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General Multiphase
Models
This chapter discusses the general multiphase models that are available
in FLUENT. Chapter 18 provides a brief introduction to multiphase mod-
eling, Chapter 19 discusses the Lagrangian dispersed phase model, and
Chapter 21 describes FLUENT’s model for solidification and melting.
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General Multiphase Models
Brief overviews of the three models, including their limitations, are pro-
vided in Sections 20.1.1, 20.1.2, and 20.1.3. Detailed descriptions of the
models are provided in Sections 20.2, 20.3, and 20.4.
Overview
The VOF model can model two or more immiscible fluids by solving a
single set of momentum equations and tracking the volume fraction of
each of the fluids throughout the domain. Typical applications include
the prediction of jet breakup, the motion of large bubbles in a liquid, the
motion of liquid after a dam break, and the steady or transient tracking
of any liquid-gas interface.
Limitations
20-2
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20.1 Choosing a General Multiphase Model
• You must use the segregated solver. The VOF model is not avail-
able with either of the coupled solvers.
• All control volumes must be filled with either a single fluid phase
or a combination of phases; the VOF model does not allow for void
regions where no fluid of any type is present.
• Species mixing and reacting flow cannot be modeled when the VOF
model is used.
• The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the VOF model.
• The shell conduction model for walls cannot be used with the VOF
model.
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General Multiphase Models
Overview
Limitations
• You must use the segregated solver. The mixture model is not
available with either of the coupled solvers.
20-4
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20.1 Choosing a General Multiphase Model
• Species mixing and reacting flow cannot be modeled when the mix-
ture model is used.
• The LES turbulence model cannot be used with the mixture model.
• The shell conduction model for walls cannot be used with the mix-
ture model.
Overview
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General Multiphase Models
• All of the k- turbulence models are available, and may apply to
all phases or to the mixture.
Limitations
20-6
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20.1 Choosing a General Multiphase Model
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General Multiphase Models
• 0 < αq < 1: the cell contains the interface between the qth fluid
and one or more other fluids.
∂αq Sα
+ ~v · ∇αq = q (20.2-1)
∂t ρq
20-8
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20.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
The volume fraction equation will not be solved for the primary phase;
the primary-phase volume fraction will be computed based on the fol-
lowing constraint:
X
n
αq = 1 (20.2-2)
q=1
20.2.2 Properties
ρ = α2 ρ2 + (1 − α2 )ρ1 (20.2-3)
X
ρ= αq ρq (20.2-4)
∂ h i
(ρ~v ) + ∇ · (ρ~v~v ) = −∇p + ∇ · µ ∇~v + ∇~v T + ρ~g + F~ (20.2-5)
∂t
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General Multiphase Models
The energy equation, also shared among the phases, is shown below.
∂
(ρE) + ∇ · (~v (ρE + p)) = ∇ · (keff ∇T ) + Sh (20.2-6)
∂t
X
n
αq ρq Eq
q=1
E= (20.2-7)
Xn
αq ρq
q=1
where Eq for each phase is based on the specific heat of that phase and
the shared temperature.
The properties ρ and keff (effective thermal conductivity) are shared by
the phases. The source term, Sh , contains contributions from radiation,
as well as any other volumetric heat sources.
As with the velocity field, the accuracy of the temperature near the inter-
face is limited in cases where large temperature differences exist between
the phases. Such problems also arise in cases where the properties vary
by several orders of magnitude. For example, if a model includes liquid
metal in combination with air, the conductivities of the materials can
differ by as much as four orders of magnitude. Such large discrepancies
in properties lead to equation sets with anisotropic coefficients, which in
turn can lead to convergence and precision limitations.
20-10
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20.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
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General Multiphase Models
20-12
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20.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
from the work of Youngs [273]. It assumes that the interface between
two fluids has a linear slope within each cell, and uses this linear shape
for calculation of the advection of fluid through the cell faces. (See
Figure 20.2.1.)
The first step in this reconstruction scheme is calculating the position
of the linear interface relative to the center of each partially-filled cell,
based on information about the volume fraction and its derivatives in
the cell. The second step is calculating the advecting amount of fluid
through each face using the computed linear interface representation and
information about the normal and tangential velocity distribution on the
face. The third step is calculating the volume fraction in each cell using
the balance of fluxes calculated during the previous step.
! When the geometric reconstruction scheme is used, a time-dependent
solution must be computed. Also, if you are using a conformal grid
(i.e., if the grid node locations are identical at the boundaries where two
subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are no two-sided (zero-
thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit
them, as described in Section 5.7.8.
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General Multiphase Models
αn+1
q − αnq X
V + (Ufn αnq,f ) = 0 (20.2-8)
∆t f
20-14
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20.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
αn+1
q − αnq X
V + (Ufn+1 αn+1
q,f ) = 0 (20.2-9)
∆t f
Since this equation requires the volume fraction values at the current
time step (rather than at the previous step, as for the Euler explicit
scheme), a standard scalar transport equation is solved iteratively for
each of the secondary-phase volume fractions at each time step.
The implicit scheme can be used for both time-dependent and steady-
state calculations. See Section 20.6.4 for details.
The VOF model can also include the effects of surface tension along the
interface between each pair of phases. The model can be augmented by
the additional specification of the contact angles between the phases and
the walls.
Surface Tension
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General Multiphase Models
where p1 and p2 are the pressures in the two fluids on either side of the
interface.
In FLUENT, a formulation of CSF model is used, where the surface cur-
vature is computed from local gradients in the surface normal at the
interface. Let n be the surface normal, defined as the gradient of αq , the
volume fraction of the qth phase.
n = ∇αq (20.2-11)
20-16
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20.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
κ = ∇ · n̂ (20.2-12)
where
n
n̂ = (20.2-13)
|n|
The surface tension can be written in terms of the pressure jump across
the surface. The force at the surface can be expressed as a volume force
using the divergence theorem. It is this volume force that is the source
term which is added to the momentum equation. It has the following
form:
X αi ρi κj ∇αj + αj ρj κi ∇αi
Fvol = σij 1 (20.2-14)
pairs ij, i<j 2 (ρi + ρj )
ρκi ∇αi
Fvol = σij 1 (20.2-15)
2 (ρi + ρj )
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General Multiphase Models
the capillary number, Ca; or the Reynolds number, Re, and the We-
ber number, We. For Re 1, the quantity of interest is the capillary
number:
µU
Ca = (20.2-16)
σ
and for Re 1, the quantity of interest is the Weber number:
σ
We = (20.2-17)
ρLU 2
where U is the free-stream velocity. Surface tension effects can be ne-
glected if Ca 1 or We 1.
Wall Adhesion
where n̂w and t̂w are the unit vectors normal and tangential to the wall,
respectively. The combination of this contact angle with the normally
calculated surface normal one cell away from the wall determine the local
curvature of the surface, and this curvature is used to adjust the body
force term in the surface tension calculation.
The contact angle θw is the angle between the wall and the tangent to
the interface at the wall, measured inside the first phase of the pair listed
in the Wall panel, as shown in Figure 20.2.2.
20-18
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20.2 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model
second phase
interface
θw first phase
wall
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General Multiphase Models
The mixture model solves the continuity equation for the mixture, the
momentum equation for the mixture, the energy equation for the mix-
ture, and the volume fraction equation for the secondary phases, as well
as algebraic expressions for the relative velocities (if the phases are mov-
ing at different velocities).
∂
(ρm ) + ∇ · (ρm~vm ) = ṁ (20.3-1)
∂t
X
n
ρm = αk ρk (20.3-3)
k=1
20-20
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20.3 Mixture Model
∂ h i
(ρm~vm ) + ∇ · (ρm~vm~vm ) = −∇p + ∇ · µm ∇~vm + ∇~vm
T
+
∂t
!
X
n
ρm~g + F~ + ∇ · αk ρk~vdr,k~vdr,k (20.3-4)
k=1
X
n
µm = αk µk (20.3-5)
k=1
The energy equation for the mixture takes the following form:
∂ X n Xn
(αk ρk Ek ) + ∇ · (αk ~vk (ρk Ek + p)) = ∇ · (keff ∇T ) + SE (20.3-7)
∂t k=1 k=1
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General Multiphase Models
used). The first term on the right-hand side of Equation 20.3-7 represents
energy transfer due to conduction. SE includes any other volumetric heat
sources.
In Equation 20.3-7,
p v2
Ek = hk − + k (20.3-8)
ρk 2
The relative velocity (also referred to as the slip velocity) is defined as the
velocity of a secondary phase (p) relative to the velocity of the primary
phase (q):
The drift velocity and the relative velocity (~vqp ) are connected by the
following expression:
X
n
αk ρk
~vdr,p = ~vqp − ~vqk (20.3-10)
k=1
ρm
20-22
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20.3 Mixture Model
(ρm − ρp )d2p
τqp = (20.3-12)
18µq fdrag
∂~vm
~a = ~g − (~vm · ∇)~vm − (20.3-14)
∂t
The simplest algebraic slip formulation is the so-called drift flux model,
in which the acceleration of the particle is given by gravity and/or a
centrifugal force and the particulate relaxation time is modified to take
into account the presence of other particles.
Note that, if the slip velocity is not solved, the mixture model is reduced
to a homogeneous multiphase model. In addition, the mixture model can
be customized (using user-defined functions) to use a formulation other
than the algebraic slip method for the slip velocity. See the separate
UDF Manual for details.
From the continuity equation for secondary phase p, the volume fraction
equation for secondary phase p can be obtained:
∂
(αp ρp ) + ∇ · (αp ρp~vm ) = −∇ · (αp ρp~vdr,p ) (20.3-15)
∂t
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General Multiphase Models
20-24
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20.4 Eulerian Model
Z
Vq = αq dV (20.4-1)
V
where
X
n
αq = 1 (20.4-2)
q=1
ρ̂q = αq ρq (20.4-3)
Conservation of Mass
∂ Xn
(αq ρq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq ~vq ) = ṁpq (20.4-4)
∂t p=1
where ~vq is the velocity of phase q and ṁpq characterizes the mass transfer
from the pth to q th phase. From the mass conservation one can obtain
and
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General Multiphase Models
ṁpp = 0 (20.4-6)
Conservation of Momentum
∂ Xn
(αq ρq ~vq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq~vq~vq ) = −αq ∇p + ∇ · τ q + ~ pq + ṁpq~vpq ) +
(R
∂t p=1
2
τ q = αq µq (∇~vq + ∇~vqT ) + αq (λq − µq )∇ · ~vq I (20.4-8)
3
Here µq and λq are the shear and bulk viscosity of phase q, F~q is an
external body force, F~lift,q is a lift force, F~vm,q is a virtual mass force,
~ pq is an interaction force between phases, and p is the pressure shared
R
by all phases.
~vpq is the interphase velocity, defined as follows. If ṁpq > 0 (i.e., phase
p mass is being transferred to phase q), ~vpq = ~vp ; if ṁpq < 0 (i.e., phase
q mass is being transferred to phase p), ~vpq = ~vq ; and ~vpq = ~vqp .
Equation 20.4-7 must be closed with appropriate expressions for the in-
~ pq . This force depends on the friction, pressure, cohesion,
terphase force R
and other effects, and is subject to the conditions that R ~ pq = −R~ qp and
~
Rqq = 0.
FLUENT uses a simple interaction term of the following form:
X
n X
n
~ pq =
R Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) (20.4-9)
p=1 p=1
20-26
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20.4 Eulerian Model
Lift Forces
For multiphase flows, FLUENT can include the effect of lift forces on
the secondary phase particles (or droplets or bubbles). These lift forces
act on a particle mainly due to velocity gradients in the primary-phase
flow field. The lift force will be more significant for larger particles, but
the FLUENT model assumes that the particle diameter is much smaller
than the interparticle spacing. Thus, the inclusion of lift forces is not
appropriate for closely packed particles or for very small particles.
The lift force acting on a secondary phase p in a primary phase q is
computed from [57]
The lift force Flift will be added to the right-hand side of the momentum
equation for both phases (Flift,q = −Flift,p ).
In most cases, the lift force is insignificant compared to the drag force, so
there is no reason to include this extra term. If the lift force is significant
(e.g., if the phases separate quickly), it may be appropriate to include this
term. By default, Flift is not included. The lift force and lift coefficient
can be specified for each pair of phases, if desired.
For multiphase flows, FLUENT includes the “virtual mass effect” that
occurs when a secondary phase p accelerates relative to the primary
phase q. The inertia of the primary-phase mass encountered by the
accelerating particles (or droplets or bubbles) exerts a “virtual mass
force” on the particles [57]:
dq vq dp vp
Fvm = 0.5αp ρq − (20.4-11)
dt dt
dq
The term dt denotes the phase material time derivative of the form
dq (φ) ∂(φ)
= + (~vq · ∇)φ (20.4-12)
dt ∂t
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General Multiphase Models
The virtual mass force Fvm will be added to the right-hand side of the
momentum equation for both phases (Fvm,q = −Fvm,p ).
The virtual mass effect is significant when the secondary phase density
is much smaller than the primary phase density (e.g., for a transient
bubble column). By default, Fvm is not included.
Continuity Equation
The solution of this equation for each secondary phase, along with the
condition that the volume fractions sum to one (given by Equation 20.4-2),
allows for the calculation of the primary-phase volume fraction. This
treatment is common to fluid-fluid and granular flows.
∂
(αq ρq ~vq ) + ∇ · (αq ρq~vq~vq ) = −αq ∇p + ∇ · τ q + αq ρq ~g +
∂t
αq ρq (F~q + F~lift,q + F~vm,q ) +
X
n
(Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) + ṁpq~vpq )
p=1
(20.4-14)
20-28
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20.4 Eulerian Model
Here ~g is the acceleration due to gravity and F~q , F~lift,q , and F~vm,q are as
defined for Equation 20.4-7.
Following the work of [2, 32, 50, 76, 131, 145, 167, 235], FLUENT uses a
multi-fluid granular model to describe the flow behavior of a fluid-solid
mixture. The solid-phase stresses are derived by making an analogy be-
tween the random particle motion arising from particle-particle collisions
and the thermal motion of molecules in a gas, taking into account the
inelasticity of the granular phase. As is the case for a gas, the intensity of
the particle velocity fluctuations determines the stresses, viscosity, and
pressure of the solid phase. The kinetic energy associated with the parti-
cle velocity fluctuations is represented by a “pseudothermal” or granular
temperature which is proportional to the mean square of the random
motion of particles.
The conservation of momentum for the fluid phases is similar to Equa-
tion 20.4-14, and that for the sth solid phase is
∂
(αs ρs~vs ) + ∇ · (αs ρs~vs~vs ) = −αs ∇p − ∇ps + ∇ · τ s + αs ρs~g +
∂t
αs ρs (F~s + F~lift,s + F~vm,s ) +
X
N
(Kls (~vl − ~vs ) + ṁls~vls ) (20.4-15)
l=1
where ps is the sth solids pressure, Kls = Ksl is the momentum exchange
coefficient between fluid or solid phase l and solid phase s, N is the
total number of phases, and F~q , F~lift,q , and F~vm,q are as defined for
Equation 20.4-7.
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General Multiphase Models
αp ρp f
Kpq = (20.4-16)
τp
where f , the drag function, is defined differently for the different exchange-
coefficient models (as described below) and τp , the “particulate relax-
ation time”, is defined as
ρp d2p
τp = (20.4-17)
18µq
CD Re
f= (20.4-18)
24
where
(
24(1 + 0.15Re0.687 )/Re Re ≤ 1000
CD = (20.4-19)
0.44 Re > 1000
20-30
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20.4 Eulerian Model
CD Re
f= (20.4-22)
24
where
a2 a3
CD = a1 + + (20.4-23)
Re Re2
and Re is defined by Equation 20.4-20 or 20.4-21. The a’s are
defined as follows:
0, 18, 0 0 < Re < 0.1
3.690, 22.73, 0.0903 0.1 < Re < 1
1.222, 29.1667, −3.8889 1 < Re < 10
0.6167, 46.50, −116.67 10 < Re < 100
a1 , a2 , a3 =
0.3644, 98.33, −2778 100 < Re < 1000
0.357, 148.62, −47500 1000 < Re < 5000
0.46, −490.546, 578700 5000 < Re < 10000
0.5191, −1662.5, 5416700 Re ≥ 10000
(20.4-24)
The Morsi and Alexander model is the most complete, adjusting
the function definition frequently over a large range of Reynolds
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General Multiphase Models
numbers, but calculations with this model may be less stable than
with the other models.
• For the symmetric model
αp (αp ρp + αq ρq )f
Kpq = (20.4-25)
τpq
where
d +d
(αp ρp + αq ρq )( p 2 q )2
τpq = (20.4-26)
18(αp µp + αq µq )
and
CD Re
f= (20.4-27)
24
where
(
24(1 + 0.15Re0.687 )/Re Re ≤ 1000
CD = (20.4-28)
0.44 Re > 1000
You can specify different exchange coefficients for each pair of phases.
It is also possible to use user-defined functions to define exchange coeffi-
cients for each pair of phases. If the exchange coefficient is equal to zero
(i.e., if no exchange coefficient is specified), the flow fields for the fluids
will be computed independently, with the only “interaction” being their
complementary volume fractions within each computational cell.
20-32
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20.4 Eulerian Model
αs ρs f
Ksl = (20.4-29)
τs
ρs d2s
τs = (20.4-30)
18µl
CD Res αl
f= 2
(20.4-31)
24vr,s
where the drag function has a form derived by Dalla Valle [47]
2
4.8
CD = 0.63 + q (20.4-32)
Res /vr,s
ρl ds |~vs − ~vl |
Res = (20.4-33)
µl
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General Multiphase Models
where the subscript l is for the lth fluid phase, s is for the sth solid
phase, and ds is the diameter of the sth solid phase particles.
The fluid-solid exchange coefficient has the form
!
3αs αl ρl Res
Ksl = 2 d
CD |~vs − ~vl | (20.4-34)
4vr,s s vr,s
where vr,s is the terminal velocity correlation for the solid phase [73]:
q
2
vr,s = 0.5 A − 0.06Res + (0.06Res ) + 0.12Res (2B − A) + A2
(20.4-35)
with
A = α4.14
l (20.4-36)
and
B = 0.8α1.28
l (20.4-37)
B = α2.65
l (20.4-38)
• For the model of Wen and Yu [262], the fluid-solid exchange coef-
ficient is of the following form:
20-34
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20.4 Eulerian Model
24 h i
CD = 1 + 0.15(αl Res )0.687 (20.4-40)
αl Res
and Res is defined by Equation 20.4-33.
This model is appropriate for dilute systems.
24 h i
CD = 1 + 0.15(αl Res )0.687 (20.4-42)
αl Res
When αl ≤ 0.8,
The solid-solid exchange coefficient Kls has the following form [233]:
2
3 (1 + els ) π
2 + Cfr,ls π8 αs ρs αl ρl (dl + ds )2 g0,ls
Kls = |~vl − ~vs |
2π ρl d3l + ρs d3s
(20.4-44)
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General Multiphase Models
where
els = the coefficient of restitution (described in
Section 20.4.4)
Cfr,ls = the coefficient of friction between the lth and sth
solid-phase particles (Cfr,ls = 0)
dl = the diameter of the particles of solid l
g0,ls = the radial distribution coefficient (described in
Section 20.4.4)
For granular flows in the compressible regime (i.e., where the solids vol-
ume fraction is less than its maximum allowed value), a solids pressure is
calculated independently and used for the pressure gradient term, ∇ps ,
in the granular-phase momentum equation. Because a Maxwellian ve-
locity distribution is used for the particles, a granular temperature is
introduced into the model, and appears in the expression for the solids
pressure and viscosities. The solids pressure is composed of a kinetic
term and a second term due to particle collisions:
where ess is the coefficient of restitution for particle collisions, g0,ss is the
radial distribution function, and Θs is the granular temperature. FLU-
ENT uses a default value of 0.9 for ess , but the value can be adjusted
to suit the particle type. The granular temperature Θs is proportional
to the kinetic energy of the fluctuating particle motion, and will be de-
scribed later in this section. The function g0,ss (described below in more
detail) is a distribution function that governs the transition from the
“compressible” condition with α < αs,max , where the spacing between
the solid particles can continue to decrease, to the “incompressible” con-
dition with α = αs,max , where no further decrease in the spacing can
occur. A value of 0.63 is the default for αs,max , but you can modify it
during the problem setup.
20-36
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20.4 Eulerian Model
s + dp
g0 = (20.4-46)
s
! 1 −1
3
αs
g0 = 1 − (20.4-47)
αs,max
! 1 −1
3
αl
g0,ll = 1 − (20.4-48)
αl,max
dm g0,ll + dl g0,mm
g0,lm = (20.4-49)
dm + dl
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General Multiphase Models
The solids stress tensor contains shear and bulk viscosities arising from
particle momentum exchange due to translation and collision. A fric-
tional component of viscosity can also be included to account for the
viscous-plastic transition that occurs when particles of a solid phase reach
the maximum solid volume fraction.
The collisional and kinetic parts, and the optional frictional part, are
added to give the solids shear viscosity:
Collisional Viscosity
1/2
4 Θs
µs,col = αs ρs ds g0,ss (1 + ess ) (20.4-51)
5 π
Kinetic Viscosity
√
αs ds ρs Θs π 2
µs,kin = 1 + (1 + ess ) (3ess − 1) αs g0,ss (20.4-52)
6 (3 − ess ) 5
The following optional expression from Gidaspow et al. [76] is also avail-
able:
√ 2
10ρs ds Θs π 4
µs,kin = 1 + g0,ss αs (1 + ess ) (20.4-53)
96αs (1 + ess ) g0,ss 5
20-38
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20.4 Eulerian Model
Bulk Viscosity
The solids bulk viscosity accounts for the resistance of the granular par-
ticles to compression and expansion. It has the following form from Lun
et al. [145]:
1/2
4 Θs
λs = αs ρs ds g0,ss (1 + ess ) (20.4-54)
3 π
Note that the bulk viscosity is set to a constant value of zero, by default.
It is also possible to select the Lun et al. expression or use a user-defined
function.
Frictional Viscosity
In dense flow at low shear, where the secondary volume fraction for
a solid phase nears the packing limit, the generation of stress is mainly
due to friction between particles. The solids shear viscosity computed by
FLUENT does not, by default, account for the friction between particles.
If the frictional viscosity is included in the calculation, FLUENT uses
Schaeffer’s [200] expression:
ps sin φ
µs,fr = √ (20.4-55)
2 I2D
where ps is the solids pressure, φ is the angle of internal friction, and I2D
is the second invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor. It is also possible
to specify a constant or user-defined frictional viscosity.
The granular temperature for the sth solids phase is proportional to the
kinetic energy of the random motion of the particles. The transport
equation derived from kinetic theory takes the form [50]
3 ∂
(ρs αs Θs ) + ∇ · (ρs αs~vs Θs ) = (−ps I + τ s ) : ∇~vs
2 ∂t
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where
(−ps I + τ s ) : ∇~vs = the generation of energy by the
solid stress tensor
kΘs ∇Θs = the diffusion of energy (kΘs is the
diffusion coefficient)
γΘs = the collisional dissipation of energy
φls = the energy exchange between the lth
fluid or solid phase and the sth solid
phase
Equation 20.4-56 contains the term kΘs ∇Θs describing the diffusive flux
of granular energy.
The collisional dissipation of energy, γΘs , represents the rate of energy
dissipation within the sth solids phase due to collisions between particles.
This term is represented by the expression derived by Lun et al. [145]
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20.4 Eulerian Model
∂ µt,m
(ρm k) + ∇ · (ρm~vm k) = ∇ · ∇k + Gk,m − ρm (20.4-59)
∂t σk
and
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∂ µt,m
(ρm )+∇·(ρm~vm ) = ∇· ∇ + (C1 Gk,m −C2 ρm ) (20.4-60)
∂t σ k
where the mixture density and velocity, ρm and ~vm , are computed from
X
N
ρm = αi ρi (20.4-61)
i=1
and
X
N
αi ρi~vi
i=1
~vm = (20.4-62)
XN
αi ρi
i=1
k2
µt,m = ρm Cµ (20.4-63)
and the production of turbulence kinetic energy, Gk,m , is computed from
The dispersed turbulence model is the appropriate model when the con-
centrations of the secondary phases are dilute. In this case, interparticle
collisions are negligible and the dominant process in the random motion
of the secondary phases is the influence of the primary-phase turbulence.
Fluctuating quantities of the secondary phases can therefore be given in
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20.4 Eulerian Model
terms of the mean characteristics of the primary phase and the ratio of
the particle relaxation time and eddy-particle interaction time.
The model is applicable when there is clearly one primary continuous
phase and the rest are dispersed dilute secondary phases.
Assumptions
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kq2
µt,q = ρq Cµ (20.4-66)
q
3 kq
τt,q = Cµ (20.4-67)
2 q
r 3
3 kq2
Lt,q = Cµ (20.4-68)
2 q
and
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20.4 Eulerian Model
Here Πkq and Πq represent the influence of the dispersed phases on
the continuous phase q, and Gk,q is the production of turbulent kinetic
energy, as defined in Section 10.4.4. All other terms have the same
meaning as in the single-phase k- model.
The term Πkq can be derived from the instantaneous equation of the
continuous phase and takes the following form, where M represents the
number of secondary phases:
X
M
Kpq
Πkq = (< ~vq00 · ~vp00 > +(U
~p − U
~ q ) · ~vdr ) (20.4-71)
α ρ
p=1 q q
X
M
Kpq
Πkq = (kpq − 2kq + ~vpq · ~vdr ) (20.4-72)
p=1
αq ρq
where klq is the covariance of the velocities of the continuous phase q and
the dispersed phase l (calculated from Equation 20.4-80 below), ~vpq is the
relative velocity, and ~vdr is the drift velocity (defined by Equation 20.4-85
below).
Πq is modeled according to Elgobashi et al. [61]:
q
Πq = C3 Πk (20.4-73)
kq q
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General Multiphase Models
Time and length scales that characterize the motion are used to evaluate
dispersion coefficients, correlation functions, and the turbulent kinetic
energy of each dispersed phase.
The characteristic particle relaxation time connected with inertial effects
acting on a dispersed phase p is defined as
!
−1 ρp
τF,pq = αp ρp Kpq + CV (20.4-74)
ρq
τt,q
τt,pq = q (20.4-75)
(1 + Cβ ξ 2 )
where
|~vpq |τt,q
ξ= (20.4-76)
Lt,q
and
where θ is the angle between the mean particle velocity and the mean
relative velocity. The ratio between these two characteristic times is
written as
τt,pq
ηpq = (20.4-78)
τF,pq
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20.4 Eulerian Model
!
b2 + ηpq
kp = kq (20.4-79)
1 + ηpq
!
b + ηpq
kpq = 2kq (20.4-80)
1 + ηpq
1
Dt,pq = kpq τt,pq (20.4-81)
3
2 1
Dp = Dt,pq + kp − b kpq τF,pq (20.4-82)
3 3
!−1
ρp
b = (1 + CV ) + CV (20.4-83)
ρq
The turbulent drag term for multiphase flows (Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) in Equa-
tion 20.4-9) is modeled as follows, for dispersed phase p and continuous
phase q:
~p − U
Kpq (~vp − ~vq ) = Kpq (U ~ q ) − Kpq ~vdr (20.4-84)
The second term on the right-hand side of Equation 20.4-84 contains the
drift velocity:
!
Dp Dq
~vdr = − ∇αp − ∇αq (20.4-85)
σpq αp σpq αq
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correction is not included, by default, but you can enable it during the
problem setup.
Transport Equations
The Reynolds stress tensor and turbulent viscosity are computed using
Equations 20.4-65 and 20.4-66. Turbulence predictions are obtained from
and
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20.4 Eulerian Model
X
N
C3 ( Klq (Clq kl − Cql kq ) −
l=1
X
N
~ q ) · µt,l ∇αl +
~l − U
Klq (U
l=1
αl σl
X
N
~ q ) · µt,q ∇αq ))
~l − U
Klq (U
l=1
αq σq
(20.4-87)
Clq = 2
!
ηlq
Cql = 2 (20.4-88)
1 + ηlq
The turbulent drag term (Kpq (~vp −~vq ) in Equation 20.4-9) is modeled as
follows, where l is the dispersed phase (replacing p in Equation 20.4-9)
and q is the continuous phase:
X
N X
N X
N
Klq (~vl − ~vq ) = ~l − U
Klq (U ~q) − Klq~vdr,lq (20.4-89)
l=1 l=1 l=1
Here U~ l and U
~ q are phase-weighted velocities, and ~vdr,lq is the drift ve-
locity for phase l (computed using Equation 20.4-85, substituting l for
p). Note that FLUENT will compute the diffusivities Dl and Dq directly
from the transport equations, rather than using Tchen theory (as it does
for the dispersed turbulence model).
As noted above, the drift velocity results from turbulent fluctuations in
the volume fraction. When multiplied by the exchange coefficient Klq ,
it serves as a correction to the momentum exchange term for turbulent
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General Multiphase Models
flows. This correction is not included, by default, but you can enable it
during the problem setup.
The turbulence model for each phase in FLUENT accounts for the effect
of the turbulence field of one phase on the other(s). If you want to
modify or enhance the interaction of the multiple turbulence fields and
interphase turbulent momentum transfer, you can supply these terms
using user-defined functions.
where ~vk0 is the velocity correction for the kth phase and ~vk∗ is the value
of ~vk at the current iteration. The velocity corrections are themselves
expressed as functions of the pressure corrections.
Volume Fractions
The volume fractions are obtained from the phase continuity equations.
In discretized form, the equation of the kth volume fraction is
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20.5 Cavitation Effects
X
ap,k αk = (anb,k αnb,k ) + bk = Rk (20.4-91)
nb
In order to satisfy the condition that all the volume fractions sum to
one,
X
n
αk = 1 (20.4-92)
k=1
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• The cavitation model cannot be used with the VOF model, because
the surface tracking schemes for the VOF model are incompatible
with the interpenetrating continua assumption of the cavitation
model.
• With the cavitation model, only the secondary phase can be com-
pressible; the primary phase must be incompressible.
4
φ(~r, t) = πR3 (20.5-1)
3
where R is the bubble radius.
The volume fraction of vapor is defined as
φη
αv = (20.5-2)
1 + φη
The volume fraction equation is derived from the continuity equation for
the mixture (m). After some manipulation, assuming an incompressible
liquid (l), the following expression can be obtained:
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20.5 Cavitation Effects
∂ ρl η dφ αρv dρv
(αp ) + ∇(αp~vm ) = + (20.5-3)
∂t ρm (1 + ηφ)2 dt ρm dt
Bubble Dynamics
2
d2 R 3 dR pB − p 2σ µl dR
R + = − −4 (20.5-4)
dt2 2 dt ρl ρl R ρl R dt
Here pB denotes the pressure within the bubble, represented by the sum
of a partial pressure (pv ) of the vapor and a partial pressure of non-
condensable gas (p), and σ is the surface tension coefficient.
To simplify the calculation, FLUENT assumes that the process of bubble
growth and collapse is given by
q
2(pB −p)
dR q 3ρ , pv > p
= l
(20.5-5)
dt − 2(p B −p)
, pv < p
3ρl
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
2. Copy the material representing each phase from the materials data-
base.
Define −→Materials...
If the material you want to use is not in the database, create a
new material. See Section 7.1.2 for details about copying from
the database and creating new materials. See Section 20.6.16 for
additional information about specifying material properties for a
compressible phase (VOF and mixture models only).
! If your model includes a particulate (granular) phase, you will need
to create a new material for it in the fluid materials category (not
the solid materials category).
3. Define the phases, and specify any interaction between them (e.g.,
surface tension if you are using the VOF model, slip velocity func-
tions if you are using the mixture model, or drag functions if you
are using the Eulerian model).
Define −→Phases...
See Sections 20.6.7–20.6.10 for details.
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5. If body forces are present, turn on gravity and specify the gravita-
tional acceleration.
Define −→Operating Conditions...
See Section 20.6.11 for details.
8. Initialize the solution and set the initial volume fractions for the
secondary phases.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
See Section 20.6.15 for details.
Once you have determined that the Eulerian multiphase model is ap-
propriate for your problem (as described in Sections 18.4 and 20.1), you
should consider the computational effort required to solve your multi-
phase problem. The required computational effort depends strongly on
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
the number of transport equations being solved and the degree of cou-
pling. For the Eulerian multiphase model, which has a large number of
highly coupled transport equations, computational expense will be high.
Before setting up your problem, try to reduce the problem statement to
the simplest form possible.
Instead of trying to solve your multiphase flow in all of its complexity
on your first solution attempt, you can start with simple approximations
and work your way up to the final form of the problem definition. Some
suggestions for simplifying a multiphase flow problem are listed below:
You may find that even a very simple approximation will provide you
with useful information about your problem.
See Section 20.7.3 for more solution strategies for Eulerian multiphase
calculations.
• number of phases
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• number of phases
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
• number of phases
To specify the number of phases for the multiphase calculation, enter the
appropriate value in the Number of Phases field. You can specify up to
20 phases.
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General Multiphase Models
twisted hexahedral cells. For such cases, you should use the time-
dependent Euler explicit scheme. This formulation can also be
used for other cases in which the geometric reconstruction scheme
does not give satisfactory results, or the flow calculation becomes
unstable.
To use this formulation, select Euler Explicit as the VOF Scheme.
FLUENT will automatically turn on the unsteady formulation with
first-order discretization for time in the Solver panel.
While the Euler explicit time-dependent formulation is less com-
putationally expensive than the geometric reconstruction scheme,
the interface between phases will not be as sharp as that predicted
with the geometric reconstruction scheme. To reduce this diffusiv-
ity, it is recommended that you use the second-order discretization
scheme for the volume fraction equations. In addition, you may
want to consider turning the geometric reconstruction scheme back
on after calculating a solution with the implicit scheme, in order
to obtain a sharper interface.
• Time-dependent with the implicit interpolation scheme: This for-
mulation can be used if you are looking for a steady-state solution
and you are not interested in the intermediate transient flow behav-
ior, but the final steady-state solution is dependent on the initial
flow conditions and/or you do not have a distinct inflow boundary
for each phase.
To use this formulation, select Implicit as the VOF Scheme, and
enable an Unsteady calculation in the Solver panel (opened with
the Define/Models/Solver... menu item).
! The issues discussed above for the Euler explicit time-dependent
formulation also apply to the implicit time-dependent formulation.
You should take the precautions described above to improve the
sharpness of the interface.
• Steady-state with the implicit interpolation scheme: This formu-
lation can be used if you are looking for a steady-state solution,
you are not interested in the intermediate transient flow behavior,
and the final steady-state solution is not affected by the initial flow
conditions and there is a distinct inflow boundary for each phase.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
Examples
To help you determine the best formulation to use for your problem,
examples that use different formulations are listed below:
If you are using the mixture model, you have the option to disable the
calculation of slip velocities and solve a homogeneous multiphase flow
(i.e., one in which the phases all move at the same velocity). By default,
FLUENT will compute the slip velocities for the secondary phases, as de-
scribed in Section 20.3.4. If you want to solve a homogeneous multiphase
flow, turn off Slip Velocity under Mixture Parameters.
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To define the phases (including their material properties) and any inter-
phase interaction (e.g., surface tension and wall adhesion for the VOF
model, slip velocity function for the mixture model, drag functions for
the Eulerian model), you will use the Phases panel (Figure 20.6.2).
Define −→Phases...
Each item in the Phase list in this panel is one of two types, as indicated
in the Type list: primary-phase indicates that the selected item is the
primary phase, and secondary-phase indicates that the selected item is a
secondary phase. To specify any interaction between the phases, click
the Interaction... button.
Instructions for defining the phases and interaction are provided in Sec-
tions 20.6.8, 20.6.9, and 20.6.10 for the VOF, mixture, and Eulerian
models, respectively.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and
secondary phases and their interaction in a VOF calculation are provided
below.
! In general, you can specify the primary and secondary phases whichever
way you prefer. It is a good idea, especially in more complicated prob-
lems, to consider how your choice will affect the ease of problem setup.
For example, if you are planning to patch an initial volume fraction of 1
for one phase in a portion of the domain, it may be more convenient to
make that phase a secondary phase. Also, if one of the phases is com-
pressible, it is recommended that you specify it as the primary phase to
improve solution stability.
! Recall that only one of the phases can be compressible. Be sure that
you do not select a compressible material (i.e., a material that uses the
compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of the phases.
See Section 20.6.16 for details.
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2. Click Set..., and the Primary Phase panel (Figure 20.6.3) will open.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
2. Click Set..., and the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 20.6.4) will
open.
Figure 20.6.4: The Secondary Phase Panel for the VOF Model
5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the
procedure outlined above for setting the material properties for the
primary phase.
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Figure 20.6.5: The Phase Interaction Panel for the VOF Model
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
2. If you want to include wall adhesion, turn on the Wall Adhesion op-
tion. (When Wall Adhesion is enabled, you will need to specify the
contact angle at each wall as a boundary condition (as described
in Section 20.6.14.)
3. For each pair of phases between which you want to include the
effects of surface tension, specify a constant surface tension coef-
ficient. All surface tension coefficients are equal to 0 by default,
representing no surface tension effects along the interface between
the two phases.
Instructions for specifying the necessary information for the primary and
secondary phases and their interaction for a mixture model calculation
are provided below.
! Recall that only one of the phases can be compressible. Be sure that
you do not select a compressible material (i.e., a material that uses the
compressible ideal gas law for density) for more than one of the phases.
See Section 20.6.16 for details.
The procedure for defining the primary phase in a mixture model cal-
culation is the same as for a VOF calculation. See Section 20.6.8 for
details.
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General Multiphase Models
Figure 20.6.6: The Secondary Phase Panel for the Mixture Model
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
If you are solving for slip velocities during the mixture calculation, and
you want to modify the slip velocity definition, click Interaction... to
open the Phase Interaction panel (Figure 20.6.7).
Figure 20.6.7: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Mixture Model
Under Slip Velocity, you can specify the slip velocity function for each
secondary phase with respect to the primary phase by choosing the ap-
propriate item in the adjacent drop-down list.
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• Select none if the secondary phase has the same velocity as the
primary phase (i.e., no slip velocity).
• Select user-defined to use a user-defined function for the slip veloc-
ity. See the separate UDF Manual for details.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
2. Click Set..., and the Secondary Phase panel (Figure 20.6.9) will
open.
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5. Define the material properties for the Phase Material, following the
same procedure you used to set the material properties for the
primary phase (see Section 20.6.8). For a granular phase (which
must be placed in the fluid materials category, as mentioned in
Section 20.6.1), you need to specify only the density; you can ignore
the values for the other properties, since they will not be used.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
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General Multiphase Models
For both granular and non-granular flows, you will need to specify the
drag function to be used in the calculation of the momentum exchange
coefficients. For granular flows, you will also need to specify the restitu-
tion coefficient(s) for particle collisions. It is also possible to include an
optional lift force and/or virtual mass force (described below) for both
granular and non-granular flows.
To specify these parameters, click Interaction... to open the Phase Inter-
action panel (Figure 20.6.10).
Figure 20.6.10: The Phase Interaction Panel for the Eulerian Model
FLUENT allows you to specify a drag function for each pair of phases.
Follow the steps below:
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
2. For each pair of phases, select the appropriate drag function from
the corresponding drop-down list.
• Select schiller-naumann to use the fluid-fluid drag function
described by Equation 20.4-19. The Schiller and Naumann
model is the default method, and it is acceptable for general
use in all fluid-fluid multiphase calculations.
• Select morsi-alexander to use the fluid-fluid drag function de-
scribed by Equation 20.4-23. The Morsi and Alexander model
is the most complete, adjusting the function definition fre-
quently over a large range of Reynolds numbers, but calcula-
tions with this model may be less stable than with the other
models.
• Select symmetric to use the fluid-fluid drag function described
by Equation 20.4-28. The symmetric model is recommended
for flows in which the secondary (dispersed) phase in one re-
gion of the domain becomes the primary (continuous) phase
in another. For example, if air is injected into the bottom of
a container filled halfway with water, the air is the dispersed
phase in the bottom half of the container; in the top half of
the container, the air is the continuous phase.
• Select wen-yu to use the fluid-solid drag function described by
Equation 20.4-40. The Wen and Yu model is applicable for
dilute phase flows, in which the total secondary phase volume
fraction is significantly lower than that of the primary phase.
• Select gidaspow to use the fluid-solid drag function described
by Equation 20.4-42. The Gidaspow model is recommended
for dense fluidized beds.
• Select syamlal-obrien to use the fluid-solid drag function de-
scribed by Equation 20.4-32. The Syamlal-O’Brien model is
recommended for use in conjunction with the Syamlal-O’Brien
model for granular viscosity.
• Select syamlal-obrien-symmetric to use the solid-solid drag func-
tion described by Equation 20.4-44. The symmetric Syamlal-
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General Multiphase Models
For granular flows, you need to specify the coefficients of restitution for
collisions between particles (els in Equation 20.4-44 and ess in Equa-
tion 20.4-45). In addition to specifying the restitution coefficient for
collisions between each pair of granular phases, you will also specify the
restitution coefficient for collisions between particles of the same phase.
Follow the steps below:
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
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General Multiphase Models
For VOF calculations, you should also turn on the Specified Operating
Density option in the Operating Conditions panel, and set the Operat-
ing Density to be the density of the lightest phase. (This excludes the
buildup of hydrostatic pressure within the lightest phase, improving the
round-off accuracy for the momentum balance.) If any of the phases is
compressible, set the Operating Density to zero.
! For VOF and mixture calculations involving body forces, it is recom-
mended that you also turn on the Implicit Body Force treatment for the
Body Force Formulation in the Multiphase Model panel. This treatment
improves solution convergence by accounting for the partial equilibrium
of the pressure gradient and body forces in the momentum equations.
See Section 22.3.3 for details.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
updated each iteration, since the volume fraction fields will not
change from iteration to iteration.
If you want FLUENT to solve the volume fraction equation(s) at
every iteration within a time step, turn on the Solve VOF Every
Iteration option under VOF Parameters. When FLUENT solves these
equations every iteration, the convective flux coefficients in the
other transport equations will be updated based on the updated
volume fractions at each iteration.
In general, if you anticipate that the location of the interface will
change as the other flow variables converge during the time step,
you should enable the Solve VOF Every Iteration option. This situa-
tion arises when large time steps are being used in hopes of reaching
a steady-state solution, for example. If small time steps are being
used, however, it is not necessary to perform the additional work
of solving for the volume fraction every iteration, so you can leave
this option turned off. This choice is the more stable of the two,
and requires less computational effort per time step than the first
choice.
! If you are using sliding meshes, using the Solve VOF Every Itera-
tion option may yield more accurate results, although at a greater
computational cost.
∆t
(20.6-1)
∆xcell /vfluid
In the region near the fluid interface, FLUENT divides the volume
of each cell by the sum of the outgoing fluxes. The resulting time
represents the time it would take for the fluid to empty out of the
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Note that these inputs are not required when the implicit scheme is used.
If you are using the Eulerian model to solve a turbulent flow, you will
need to choose one of the three turbulence models described in Sec-
tion 20.4.7 in the Viscous Model panel (Figure 20.6.11).
The procedure is as follows:
2. Select the desired k-epsilon Model and any other related parameters,
as described for single-phase calculations in Section 10.10.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
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The conditions you need to specify for the mixture and those you need
to specify for the individual phases will depend on which of the three
multiphase models you are using. Details for each model are provided
below.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
VOF Model
If you are using the VOF model, the conditions you need to specify for
each type of zone are listed below and summarized in Table 20.6.1.
• For an exhaust fan, inlet vent, intake fan, mass flow inlet, outlet
vent, pressure inlet, pressure outlet, or velocity inlet, there are no
conditions to be specified for the primary phase. For each sec-
ondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a con-
stant, a profile (see Section 6.25), or a user-defined function (see
the separate UDF Manual). All other conditions are specified for
the mixture.
• For a fluid zone, mass sources are specified for the individual phases,
and all other sources are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specified for
the mixture.
If the fluid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option
in the Fluid panel for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if rele-
vant) are also specified for the mixture. The resistance coefficients
and direction vectors, however, are specified separately for each
phase. See Section 6.19.6 for details about these inputs. All other
conditions are specified for the mixture.
See Chapter 6 for details about the relevant conditions for each type of
boundary. Note that the pressure far-field boundary is not available with
the VOF model.
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General Multiphase Models
Table 20.6.1: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the VOF Model
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
Mixture Model
If you are using the mixture model, the conditions you need to specify
for each type of zone are listed below and summarized in Table 20.6.2.
• For an exhaust fan, outlet vent, or pressure outlet, there are no con-
ditions to be specified for the primary phase. For each secondary
phase, you will need to set the volume fraction as a constant, a pro-
file (see Section 6.25), or a user-defined function (see the separate
UDF Manual). All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
• For an inlet vent, intake fan, mass flow inlet, or pressure inlet, you
will specify for the mixture which direction specification method
will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary or Direction
Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specification method,
you will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and flow-direction
components for the individual phases. For each secondary phase,
you will need to set the volume fraction (as described above). All
other conditions are specified for the mixture.
• For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual
phases. For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume
fraction (as described above). All other conditions are specified for
the mixture.
• For an axis, fan, outflow, periodic, porous jump, radiator, solid,
symmetry, or wall zone, all conditions are specified for the mixture;
there are no conditions to be set for the individual phases.
• For a fluid zone, mass sources are specified for the individual phases,
and all other sources are specified for the mixture.
If the fluid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specified for
the mixture.
If the fluid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option
in the Fluid panel for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if rele-
vant) are also specified for the mixture. The resistance coefficients
and direction vectors, however, are specified separately for each
phase. See Section 6.19.6 for details about these inputs. All other
conditions are specified for the mixture.
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See Chapter 6 for details about the relevant conditions for each type of
boundary. Note that the pressure far-field boundary is not available with
the mixture model.
Table 20.6.2: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Mixture Model
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
Eulerian Model
If you are using the Eulerian model, the conditions you need to specify
for each type of zone are listed below and summarized in Tables 20.6.3,
20.6.4, 20.6.5, and 20.6.6. Note that the specification of turbulence pa-
rameters will depend on which of the three multiphase turbulence models
you are using, as indicated in Tables 20.6.4–20.6.6. See Sections 20.4.7
and 20.6.13 for more information about multiphase turbulence models.
• For an inlet vent, intake fan, mass flow inlet, or pressure inlet, you
will specify for the mixture which direction specification method
will be used at this boundary (Normal to Boundary or Direction
Vector). If you select the Direction Vector specification method,
you will specify the coordinate system (3D only) and flow-direction
components for the individual phases.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction
(as described above). If the phase is granular, you will also need
to set its granular temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to
specify the turbulence boundary conditions for the mixture; if you
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are using the dispersed turbulence model, you will need to specify
them for the primary phase; if you are using the per-phase turbu-
lence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
• For a velocity inlet, you will specify the velocity for the individual
phases.
For each secondary phase, you will need to set the volume fraction
(as described above). If the phase is granular, you will also need
to set its granular temperature.
If you are using the mixture turbulence model, you will need to
specify the turbulence boundary conditions for the mixture; if you
are using the dispersed turbulence model, you will need to specify
them for the primary phase; if you are using the per-phase turbu-
lence model, you will need to specify them for the primary phase
and for each secondary phase.
All other conditions are specified for the mixture.
• For a wall zone, shear conditions are specified for the individual
phases; all other conditions are specified for the mixture.
• For a fluid zone, all source terms and fixed values are specified for
the individual phases, unless you are using the mixture turbulence
model or the dispersed turbulence model. If you are using the mix-
ture turbulence model, source terms and fixed values for turbulence
are specified instead for the mixture; if you are using the dispersed
turbulence model, they are specified only for the primary phase.
If the fluid zone is not porous, all other conditions are specified for
the mixture.
If the fluid zone is porous, you will enable the Porous Zone option
in the Fluid panel for the mixture. The porosity inputs (if rele-
vant) are also specified for the mixture. The resistance coefficients
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
See Chapter 6 for details about the relevant conditions for each type
of boundary. Note that the pressure far-field, fan, porous jump, and
radiator boundaries are not available with the Eulerian model.
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Table 20.6.3: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(for Laminar Flow)
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
Table 20.6.4: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(with the Mixture Turbulence Model)
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Table 20.6.5: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(with the Dispersed Turbulence Model)
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
Table 20.6.6: Phase-Specific and Mixture Conditions for the Eulerian Model
(with the Per-Phase Turbulence Model)
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The steps you need to perform for each boundary are as follows:
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
tion in the Phase Interaction panel, you can specify the con-
tact angle at the wall for each pair of phases (as shown in
Figure 20.6.14).
The contact angle (θw in Figure 20.2.2) is the angle between
the wall and the tangent to the interface at the wall, measured
inside the first phase of the pair listed in the Wall panel. For
example, if you are setting the contact angle between the oil
and air phases in the Wall panel shown in Figure 20.6.14, θw
is measured inside the oil phase.
The default value for all pairs is 90 degrees, which is equiv-
alent to no wall adhesion effects (i.e., the interface is normal
to the adjacent wall). A contact angle of 45◦ , for example,
corresponds to water creeping up the side of a container, as
is common with water in a glass.
(d) Click OK when you are done setting the mixture boundary
conditions.
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Figure 20.6.14: The Wall Panel for a Mixture in a VOF Calculation with
Wall Adhesion
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
The steps for copying boundary conditions for a multiphase flow are
slightly different from those described in Section 6.1.5 for a single-phase
flow. The modified steps are listed below:
2. In the From Zone list, select the zone that has the conditions you
want to copy.
3. In the To Zones list, select the zone or zones to which you want to
copy the conditions.
4. In the Phase drop-down list, select the phase for which you want to
copy the conditions (either mixture or one of the individual phases).
! Note that copying the boundary conditions for one phase does
not automatically result in the boundary conditions for the other
phases and the mixture being copied as well. You need to copy the
conditions for each phase on each boundary of interest.
5. Click Copy. FLUENT will set all of the selected phase’s (or mix-
ture’s) boundary conditions on the zones selected in the To Zones
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Once you have initialized the flow (as described in Section 22.13), you
can define the initial distribution of the phases. For a transient simula-
tion, this distribution will serve as the initial condition at t = 0; for a
steady-state simulation, setting an initial distribution can provide added
stability in the early stages of the calculation.
You can patch an initial volume fraction for each secondary phase using
the Patch panel.
Solve −→ Initialize −→Patch...
If the region in which you want to patch the volume fraction is defined
as a separate cell zone, you can simply patch the value there. Otherwise,
you can create a cell “register” that contains the appropriate cells and
patch the value in the register. See Section 22.13.2 for details.
If you are using the VOF or mixture model for a compressible flow, note
the following:
• Only one of the phases can be compressible (i.e., you can select the
ideal gas law for the density of only one phase’s material).
• If you are using the VOF model, for stability reasons it is better
(although not required) if the primary phase is compressible.
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20.6 Setting Up a General Multiphase Problem
• For phases that are not melting or solidifying, you must set the
latent heat (L), liquidus temperature (Tliquidus ), and solidus tem-
perature (Tsolidus ) to zero.
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The site of the reference pressure can be moved to a location that will
result in less round-off in the pressure calculation. By default, the refer-
ence pressure location is the center of the cell at or closest to the point
(0,0,0). You can move this location by specifying a new Reference Pres-
sure Location in the Operating Conditions panel.
Define −→Operating Conditions...
The position that you choose should be in a region that will always
contain the least dense of the fluids (e.g., the gas phase, if you have a
gas phase and one or more liquid phases). This is because variations in
the static pressure are larger in a more dense fluid than in a less dense
fluid, given the same velocity distribution. If the zero of the relative
pressure field is in a region where the pressure variations are small, less
round-off will occur than if the variations occur in a field of large non-
zero values. Thus in systems containing air and water, for example, it is
important that the reference pressure location be in the portion of the
domain filled with air rather than that filled with water.
For all VOF calculations, you should use the body-force-weighted pres-
sure interpolation scheme or the PRESTO! scheme.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
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20.7 Solution Strategies for General Multiphase Problems
When the implicit or Euler explicit scheme is used you should use the
second-order or QUICK discretization scheme for the volume fraction
equations in order to improve the sharpness of the interface between
phases.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
Another change that you should make to the solver settings is in the
pressure-velocity coupling scheme and under-relaxation factors that you
use. The PISO scheme is recommended for transient calculations in
general. Using PISO allows for increased values on all under-relaxation
factors, without a loss of solution stability. You can generally increase
the under-relaxation factors for all variables to 1 and expect stability
and a rapid rate of convergence (in the form of few iterations required
per time step). For calculations on tetrahedral or triangular meshes,
an under-relaxation factor of 0.7–0.8 for pressure is recommended for
improved stability with the PISO scheme.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
As with any FLUENT simulation, the under-relaxation factors will need
to be decreased if the solution exhibits unstable, divergent behavior with
the under-relaxation factors set to 1. Reducing the time step is another
way to improve the stability.
If you are using the steady-state implicit VOF scheme, the under-relaxation
factors for all variables should be set to values between 0.2 and 0.5 for
improved stability.
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For some cases (e.g., cyclone separation), you may be able to obtain a
solution more quickly if you compute an initial solution without solving
the volume fraction and slip velocity equations. Once you have set up
the mixture model, you can temporarily disable these equations and
compute an initial solution.
Solve −→ Controls −→Solution...
In the Solution Controls panel, deselect Volume Fraction and Slip Velocity
in the Equations list. You can then compute the initial flow field. Once
a converged flow field is obtained, turn the Volume Fraction and Slip
Velocity equations back on again, and compute the mixture solution.
• Set up and solve the problem using the mixture model (with or
without slip velocities) instead of the Eulerian model. You can then
enable the Eulerian model, complete the setup, and continue the
calculation using the mixture-model solution as a starting point.
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20.8 Postprocessing for General Multiphase Problems
! You should not try to use a single-phase solution obtained without the
mixture or Eulerian model as a starting point for an Eulerian multiphase
calculation. Doing so will not improve convergence, and may make it
even more difficult for the flow to converge.
If you are planning to include the effects of lift and/or virtual mass
forces in a steady-state Eulerian multiphase simulation, you can often
reduce stability problems that sometimes occur in the early stages of the
calculation by temporarily ignoring the action of the lift and the virtual
mass forces. Once the solution without these forces starts to converge,
you can interrupt the calculation, define these forces appropriately, and
continue the calculation.
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When you use one of the general multiphase models, several additional
field functions will be available for postprocessing, as listed in this sec-
tion. See Chapter 27 for a complete list of field functions and their def-
initions. Chapters 25 and 26 explain how to generate graphics displays
and reports of data.
VOF Model
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20.8 Postprocessing for General Multiphase Problems
Mixture Model
For calculations with the mixture model, you can generate graphical
plots or alphanumeric reports of the following additional items:
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Eulerian Model
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20.8 Postprocessing for General Multiphase Problems
will need to run the solver for one iteration before plotting or reporting
the items listed above. (This is not necessary if you plot or report these
variables for a data set that you just computed in the current FLUENT
session.)
When you use the Flux Reports panel to compute fluxes through bound-
aries, you will be able to specify whether the report is for the mixture
or for an individual phase.
Report −→Fluxes...
Select mixture in the Phase drop-down list at the bottom of the panel
to report fluxes for the mixture, or select the name of a phase to report
fluxes just for that phase.
For Eulerian calculations, when you use the Force Reports panel to com-
pute forces or moments on wall boundaries, you will be able to specify
the individual phase for which you want to compute the forces.
Report −→Forces...
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Select the name of the desired phase in the Phase drop-down list on the
left side of the panel.
You can obtain a report of mass flow rate for each phase (and the mix-
ture) through each flow boundary using the report/mass-flow text
command:
report −→mass-flow
When you specify the phase of interest (the mixture or an individual
phase), FLUENT will list each zone, followed by the mass flow rate
through that zone for the specified phase. An example is shown below.
/report> mf
(mixture water air)
domain id/name [mixture] air
zone 10 (spiral-press-outlet): -1.2330244
zone 3 (pressure-outlet): -9.7560663
zone 11 (spiral-vel-inlet): 0.6150589
zone 8 (spiral-wall): 0
zone 1 (walls): 0
zone 4 (velocity-inlet): 4.9132133
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