Consequently, modulating signals applied to control input may cause frequency
modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM).can be achieved by directly feeding
the message into the input of a VCO.
A common method for recovering the information signal is through a Foster-
Seeley discriminator.
It uses a tuned RF transformer to convert frequency changes into amplitude
changes. A transformer, tuned to the carrier frequency, is connected to
two rectifier diodes. The circuit resembles a full-wave bridge rectifier. If the
input equals the carrier frequency, the two halves of the tuned transformer
circuit produce the same rectified voltage and the output is zero. As the
frequency of the carrier changes, the balance between the two halves of the
transformer secondary changes, and the result is a voltage proportional to the
frequency deviation of the carrier.
Another common demodulator is the Phase-Locked Loop. The ability of a phase-
locked loop to provide frequency selectivity and filtering gives it a signal-to-
noise ratio superior to that of another type of FM detector.
Uses of Frequency Modulation
Service Type Frequency Assignment Channel Bandwidth Maximum Deviation Highest Audio
Commercial FM 88.0 to 108.0 MHz 200 KHz (+/-) 75 KHz 15 KHz
radio Broadcast
Television sound 4.5 MHz above picture 100 KHz (+/-) 25 KHz mono 15 KHz
carrier frequency (+/-) 50 KHz stereo
Public safety: 50 MHz 20 KHz (+/-) 5 KHz 3 KHz
police, fire, 122 to 174 MHz
ambulance, transpo.,
government, etc.
Amateur band radio 216 to 470 MHz 15 KHz (+/-) 3 KHz 3 KHz
Wireless mics and
The same as commercial FM broadcast, but limited in power less than 1 W
wireless telephone
Military Intermingled with public safety and extending to microwave frequencies
 AM FM
Stands for AM stands for Amplitude Modulation FM stands for Frequency Modulation
AM method of audio transmission was first successfully carried out in the mid FM radio was developed in the United states in the 1930s, mainly by Edwin
Origin
1870s. Armstrong.
In AM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or "carrier wave" is modulated in In FM, a radio wave known as the "carrier" or "carrier wave" is modulated in
amplitude by the signal that is to be transmitted. The frequency and phase frequency by the signal that is to be transmitted. The amplitude and phase
Modulating differences
remain the same. remain the same.

AM has poorer sound quality compared with FM, but is cheaper and can be FM is less prone to interference than AM. However, FM signals are impacted
transmitted over long distances. It has a lower bandwidth so it can have more by physical barriers. FM has better sound quality due to higher bandwidth.
Pros and cons stations available in any frequency range.

AM radio ranges from 535 to 1705 KHz (OR) Up to 1200 bits per second. FM radio ranges in a higher spectrum from 88 to 108 MHz. (OR) 1200 to 2400
Frequency Range bits per second.

Twice the highest modulating frequency. In AM radio broadcasting, the Twice the sum of the modulating signal frequency and the frequency
modulating signal has bandwidth of 15kHz, and hence the bandwidth of an deviation. If the frequency deviation is 75kHz and the modulating signal
Bandwidth Requirements amplitude-modulated signal is 30kHz. frequency is 15kHz, the bandwidth required is 180kHz.

Transmitter and receiver are simple but syncronization is needed in case of Transmitter and receiver are more complex as variation of modulating signal
SSBSC AM carrier. has to be converted and detected from corresponding variation in
Complexity frequencies.(i.e. voltage to frequency and frequency to voltage conversion
has to be done).

AM is more susceptible to noise because noise affects amplitude, which is FM is less susceptible to noise because information in an FM signal is
Noise where information is "stored" in an AM signal. transmitted through varying the frequency, and not the amplitude.