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Shreya Parmar
Master of Science Thesis
Shreya Parmar
The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of
Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science (EWI) for acceptance of a
thesis entitled
Fault Location Algorithms for Electrical Power Transmission Lines
by
Shreya Parmar
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science
Electrical Power Engineering
Thesis Commitee :
Dr. ir Marjan Popov
Dr. ir A. Rodrigo Mor
Dr. ir D. Jeltsema
Dr. ir Gert Rietveld
Copyright
c Electrical Engineering
All rights reserved.
Abstract
Electric power transmission lines are the veins which pump life into the modern day world,
delivering electricity to consumers at their homes, offices and industries. It is important
to ensure a smooth operation of transmission lines to deliver a minimally interrupted
power supply making necessary for reliable operation of electrical power lines. This need
has given rise to Fault Location detection techniques so that the economic impact of the
fault situations can be mitigated and their correction can be rendered simpler and precise.
Over the years, much research has been done on the various techniques for accurate fault
location detection. Many methods use line data from one or more terminals for determining
the fault locations. Providing a certain degree of accuracy, these methods lose out on
the ease of detection as they may use line parameters extensively which are sometimes
difficult to assess. To counter these problems, some techniques of fault location detection
were developed on the basis of the available voltage and current measurements across the
terminals of the faulted lines. These methods minimize the effects of parameters due to
varying load and weather conditions.
This report presents a comparison between two different approaches towards fault location
detection with and without applying transmission line parameters. Firstly, an impedance
based parameter dependent algorithm, derived by using the Modal Transformation theory
and Discrete Fourier Transform is presented. The methodology has the ability to locate
the fault whether it is on an overhead line or an underground power cable. The second
algorithm is an improved parameter-independent fault location method that only uses time
synchronized measurements. The unknown fault location will be determined from voltage
and current phasors, measured at both line end terminals. This approach of fault detection
renders the prior knowledge of line parameters as obsolete, which is of great assistance to
grid technicians and engineers.
The thesis report presents the results of the algorithms tested through the use of EMT-
P/ATPDraw and RTDS/RSCAD v2.025. The results of the line parameter-independent
algorithm will be compared with those provided by the parameter-dependent algorithm.
Both algorithms are tested for the most common to occur asymmetrical faults with varying
fault resistances. The results of the tests are then related to gauge the effectiveness and
accuracy of these algorithms.
Preface ix
Acknowledgments xi
1 Introduction 1
1-1 Importance of Fault Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1-2 Thesis Overview and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4 Modelling Methodologies 27
4-1 Network Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4-2 Source Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4-3 Transmission Line Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4-4 Fault Control Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4-5 FLA Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6 Conclusions 49
6-1 Result Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6-2 Future Work and suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6-3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Glossary 65
1-1 Basic layout of power transmission lines. Courtesy: Institute for Energy Research 1
2-1 Statistics for fault types on transmission lines as per the Nordic grid Report 2013. 6
2-2 Artificial Intelligence used in Power Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2-3 Comparison of Frequency and Time domain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The purpose of this thesis is to examine the application of impedance-based fault location
methods for transmission lines using phasor measurements and test them in well known
transient analysis softwares, so that their effectiveness can be assured. Different types of
faults are applied to a transmission line model to analyze the accuracy of the two algorithms
used for fault location detection. The first algorithm is based on the Telegrapher’s equation.
This algorithm is dependent on the line parameters used and hence, the thesis project
explores a second fault location algorithm which is line parameter independent and has
the capability to locate faults on transmission lines, without requiring any line parameters
and just the voltage and current measurements at the line end terminals.
The report begins with a discussion on the importance of fault location algorithms in its
introduction in Chapter 1. Then Chapter 2 reviews the basics of fault analysis and delib-
erates over the commonly used approaches to fault location detection. This chapter revises
the popularly used relay protection schemes and how they can be deficient in accurate and
quick fault location detection. A short description on the basics of the different types of
fault location methodologies is provided to acquaint the readers with the developments
and research in the vast topic of fault location algorithms.
Chapter 3 develops two impedance based algorithms used in this project and gives a de-
tailed derivation for both. The first algorithm uses line impedances and critical measure-
ments at the line end terminals, where as the second algorithm uses only line terminal
measurements. The simulation modelling and methodologies are elaborated in Chapter 4
citing the investigation established with practical use of the EMTP, RTDS and MATLAB
simulation platforms.
A transmission line model in a two source network is simulated on EMTP-ATP and RTDS
and confirmed with MATLAB to validate the effectiveness of fault location estimations in
Chapter 5. The results are included for a line length of 60 and 100 kilometers respectively
for the most common asymmetrical fault types, accounting for effects of fault resistances.
Lastly, Chapter 6 gives a conclusion to the report, as the analysis and summary are iden-
tified here. This chapter also discusses the future research to utilize the results from this
thesis project.
I would like to extend my sincere thanks to my advisor, Dr. Dipl.-Ing. M. Popov, for his
assistance, guidance and encouragement throughout my research.
I take this opportunity to express gratitude to all of the members of my committee, Dr.
ir A. Rodrigo Mor, Dr. ir Gert Rietveld from VSL and Dr. ir D. Jeltsema for their
recommendations.
This thesis is dedicated to my parents and all my friends whom I had the immense pleasure
of knowing during my graduate study at TU Delft. Special thanks goes out to Anuj Shah,
who was my rock throughout my Master study at Delft.
Introduction
Overhead transmission lines are the most convenient means for transportation of electrical
energy from sources of generation to load centers so as to result in energy use and con-
sumption. A pictorial representation of their use is depicted in Figure 1-1. Deregulation
of the electricity market, economic and environmental requirements have pushed electrical
utilities to operate transmission lines close to their maximum limits. Smooth operation of
electric power transmission lines is essential to deliver minimally interrupted power sup-
ply to consumers, who have become more and more sensitive to power outages with the
growth in worldwide technology. This necessitates reliable operation of power equipment
and satisfaction of consumers. Engineers are hence pushed to design transmission net-
works that formulate power system protection schemes to reliably detect and isolate faults
compromising the security of the system.
Figure 1-1: Basic layout of power transmission lines. Courtesy: Institute for Energy Research
Transmission and distribution lines experience faults that are caused by nature such as
storms, lightning, snow, rain, insulation breakdown and short circuit faults caused by
birds, tree branches and other external objects. In most cases, electrical faults manifest
themselves as mechanical damage, which must be repaired before returning the line to
service. Any fault, if not detected and isolated quickly will thus, grow into a system wide
disturbance causing widespread outages and even subsequent blackouts.
When a fault occurs on a power system, financial losses can be reduced and the line service
can be maintained if the location of the fault can be accurately determined, especially when
generation, transmission and distribution occurs over a longer distance or area, thereby
improving the security and quality of the energy supply.
Electric utility services can thus be maintained if the location of the fault on a line can be
accurately determined. These deductions and suitability factors make fault locators and
their algorithms, a critical tool in maintaining the competence of smart grids as is also
mentioned by Kezunovic in [1].
transmission line model, while considering both accuracy and speed. The main aim of the
thesis is to implement the algorithms in EMTP and real time simulator RTDS and test for
compelling results.
There are various methods of fault detection, and this report focuses on impedance based
fault location techniques. The thesis report aims to first familiarize the reader with the
basics of fault analysis for electric power transmission lines, using available research from
the past years. The successive chapters present a review on the most commonly and
widely used fault location techniques for line protection. Thereafter, the report focuses
on two fault location algorithms which use measurements made from line end terminals
to locate fault distances . A detailed design, methodology and simulation tests for the
algorithms are presented. Lastly, a comparison is made based on the simulation results
of the two algorithms. The simulation studies are based on the EMTP/ATPDraw [3] and
RTDS [4] platforms. Conclusions based on the results are discussed, along with the factors
affecting the accuracy of the algorithms. The author also suggests future work for the
research of fault location techniques and their simple integration into Phasor Measurement
Units (PMU) and Synchronized Measurement Technology (SMT) technologies to make the
electric utilities and grid system smarter and more reliable.
This chapter presents the basics of fault analysis and fault locators. Distance relays are
analyzed with respect to their effectiveness in fault location detection and a comparison
is made with conventional fault locators using numerical algorithms. A comprehensive
review of all of the different methods of fault location on power systems is presented in this
chapter. The advantages and disadvantages of each method of fault location detection and
techniques for deriving them is discussed, as is the need for special measures to ensure the
accuracy of the results obtained from the fault locators under certain network topologies
or fault conditions.
A fault is an interruption to the normal flow of current in a circuit. Large currents flow
across the lines in a faulted condition, which results not only in financial losses to the
suppliers and inconvenience to the customers, but also in severe cases, a complete shut-
down of the grid supply.
According to the Nordic Grid report of the year 2013 and the data presented in IEEE
journal [5], the most common to occur type of fault in electrical transmission lines remains
to be the line to ground fault, but the most severe faults are still of three phase nature.
The Table 2-1 summarizes the same:
Table 2-1: Statistics for fault types on transmission lines as per the Nordic grid Report 2013.
There are broadly two types of faults in transmission lines – transient and permanent faults,
as is shown in Figure 2-1. A transient fault is no longer present if power is disconnected
for a short time and then restored. Many faults in overhead power lines are transient in
nature and power system protection devices operate to isolate the area of the fault, clear
the fault and then the power-line can be returned to service. Typical examples of transient
faults include:
• lightning strike
• conductor clashes
A permanent fault can cause lasting damage to the transmission lines. To counter a
permanent fault, the line first has to be isolated and then correction has to be made to the
line. Some examples of the fault of permanent nature are:
• man-made damage
A symmetrical or balanced fault on a line affects each of its three phases equally. In
transmission line faults, roughly 3-5% are symmetric in nature as seen in Table 2-1. This
is in contrast to an asymmetrical or unbalanced fault, where the three phases are not
affected equally. Common types of asymmetric faults, and their causes are:
• line-to-ground fault (Figure 2-2) - a short circuit between one line and ground, often
caused by physical contact, for example due to lightning or other storm damage.
• line-to-line fault (Figure 2-3) - a short circuit between lines, caused by ionization of
air, or when lines come into physical contact, for example due to a broken insulator.
• double line-to-ground fault (Figure 2-4) - two lines come into contact with the
ground and each other, commonly due to storm damage.
• Speed – Protective relays require very high speed operations to mitigate the spread-
ing of faulted current to other parts of the power network, making use of circuit
breakers and high speed communication devices, sometimes, sacrificing the relay sys-
tem security and selectivity. Fault locators on the other hand use algorithms that
calculate fault locations in several seconds, if not in minutes.
• Data window – Relays use a fault interval between the inception of the fault to the
clearing by a breaker, which takes several fundamental frequency cycles, resulting in a
wide data window. Fault locators use the most compatible data windows to minimize
This section explains the basic working principles of a distance relay. Distance relays are
most closely related to fault locators. They work to locate faults occurring in particular
protective zones, as shown in Figure 2-5, making them the most common form of protection
of transmission lines.
The distance relay operation depends upon the predetermined value of voltage to current
ratio which is impedance. The relay will only operate when this ratio becomes less than
its predetermined value or impedance. Distance relays are placed in a particular zone
and usually communicate with the main system and other relays using the pilot relaying
scheme.
As the impedance of a transmission line is directly proportional to its length, it can be con-
cluded that a distance relay can only operate if fault has occurred within a predetermined
distance. Distance relays are most useful for reasonable line lengths (upto 20 kms or so)
because their operating characteristics are based on the line parameters which proves to
be a major flaw, owing to the capricious nature of line parameters.
Traditional line fault detection used to heavily rely on visual inspections of the faulted line
parts resulting in long and tedious foot or aerial patrols. These methods were expensive
and prone to more errors. Thus, the shift to automatic fault locators was not only desired,
but also natural.
Fault location techniques can be generally classified into the following main categories:
• knowledge-based approaches
The most widely used FLAs can be split into two main groups: impedance based and
travelling-wave based. Impedance-based algorithms make use of the line parameters (such
as resistance, inductance and conductance per unit length, and the line length) as well as
voltage and current data from one or more line terminals to calculate the distance to the
fault from a reference point or line terminal. Travelling-wave based algorithms utilize the
theory that waves travel along a line from a fault at the speed of light to calculate the
distance to a fault from a reference point and timing wave reaching the line terminal.
More details on the types of fault location detection techniques are presented in the sub-
sequent sections.
• require a means of gathering the data from line terminals at two locations before it
can be analyzed.
Impedance based fault location algorithms, unfortunately require very accurate line pa-
rameters and sequence impedance data. Line parameters also tend to vary with fault
conditions and this tends to distort the accuracy of this particular implementation.
propagate to the line terminals, the distance to the fault can be effectively found. An
advantage of this method over impedance-based techniques is persistence to pre-fault line
loading, fault and grounding resistance. Disadvantage of Travelling-wave Fault Location
Algorithms (TWFLAs) is that they cannot be used on transmission corridors consisting of
overhead lines and underground cables as the surge impedance changes drastically between
them, resulting in large inaccuracies in the location of the fault. The accuracy of TWFLAs
can be affected by errors in detection of the waves. Strong buses on the power system
network influencing the voltage and current waveforms due to line impedances can reduce
the amplitude of voltage waves making them harder to detect, and thus reducing the
accuracy of the FLA.
Single ended TWFLA use wave sensors at one line terminal as it does not require any
form of communication between the line terminals, where as two-ended TWFLAs work by
recording the exact time that the transient travelling wave from the fault reaches each line
terminal where accurate timing is usually achieved by using a GPS system. Two-ended
TWFLAss are known to be more accurate than their single-terminal counterparts and do
not require as much signal processing at the sensors since they do not have to correlate the
reflected waves to their original waves as they work by simple timing. However, two-ended
TWFLAs are more expensive than single-ended TWFLAs because of their requirement for
a communications link and synchronization between the two line terminals. This commu-
nications link and its inherent problems also make two-ended TWFLAs less reliable and
less robust than single-ended TWFLAs. A high sampling time for computations and ex-
pensive implementations add to the overall demerits of using TWFLAs. More information
on travelling wave based FLAs can be found in [9], [10] and a combined Impedance based
and travelling wave based fault location is established in [11].
Uncertainty of line parameter affecting variables, such as length of cables and unknown
fault resistance, coupled with the complex structure of distribution management systems
tends to make fault location through impedance and travelling wave techniques inaccurate.
As a result of this, knowledge-based technique for locating faults have receiving attention
from researchers in the last few years. In general, the technique requires information such
as substation and distribution switch status, line measurements, atmospheric conditions,
and information provided by fault detection devices installed along the distribution feeders.
This information is analyzed using artificial intelligence methods to locate a fault.
The three major knowledge based techniques used in power systems are based on the
following:
• Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) – well known for solving many engineering
problems related to classification and optimization. Its ability to recognize complex
patterns has made it possible to use in locating a fault where the training input can
be from measurement data such as voltage, current, status of circuit breaker and
feeder and the target output is the location of fault.
• Fuzzy Logic systems (FL) – based on the theory of fuzzy sets that was developed
for a domain in which definitions of activities and observations are fuzzy, or not
well-described, without sharp boundaries.
A table summarizing the key differences in the knowledge-based fault location methods
used in power system is given in Table 2-2.
Approach
Feature
XPS ANN FL
information information
Knowledge Used expert level
extracted extracted
Troubleshooting and changes required,
difficult convenient
improving a relay but possible
Self learning possible possible possible
Robustness easy difficult easy
Integration with a relay convenient difficult convenient
dedicated hardware
Computations extensive moderate
required
as is seen in the travelling wave based FLAs in Section 2-3-2. Problems associated with
fault-inception angle are addressed as the high-frequency signals associated with the fault
arc do not vary with the point on the wave at which the fault occurs. In the scheme
described in [13], a high speed sampling system is used to capture the fault-generated
high-frequency transients.
The high frequency components are used to identify the path of the fault (line or ground)
and then compute the fault location along the identified path based on the power-frequency
signals. The multi-phase transient signals are first decomposed into modal components.
Then, the modal signals are decomposed into their wavelet components and the corre-
sponding wavelet coefficients are obtained. These wavelet coefficients are used to extract
the relevant signal features, which are subsequently used to identify the branch or path
where the fault is located. Finally, the fault distance from the main substation is calculated
using the information provided by the power-frequency signal.
This technique for fault location detection is not widely used as the method is considered
expensive and complex, since use of specially tuned filters for measuring high-frequency
components is required.
If synchronization devices are not available during measurements, the same can be estab-
lished by detecting the phase shift in the time sampling of the data and then collectively
applying the difference between the standard values to achieve a homogeneous result.
However, this thesis project focuses on use of phasors for fault location detection. Hence,
the frequency or spectral domain is used for analysis here. Majority of power system
control devices are based on phasors. In an AC system, voltage, current and other fault
loop parameters can be represented as sampled waveforms or sinusoids. These waveforms
are represented in the frequency domain as phasors. Since a sinusoidal signal waveform
can easily be represented as a phasor, Fourier Analysis can be implemented for phasor
extraction.
Colloquial factors that can affect the accuracy of fault location estimation which are com-
mon to all techniques of fault location detection can be summarized as the following:
Taking account of the points mentioned above, we see that despite the advances in com-
munication, processing and storage technology, many reasons still exist which contribute
to failure of fault protection and detection devices. The need of smarter and more efficient
fault locators, banking on lesser line specifications is noticeable.
Over the course of time, various fault location algorithms have been developed for esti-
mating fault location with different techniques. The fault locater used to determine the
fault on the transmission lines comprises of many of the approaches discussed in Chapter
2, Section 2-3. This chapter derives the impedance based fault location algorithms tested
in this thesis report, one being dependent on line parameters and line end terminal mea-
surements and the second, independent of the line parameters and dependent only on the
line terminal measurements. Both algorithms use only the fundamental phasors of the line
voltages and currents sampled at each end of the transmission line. They are designed
with respect to locating all fault types, including balanced three-phase faults.
The same fault point can located at a distance (D − `) when seen from the receiving end
terminal R of the line.
For a single phase transmission line, Telegrapher’s equations are given as:
∂V ∂I
+L = −RI (3-1)
∂x ∂t
∂V ∂I
C + = −GV (3-2)
∂t ∂x
where V , I, R, L, C and G are the voltage, current, resistance, inductance, capacitance
and conductance of the line and the conductors respectively. The propagation constant γ
and characteristic impedance of the line zc are:
q
zc = (R + jωL)/(G + jωC),
q
γ= ((R + jωL)(G + jωC)).
From the solution of the telegraph equations in Equation 3-1, the sending end voltages and
currents VS , IS can be described as :
Vx cosh(γ(D − x)) −zc sinh(γ(D − x)) Vs
=
(3-3)
Ix − sinh(γ(D − x))/zc cosh(γ(D − x)) Is
where D is the total length of the line and x is any point on the line. Same approach is
used to obtain the receiving end voltages and currents VR , IR .
When a fault occurs ` km away from the sending end, by making use of above equations,
the distance to the fault can be determined by:
1
`= tanh−1 (A/B) (3-4)
γ
A = VS cosh(γD) − zc IS sinh(γD) − VR
B = IR zc − VS sinh(γD) − zc IS cosh(γD)
The application of this algorithm for three phase systems, as shown in Figure 3-1, can
be done by Modal decomposition of the solutions in Equation 3-4. By exercising the
Clarke’s transformation, the single-phase solution can be extended to a stationary three-
phase reference frame as:
V0 1 1
1 Va
Vα = −1 −1
2
Vb
√ √
Vβ 0 3 − 3 Vc
and
I0 1 1 1 Ia
Iα = 2 −1 −1 Ib
√ √
Iβ 0 3 − 3 Ic
1
`0,α,β = tanh−1 (Ai /Bi ) (3-5)
γi
where i= 0, α and β. Consequently, `0 is the ground mode, `α and `β are the two areal
√ q
modes, γi = zi Yi , zC,i = zi /Yi and
Accurate fault location can be selected by the appropriate mode and the fault type in
equation 3-5. `α is valid for all types of faults except line-line fault where the `β is selected.
As can be noticed from the Equations 3-5 and 3-6, the fault location ` is dependent on the
line parameters of the transmission line undergoing the faults.
phasor quantity. The symmetrical components shown in the Figure 3-2 can be described
as:
Thus, by using the symmetrical components technique, the positive, negative and zero se-
quence symmetrical components of the voltages and currents from the sending and receiving
end of the transmission line can be determined from the voltage and current phasors.
In the three phase network represented in Figure 3-1, the equivalent positive and negative
sequence circuits can be shown as in the figures below.
Figure 3-3: Sequence circuits of the three phase faulted line respectively.
Using Kirchoffs laws, from the Figure 3-3, we get the following equations:
VpS − z`IpS = VpR − z(D − `)IpR (3-8)
VnS − z`InS = VnR − z(D − `)InR (3-9)
To remove the influence of line impedance in the fault distance calculations, the distance
to the fault, `, can now be expressed as a percentage of the line length D as:
`
`% = ∗ 100
D
We can also represent this as:
z`
`% = ∗ 100 (3-12)
z` + z(D − `)
Rearranging Equations 3-10 and 3-12, we get the final solution as:
As can be seen from Equation 3-13, the fault location uses only the symmetrical components
of the measured current and voltage phasors from the sending and receiving end of the
transmission network and not the line impedance for its result. Though line parameters
are used in initial decoupling of the faulted network, it can be negated and only critical
data measurements are used to arrive at the final result. Thus, a parameter independent
fault location algorithm is developed.
This method to locate fault on a transmission line, highlights the use of SMT, which can
be implemented most easily using PMUs in an actual grid system to receive voltage and
current samples from measuring and recording devices installed at each end of the line.
The presence of negative–sequence components in the calculations can be used to signify an
asymmetrical fault. This information can also be used to effectively differentiate between
the fault types.
In summary, the fault location algorithms described in this chapter follow the basic flow as
is represented in Figure 3-4. Both algorithms extract the voltage and current values from
the line end terminals during simulations. Thereafter, the waveforms undergo sampling
and phasor extraction (as shown in blocks in Figures 4-7 and 4-8 of Chapter 4), done with
the use of DFT to convert the samples to a phasor domain. This is in coherence with a
practical and real measuring system where the output of instrument transformers is always
with respect to continuous time, where as the recording of signals is done in discrete time.
Modal transformation and symmetrical transformation is applied to the sampled phasors in
each respective algorithm and the final result is found as a representation of fault distance
in terms of kilometers using the sending end terminal as reference.
Modelling Methodologies
The design of the power system models for this project was done with the intent of testing
and implementation of the algorithms in different simulation environments. This chap-
ter describes the models adopted for the simulation tests. The different line parameter
modelling will be discussed, along with the line fault control design. The implementation
of the algorithms mentioned in the Chapter 3 are actualized in both EMTP and RTDS
environment softwares and the method to fulfill the same is discussed in this chapter.
Figure 4-3: EMTP-ATPDraw and RTDS-RSCAD source model used for simulation tests.
• Series resistance
• Series inductance
• Shunt capacitance
• Shunt conductance
The series resistance relies basically on the physical composition of the conductor at a given
temperature. The series inductance and shunt capacitance are produced by the presence
of magnetic and electric fields around the conductors, and depend on their geometrical
arrangement. The shunt conductance is due to leakage currents flowing across insulators
and air. As leakage current is considerably small compared to nominal current, it is usually
neglected, and therefore, shunt conductance is normally not considered for the transmission
line modeling. The arrangement of the parameters representing the line depends upon the
length of the line which defines a short-length line for lengths is less than 80 km and a
medium length line for lengths between 80 km and 240 km. Lines longer than this range
are considered to be long length lines. Both short and medium-length transmission lines
use approximated lumped-parameter models and same idea was used for line modelling
in the test simulations. The line parameters were modelled using Lumped parameters in
EMTP and a faulted SHARC transmission line model in RTDS.
The line model used in EMTP is the lumped parameter model. One block model was used
to represent the sending end and another for the receiving end, making their total line
length equal to the line length of the simulated transmission line. The R–L–C π-equivalent
LINEPI3S and LINEZT–3 models were used for test simulations.
Figure 4-4: EMTP-ATPDraw and RTDS-RSCAD line model used for simulation tests.
The TLINE program, a member of the RSCAD software tools is used to lay out and define
the geometry and parameters of an N conductor travelling wave transmission line. The
output of the TLINE program is used by DRAFT when a case involving the line is compiled.
A default TLINE model was used for the modelling in RSCAD, which in theory, should not
affect the algorithms’ accuracy, at least for the Parameter Independent one. Later, the line
parameters were specified as in Table 5-2. Three conductor bergeron faulted transmission
line model as shown in Figure 4-4 was used. Line lengths were modified using a Draft
variable slider to simulate faults at different lengths of the transmission line model.
The transmission line faults were simulated by the use of separate single phase switches or
a single three phase switch in the EMTP model. ATPDraw supports most of the switch
type elements and a time controlled design which can be used to monitor the fault current
and voltages at the fault point in the line, was used. The specifications are TSWITCH for
single or 3-phase time controlled switching and SWIT–3XT which is a three-phase time
controlled switch operating independent of the phases.
The fault branch connected to the bus in figure 4-2 were used to create faults at that bus
in the RTDS simulations. The fault branch consists of a switch whose open resistance is
very large and whose closed resistance was specified at different values. The type of fault,
line–ground or line–line, is specified in the fault component CONFIGURATION menu.
For a SLG fault type, any phase can be selected and the model will include a fault branch
in the L–G PARAMETERS menu. Fault initiation and removal was established by using
control components utilizing an arrangement of a pulse generator control function and a
push–button. The pulse width specified for the pulse generator function determines the
fault duration. The length which is being faulted and the fault resistance can be adjusted
with the help of interactive sliders. These were directly used in the RunTime window.
Figure 4-5: EMTP fault fault control switch used for simulation tests.
Figure 4-6: RTDS-RSCAD fault control block used for simulation tests.
In RTDS simulations, the algorithms discussed in Chapter 3 are applied to the network
model using a User Defined Component (UDC) block, known as the CBuilder. RSCAD uses
CBuilder software module for the FLAs making use of the control system type components,
compiled via the GPC Processor Cards available with the RTDS. The node voltages and
line currents were extracted with node point and sampled in UDC blocks. Then these
samples were exported to the algorithm implementation block as shown in Figure 4-8
where the final calculations were done.
Both parameter dependent and parameter independent algorithms were used the FLA
blocks described above to extract the voltage and current waveforms from the sending and
receiving line end terminals. The extracted values were then sampled, and processed via
the hard coding of the CBuilder blocks and the output was set as the fault location, which
was as estimated by each algorithm.
(a) Calculation block for Parameter Independent(b) Calculation block for Parameter dependent al-
algorithm. gorithm.
In this chapter, the simulation results for the two fault location algorithms presented in the
previous sections is exhibited. The algorithm tests were carried out by simulation analysis
using the ATPDraw and RSCAD v2.025 software on the RTDS for a total line length of
60 km and 100 km. All calculations were established by taking the sending end of the line
as reference.
The schematic of the transmission line shown in Figure 5-1 is used to represent the basic
modelling for the power system network, as explained in Chapter 4 previously. US and
UR represent the active AC power sources. z` and z(D − `) are the sending and receiving
end impedances with respect to fault distance ` respectively. The algorithms calculate the
fault distance ` from the sending side as reference using the fundamental phasors of the
line voltage and currents extracted using DFT, as is already explained in Figure 3-4.
The network parameters used for the simulation tests were common and are given in Table
5-1 and the line constants used for the simulations, are as in Table 5-2.
Transmission line faults were simulated at different locations along the line with the use
of a 3 phase controlled switch (in ATPDraw modelling) and a fault control logic (in
RTDS/RSCAD modelling) as shown in Section 4. Fault was set to occur at 40 ms in
all simulation cases with respect to the total simulation time of 200 ms. Percentage error,
which is represented for the parameter dependent algorithm as PDE and the the parameter
independent or parameterless algorithm as PLE in the simulation results were calculated
using:
(actual value − calculated value)
error percentage(%) = 100 ∗
actual value
0 0
−200 −200
−400 −400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s) t (s)
0 0
−20 −10
−40 −20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s) t (s)
The results for an SLG fault with different Rf is tabulated as below, for a transmission
line of 60 kms.
Table 5-3: Simulation result for SLG Fault - EMTP/ATP 60 kms
50
Fault at 50 km
Fault at 40 km
45
Fault at 30 km
Fault at 20 km
40 Fault at 10 km
Fault Distance calculated ( km )
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s)
90
Fault at 90km
Fault at 80km
Fault at 70km
80 Fault at 60km
Fault at 50km
Fault at 40km
Fault at 30km
70 Fault at 20km
Fault Distance calculated( km )
Fault at 10km
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s)
Figure 5-3: Simulation results for SLG faults in a 60 km and 100 km transmission line model
with parameter independent algorithm in EMTP simulations.
100 100
0 0
−100 −100
−200 −200
−300 −300
−400 −400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s) t (s)
0 0
−5
−50
−10
−100 −15
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s) t (s)
Actual Fault
P DE% P LE%
(km)
10 16.518 -3.19
15 12.4 -0.133
20 9.78 0.495
25 7.8 1.364
30 6.18 1.563
35 4.791 1.622
40 3.582 1.67
45 2.522 1.655
50 1.606 1.674
55 1.529 1.630
Actual Fault
P DE% P LE%
(km)
10 19.184 -4.04
15 18.868 -0.906
20 13.05 -0.435
25 11.376 0.684
30 10.03 0.926
35 8.88 1.051
40 7.862 1.117
45 6.937 1.146
50 6.086 1.154
55 5.292 1.147
60 4.55 1.131
65 3.850 1.187
70 3.191 1.078
75 2.569 1.045
80 1.985 1.01
85 1.44 0.972
90 0.94 0.937
55
Fault at 50km
Fault at 40km
50
Fault at 30km
Fault at 20km
45 Fault at 10km
Fault Distance calculated( km )
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s)
150
Fault at 90km
Fault at 80km
Fault at 70km
Fault at 60km
Fault at 50km
Fault at 40km
Fault at 30km
Fault at 20km
Fault at 10km
Fault Distance calculated( km )
100
50
0
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s)
Figure 5-5: Simulation results for LL faults in a 60 km and 100 km transmission line model
with parameter independent and dependent algorithms in EMTP simulations.
100 100
0 0
−100 −100
−200 −200
−300 −300
−400 −400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s) t (s)
−15 −30
−20 −40
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s) t (s)
100
Fault at 90km
Fault at 80km
90 Fault at 70km
Fault at 60km
80 Fault at 50km
Fault at 40km
Fault Distance calculated( km )
Fault at 30km
70 Fault at 20km
Fault at 10km
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s)
100
Fault at 90km
Fault at 80km
90 Fault at 70km
Fault at 60km
80 Fault at 50km
Fault at 40km
Fault at 30km
Fault Distance calculated( km )
70 Fault at 20km
Fault at 10km
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s)
Figure 5-7: Simulation results for LLG fault with parameter independent and dependent
algorithms in EMTP simulations..
Actual Fault
P DE% P LE%
(km)
10 65.245 25.06
15 -16.666 -0.366
20 7.3 -0.263
25 -0.188 -0.2
30 -5 -0.14167
35 -3.171 -0.1
40 -1.687 -0.068
45 0.971 -0.04
50 -1.4 -0.02
55 -1.272 -0.001
60 0.416 0.016
65 -0.230 0.023
70 1.271 0.021
75 0.44 0.04
80 1.062 0.043
85 1.202 0.043
90 -0.05 0.044
95 -1.766 0.037
160
Fault at 70km
Fault at 50km
Fault at 30km
Fault at 10km
140
120
Fault Distance calculated( km )
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
t (s)
Figure 5-8: Simulation results for SLG fault using parameter independent algorithm in RTDS
simulations.
Actual Fault
P DE% P LE%
(km)
5 -17 -1.08
10 1.04 -0.55
15 -0.653 -0.367
20 -0.39 -0.275
30 -2.78 -0.15
40 -0.19 -0.0675
50 -1.786 -0.02
60 -1.681 0.0138
70 0.18 0.032
80 -0.020 0.043
90 -1.22 0.041
Figure 5-9: Simulation results for LL fault with Parameter independent algorithms in RTDS
simulations..
Actual Fault
P DE% P LE%
(km)
5 -36.8 -1.1
10 -62 -0.56
15 -72.866 -0.373
20 -35.488 -0.262
25 -24.388 -0.194
30 -14.516 -0.15
35 -17.391 -0.098
40 -2.467 -0.052
45 -12.372 -0.040
50 -14.288 -0.019
60 -9.278 0.012
70 -11.388 0.034
80 -11.353 0.043
90 -11.957 0.041
Figure 5-10: Simulation results Parameter independent algorithms for LLG fault.
Conclusions
This chapter discusses the fault location algorithms’ results and draws conclusions based
on the simulation outcomes presented in Chapter 5.
because of its dependence of the line parameters, which can change with fault resistance,
even more so for a fault resistance as high as 50Ω. In the RTDS simulations, oscillations
around the correct answer were observed in the RunTime window, when fault location
calculations with respect to time were to be plotted. This could be due to synchronization
errors, that is, using a time step as low as 40 µs to get 500 samples for the time window
in the DFT analysis duration, which increases the computations. However, in RTDS
simulation tests, as the initial algorithm results were showing dummy peaks in the final
value graphical plot, an 8 pole Low Pass filter with a cut-off frequency of 100 Hz was used,
which resulted in a more stable result.
Also, as shown in the result tabulations in Chapter 5, fault simulations for ground faults
in Parameter Independent algorithm showed more error for higher fault resistance values
towards the receiving end of the line terminal. This can be explained as, due to the fault
being closer to the receiving end terminal, more fault current flows to the resistive load at
that end, making the voltage phasors at the terminal less in magnitude and thereby, affect-
ing the fault location calculations, which in turn is directly dependent on the magnitude
of the voltage and current phasors. Errors in fault location results are smaller towards the
middle of the total line length than the line end terminals also because of a homogeneity
in the fault currents at the middle of the line, than at the line end terminals.
Errors were also introduced because of use of a basic DFT algorithm. Tests done using
the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in MATLAB showed that the calculations were not just
faster, but the graphical plots also showed less or no garbage values, which could be due
to the high frequency components in the closely spaced samples. This is also because the
fundamental phasors for the sampled values were more accurate than those in the DFT.
The FFT is calculated more precisely because the reduction of redundant calculations
results in less round-off error, which also eliminates noise and redundant values from the
calculations. The reason for using DFT in the algorithms on EMTP and RTDS is however,
because of the restrictions in the functions library that both softwares provide.
The algorithms were derived using assumptions that the shunt capacitance of the trans-
mission line can be neglected due to the algorithms being tested on short and medium
line lengths. However, when the algorithms were tested, the lumped RLC and distributed-
parameter line models that include the shunt capacitance were used and the algorithms
were found to remain accurate in EMTP results. The algorithms mostly maintained their
accuracies for different fault types, proving their flexibility and robustness.
Lastly, the simulation results and algorithm analysis proves that the parameter independent
or parameterless algorithm is not only more accurate, but flexible and robust enough to be
used under different system conditions and topologies, which is an advantage over FLAs
that can only be used for one fault type or that are sensitive to line parameters and fault
resistance.
6-3 Summary
As a result of continuous exposure to unpredictable atmospheric and man-made condi-
tions, the occurrence of faults on transmission lines is a common problem. Fault location
algorithms are important tools for expediting repairs after the occurrence of a fault on a
transmission line. This thesis explains the importance of protection of transmission lines
and how existing relay line protection devices can be insufficient in doing the same. The
basics of fault analysis is discussed and the main categories of the fault location algorithm
techniques are critiqued.
This thesis report gives a detailed derivation of two fault location schemes for transmission
line networks. The first algorithm uses line parameters to locate faults. The second
algorithm is independent of the line parameters. Both algorithms can use synchronized
voltage and current measurements from the line end terminals. Extensive simulations
were carried out using ATPDraw, MATLAB and RTDS to evaluate the performance of
both algorithms under SLG, LL and LLG faults which are the most common types of
asymmetrical faults on transmission lines. From the errors observed in both FLAs, we see
that the parameter-independent fault location algorithm gives a better accuracy over the
parameter dependent algorithm. The simplicity of parameter independent fault location
detection is complimented by its capability of being easily practiced with existing power
system protection schemes.
A-1 MATLAB
A-2 EMTP/ATPDraw
A-3 RTDS/RSCAD
Real Time Digital Simulator or RTS as the abbreviation recommended by IEEE committee
on real-time simulator applied for power systems provides power systems simulation tech-
nology for fast, reliable, accurate and cost-effective study of power systems with complex
High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) and High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) net-
works. The RTS is a fully digital electromagnetic transient power system simulator that
operates in real time.
The system’s graphical user interface, proprietary software and mathematical algorithms
can simulate any modern electric power grid configuration. As new equipment or com-
ponents are added or subtracted from the simulator’s configuration, the model instantly
updates. For example, researchers can run simulated system-failure scenarios such as a
control system cyber intrusion or a physical damage event such as a terrorist attack or
natural disaster and instantly detect the order and reasoning for why dedicated relays,
breakers or substations failed.
Because the simulator functions in real time, the power system algorithms are processed to
continuously produce output conditions that represent conditions in a real network. Real-
time simulation is significant because the user can test physical devices using the ’Hardware
in Loop’ method, which is important for testing of many equipments and algorithms, which
may be difficult to achieve in an actual High Voltage line. Also, simulations can be run
faster since simulation of the system’s response over 1 second is computed in exactly 1
second. This is note worthy as all calculations required to determine the power system’s
state are completed in a time exactly equal to the simulation time step. Power systems
networks can be built and compiled in the Draft case and the simulations are established
on the RunTime window.
Any set of phase quantities can be converted into symmetrical components, where α is
defined as 1∠120◦ , as follows:
I0 1 1 1 Ia
1
1 α α2 I
I
1 = b
3
2
I2 1 α α Ic
where I0 , I1 , and I2 are the zero, positive, and negative sequence components, respectively.
The above transformation equation shows the symmetrical component transformation in
terms of currents, but the same equations are valid for voltages as well. This results in the
following equations:
1
I0 = (IA + IB + IC )
3
1
I1 = (IA + αIB + α2 IC )
3
1
I2 = (IA + α2 IB + αIC )
3
Master of Science Thesis Shreya Parmar
58 Symmetrical components and Sequence Networks
IA = (I0 + I1 + I2 )
IB = (I0 + α2 I1 + αI2 )
IC = (I0 + αI1 + α2 I2 )
Thus, a set of unbalanced system variables can be defined in terms of three balanced sys-
tems and the symmetrical transformation may be used to convert phase voltages (or cur-
rents) to symmetrical component voltages (or currents) and vice versa. These conversions
are valid for an A-phase base, which can be used for A-phase-to-ground, B-phase-to-C-
phase, B-phase-to-C-phase-to-ground, and three-phase faults.
Critical data, like voltage and current in power system calculations can be represented as
complex numbers. This in turn can be represented as ’phasors’ which contains a magnitude
and direction, or angle.
C-1 Basics
Conventional measurement instruments measure only the magnitude of these phasor quan-
tities. Measurements requiring synchronization and accurate time stamping, as in the case
of phasor measurements for fault location detection, have phase angle measurement errors
as a prevalent phenomenon.
As a solution to this problem, PMUs measure the magnitude and angles of phasors with
accurate time stampings with respect to the system frequency. The measurements are syn-
chronized with a clocking signal obtained continuously from a global positioning system
(GPS). Thus, the base operation or control station for the concerned grid of power system
is able to receive the synchronous data from each PMU in real time. The location of mal-
functioning circuits or transmission lines can be immediately identified if phase differences
between different PMUs are detected. In synchronous measurement technology, PMUs
are often referred to as ’Synchrophasors’ and they are termed to be the most important
measuring devices in the future of Smart Grids.
PMUs can be used as stand alone devices or can be easily integrated with existing power
system protection and monitoring devices. Some examples of such PMUs are L60, D60
models of the General Electric.
The demerits of using SCADA over PMU based measuring devices are as given below:
C-2 Applications
• state estimation
• fault detection
• congestion management
C-3 Placement
PMU exacts the voltage phasor of the bus where it is installed and current phasors of all
branches incident to that bus. The PMU measurements are given from different buses,
which are synchronized by the common clock signal from global positioning system (GPS).
A PMU and its affiliated communication equipments are generally costly. So it is neither
economical nor necessary to install PMUs at all system buses. Consequently, the placement
and optimal numbers of PMU units becomes of maximal importance to ensure no errors in
the measurements. Much research has been established in this direction. The paper [19]
covers most of the methods used for hierarchy based PMU placement methods.
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LLG Line-to-line-to-ground
LL Line-to-line
AC Alternate Current
R Line resistance
L Line inductance
C Line capacitance
G Line shunt conductance
F Fault point on a line
D Total length of transmission line
` Fault location calculated by the algorithm(s)
S Sending end of transmission line
R Receiving end of transmission line
γ Propagation constant
Zc Characteristic impedance of the transmission line
Vx Voltage at any point x on the transmission line
VS Voltage from Sending end of the transmission line
Ix Current at any point x on the transmission line
IS Current from Sending end of the transmission line
VR Voltage from Receiving end of the transmission line
IR Current from Receiving end of the transmission line
Va,b,c Three phases of voltage
Ia,b,c Three phases of current
Vα,β,0 Three modes of the voltage after applying Clarcke’s transformation
Iα,β,0 Three phases of current after applying Clarcke’s transformation
z Impedance of the transmission line
Vp Positive sequence component of voltage
Vn Negative sequence component of voltage