Rainwater Harvesting in Response To Water Scarcity

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Rainwater Harvesting Innovations in Response to Water Scarcity
Technical Report · July 2006
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Technical Manual no. 5
Rainwater harvesting innovations in

response to water scarcity
The Lare experience
Hydrologic impacts of ponds on land cover
change
Runoff water harvesting in Lare, Kenya

RELMA Technical Report (TR) series
Rainwater harvesting by a Maasai Community: An evaluation report on Land husbandry education in agricultural colleges of eastern Africa: an
a project in Talek of Masai-Mara, Kenya. overview
Tanguy de Buck, Maimbo M. Malesu, Bancy Mati & Alex R. Tesfaye Abebe. 1997. TR No. 16. ISBN 9966-896-28-7
Oduor. TR No. 31. ISBN 92-9059-190-0
Zero grazing, an alternative system for livestock production in the
Impact of Rainwater Harvesting: A case study of rainwater harvesting rehabilitated areas of Kondoa, Tanzania
for domestic, livestock, environmental and agricultural use in Kusa Tekie Gebregziebher, A.P. Masaoa, C.M. Shayo, H.A. Ulotu and E.J.M.
Orodi J. Odhiambo, Alex R. Oduor & Maimbo M. Malesu. Shirima. 1996. TR No. 15. ISBN 9966-896-27-9
TR No. 30. ISBN 92-9059-180-3.
Twenty years of soil conservation in Ethiopia: a personal overview
Empowering rural communities: Rainwater harvesting by women Berhe Wolde-Aregay. 1996. TR No. 14. ISBN 9966-896-26-0
groups in Rakai, Uganda.
Julianne Rugasira, Millie Abaru and Rolf Winberg. TR No. 29. Changing environments: research on man–land interrelations in semi-arid
ISBN 9966-896-47-3. Tanzania
Carl Christiansson and Idris S. Kikula (eds). 1996. TR No. 13. ISBN
Low-cost methods of rainwater storage: results from field trials in 9966-896-25-2
Ethiopia and Kenya
Hune Nega
and Paul M. Kimeu. TR No. 28. ISBN 9966-896-64-3 The hand of man: soil conservation in Kondoa eroded area, Tanzania
Carl Christiansson, Alfred C. Mbegu and Anders Yrgård. 1993.
Farmers’ initiatives in land husbandry: promising technologies for the TR No. 12. ISBN 9966-896-18-X
drier areas of East Africa
Kithinji Mutunga and Will Critchley with P. Lameck, A. Lwakuba Management of natural resources and environment in Uganda: policy and
and C. Mburu. TR No. 27. ISBN 9966-896-63-5 legislation landmarks, 1890–1990
Jones R. Kamugisha. 1993. TR No. 11. ISBN 9966-896-17-1
Marketing of smallholder produce: a synthesis of case studies in the
highlands of central Kenya Environmental education: experiences and suggestions
Stachys N. Muturi (ed.), Julius K. Kilungo, Kavoi M. Muendo, Valdy Lindhe, Miles Goldstick, Stachys N. Muturi and Paul
Zacharia Mairura and Joseph G. Kariuki. 2001. TR No. 26. Rimmerfors. 1993. TR No. 10. ISBN 9966-896-13-9
ISBN 9966-896-56-2
Twenty years of soil conservation in eastern Africa
Agricultural education in Kenya and Tanzania (1968–1998) Lill Lundgren. 1993. TR No. 9. ISBN 9966-896-12-0
David Ngugi, Aida Isinika, August Temu and Aichi Kitalyi. 2002.
TR No. 25. ISBN 9966-896-58-9
Improving livestock production in Babati District, Tanzania
Josef Jonsson, James Kahurananga and Augustine Macha. 1993. TR
Estimating costs and benefits on crop production: a simplified guide No. 8. ISBN 9966-896-10-4
for smallholder farmers in Ethiopia
Takele Zegeye, Abdurahim Ali, Admasu Kebede, Katarina
Renström and Gedion Shone. 2000. TR No. 24. Parks and people—pastoralists and wildlife: proceedings from a seminar
on environmental degradation in and around Lake Mburo National Park,
ISBN 9966-896-50-3
Uganda
Jones R. Kamugisha and Michael Ståhl. 1993. TR No. 7. ISBN 9966-
Soil conservation in Eritrea: some case studies 896-09-0
Amanuel Negassi, Bo Tegngäs, Estifanos Bein and Kifle Gebru.
2000. TR No. 23. ISBN 9966-896-43-0
The catchment approach to soil conservation in Kenya
Yeraswarq Admassie. 1992. TR No. 6. ISBN 9966-896-08-2
We work together: land rehabilitation and household dynamics in
Chepareria Division, West Pokot District, Kenya
Lake Babati, Tanzania, and its immediate surroundings: part II—
William Makokha, Samwel Lonyakou, Monicah Nyang, K.K.
management and action plan
Kareko, Christine Holding, Jesse T. Njoka and Aichi Kitalyi. 1999.
James Kahurananga. 1992. TR No. 5. ISBN 9966-896-06-6
TR No. 22. ISBN 9966-896-42-2
Lake Babati, Tanzania, and its immediate surroundings: part I—baseline
Agroforestry extension manuals: a survey of their use in Kenya
information
Stachys N. Muturi. 1999. TR No. 21. ISBN 9966-896-41-1 James Kahurananga. 1992. TR No. 4. ISBN 9966-896-05-8
Traditions and innovation in land husbandry: building on local

Miljöprofil Kenya (in Swedish)
knowledge in Kabale, Uganda
Lill Lundgren. 1992. TR No. 3. ISBN 9966-896-04-X
Will Critchley, Dan Miiro, Jim Ellis-Jones, Stephen Briggs and Joy
Tumuhairwe. 1999. TR No. 20. ISBN 9966-896-38-4
The wild lake: the 1990 floods in Babati, Tanzania—rehabilitation and
prevention
Evolution of provision of tree seed in extension programmes: case
C.Å. Gerdén, G.M.O. Khawange, J.M. Mallya, J.P. Mbuya and R.C.
studies from Kenya and Uganda
Sanga. 1992. TR No. 2. ISBN 9966-896-01-5
Christine Holding and William Omondi (eds). 1998. TR No. 19.
ISBN 9966-896-34-1
The revival of soil conservation in Kenya: Carl Gösta Wenner’s Personal
Notes 1974–81
Participatory planning and implementation: experiences with farmers
Arne Eriksson (ed). 1992. TR No. 1. ISBN 9966-896-00-7
from Nyandarua District, Kenya, 1992–1995
Christine Holding and Kiunga Kareko. 1997. TR No. 18. ISBN
9966-896-30-9
Parks and people—conservation and livelihoods at the crossroads: four

case histories
Jonas R. Kamugisha, Z.A. Ogutu and Michael Ståhl. 1997. TR No.
17. ISBN 9966-896-29-5
Hydrologic impacts of ponds on land cover
change
Maimbo M. Malesu
Joseph K. Sang,
Orodi J. Odhiambo,
Alex R. Oduor,
Meshack Nyabenge.
Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA-in-ICRAF)

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
Published by
The SearNet Secretariat, Global Water Partnership Associated Programme of
RELMA-in-ICRAF. World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF House, United Nations Avenue, Gigiri.
P.O. Box 30677 – 00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
2006 Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA-in-ICRAF), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign

Affairs and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida).
Editor of GWP-AP in RELMA Series of publications

Alex R. Oduor, Development Specialist: Information and Publications.
Cover photographs
Alex R. Oduor
Design and Layout

Logitech Ltd
P. O. Box 1003 - 00100
Nairobi, Kenya
Cataloguing in publication data

Maimbo M. Malesu, Joseph K. Sang, Alex R. Oduor, Orodi J. Odhiambo & Meshack Nyabenge.
Hydrologic impacts of ponds on land cover change: Runoff water harvesting in Lare. Kenya. 2006.
Technical Report No. 32 Nairobi, Kenya: Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA-in-ICRAF),
Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
(Sida) 41p + xii includes bibliography.
ISBN: 92 9059 197 8
The contents of this book may be reproduced without special permission. However, acknowledgement
of the source is requested. Views expressed in the GWP-AP of RELMA series of publication are those
of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of RELMA-in-ICRAF.
iv
Contents
Foreword.........................................................................................................................vii
Preface ..........................................................................................................................viii
Acknowledgement ..........................................................................................................x
Acronyms ........................................................................................................................xi
Chapter 1: Introduction.................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 2: Lare division ................................................................................................. 4

2.1 Location ............................................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Climate.............................................................................................................................. 5
2.3 Soils . 7
2.4 Land use and land cover ................................................................................................. 9
2.5 Hydrologic characteristics ............................................................................................. 10
Chapter 3: Hydrologic impact of land cover change in Lare....................................12

3.1 Land cover change......................................................................................................... 12
3.2 Impact of land use change on the hydrology of Lare division..................................... 14
3.3 Contribution of land cover change to adoption of rainwater harvesting .................... 18
Chapter 4: Rainwater harvesting technology in Lare ...............................................19

4.1 Rainwater harvesting systems ...................................................................................... 19
4.2 Technical issues in the case of Lare ............................................................................ 20
4.3 Storage for ground catchment systems ...................................................................... 22
4.4 In-situ rainwater harvesting .......................................................................................... 26
4.5 Adoption of rain water harvesting ponds ..................................................................... 29
Chapter 5: Impacts of rainwater harvesting..............................................................31

5.1 Social impacts ................................................................................................................ 31
5.2 Economic impacts.......................................................................................................... 33
5.3 Environmental and ecological impacts ........................................................................ 34
Chapter 6: Conclusions and recommendations........................................................35

6.1 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 35
6.2 Recommendations for replication of rainwater harvesting ......................................... 35
References ....................................................................................................................37
Annexes .........................................................................................................................38
Annex 1: Log sheet for ground truthing ............................................................................... 38
Annex 2: Field Questionnaire ............................................................................................... 39
Annex 3: Key informants ....................................................................................................... 41
Annex 4: Percentage of land cover....................................................................................... 41
v
List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Location of Lare division ..................................................................................................4
Figure 2.2: The mean monthly rainfall for Egerton University Rainfall Recording Station ..............5
Figure 2.3: The Agro-Ecological Zone of Lare division .......................................................................6
Figure 2.4: Soils of Lare division .........................................................................................................8
Figure 2.5: Streams in Lare division..................................................................................................11
Figure 3.1: Land cover maps for Lare and its surroundings in 1973, 1986 and 2003. .............. 12
Figure 3.2: A graph showing the percentage changes of different land cover over time .............13
Figure 3.3: Change in total annual rainfall observed at Egerton university
Rainfall Recording Station .............................................................................................14
Figure 3.4: Change in mean monthly streamflow ...........................................................................15
Figure 3.5: Variation in seasonal mean streamflow .........................................................................16
Figure 3.6: Variation in seasonal maximum streamflow..................................................................16
Figure 4.1: Rain days at Naishi ......................................................................................................... 20
Figure 4.2: A schematic diagram showing components of a typical Lare pond system ...............24
Figure 5.1: Savings in time and distance .........................................................................................31
List of Plates
Plate 1.1: Ground-truthing the Quickbird image based map ...........................................................3
Plate 2.1: Typical landuse for farmers practicing rainwater harvesting .........................................9
Plate 2.2: Dairy animals being fed on banana and grass cuttings. ..............................................10
Plate 3.1: Continued encroachment into forestlands in the upper part of the watershed ........13
Plate 3.2: Makalia River during the dry season of 2006 ...............................................................17
Plate 4.1: Gathurere, a crucial community managed earth dam ................................................ 23
Plate 4.2: RWH ponds (a) designed water storage pond and (b) former
quarry site used for RWH. .............................................................................................. 23
Plate 4.3: Trench with correct gradient to check on both sedimentation and erosion ............... 25
Plate 4.4: A section of the Quickbird image ................................................................................... 29
Plate 5.1: Both men and women ferry water from the river.......................................................... 32
Plate 5.2: Improved Kamau Kuria homes in the background of former building.........................34
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Agro-Ecological Zones of Lare division ............................................................................7
Table 2.2: Characteristics of Lare soils .............................................................................................8
vi
Foreword
RELMA-in-ICRAF undertook a technical study of the extensive and successful adoption

of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in Lare division, Nakuru district, Kenya. The technical
study aimed at generating and documenting the scientific knowledge and experiences
associated with rainwater harvesting in the division. This is meant to be used in upscaling
and replicating rainwater harvesting in other areas with similar hydro-climactic
conditions.
The local community, who are mainly made of immigrant population, settled in the area
in the late 1970s. Settlement continues to date in the surrounding areas such as Likia,
Mauche and Mau Narok. These settlements have resulted in continued removal of the
natural land cover, mainly deforestation, in favour of agricultural activities. The changes
in land cover could be associated with the decline in the streamflow amount in the area.
Most of the rivers in the area dries up during the dry season which is a cyclic phenomena
every three to four years.
To cope with these changes, the local community has adopted simple rainwater harvesting
techniques, with minimal support and advocacy from government agencies and local
Non-Governmental Agencies (NGO). In turn, there has been widespread socio-economic
and environmental impact of rainwater harvesting. The farm income has increased
tremendously, while environmental conservation has been enhanced through agroforestry
whereas agricultural drudgery has been reduced.
This book highlights how changes in land use has caused changes in hydrologic regime
and how this has contributed to adoption of rainwater harvesting in Lare division. It also
highlights on the extent and impact of the adoption of rainwater harvesting in the area.
Chin Ong.
Project manager
RELMA-in-ICRAF
vii
Preface
Land cover changes affect the hydrological regime of an area. These effects are manifested
at different spatial and temporal scales. In the 134 km2 Lare division of Nakuru district,
there has been extensive deforestation due to the socio-political motivated settlement in
the area. Deforestation could be linked to the prevailing water and food insecurity in the
division. To cope with changes in the hydrologic regime due to land cover change in Lare
division, the local populace have successfully adopted rainwater harvesting. Rainwater
harvesting is the collection, conveyance, and storage of rainwater for various purposes.
The successful adoption of rainwater harvesting in Lare division has been a showcase
of how rainwater harvesting can transform landscapes and livelihood within a relatively
short time.
This study utilised LandSat information, Quickbird images and field survey to establish
the impact of land use and land cover changes on the local hydrologic regime and how
these have contributed to the successful adoption of rainwater harvesting in Lare division.
Field interviews tapped on local and logical scientific knowledge from pre-selected key
informants.
The analysis of LandSat images established that adjacent forest cover has been reducing
by 0.78% of the original area in 1973. Analysis of long term rainfall data also established
that there has been a decline in the total annual rainfall amount. This has had significant
impact on the hydrologic regime in the division. The maximum and mean dry and wet
seasonal flow volume has been consistently declining over the last 40 years. This could
be attributed to changes in climate, land cover or both. However, it has resulted in acute
water shortage especially during the dry season and consequently food insecurity.
To cope with this acute shortage of water, the local community in Lare division has
adopted rainwater harvesting as a coping mechanism. The analysis of the Quickbird
image revealed that the adoption rate was nine ponds per square kilometer. The
successful adoption of rainwater harvesting in the area is attributed to the consistent
viii
collaborative effort of the various stakeholders in the area. This included government
agencies, research institutions, private sector and NGOs. Rainwater harvesting has had
a significant impact on the socio-economic life of the local populace.
It was therefore concluded that rainwater harvesting could be a coping mechanism against
the impact of land use/land cover change on hydrologic regime. From this study it was
recommended that rainwater harvesting should be extended to areas with hydro-climatic
conditions. To successfully promote rainwater harvesting, there is need for persistent and
consistent advocacy, strategic collaborations between key players, improved rainwater
harvesting system design, increased farm output marketing, provision of technical
documentation and exchange trips to the successful farmers by potential adopters.
ix
Hydrologic impacts of ponds on land cover change
Acknowledgement
The authors sincerely acknowledge the entire SearNet secretariat and RELMA-in-
ICRAF staff, who contributed immensely to the success of this study. Special thanks go
to Ms. Naomi Njeri, who tirelessly assisted with the required logistics. The ICRAF GIS’
unit, is also acknowledged for preparing the required maps, information and equipments
for the field study. Covenant Tours Limited (CTL) who provided transport services to the
authors during the field study is highly appreciated.
Special gratitude goes to the hardworking farmers of Lare division. They have worked
hard, not only to increase their farm income, including food and water security but also
to be a leading example in rainwater harvesting. We also wish to thank the Divisional
Agricultural Officers and the staff of Mtakatifu Clara Training and Development Centre
in Lare division for guiding the field study and providing pertinent information about the
division. Special recognition goes to the effort and dedication of Mr. Karanja Mwangi,
who spared his time for us during the field survey.
The authors also wish to thank the Egerton’s SUMAWA project research team, who
provided the hydrologic information of the nearby Njoro watershed, which is undergoing
the same land use/land cover changes as Lare division. Dr. Gichaba is specially recognised
for spending time to provide the required hydrologic data and also visit the farmers in
Lare division.
x
Acronyms
CDF Constituency Development Fund

CDN Catholic Diocese of Nakuru
CSD Commission for Science and Development
EU European Union
FSK Farming Systems Kenya
FTC Farmers Training School
GI Galvanised Iron sheet
GPS Global Positioning System
ICRA International Centre for Development-Oriented Research in
Agriculture
ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
LH Lower Highlands
RELMA Regional Land Management Unit
RRS Rainfall Recording Station
RWH Rainwater Harvesting
SUMAWA Sustainable Management of Watershed
TWDB Texas Water Development Board
UM Upper midlands
xi
Chapter 1
Introduction
Access to safe and sufficient water by rural households will result in increased agricultural
yields, improved hygiene and sanitation. It will also save time and reduce drudgery thus
releasing women and children to participate in other productive and social activities.
However, this access to safe and sufficient water is compromised by human activities, which
alter the natural land cover in a watershed. Land cover changes include deforestation,
intensification of agriculture, drainage of wetlands and urbanization (Calder, 1992). The
most common of these changes in Lare is the extensive encroachments into forestlands
and grasslands. Encroachment into forestlands is known to affect the hydrologic
characteristics of a watershed. Forests, especially those that are riparian, are associated
with watershed services such as control of erosion, restriction of pollutants and regulation
of streamflow.
Continued land cover changes in Lare division and its environs, has had significant
impact on the local hydrologic regime, due to increased settlements and expansion of
agricultural activities. Krhoda (1988) predicted the effects of poorly planned land use
and clear felling of trees in the Eastern slopes of Mau forest. According to his hydro-
geological assessment, “…any type of resource utilization in the Mau Hills forest will have
some impact on the hydrological regime. Whatever method of land use is applied, it will
be necessary to exercise strict management practices”. These impacts include changes in
streamflow characteristics such as seasonal mean and maximum flows, which determine
availability of water especially during the dry seasons. A visit to Lare will confirm that
the area experiences acute shortage of water during the dry season. In deed the local
community spends a lot of time, finances and energy looking for water.
To cope with these changes in the hydrologic regime, the local community have
extensively and successfully adopted rainwater harvesting techniques that are relatively
simple and easy to apply. Rainwater harvesting is the capturing, diversion, and storage
of rainwater for a number of different purposes including landscape irrigation, drinking
1
and domestic use, aquifer recharge, and storm water abatement (TWDB, 2005). It is an
ancient technique which enjoys a revival in popularity due to the inherent quality of
rainwater. Rainwater harvesting in Lare has been a showcase of how it can transform
landscapes and livelihoods within a relatively short time (Mati, 2004).
RELMA-in-ICRAF undertook a technical study of the Lare rainwater harvesting ponds

in order to generate scientific knowledge that highlights the basis for the success and
document the experiences associated with rainwater harvesting. This was meant to
provide relevant knowledge to be used to upscale and replicate rainwater harvesting in
other areas with similar hydro-climatic conditions. The nature of the study called for a
comprehensive approach to data collection, application of remote sensing in mapping
and field survey to provide the necessary information for a technical description and
evaluation of the its adoption in the division.
The objective of the study was to identify the impact of land cover change on the
local hydrologic regime, how it has contributed to the successful adoption of rainwater
harvesting and to generate technical information on the effectiveness, socio-economic
and environmental impacts of the rainwater harvesting in Lare Division.
To achieve this objective, a series of two studies were carried out . The first study was a
three-day exploratory one, which focused on three households who practiced rainwater
harvesting. In this study, direct questions, open-ended and structured questionnaires were
administered to pre-selected male and female members of households, as well as a local
facilitator and the divisional Forest Extension Officer. Field observations and evaluation
of the structural works on the ponds were also done.
The study collected information on the technical components of rainwater harvesting.

Socio-economic and environmental issues pertinent to the adoption and use of
rainwater harvesting were also evaluated while focusing on land and water conservation,
biodiversity, tree planting, erosion control, improved sanitation and aesthetics.
In the second study, analysis of a series of LandSat imagery based land cover maps was
done to determine the land cover change in the area. The changes were compared to
seasonal changes in streamflow amount from the nearby Njoro watershed. In addition, a
high resolution Quickbird image was used to determine the rate and extent of rainwater
harvesting adoption in the area. GPS supported ground truthing was undertaken for
the LandSat maps whereas the Quickbird was ground-truthed with the aid of the local
community members (Plate 1.1). In addition, another field survey carried out during this
study tapped farther into the local knowledge and socio-economic impact of rainwater
harvesting.
2
Plate 1.1: Ground-truthing the Quickbird image based map
3
Chapter 2
Lare division
2.1 Location
Lare division is located in Nakuru district of Rift Valley province, Kenya, as shown in
Figure 2.1 below. The division is bounded by latitude 350 57’ 25” E and 360 04’ 25”
E and longitude 00 22’ 20” S and 00 32’ 50” S. It covers about 134 km2 and has four
administrative locations. These locations are Naishi, Naishi game, Pwani and Bagaria.
The area population is about 20 000 based on 1999 population census.
Figure 2.1: Location of Lare division
4
2.2 Climate
Lare division receives a medium bimodal and unreliable rainfall amount. The area
receives on average about 600 - 1000 mm per annum. The rainfall falls mainly in March
(long rains) and October (short rains). The mean monthly rainfall for the nearby Egerton
University Rainfall Recording Station (RRS) is shown in Figure 2.2. The short rain
gradually tapers-off into December (Migwi, 2006). In addition, the area also experiences
a cyclic drought every 3-5 years (ICRA, 1997)
160 18.0
120
16.0
Temperature ( C).
Rainfall (mm).
0
80
14.0
40
0 12.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Source: Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1983
Time (Month)
Monthly rainfall Annual mean

Monthly temperature Mean temperature
Figure 2.2: The mean monthly rainfall for Egerton University Rainfall Recording Station
Lare division is characterized by agro-ecological zones LH3, LH2, UM4 and UM5 as
shown in Figure 2.3 and defined by Jaetzold and Schimdt, (1983). The characteristics of
this agro-ecological zone are summarised in Table 2.1.
5
Figure 2.3: The Agro-Ecological Zone of Lare division
6
Table 2.1: Agro-Ecological Zones of Lare division
Agro ecological Cropping season Good yield potential Fair yield potential
zones
UM4 Two variable The first rains start at Potential crops grown are:
Sunflower- maize cropping seasons end of march. The major finger millet, pigeon peas,
zone crops for this season are sweet potatoes, egg plants,
maize, beans, sorghum, cabbage, Soya bean, onions,
and sunflower. Sisal and kales, paw paws, and
eucalyptus trees are grown mangoes
throughout the year.
UM5 A weak short No good yield potential Sorghum, sisal, and Marama
Livestock- cropping season, except with additional beans.
sorghum zone long rains with a irrigation.
second period of
short rains.
LH3 A long to very The first rains start before Late maturity, maize, peas,
Wheat/(maize)- cropping season April and the suitable crops linseed late sunflower,
Barley zone for this season are wheat vegetables.
and Barley.
LH2 Very long cropping First rain in mid-March. Suitable for finger millet,
Wheat/maize- season divided Suitable for late maturity beans, onions and tomatoes.
pyrethrum zone into two variable wheat, peas, potatoes,
season sunflower, barley.
Source: Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1982
2.3 Soils
Soils in Lare division and its surroundings vary with elevation. The soils are mostly volcanic,
well drained and moderately deep. These soils are generally very fragile loam to sandy
loam and are vulnerable to soil erosion. The colour varies from deep brown to dark grey
depending on the drainage pattern of the locality. The distribution of various soil types in
Lare division is shown below in Figure 2.4, whereas their characteristics are summarised
in Table 2.2.
7
Figure 2.4: Soils of Lare division
Table 2.2: Characteristics of Lare soils

Soil Characteristics
H6 Complex of
• Well drained, deep to very deep, dark brown to greyish brown, friable and smeary clay
loam with a thick humic topsoil (Mollic Andosol)
• somewhat excessively drained, shallow, strong and rocky soils of varying colour and
consistence and texture (dystric REGOSOLS, lithic phase with ferralic CAMBISOLS, Lithic
phase and rock outcrops)
H10 Complex of well drained to moderately well drained, shallow to moderately deep, dark brown,
firm, strong clay loam to clay in places with humic topsoils (Eutric REGOSOLS) partly with lithic
phase; with Verto-Luvic PHAEOZEMS, partly lithic phase.
Pv9 Well drained, moderately deep to deep brown, to dark brown very friable loam to sandy to clay
loam (Vitric ANDOSOLS)
Um4 Well drained deep to extremely deep, dark red, friable clay with a thick humic topsoils (mollic
NITOSOLS with Nitro-luvic PHAEOZEMS)
Source: Sombroek et al, 1982
8
2.4 Land use and land cover

Land cover is the observed biophysical cover on the earth surface, whereas land use is
characterized by the arrangements, activities and input people undertake in a certain
land cover type to produce changes or maintain it (Di Grerogio, 2005). Land-use is
determined by environmental factors such as soil characteristics, climate, topography,
and vegetation. The major Land cover in the area is mainly agricultural land. There are
also some forest and dense bushlands. It is worth noting that the land use and land cover
has been changing over time.
Land use in Lare division is varied. The major land use is mixed farming, where crops
are grown and dairy cows are kept (ICRA, 1997). Crops grown in the area include maize,
wheat, beans, peas and vegetables. Livestock, however, forms an important sub-sector
in the division as it helps meet the requirements for various products at both household
and market level. There is also an active informal market for surplus livestock products
e.g. milk, meat, live animals, and eggs. These generate income for the households and
local economy.
Socio-political factors have contributed immensely to the continued settlement in the

division and its surroundings (Krupnik, 2004). The settlement has caused extensive land
cover changes. Large tracts of forestlands were excised and sub-divided into private land
tenure systems. The individual household farms range from four to ten hectares (10-25
acres) in size. However, due to population increase, there is an increasing trend towards
further land sub-division. This reduces the average farm size per household. Apart from
individual land, some areas have been set aside for community amenities which include
schools, community dams and business markets.
Plate 2.1: Typical landuse for farmers practicing rainwater harvesting
9
Plate 2.2: Dairy animals being fed on banana and grass cuttings.
2.5 Hydrologic characteristics

Lare division is drained by ungauged streams which rise mainly from the Mau forest. The
main river flows through the division (Figure 2.6) into the 44 km2 endorheic Lake Nakuru.
The Lake is a Ramsar site famous worldwide for its lesser flamingos (Phoeniconaias minor).
Most of these streams dry up during the dry season.
Scarcity of water both for human and livestock use, particularly during the dry season, is
a major problem affecting about 70% of households in the area (ICRA, 1997). Since tap
water is not available to most of the households in the division, the community relies on
boreholes, roof water catchments, dams, water pans and a few seasonal rivers to meet
their domestic and livestock water requirements.
Adoption of water harvesting in the division has been very impressive. In 1998, about 409
households had runoff harvesting systems. These increased to about 1,030 households
by the end of 1999, an increase of about 150%. It was approximated that over 4,000
households had water harvesting systems by August 2004.
10
Figure 2.5: Streams in Lare division
11
Chapter 3
Hydrologic impact of land cover change in

Lare
3.1 Land cover change
The respective land cover change derived from LandSat based maps for the years 1973,
1986 and 2003 are shown in Figure 3.1. The spatial extent of each land cover class for
the different years can be visualized from Figure 3.1 and is further summarized in Annex
5. In general, the major land cover classes in Lare division and its surroundings are
forests, agricultural lands, grasslands and shrublands.
Figure 3.1: Land cover maps for Lare and its surroundings in 1973, 1986 and 2003.
Ground truthing revealed that the maps reflected actual land cover classes in the area.
At Mwerigo, the grasslands and expansion of Nakuru town was observed whereas at
Mauche area near Likia, the expansion of agriculture was also seen. Historical ground
12
truthing using information provided by key informants showed that the maps of 1986
and 1973 with the conditions at those times. It was established that settlement began in
the areas around 1978 when the farms were excised from the forest. They were then sub-
divided into small privately owned farms of two, four or ten hectare sizes. People cleared
the forest and expanded agricultural activities in the area. Thereafter, settlement extended
to other areas in the upper part of the catchment. Currently, deforestation is continuing
(Plate 3.1) without due consideration of the upstream-downstream linkage in a watershed.
Source: SUMAWA
Plate 3.1: Continued encroachment into forestlands in the upper part of the watershed
When the three maps were compared, it was observed that the spatial extent of the various
land cover classes have been changing over time. The changes are shown in Figure 3.2.
80
y = 1.52x - 2980.47
60
Percentage land cover change
40
y = -0.78x + 1583.52
20
y = -0.35x + 714.38
y = -0.46x + 924.78
y = 0.10x - 186.24
y = -0.02x + 51.96
y = 0.00x - 7.93
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Time (year)
Cropland Forest Shrubland Grassland Settlement Water Bareland
Figure 3.2: A graph showing the percentage changes of different land cover over time
13
The maps gave evidence of continued deforestation and increased agricultural activities
over the last 20 years. The initial 36.1% in 1973 forest cover has been reduced by about
0.78% annually to the current 12.3%. Shrublands and grasslands have also reduced from
the initial 18.1% and 15.9% by 0.35% and 0.46% per annum respectively. On the contrary,
the cropland has increased from the initial 22.1% in 1973 at a rate of 1.5% per annum to
the current 67.7%.
Though a linear relationship was assumed in the trend analysis, it may not be as simple as
shown in Figure 3.2. There could have been periods where settlements were accelerated
and deforestation decelerated. Given that settlement in the area is motivated by socio-
political factors, the settlement may not be linear. In fact, SUMAWA called the year 1986
a change period. After 1986, where the afforestation slogan “kata moja panda mbili” was
also abandoned and settlement accelerated, large tracts of land were deforested in the
area.
3.2 Impact of land use change on the hydrology of Lare division

Based on Njoro watershed streamflow data, it was observed that there has been some
variation in the amount of water over time. The local streamflow regime has been affected
with most of the rivers in the area drying up during the dry season. This was seen from
analysis of long term streamflow data, during the field survey and from key informants.
The mean annual rainfall has been changing over time (Figure 3.3). This was based on the
analysis of data from Njoro watershed by SUMAWA.
1800
1600 y = 2.0823x + 5126.3
1400
Total Annual Rainfall (mm)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Source: SUMAWA Time (year)
Total annual rainfall 5 per. Moving Avg. 5 per. Moving Avg.
3 per. Moving Avg.
(Tot. annual rainfall) Tot. annual rainfall)
(Tot. annual rainfall)
Figure 3.3: Change in total annual rainfall observed at Egerton university Rainfall Recording Station
14
The total annual rainfall has been decreasing at a rate of approximately 2 mm over the
last 60 years as shown in Figure 3.4. The change in rainfall is attributed to the overall
climate change or feedback mechanism due to land cover changes in the division and
its wider environs. Given that availability of water is a problem for both domestic and
agricultural use, the decrease in rainfall is alarming even though farmers have adapted to
rainwater harvesting.
Analysis of streamflow data depicts the long term changes in streamflow as observed in
the Njoro watershed. The changes are shown in Figure 3.4 to Figure 3.6.
10
8
Mean flow (m /s)
6
3
2
y = -0.0043x + 5.2299
2
R = 0.0623
0
Jan-60 Jan-64 Jan-68 Jan-72 Jan-76 Jan-80 Jan-84 Jan-88 Jan-92
Time (month)
Figure 3.4: Change in mean monthly streamflow
15
10
8
Mean flow (m /s)
6
3
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Time (year) Wet Dry
Figure 3.5: Variation in seasonal mean streamflow
100
80
Mean flow (m /s)
3
60
40
20
0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Time (year) Wet Dry
Figure 3.6: Variation in seasonal maximum streamflow
16
There have been some variations in the hydrologic regime of Lare division, as shown
by the streamflow data from neighbouring Njoro watershed. The Njoro watershed has
undergone the same land use and land cover changes as that of Lare. The maximum and
mean streamflow of both dry and wet season has been declining over time. Linear trends
show that future supply of water from the streams in the area is diminishing and could
be more unreliable in the future.
The variation in streamflow could be attributed to the change in climate, land use and land
cover or both. Despite the fact that the total annual rainfall amount has been declining
with time at an average rate of 2 mm per annum, it is unlikely that this alone contributed
to the variation in streamflow that is being experienced in the area. Therefore, the other
major change that affects streamflow is land cover and could be linked to the current
variation in streamflow.
According to key informants, the local community recognised the impacts of forest cover
removal on the streamflow and micro-climatic conditions of the division especially the
rainfall regime. Most farmers said that the continued settlement in the area has affected
seasonal rainfall characteristic. They also know that as a consequence of continued
settlements in the area especially in the upper parts of the watershed, the local streamflow
regime has been affected. For example, the River Makalia (Plate 3.2), which used to
overtop its bank making it impossible to cross in the 1980s, currently dries up during the
dry season, and was indeed dry during the field survey. Another aspect of the impact is
on Lake Nakuru, which is slowly receding.
Plate 3.2: Makalia River during the dry season of 2006
17
3.3 Contribution of land cover change to adoption of rainwater

harvesting
Based on the information gathered from the key informants, it was established that the
removal of forest cover especially the riparian vegetation has had a significant impact
on the streamflow regime. Farmers in Lare division acknowledged that removal of forest
cover in the area to pave way for settlement has resulted in reduced streamflow. They
also acknowledge that the removal of forest cover has affected the micro-climate of the
division and its environs.
Settlements result in extensive deforestation. Such deforestation which replaces perennial

tree cover by seasonal crop cover leaves the soil surface without adequate cover to prevent
the impacts of rainfall and winds. Lack of adequate vegetation cover (to reduce the
velocity of flow) suggests that there is little time available for rainwater to infiltrate into
the ground. This consequently results in low groundwater and high runoff.
To improve on their livelihood and cope with the effect of water shortage, the Lare
community had to adopt rainwater harvesting. Most of them harvest road runoff and
store it for both domestic and agricultural use during the dry season. Luckily, the farms
are located slope-wise hence harvesting road runoff is easy, as runoff is diverted from the
roads and conveyed via mitre drains, into the ponds.
Farmers are also using the harvested water to increase the land cover through agroforestry.
Most of the farmers have tree nurseries and some have woodlots. This provides the much
needed land cover though not extensively. Farmers hope to increase further, the land
cover.
18
Chapter 4
Rainwater harvesting technology in Lare
4.1 Rainwater harvesting systems

There are several terminologies used to describe the type and function of a rainwater
harvesting system. Based on the catchments, the rainwater harvesting systems can be
classified into roof or ground catchment systems, while based on the storage systems
they can be classified us cistern or pond systems. rainwater harvesting systems can
also be classified based on their usage, for example for agriculture, livestock, domestic,
environmental, eco-tourism or industrial. In Lare, the most common rainwater harvesting
systems are for domestic and agriculture.
In the roof or ground rainwater harvesting catchment systems, water is collected from
roof tops, courtyards and similar compacted or treated surfaces for domestic, livestock,
environmental or garden use. These systems can be applied at micro or macro scales.
The micro-catchment rainwater harvesting is a method that collects surface runoff from
a small catchment area and stores it in the adjacent infiltration basin. The basin can be
planted with a tree, bush or annual crops. In the macro-catchments rainwater harvesting,
also called harvesting from external catchments, runoff from hill-slope catchments and
external surfaces is conveyed to the storage or usage located at a foot hill or on a flat
terrain.
In cistern or pond storage systems, the design and operation of the system is hinged to
the storage facility with various tank configurations that can be adapted for various uses.
The placement and location of the tank, material used, its cost, rainfall amounts and
water demands are critical in describing the rainwater harvesting system employed.
19
4.2 Technical issues in the case of Lare

The most important technical issues in the case of rainwater harvesting in Lare mainly
relate to design parameters. The most important parameters that should be considered
in identifying areas that are suitable for RWH are rainfall, catchment characteristics and
storage.
4.2.1 Rainfall characteristics

The knowledge of rainfall characteristics (intensity and distribution) for a given area is
a pre-requisite for designing a RWH system. The availability of good quality rainfall
data is important for establishing the rainfall-runoff processes and determining available
soil moisture for agricultural systems. Useful rainfall factors for the design of a rain or
floodwater harvesting system include: number of days the rain exceeds the threshold
rainfall of the catchments on a weekly or monthly basis; probability and occurrence (in
years) for the mean monthly rainfall; probability and re-occurrence for the minimum and
maximum monthly rainfall; and frequency distribution of storms of different specific
intensities.
As discussed in section 2.2., Lare experience a bimodal rainfall which peaks in April and
sub-peaks in August. The number of rain days follows a similar pattern as the monthly
rainfall shown in Figure 4.1. Therefore, the harvested rainfall during the short rains
should be conserved for the six to seven months dry period. For design purposes, the
short rains which contribute 40% of annual rainfall and precede the dry period is the
most critical.
No of rainy days
25
20
15
Days
10
0
2 4 6 8 10 11 14
Source: FAO Africover
Months
2004 2004
Figure 4.1: Rain days at Naishi
20
4.2.2 Catchment characteristics

In Lare, two typical catchment systems are used for rainwater harvesting. These are roof
water harvesting catchment and ground systems. Roof water harvesting is a practical
development option for areas with insufficient ground water and no perennial rivers.
Roof water harvesting from schools, churches and individual houses with corrugated
roofs are practiced to provide adequate water during the rainy season. Most houses
in Lare are made of corrugated galvanised iron (GI) roofing sheets providing suitable
catchments for rainwater harvesting.
phz!apmpO ppO 3!3^hFm^!¥FamV
The three farms considered during the exploratory study practiced roof top catchments
system, where water collects from the Galvanised Iron (GI) roofs and is stored in tanks
whose volumes are given below.
Name of farmer Storage tank m3

Kamau Kuria 5
Samwel Njogu 10
Bernard Maina 20
Mean 11.7
Water from the tanks is used for drinking, cooking, washing and bathing. Water used for
drinking water is boiled before use. Water is delivered through a tap for the GI tank while
cups and buckets are used to draw water from the drums.
21
Most farmers in Lare have adopted various components groundwater catchment systems
to suit their individual needs. However, the catchments characteristics that influence the
amount and quality of run-off are the land cover, topography, hydrological processes and
the existing infrastructure summarised in box below.
!3p^!!OOF3^F!hp£mpO £mpOO
Vegetation
This is an important parameter that affects the surface runoff. An increase in the
vegetation density results in a corresponding increase in interception losses, retention
and infiltration rates which decrease the volume of runoff. There is a high degree of
congruence between vegetation density and suitability of the soil for cropping. Most of
the runoff is from hard surfaces formed by roads and paths which find their way to the
road drains.
Terrain
This is another important parameter that determines the type of RWH system. Length
and gradient of slope are important characteristic for determining suitability of a given
terrain for RWH. The Lare landscape is characterized by steep gradients with the land
rising over 300m in a 5km stretch providing an ideal situation for increased runoff
flows.
Soil
The type and depth of soils also determine the suitability of an area for catchments or
cropping in RWH. This will influence infiltration rate and the storage capacity of a soil.
In Lare at the onset of the rains, the seepage rates are in the range of 16-24 mm/hr.
Though this is high and can make the area unsuitable for un-lined pond structures, the
silt laden run-off seals the pores of the soil forming the base of the pond thus reducing
seepage significantly.
4.3 Storage for ground catchment systems

Once runoff has been diverted from the paths and roads and other suitably pre-treated
surface, the water is stored in various suitable structures. In Lare, these include earth
dams and ponds.
4.3.1 Earth dams

Earth dams are temporary structures constructed with locally available materials to
impede the soil and water removed from the watershed. It is constructed across rivulets
and gullies to control soil erosion, prevent gully formation and direct the flow of water
underground. These obstructions are useful as soil and moisture conservation measures.
22
Plate 4.1: Gathurere, a crucial community managed earth dam
4.3.2 Ponds
Ponds are storage systems which are multipurpose conservation structures depending on
their location and size. They are simple to construct and the most common type of pond is
the excavated one. It is constructed by excavating a depression, forming a small reservoir
or by constructing an embankment in a natural gully to form an impounded reservoir. It
serves for 3-6 months and largely during the rainy season. Abandoned quarry sites also
form depressions for water collection and can be adapted to serve as ponds (Plate 4.2).
`
Plate 4.2: RWH ponds (a) designed water storage pond and (b) former quarry site used for RWH.
23
The following factors need to be considered when designing, locating and constructing
a pond:
• It should not be located in heavy soils or soils with impervious strata; otherwise the
top soil should be porous.
• Suitable and adequate soil should be available for forming the embankments.
• Simple, economic and efficient surplus arrangement should be possible.
• Pond size should be decided on the basis of the catchments area and the number of
fillings possible for the pond in the area.
The main components of a pond system are the catchment area (roof, ground and road)
diversion channel, de-silting chamber, the pond reservior and finally the delivery system.
The component of this rainwater harvesting system are shown in Figure 4.2 below
Components of the pond system
a The catchments
b Diversion channel
c De-silting chamber
d Reservoir
e Delivery system
a
a
a
b
c
e
Figure 4.2: A schematic diagram showing components of a typical Lare pond system
A small “check dam” is used to divert road runoff into a diversion channel. Simple cross-
sectional shapes such as triangles, trapezoids and semi-circles are used as representative
collectors or diversion channels. These are completely characterized by slope, length,
cross sectional dimensions, shape and Manning’s ‘n’ value.
24
Plate 4.3: Trench with correct gradient to check on both sedimentation and erosion
The most critical design parameters considered by the farmers in Lare are length and
slope of the channel. The ponds are located just off the roads to ensure shorter channel
lengths.
Before the runoff enters the pond, they go through a de-silting chamber. The chambers
are designed to reduce the sediment load in the runoff getting into the ponds. This
leads to off–loading most of the sediments. This reduces the frequency of de-silting the
ponds and ensures a higher operating storage capacity for the system. After the de-silting
chamber, the runoff goes to the storage pond via another channel.
From the pond, the water is drawn for use using a bucket and rope system, the treadle
pump system or a combination of the two. The treadle pump delivers about 50-200 litres
of water per minute depending on the pumping head and strength of the operator.
25
phz!amV £a! !m= !am! =Fda¥F¨

¨Fh
There are two systems for drawing water from the

ponds. Kamau Kuria uses a treadle pump whereas
Bernard Maina uses bucket and rope system. The
treadle pump delivers about 50-200 litres of water
per minute depending on the pumping head and
strength of the operator. The head difference between
the pond and the highest point on the farm is 2 m.
Kuria’s family delivers up to 200 liters of water in 5
minutes compared to Bernard Maina who spends 20-
30 minutes daily drawing an equivalent amount of
water.
4.4 In-situ rainwater harvesting

Another method of rainwater harvesting practised in Lare is the in-situ rainwater
harvesting. This method emphasises on water management and conservation structures
that were traditionally used for soil conservation. The approach aims at maximum
infiltration and minimum surface runoff to achieve better yields where soil moisture is
a constraint. The design and performance of these structures are influenced by the soil
type and the climate. Clay soils have low infiltration rates and high moisture storage
capacity. This makes them suitable for deep flooding for subsequent cropping. Sandy
soils have quicker infiltration and lower storage, thus suitable for diversion schemes as
found in Lare. The climate affects the method used.
Two methods are adapted in Lare, that is pitting and runoff farming, to augment rainfall
since rain alone is not sufficient to grow crops.
4.4.1 Pitting techniques

Run-off is collected from off the farm and diverted into the cropped area. The system
also doubles as a soil conservation measure and works by containing the farm-generated
run-off within the fields. Suitable trenches or pits are constructed along the farm
contours. Diversion channels divert water from off the farm into these structures. The
structures act as infiltration zones allowing the collected runoff to percolate into the soil
and thereby increases the moisture regime in the soils for any given storm.
26
§!hzdFpO zaamVF3^ma£Fam!F
On Bernard Maina’s farm, an elaborate system of diversion canals and farm-based

trenches exist for harvesting runoff from the nearby road and diverting it into the farm.
The improved soil moisture achieved is used to maintain a pasture crop, grow tomatoes,
sweet corn, french beans, maize and normal beans. The system works best to drought
proof the fields against the moisture depleting effects of high evaporation rates and intra
seasonal droughts. According to the farmer, this system has increased the reliability of
production giving an increase in food security. Trenches that measure 1.7m wide and
1.3m deep and that span over 73m are found in this farm as shown below. Simple designs
are used and constructed using farm labour
27
4.4.2 Runoff farming

Runoff depends on collecting runoff and diverting it onto a cropped area. Runoff from
uncultivated and un-terraced land is channelled to grass and forested fields.
£mpOO O!hamVam!F
In Kuria’s farm, run-off from the road is diverted through the path leading
to his home and allowed to spread to the fields with trees, citrus fruits and
banana terraces.
This system improves the soil moisture availability making the land more
productive with fewer investments on irrigation infrastructure and labour
costs. The impact of this is a lash field of trees, sugarcane and fruits with the
attendant financial inflow.
28
4.5 Adoption of rain water harvesting ponds

Based on the analysis of the Quickbird image, most of the households in Lare division
have RWH ponds. A section of the Quickbird is shown in Plate 4.4 below. The red dot
indicates the location of the identified ponds, whereas the green dots depict the position
of initially unidentified ponds, but added during the ground-truthing exercise.
Plate 4.4: A section of the Quickbird image
29
Most of the ponds in parts of Lare division were identified by the image captured by the
Quickbird GIS technology. However, those ponds which were under a shade or covered,
were not captured by the Quickbird imagery. On the other hand, natural depressions
were in some instances identified as RWH ponds. The key informants identified these
discrepancies, which were corrected during the ground-truthing exercise.
The adoption of rainwater harvesting in Lare has been enhanced by numerous trainings,
excursions and extension packages offered by both local and international NGO’s and
government institutions (KARI and Egerton University). For example, during the two
day exploratory study it was established that Kuria’s family has been exposed to different
technologies through training at the Mtakatifu Clara Training and Development Centre,
Baraka Farmers Training Centre in Molo, excursions and visits to Machakos and western
Kenya and personal visits to his home by extension and development agents. Kuria and
his wife attend trainings together. Maina and his family have benefited from the same
system though he attends the trainings without his wife while the Njogu family have had
minimal exposures.
The study also noted that absentee land owners have not adopted RWH ponds in the
area. Some of them have grown wheat in their entire farm. They also live outside the
division and only come once in a while to attend to their wheat field. The other factor
that hinders adoption of rainwater harvesting is the type of soil and size of the farms.
Some soils have high seepage rates. This was observed in Naishi game location where
there is lower adoption rate as compared to Naishi. The reducing farm size due to the
continued sub-division hinders adoption of rainwater harvesting. The local community
feels that the ponds take up a relatively large area when compared to their small farm
size.
Most of the ponds in Lare division are as a result of individual initiatives. However,
few such as Gathurere (Plate 4.5) and Mbogua are communal initiatives. They have
been developed by the community with the aid of Constituency Development Fund and
Catholic Diocese of Nakuru. The communal ponds are managed by hired community
members and who are paid on a monthly basis. In turn, the water users who are mostly
community members, pay for using the water from the community’s ponds. The water
is not only used for domestic purposes but also in community farming activities, which
include watering tree seedlings in nearby nurseries and small-scale fish husbandry.
30
Chapter 5
Impacts of rainwater harvesting
5.1 Social impacts

The social impacts associated with RWH observed in Lare include impacts on social
responsibility, access to clean water and consequently improved health status of the local
community. Emergence of new social roles in the area has been observed.
According to the local culture, women and children are primarily responsible for fetching
water for domestic use. Gender issues are of particular significance with respect to
rainwater catchment systems due to their direct impact on the lives of the rural women.
Well-designed roof and ground catchment systems are liberating women from the burden
of collecting water over long and hilly terrains (Figure 5.1). However, the prevailing acute
water shortage has forced both genders to be involved in the development, operation and
maintenance of rainwater harvesting systems. In fact, men have taken a leading role in
adopting rainwater harvesting. It could be hypothesized here that families that leave the
task of fetching water to women are not responsive to the task of developing independent
sources of water supplies.
6
Time hrs or Distance km
0
Time Distance Man Children Wife Laborers
Spend
Parameter Kuria without Kuria with Njogu without
Njogu with Maina without Maina with
Figure 5.1: Savings in time and distance

31
Plate 5.1: Both men and women ferry water from the river.
In addition, there are new emerging roles which could be directly related to RWH. Some
of these include young men collecting water from the dams for sale. Youth groups who
specialise in constructing ponds have also emerged.
Development of RWH systems in Lare has enhanced access to clean water harvested
mainly from roof catchments and a times from runoff. This water is used for various
domestic needs such as drinking, cooking, washing and bathing. The quality of roof
catchment harvested water is superior to that of such alternatives as shallow well water
and even deep well water which are perennially polluted with fluoride. There are
simple technologies to improve the quality of harvested runoff for domestic use. The
technologies involve the use of aluminium sulphate to reduce turbidity and boiling the
water to kill germs.
32
5.2 Economic impacts

The main economic impacts of rainwater harvesting observed in Lare are mainly
attributed to associated increased agribusiness activities in the area. The agribusinesses
include the production and sale of livestock and farm products. Rainwater harvesting
reduce drudgery and generally increase the quantity and quality of farm output especially
during the dry season.
The initial cost of investments and the output directly associated with the water use
can be used to assess the economic benefit of adopting rainwater harvesting. The cost
of the ponds can be pegged on the time value spent on constructing and operating the
system by the beneficiary families. The ground catchments and pond storage systems
were considered as labour-intensive technologies. The initial labour inputs were from the
farmer and his household. These systems are maintained and expanded using finances
from either agricultural, livestock or other productive ventures.
RWH technologies are profitable investments. Systems for horticultural farming and
improved livestock rearing make RWH attractive, economical and sustainable for poor
rural communities. Respondents from Lare division proved that farm incomes increased
in a season due to productive use of harvested rainwater. The cost benefit analysis of
the RWH systems can be conducted. However, in the case of Lare, assumption had to
be made and the ability of farmers to recall was relied on, since the local community do
not keep any records of their farm output. They only gave estimates of their economic
advantage over time, which was considered conservative.
Lare experiences a cyclic drought once in every three years, which cause crop failure.
The failure has been reversed and families are experiencing an increased production
throughout the year and even during the drought seasons. Crops grown during the
dry periods fetch premium prices from the local markets due to high demands, while
milk production can be boosted through provision of fodder and water. For example,
one farmer testified that her vegetable yield had doubled after she adopted rainwater
harvesting and she also no longer buys water for her livestock. In turn, she uses the
money to pay school fees for her children.
The households that have adopted RWH systems save an average of US$ 1.1 per day
that was spent on labourers who fetched water from other sources i.e. boreholes and
dams. Family members have been released from the drudgery of fetching water over long
distances, thus participating in productive farm work. The saving in distance and time is
shown in Figure 5.1.
Other enterprising farmers have used the harvested water for building and sale. One
farmer said that he had earned up to approximately US$ 115 from the sale of water in
the year 2004. On the hand, he was using the increased income and harvested runoff to
build a masonry house set in the background of pre-rainwater harvesting mud house to
the current success of rainwater adoption in his farm (Plate 5.2). 33
Plate 5.2: Improved Kamau Kuria homes in the background of former building
5.3 Environmental and ecological impacts

Generally, the environmental impact of rainwater catchment systems may be minimal.
The large scale ground catchment systems for communal supplies and the individual pond
systems have had positive environmental impacts, e.g. in reducing storm run off and hence
soil erosion and jump starting tree planting in the area. Some concern maybe raised that
ground water recharge may suffer in Lare due to the widespread practice of rainwater
harvesting in the area. While this maybe true in theory, there are two important facts that
should counter any concern. Firstly, the rainwater harvested is stored in ponds and pit
structures within the farms and therefore contribute to groundwater recharge through
seepage and deep percolation. Secondly, much of the rainwater stored in the ponds is used
for irrigation, making it available to recharge the ground water systems.
Dry area ecosystems are generally fragile and have a limited capacity to adjust to change.
If the use of natural resources (land and water) is suddenly changed by water harvesting,
the environmental consequences are often far greater than foreseen. Consideration should
be given to the possible effect on natural wetlands as on other water users, both in terms
of water quality and quantity. New water harvesting systems may intercept runoff at the
upstream part of the catchments, thus depriving potential down stream users of their
share of the resources. Water harvesting technology should be seen as one component of a
regional water management improvement project.
Though Lare receives unreliable rainfall, well drained soils and sloping topography provides
feasible environment for feasible rainwater harvesting. The ponds in Lare are competing
effectively with other sources like boreholes and the seasonal rivers. Trees planted through
rainwater harvesting have helped to condition and beautify the environment.
34
Chapter 6
Conclusions and recommendations

6.1 Conclusions
Analysis of the LandSat based maps established that the forest cover has been reducing
by 0.78% per annum of the original area in 1973. This deforestation has had significant
impact on the hydrologic regime in the division, where the seasonal flow amounts have
consistently declined resulting in water and food insecurity. To cope with this acute
shortage of water, the local community has adopted rainwater harvesting.
Several systems of rainwater harvesting have been adopted in Lare. These include the
use of roof catchments, runoff ponds and in-situ rainwater harvesting. However, the use
of runoff ponds is the most common system. Quickbird images revealed that, at a density
of nine ponds per square kilometer, most households have adopted runoff harvesting
ponds, which is a result of the consistent promotional efforts by key stakeholders in the
area.
The adoption of RWH has had significant socio-economic and environment impacts
in the area. It has reduced agricultural drudgery, saved time spent in fetching water
hence releasing the girl child to participate in other productive socio-economic activities
including school attendance. Environmental impacts include development of agroforestry
and erosion control.
6.2 Recommendations for replication of rainwater harvesting

From this study, the socio-economic and environmental advantages of rainwater harvesting
have been identified. Rainwater harvesting increases food and water security. Therefore,
it is worth replicating elsewhere, the experiences of successful rainwater harvesting from
Lare division. Recommendations made here are based on the experience of Lare farmers
as gathered during the field survey. These recommendations are:
35
1. Advocacy:
There is a need to advocate for more adoption of RWH both at the policy and local level. Thus
there is need to clearly mainstream RWH in the water act. At local level, there is need for the various
government agencies to promote RWH. Advocacy should be consistent and persistent as in the case
of Lare, where an NGO, ICRA from the Netherlands spent over two years promoting rainwater
harvesting. It was finally successfully accepted and adopted by the local people.
2. Collaborations.
There is need for a cooperative effort among governmental agencies, as well as with private partners,
in pursuit of common goals. Such collaboration can range from very informal, ad hoc activities
to more planned, organized and formalized ways of working together. In Lare, the authors were
informed that in addition to the strong advocacy by ICRA, there was strong collaboration between
the government agencies, research institutions such as Egerton University and private institutions.
3. Improved rainwater harvesting system design.

There is a need to improve on the RWH system and document it for future use. Based on the Lare
experience, there are some hindrances to adoption of rainwater harvesting. These include high
seepage rate, tank sizing, cost of constructing tanks and ponds, and excessive evapotranspiration
losses. Failures of some rainwater harvesting systems discourage further adoption in the
neighbourhood. Success of the design will hasten adoption by slow-adopters in the locality. There
is need to introduce cheap means of reducing seepage and evaporation losses. For example, use
of polythene sheets to reduce seepage. The key informants said that there was need to plant trees,
which provide shade and reduce wind influence thus reduce these losses. Therefore appropriate
agroforestry trees should be identified, which have direct economic benefit to the farmers.
4. Improved economic activities.

To justify the associated work and overhead cost in adopting rainwater harvesting, farm returns need
to be increased. This would involve improving the crops grown and the market for their products.
More farmers should be encouraged to produce crops whose harvest can be sold to the nearby
canning factory. This would make rainwater harvesting more attractive and hence a widespread
adoption would be observed.
5. Technical documentation:
There is need for a technical manual on various aspects of rainwater harvesting. This should
highlight on technical designs, advantages and past experience of successful adopters. This could be
distributed as a farmer’s manual.
6. Exchange visit:
More exchange visits should be organised to and from Lare to share experiences on the use of ponds
as rainwater harvesting interventions that improve farm income, food and water security.
7. Record keeping
Lare division farmers should also be encouraged to keep proper records of their farm output. This
will make it possible to quantify the economic advantage of RWH. Records will provide evidence
of the advantages of rainwater harvesting.
36
References
ICRA (1997). Evaluating the possibility of improving net livestock productivity in Lare division, Njoro, Kenya. In:
Matching Existing Technologies with Farmer Strategies. ICRA Report, Nairobi, Kenya.
Calder, I. R. (1992). Hydrologic effects of land-use change, Editor in Chief D.R. Maidment. Handbook of
Hydrology 13.1–13.50.
Di Gregorio A. (2005) Land cover classification system (LCCS) Version 2: Classification concepts and user
manual. FAO, ROME.
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) accessed at www.ilri.cgiar.org/gid on Jan 2006.
Jaetzold, R and H. Schmidt (1983). Farm management handbook of Kenya. Natural conditions and farm
management information. West Kenya. MOA. Nairobi. Kenya.
Krhoda, G. O. (1988). The Impact of Resource Utilization on the Hydrology of the Mau Hills in Kenya.
Mountain Research and Development 8:193-200. Cited in Linking farmer, forest and watershed:
Understanding forestry and soil resource management along the upper Njoro River, Kenya
Timothy J. Krupnik University of California, Davis. USA.
Krupnik T. J. (2004): Linking farmer, forest and watershed: Understanding forestry and soil resource management
along the upper Njoro River, Kenya. University of California, Davis. USA.
Mati B. (2004): Bright Spots on Technology-Driven Change inSmallholder Irrigation: Case Studies from Kenya.
Paper presented at the NEPAD/IGAD regional conference “Agricultural Successes in the
Greater Horn of Africa. IWMI Nairobi.
Migwi P. K., P. O. Gamba and T. A. Onyango. (2006). Participatory on-farm technology transfer for
increased livestock productivity in sub-Saharan Africa, A case study of Lare division in Nakuru district, Kenya.
Accessed at http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/ARTICLE/AGRIPPA/569_TOC_EN.HTM on 1st
February 2006.
Sombroek, W.G.; Braun, H.M.H.; Van Der Pouw, B.J.A. (1982). Exploratory soil map and agro-
climatic zone map of Kenya, 1980: scale 1:1,000,000. Kenya Soil Survey, Exploratory Soil
Survey Report no. el. Nairobi, Kenya.
TWDB (2005): The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting. Austin, Texas Water Development Board
(TWDB), Texas, USA
ILRI GIS data. www.ilri.cgiar.org/gis
37
Annexes
Annex 1: Log sheet for ground truthing
Trend analysis, Ground truthing and synthesis of land use data for Lare division in
Nakuru district
Ground truthing form

Village………………………………….. GPS position
Sub-location….………………………… E……………… S………………
Location………………………………...
Land cover on the Map (approximately 100 m *100 m) Difference if any

…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………...................................
……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
Land cover on the ground (Approximately ……………………………...........................
……………………………...........................
100 m *100 m)
……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………................................... ……………………………...........................
……………………………...........................
…………………………………………………………...................................
Comments ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
38
Annex 2: Field Questionnaire
This survey aims at establishing the impacts of land cover changes on hydrologic regime
of Lare division and how these impacts have contributed to the widespread adoption of
rainwater harvesting in Lare division, Nakuru district.
Name of Interviewer ……..…………………… Sheet No:…. Date………………
1. Background information of the Respondent

Age
Male/female Occupation
Sub-location
Division
Family size
Date of
settlement
2. Land use/land cover information

What are some of the prevailing land use/land cover in the sub-location?
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
When and what are some of the past land use/land cover changes in this sub-location?
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
What are the reasons for the land-use/land cover changes?

………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
3. Impact of Rainwater harvesting

System of rainwater harvesting adopted?
(Include a photo and mark its corresponding questionnaire number in the map)
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................
GPS position …………………………E …………………………S
39
Uses of water Method of harvesting Approx. quantity Is it sufficient in

Quantity Quality
Drinking
Livestock
Crops
Others
Is it communal or individual initiatives? (If communal state the organization of the members)
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
………………………………………………………………………………………………....................................................…
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
Farm output(s) Amount before adopting Amount after adopting Approx value
Rainwater harvesting rainwater harvesting
Any other advantages/limitations of the adopted rainwater harvesting techniques?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
Are there emerging social roles related to Rainwater harvesting

……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
How can we replicate these rainwater harvesting techniques elsewhere?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
Why have some people not adopted the rainwater harvesting?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
……………………………………………………………………………………………….......................................................
40
Annex 3: Key informants

Name Village Location Occupation
1. James Ngugi MoA Naishi Division crop officer
1
2. Kamau Kuria Nganoini Naishi Farmer
3. Lucy Kimani Block II Naishi Farmer
4. Muchiri Farmer
5. Mwangi Farmer
6. Daniel Nyagah Sinendet Pwani Farmer
7. Karanja Mwangi Mtakatifu Clara Agriculture coordinator

Agricultural Centre
8. Stanley Rimungi MoA Divisional Soil Conservation
officer
Annex 4: Percentage of land cover.

1973 1986 2003
Land cover
Hectares % Area Hectares % Area Hectares % Area
Bare land 314.2 0.3 505.7 0.5 463.9 0.4
Cropland 24285.0 22.1 46069.4 41.9 74568.4 67.7
Forest 39710.4 36.1 25031.0 22.7 13522.8 12.3
Grassland 17481.4 15.9 14374.9 13.1 2594.2 2.4
Settlement 3959.6 3.6 4547.2 4.1 7069.2 6.4
Shrubland 19895.1 18.1 15792.3 14.3 8339.2 7.6
Water 4364.4 4.0 3741.7 3.4 3539.4 3.2
Total 110010.0 100.0 110062.1 100.0 110097.1 100.0
41
T
he Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) has supported rural
development programmes in eastern Africa since the 1960s. Through its Regional Land
Management Unit (RELMA-in-ICRAF) Sida promotes initiatives to strengthen the role
of small-scale land users in order to enhance food security and reduce poverty.
RELMA-in-ICRAF is based at the World Agroforestry Centre in Nairobi and operates mainly
in six eastern and southern African countries: Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and
Zambia. RELMA-in-ICRAF’s goal in the region is to improve livelihoods of small-scale land
users and enhance food security for all households. In pursuit of this goal, RELMA-in-ICRAF
promotes environmentally sustainable, socially and economically viable farming and marketing
systems, and supports policies that favour small-scale land users.
RELMA-in-ICRAF organizes, on a regional level, training courses, workshops and study
tours. It also gives technical advice, facilitates exchange of expertise and produces information
material for the dissemination of new knowledge, techniques and approaches. A variety of reports,
handbooks, posters and other information materials are published and distributed in the region
on a non-profit making basis.
About this book

Land cover changes affect the hydrologic regime of an area, manifested at different spatial and
temporal scales. This book highlights results of a technical study commissioned by RELMA-
in-ICRAF focussing on the relationship between landuse and the local hydrology. Field surveys
and Quickbird images were used to establish the impact of landuse and landcover changes in
Lare Division of Nakuru District in Kenya and how these have contributed to the adoption of
rainwater harvesting mainly using ponds. It has also dwelt at length on the technical and socio-
economic aspects of the runoff harevsting ponds. It is hoped that experiences learnt from here
can be applied in areas of similar agro-ecological zones within the Eastern and Southern Africa
region.
ISBN 92 9059 197 8
World Agroforestry Centre—Eastern and Central Africa’s Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA in ICRAF)
ICRAF Building, Gigiri, P. O. Box 30677-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: (+254 20) 722 4000, Fax: (+254 20) 722 4001, E-mail: searnet@cgiar.org
www.searnet.org
www.worldagroforestry.org
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Rainwater Harvesting Innovations in Response to Water Scarcity

Technical Report · July 2006

Maimbo Mabanga Malesu Orodi Odhiambo

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Meshack Osindo Nyabenge

Market survey of 29 value chains in Kenya View project

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Rainwater harvesting innovations in

Runoff water harvesting in Lare, Kenya

Traditions and innovation in land husbandry: building on local

Parks and people—conservation and livelihoods at the crossroads: four

Runoff water harvesting in Lare, Kenya

Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA-in-ICRAF)

2006 Regional Land Management Unit (RELMA-in-ICRAF), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign

Editor of GWP-AP in RELMA Series of publications

Design and Layout

Cataloguing in publication data

ISBN: 92 9059 197 8

Chapter 2: Lare division ................................................................................................. 4

Chapter 3: Hydrologic impact of land cover change in Lare....................................12

Chapter 4: Rainwater harvesting technology in Lare ...............................................19

Chapter 5: Impacts of rainwater harvesting..............................................................31

Chapter 6: Conclusions and recommendations........................................................35

RELMA-in-ICRAF undertook a technical study of the extensive and successful adoption

CDF Constituency Development Fund

RELMA-in-ICRAF undertook a technical study of the Lare rainwater harvesting ponds

The study collected information on the technical components of rainwater harvesting.

Plate 1.1: Ground-truthing the Quickbird image based map

Figure 2.1: Location of Lare division

Monthly rainfall Annual mean

Figure 2.3: The Agro-Ecological Zone of Lare division

Table 2.1: Agro-Ecological Zones of Lare division

Source: Jaetzold and Schmidt, 1982

Figure 2.4: Soils of Lare division

Table 2.2: Characteristics of Lare soils

2.4 Land use and land cover

Socio-political factors have contributed immensely to the continued settlement in the

Plate 2.1: Typical landuse for farmers practicing rainwater harvesting

2.5 Hydrologic characteristics

Figure 2.5: Streams in Lare division

Hydrologic impact of land cover change in

3.2 Impact of land use change on the hydrology of Lare division

1600 y = 2.0823x + 5126.3

Figure 3.4: Change in mean monthly streamﬂow

Time (year) Wet Dry

Figure 3.5: Variation in seasonal mean streamﬂow

Time (year) Wet Dry

Figure 3.6: Variation in seasonal maximum streamﬂow

Plate 3.2: Makalia River during the dry season of 2006

3.3 Contribution of land cover change to adoption of rainwater

Settlements result in extensive deforestation. Such deforestation which replaces perennial

Rainwater harvesting technology in Lare

4.1 Rainwater harvesting systems

4.2 Technical issues in the case of Lare

4.2.1 Rainfall characteristics

Figure 4.1: Rain days at Naishi

4.2.2 Catchment characteristics

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Name of farmer Storage tank m3

4.3 Storage for ground catchment systems

4.3.1 Earth dams

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phz!amV £a! !m= !am! =Fda¥F¨