Walls IllustratedHandbook de Bortoli Maurizio

Walls
Illustrated handbook
Dr. De Bortoli Maurizio.

Walls.
Walls Illustrated handbook.

Dr. De Bortoli Maurizio
PhD. Architecture
Lecturer in Technology,
Catholic University Institute of Buea. (C.U.I.B.)
Cameroon – Central Africa.
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Translated and revised by Dr. De Bortoli Maurizio from the original

French “Murs en Beton”.
C ONTENTS
Preface Pg. 3
Introduction Pg. 4
1. Concrete walls. Pg. 7

2. Poured concrete walls. Pg.16
3. Prefabricated walls. Pg.25
4. Slip form walls. Pg.40
5. Determination of reinforcement in poured concrete walls. Pg.46
6. Example of calculation (building internal bearing wall). Pg.80
7. Retaining walls. Pg.97
Bibliography Pg.134
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P reface
“An initial introduction to the various elements of construction must give a broad outline
of all the facts involved in the construction processes”.
In order to transfer this information to the students and to reinforce that knowledge by
drawing, assignments and other methods…. Some basic notes are required.
The notes presented in the following pages as not intended be a reference material… (since
there are many excellent textbooks of this nature already in existence, which I urge all students
to study) but one in which the student is given the essentials upon which the lecturer may enlarge
as he feels necessary, thereby allowing more time to be spent on discussion and individual
consultation rather than on laborious note-taken.
Building technology is an extensive but not necessarily exact subject.
There are many ways of obtaining a satisfactory construction in building, but whichever method
is used they all are based upon the same basic principles and it is these which are learnt in
building technology.
The construction industry has developed many specialism and the development of an
interest in one field can be justified by an understanding of the reasons why, as well as how and
when, a particular process is performed.
Another aspect of a technology course is to give sufficient basic knowledge, over the whole field
of building activities, to enable the civil engineer to hold and understand discussion with other
related specialist.
This interest, once developed, may result in a person becoming a life-long student.
Dr. De Bortoli Maurizio

May 2017
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I ntroduction
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From. CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY (vol.1) of J.T. Grundy .U.K. 1992. We can read:
‘’…Since the earliest days, man has instinctively required from himself and from his
possession a shelter. In more recent times he has also provided shelter for many of his work,
recreational and spiritual activities.
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The functions of this shelter is to give protection from the elements, enclose space, and provide
a suitable internal environment for the activities taking place within it, at the same time, the
shelter should not detract from the man external environment.
The shelter can be described as the external envelope which fulfills the functions already
outlined. This envelope is generally comprised of walls and roofs, but, since man requires light
and access to the internal environment, windows and doors must also be considered as part of
the envelope.
Functions of the external envelope.

Having identified the elements which form the external envelop, it is necessary to identify and
consider the primary functions of this envelope. The importance of these functions will depend
upon the type of structures which is to be erected, the situation of the building, in terms of
both macro-and micro-environment, and the use for which the building is intended.
Some of the functions could be considered as follow.
A) Strength and stability

B) Weather exclusion
C) Thermal insulation
D) Sound insulation
E) Durability
F) Fire resistance
G) Appearance
Choice of materials for external walls.

The materials which are commonly used in external walls are natural and artificial stones,
bricks, concrete, timber, plastics, glass and metal.
Before the selection of a material for a wall or any other component can be made, an
understanding of the composition, advantages and disadvantages of these materials is
required.
The factors which affect the choice of material for an external wall are.
a) The structural form of the building.

b) The type of wall required.
c) Availability.
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d) Speed of erection.
e) Cost.
Internal walls.
The envelope of a building provides weather protection and security, but with-out the
internal construction it is of little use even for a storage, since an earth floor is far from
suitable.
The internal construction is, therefore, equally as important as those elements which
make up the envelope of a building.
The elements which are of prime importance inside the building are those which the
builder erects along with the envelope or immediately afterwards, i.e. the floors, the
stairs, and other walls.
……The normal method of partitioning a floor area into a smaller unit, where
different operations or activities are carried out, is by means of further walls, knows as
internal walls.
In certain large offices where noise levels are low, the subdivision is sometimes achieved
by the positioning of filing cabinets, and other movable screens.
Functions of internal walls.

The primary functions of an internal wall are.
A) To assist in carrying out the loads imposed on the structures.

B) To partition space.
C) To provide insulation, both sound and thermal.
D) To provide security.
E) To support fixtures, fittings and decorations.
F) To accommodate services.
G) To provide fire resistance.
H) To be static or movable.
1. CONCRETE WALLS
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1.1 INTRODUCTION
The main purpose of this chapter is to give the rules of calculation and use of welded mesh
in concrete walls.
In the first place, it must be placed concrete walls within a general classification of the walls.
Multiple classification criteria can be considered. The following criteria were selected:
-function of the walls,
-composition of the walls,
-manufacturing mode.
For the concrete walls, depending on their mode of manufacture, three major types of walls are
studied:
-poured concrete walls,
-prefabricated walls,
-walls using a slip-form paver.
These three modes of production are under titles 2, 3 and 4. Title 5 indicates the provisions
common to all types of concrete walls. Particular indicates how to determine the lattice
welded and complementary frames of these walls, assuming the non-exposed work in the
earthquakes.
1.2 DEFINITION
We can define «walls» vertical structures in concrete or masonry.
They can be prefabricated or made directly to their final location in the building.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WALLS

1.3,1 functions of walls
They mainly concern:
(a) The mechanical stability of walls under the forces applied to them.
These forces will normally comprise:
-for permanent actions,
-of variable actions (including thermal, climatic effects).
All these actions must correspond mainly to forces acting in the plane of the walls.
b) Safety with regard to the normally foreseeable accidental actions (earthquake) or in case of
fire.
c) Tightness to rain for walls that are exposed.
d) A contribution to the respect of the hygrothermal requirements and acoustic.
e) If applicable, the appearance outside and/or inside the building.
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1.3,2 Types of feature walls exposure to rain

The Europeean Standard (DTU 23-1 [4.3] entitled "Guide for the choice of wall's frontage in
function types of site») define four main types of walls:
1.3, 2, 1. WALL OF TYPE I

A wall of type I is a wall without at the same time:
- No waterproof coating on its exterior cladding,
- No cut-off of capillarity in its thickness.
(Fig. 4.1, Fig. 4.2).
Example of wall Type I
1.3,2,2. WALL OF TYPE II

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A type II wall is a wall free waterproof coating on its exterior cladding but with its thickness in a
capillary break continues. In type IIa, (Fig. 4.3 Fig. 4.4). this cut is formed by non-hydrophilic
insulating panels.
In type IIb, this break is formed by a continuous air gap (Fig. 4.5 Fig. 4.6).
Examples of walls of type IIa
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Examples of walls of type IIb.
1.3,2,3. WALL OF TYPE III

A type III wall is a wall free waterproof coating on its exterior cladding but with its thickness in a
capillary break continues by an air gap.
A this blade of air base, are planned collection and evacuation devices to the outside of
possible passage of water. (Fig. 4.7 Fig. 4.8).
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Examples of walls of type III.

1.3,2,4. WALL OF TYPE IV
A type IV wall is a wall having a waterproof coating located in front of its siding exterior.
(Fig. 4.9).
Examples of walls of type IV.
1.3,2,5. AREAS OF CONSTRUCTIONS
There are four situations:

a) Inside major centers.
b) In small and medium-sized cities or just outside of major centers.
c) Isolated in open country.
d) Isolated or in a coastal town but construction not sheltered beachfront.
1.3,2,6. CONVENIENCE OF SHUTTERED BY CONCRETE WALLS EXPOSURE TO RAIN

According to the situations indicated in 1.3,2,5. (a to d) minimum solutions advocated by the
Europeean Standard (DTU 20.1) are listed below:
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Table 4.1(a)
Walls intended to receive a coating or a traditional exterior
Situation a, b or c Situation d
Facades height of the
wall - not sheltered Facade Facades Facade Facade not sheltered
above ground (m) sheltered not sheltered sheltered Sheltered
littoral except Seafront
front sea
<6 I I or IIa (2) I I or IIa IIb
6-18 I I or IIa I IIa IIb
18-28 I (1) I or IIa I(1) IIb IIb or III
28-50 IIa or IIb (2) III III
50-100 III or IV (2) IV IV
(1) For these exposure conditions, the facades with balconies and loggias cannot, in
a general rule, be considered to be sheltered.
(2) Except for the walls of type IV, it has been disregarded, in the foregoing, analysis of the
nature of the exterior coating, which can however contribute to the resistance to penetration of
water rain. It remains, of course, possible to the designer to use this parameter to specify its
choice consideration of the particular situation of the work
Table 4.1(b)
Walls which the cladding is intended to remain apparent
Situation a, b or c Situation d
Facades height of the
wall - not sheltered Facade Facades Facade Facade not sheltered
above ground (m) sheltered not sheltered sheltered
Sheltered littoral
except Seafront
front sea
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<6 IIa IIa IIa IIb or III III

6-18 IIa IIa IIa IIb or III III
18-28 IIa IIb or III IIa III III
28-50 * * *
50-100 * * *
* Cases not covered by the DTU, requiring a particular study.For more details, refer to the DTU
20.1
1.3,3 design of walls
There are two traditional designs:
a) Simple walls that are using a wall coated or not, this wall can be:
-simple, i.e. formed in the thickness direction by a single mainframe, non-coated material
included, for example: concrete wall.
-composite, that is incorporated in the direction of thickness by several main materials
interlocking continuously by mortar or concrete.
Example:
b) double wall walls with two separate walls that can be:
-of approximately equal thickness, case of "double walls.
Example:
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(The mechanical stability is then usually only provided by the poured concrete wall).
-thick significantly unequal: cases of "walls with heat shields.
Example:
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Concrete walls make it possible to easily ensure the five functions described in 1.3,1 (A).
They are very frequently used especially in residential or of offices and buildings industrial.
1.3,4 means of manufacture of concrete walls

Three main categories are:
- Poured concrete walls, (title 2).
- Prefabricated walls (title 3).
- Walls executed using slip form (title 4).
NOTE.
(A) Namely: stability, safety against accidental actions, sealing requirements, hygrothermal and acoustic aspects.
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2. POURED CONCRETE WALLS

2.1 DEFINITION
Poured concrete walls are vertical, cast in concrete works in called formwork "shuttering" to their
final location in the building.
These walls are usually frames with reinforcement, they are however considered as reinforced
only if they contain more frames calculated to contribute to their stability.
2.2 DESIGN
The design of a poured concrete wall should enable it to ensure the title 1.3,1-defined functions.
and in particular, the seal for the walls that are exposed to the rain (title 1.3,2).
The DTU applicable to this type of wall are including the DTU n OS 20.1, 21-23-1 (see [4.1], [4.2]
and ) [4.3]) as well as the following texts:
-Rules BAEL modified 91 99 [4.4].
-FB (DTU-fire) [4.5] rules.
-Rules relating to climatic loads (rules 65 NV and NV 2000 modified 84 modified 1999 [4.7])
-Earthquake-resistant construction rules: rules applicable to buildings PS, tell rules PS 92 [4.8]
and recommendations AFD 90 [4.9].
2.3. SETTING OUT

2.3,1 General
The following provisions have originated the DTU n OS 20-1 and 21-23-1 (see [4.1]. [4.2] and
[4.3]). they possibly complement those given in Chapter 1 "General provisions".
2.3,2 Concrete
In general, concrete cement dosage shall be not less than 300 kg/m 3.
This provision becomes imperative for external walls placed under normal conditions exposure
or protected by a coating reported.
The dosage must be 350 kg/m 3 if the walls are exposed to salt spray or saline environments.
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2.3,3 Renting of formwork

(1) Main functions
• The desired facings. These facings are classified by the DTU 23.1 [4.3] (specification a)
charges) in:
-Elementary siding,
-regular siding,
-current siding,
-neat siding.
The characteristics of the various facings are grouped in the table below, extracted from the
DTU:
Table 4.2
Flatness Local flatness

Siding Overview reported to a
Features of the epidermis
reported to! ruler
has 0.20 m (hollow and tolerances of aspect
rule of 2 m maximum under
this ruler)
off seals
Elementary
Not from No specification No special specification.
specification Special.
Special.
15 mm 6 mm Uniform and homogeneous. Nests of pebbles or

Ordinary areas regrets lathes. Balers flush by grinding.
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Individual area of less than 3 cm bubbles 2.

7 mm 2 mm Less than 5 mm depth. Maximum extent of
Current clouds of bubbles 25%. Edges and picked rectified
and upright.
5 mm 2 mm Neat identical to current siding, the extent of clouds

Neat of bubbles is reduced to 10%.
• Mechanical strength
The formwork and shoring must submit sufficient rigidity to withstand, without settling or
detrimental deformation, loads and efforts of any kind they are exposed to suffer during
execution of work and in particular the effort generated by the establishment and the tightening
of concrete.
(2) lateral pressure exerted by fresh concrete

The calculation method below has been developed by CIRIA (Great Britain). Measures
conducted at the Netherlands works running confirmed the validity.
It is set out in the Handbook of technology "Shuttering" of the International Council of the
building [4.11].
This method is applicable to concrete cement CPA, without additives or other additions
that may affect the speed of curing.
Lateral pressure p to take into account to the item of the formwork is limited to the lowest
the following three values:
p 1 : pressure hydrostatic function of the height of the concrete levees,
p 2 : effect of arc on the walls,
p 3 : limit imposed by the hardening of concrete.
The limit of practical boost may be taken to be equal to 150 kN/m 2. It thus follows that:
p = Min [p1 p2 p3] 150 kN/m 2
The tables below give the values limits p 1 p 2 p 3 rounded to 5 kN/m 2 Close (greater )
precision would be illusory).
a) Effect of height H (m) of the lifting of concrete: p1
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Permissible hydrostatic pressure is taken equal to 25 kN/m 2 per meter of height, which leads to
the following values:
H (m) 1
P 1 (kN/m2 ) 25 2 3 4 5 6
50 75 100 125 150
b) Effect of arc: p2
This effect occurs only when the following three conditions are at the same time verified:
-the minimum d of the wall thickness is at most equal to 50 cm;
-the collapse of the concrete is greater than 80 mm;
-It has no external vibration (by the formwork).
The value of p 2 depends on the filling of the form R speed expressed in vertical meters by
hour.
In the case of a concrete through a dumpster performing successive rotations,

speed R evaluates as follows:
Is V (m3) volume of concrete to flow

v (m3) volume of the bucket
n number of necessary buckets (i.e. the whole number immediately
greater than V
------
v
t period t of a full cycle in minutes and

h height vertical to concreting in m

R60 h
--------- m / h
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t  n1
The table below gives the values for p 2 in kN/m 2 according to the thickness d of the wall and
the speed R:
R (m/h)
= or
d (cm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 15 20 30 Major40
15 p 2 = 35 35 40 45 45 50 60 75 90 120 150
20 40 40 45 50 50 55 65 80 95 125 150
30 50 50 55 60 60 65 75 90 105 135 150
40 60 60 65 70 70 75 85 100 115 145 150
50 70 70 75 80 80 85 95 110 125 150 150
c) Effect of the curing of concrete: p3

The table below gives the values for p 3 in kN/m 2 on the basis of the sinking of the concrete of
the internal temperature and filling speed R:
R (m/h)
Sinking Temperature
concrete
(mm) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8

(1) (° C)
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5 50 70 95 115 135 150 150 150 150 150

10 40 55 70 85 100 135 150 150 150 150
50 15 40 45 55 65 75 100 125 150 150 150
20 35 40 45 50 55 70 90 105 125 150
5 60 85 110 140 150 150 150 150 150 150

75 10 50 65 85 105 125 150 150 150 150 150
15 40 50 65 80 95 125 150 150 150 150
20 35 40 50 60 70 90 115 135 150 150
5 70 100 130 150 150 150 150 150 150 150
100 10 55 75 100 120 150 150 150 150 150 150
To 15 45 60 75 90 110 150 150 150 150 150
150 35 45 55 70 80 110 130 150 150 150
20
(1) according to NF P 18-451 [4.10].
Remarks:
1. it is not normally necessary to take an additional margin to take account of a effect of

implementing concrete impact.
2. for some adjutants (made of resins melanin’s or pulverized fly ash) it should be
p = p 1 , whatever d, R or H.
3. pumped concrete give rise to high speeds R, which must be taken into account.
Similarly, if the concrete is put in place by a tube whose end is immersed in the
fresh concrete, there is increasing pressure on formwork.
For poles, the introduction of concrete under pressure by the base results in an increase of
50% with respect to hydrostatic pressure.
4. the thrust is even greater than the time which elapses between the manufacturing and
implementation concrete (transport more waiting time) is shorter.
(3) Security of personnel on the work plan
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The elements of formwork shall be equipped with devices necessary for the safety of the
workforce ' work during the various operations of the cycle of concreting (handling and storage).
These devices (gateways, crutches, cylinders, etc.) not only to ensure the security on the map
working but they improve yields.
(4) Sealing
Sealing must be sufficient to avoid harmful seepage of Milt.

Milt losses cause formation of nests of pebbles and the fall of strength of concrete.
Sealing between the formwork and between the housing and the parts of work already cast
components can be ensured by adhesive strips or better elastic cords.
(5) Implementation of the formwork.
The establishment of the formwork must be sufficiently precise so that the completed work has
the dimensions with the following tolerances:
• Tolerance at a level
The tolerance on the distance between two walls is ± 2 cm.

This tolerance is ± 1 cm for walls thicknesses.
• Implementation of the walls for vertical siding with goodwill even plan axial.
The gap of e implementation 1 maximum measured horizontally between the trace on their
common floor of axial planes of two overlapping walls should not exceed 1/15 the wall thickness
minimum thick, with a maximum of 3 cm.
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In addition the e2 maximum measured horizontally between the footsteps of plans

siding of walls of hand and other a floor may not exceed 2 cm
(fig. 4.13).
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• Accumulation of differences on the height of a wall. No point of the axial plane of a wall shall
deviate more than 6 cm (distance measured horizontally) on its route theoretical on plan.
• Gap on the verticality of the siding of a wall to a height of floor. This gap cannot exceed 2 cm
(fig. 4.14).
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2.3,4 Layout of frames

Europeean Standard DTU 23.1 [4.3] demand that the reinforcement of a poured concrete wall
be adequately stiffened, possibly by bars arranged diagonally.
This condition is automatically satisfied if one uses of welded mesh.
For the determination of the types of panels to adopt, see title 5. Welded mesh panels and
other frames must be in the locations provided on the plans and not be moved during
concreting.
To ensure correct positioning, using positioning wedges (fig. 4.15) and stiffeners or spacers in
welded mesh.
Personnel security:
Issue must take measures to ensure the safety of staff towards
risks posed by free frames waiting.
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3 PREFABRICATED WALLS
3.1 DEFINITION
Europeean Standard DTU 22-1 [4.12], gives the following definition:
' Means by large, prefabricated wall vertical works made by assemblies parts of walls
manufactured in advance the characteristics dimensional follows:
-the maximum length is about 8 meters,

-useful height is equal to once the floor height is possibly increased height the criterion, and the
trickle down.
-their surface is less than 30 m 2».
There are mainly two types of precast panels:

-Full plates,
-Ribbed plates.
The current minimum thickness of base is 15 cm for the full plates.

It may be lower, but not less than 12 cm where the geometry of the joints and the position of the
panels compared the structure allow it.
For prefabricated plates ribbed with smooth siding, the minimum thickness is 6 cm for
the veil and 15 cm to the right of the ribs.
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In the case of apparent aggregates siding, the minimum thickness of the veil is 8 cm. This
thickness shall be counted from the bottom of the trough between aggregates; in the case of a
coating
thin and sealed, the thickness of the coating is included in the 8 cm.
3.2 DESIGN
A prefabricated wall should be designed to enable it to ensure the functions defined in 1.3,1.
The elements must also enable to meet the requirements of the accident prevention during
handling and implementation (devices in a vertical position and shoring, handling device).
Applicable to this type of wall texts are including the DTU n OS 20-1 and 22-1 (see [4.11], and
[4.12]), as well as the following texts:
-Rules BAEL modified 91 99 [4.4]

-Rules FB (DTU-fire) [4.5]
-Rules relating to climatic loads [4.7]
-Earthquake-resistant construction rules: rules applicable to buildings PS so-called rules PS 92
[4.8] and recommendations AFSP 90 [4.9].
3.3 EXECUTION
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3.3,1 General
The main provisions to adopt are the subject of the DTU n ° 22.1 [4.12] (specification).
Some of these provisions are recalled below.
3.3,2 Concrete
Except special justification:
-cement dosage must be at least equal to 300 kg per m 3 concrete implementation,
-the dosage in water must be such that plasticity is adjusted to the minimum compatible with the
mode used clamping.
3.3,3 Mold
a) main functions
Mussels must ensure all the functions defined in 2.3, 3.a, on siding, the mechanical strength, as
well as the safety of the personnel.
b) dimensional accuracy
-Tolerance on length and the height of the panels: 1 cm;
-Length difference  a of Interior diagonal relative to its theoretical a length:
 a 0 , 15 a
100
-Tolerance on dimensions and the settlements of berries: 6 mm,

-Tolerance on the thickness of the panels: 6 mm,
-Permissible defect of straightness of edges: 4 mm.
-Flatness of the whole.
The lack of parallelism of parallel planned edges and limiting the Panel, measured perpendicular
to their plan, must be greater than 4 mm.
A rule of 2 m must not measure more than 4 mm gap.
-Local flatness
Except for the apparent aggregate and some coatings sealed with a reliefs, under a rule of
0.20m, the gap must not be more than 2 mm.
3.3,4 Minimum constructive provisions regarding frames
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The prefabricated frames must comply with some constructive provisions minimum.
The corresponding sections of welded mesh or other frames can be taken into
account to meet all of the provisions of title 5.
The coating of the fittings of a precast wall must be at least 3 cm on the outside and
1.5 cm on the inside.
a) Full plates
Set minimum frame shall consist of a welded mesh diameter of the vertical threads
and horizontal is 3 mm at least and spacing of 25 cm at the most in both directions.
Weight m 2 Panel must be at least 1 kg.
It is possible to use panels ST 10 (or PAF C) or better, PAF V. panels

In the case of a front panel, welded mesh must be placed in the outer half-thickness.
A peripheral section of 0.50 cm chaining 2 shall be provided; it can be directed vertically
with a return of T.S. (figure 4.18).
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Fig. 4.18- Horizontal cut of an edge of Panel: seven vertical end wires are the chaining.
Where it is not possible to enact the provision represented figure 4.18 with a return on
the other side, a bar H.A. can be placed in addition, as shown in Figure 4.19, or 4.20.
On the edge of an opening, a chaining section at least equal to 1 cm 2 must be carried out.
It must be consisting of two or more H.A. bars connected by transverse reinforcement.
These bars must be anchored beyond the corners of the opening.
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CUTTING HORIZONTAL "A - A" SETTLEMENTS O8 HA
b) Grooved plates
• They include:
-a peripheral vein,
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-ribs of frame of possible apertures,

-vertical intermediate ribs where the maximum distance between axes, depending
the 'e' (in cm) of tile thickness is:
1.50 m if 6 cm e < 8 cm

2.50 m if 8 cm e
-an intermediate horizontal rib when the distance between the upper and lower ribs is
greater or equal to 3 m.
The average width of a rib must be at least 6 cm.
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A ribbed Panel is said current if (see fig. 4.23):

-a < 2.5 e
-the amount of ribs protruding from the slab represents not more than 25% of the total volume of
concrete.
-a
------
 b
• Reinforcement of the veil.
The veil is armed with a welded mesh.

Set minimum frame is identical to that for the full plates (see paragraph a) above).
• Reinforcement of the ribs.
The frames consist of two longitudinal bars, one of them being situated significantly
in the plane of the frame welded arming the veil, the other in the vicinity of the face of the siding
of the ribs.
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Bars of 0.50 cm 2 of minimum cross-section (1 diam.8) for peripheral veins and
0.25 cm 2 ( 1  diam.6) for the intermediate ribs are connected by transverse reinforcement
rooted in the veil.
The longitudinal reinforcements of the veins in a direction should be anchored in the veins
the perpendicular direction.
The section steel of the veins located in the thickness of the veil can be taken into account in
the total mass in addition to the slick mesh welded arming the veil.
• Other ribbed panels
Are classified in this category panels that do not meet at least one of the conditions
set out in (b) and whose width ribs is not less than 8 cm.
When the result a/b (see figure 4.23) is greater than 2, it adopts the following provisions:
-Frame of the veil:

The frame of the veil can be achieved by means of signs ST 10 or more.
-Reinforcement of ribs:
For the peripheral veins, the total steel section must be at least equal to 0.4% of the section
Of the concrete of the rib, without being less than 1 cm 2 /m. for the intermediate ribs, these
values are respectively lowered to 0.2 per cent and 0.5 cm 2 /m.
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Example of peripheral vein
Section of concrete 30 x 10 = 300 cm 2
Total section of required steel:

300 0.4
--------------- = 1.2 cm 21 cm 2
100
This section may be carried out using 2 HA  10 connected by Stirrups HA  6,

s t = 15 cm. (Fig. 4.25)
• Mentoring and support of bay.
The frame consists of at least two bars H.A. of total section at least equal to 40% of the section
of the ribs (without being less than 1 cm2), and anchored transverse reinforcement in the sailing.
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3.3,5 Handling and installation.

The full plates can be cast in batteries of mussels vertical, but more often
It uses tilting tables, full plate or ribbed being leaked to the horizontal. When the
concrete has reached the desired resistance, the table is tilted about a horizontal axis in order to
have a position close to the vertical, which allows the handling of the panel.
This handling, different devices are possible.

One can use "loops". Lifting"(also called "handling pins") made from reinforcing.
3.3,5,1. Lifting loops

The implantation of the loops of lifting in the Panel must be judicious. For example, if the
elements are ribbed, it is recommended to anchor loops to the right of the ribs; Similarly, it is
better to avoid settlements in the lintels.
Loops must be made mandatory from smooth round grade FeE235.

The diameter of the used round cannot be less than 10 mm.
For the strands embedded in concrete, the dimensions and lengths for a loop anchor must be
determined taking account of the supposed strength of concrete on the day j projected for the
handling.
But the standard value La 0.6 Ls the BAEL rules allowing the length
anchorage has La the length of s right sealing Ls is no longer valid. It would lead to anchors
too short, and a high risk of accident during handling.
Must be taken: La a 100 

------- = ---------22 ftj in MPa 
 ftj
with ftj (in MPa) tensile strength of concrete at age j intended for handling, calculated in function
resistance to compression f CJ on the same day, by the formula given in the title of Chapter 1
2.1.1.b.
The value of f c j can itself be derived from the table given in respect of the same chapter 2.1.1a
it is always good, and even recommended, to control by resistance tests conducted on the day
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Walls.
j. of the handling, if the value of f CJ taken into account in the calculations is actually reached this
day there).
Example:
Handling of an element whose concrete has 3 days of age.
The strength in the final calculations have been made with f c28 = 25 MPa.
According the table given as 2.1.1a of Chapter 1, we have:
f C3 = 0.414 x 25 = 10,4 MPa

and (2.1, 1.b) f T3 = 0.6 + 0.06 x 10.4 = 1.20 MPa
The formula above gives La= 
While the application of the lump sum formula of the B.A.E.L. rules would have led
(for j = 3 days) to:
is 20% less than the required length (' 49 0.8 x 61)

The outer part, should comply with figure 4.26 (see issue 65A
([1.2], section 82.2).
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Walls.
The handling is done using a rudder. It is desirable that it will have a parallel slings and
automatic distribution of efforts with loops (servo wire multiple slings of self-adjusting length).
Lifting hooks dragged into each loop must comply with the conditions in figure 4.27.
The drawings must clearly specify the type of hook to use.
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Walls.
3.3,5,2. Installation of panels

a) Maintenance of the panels
Keeping upright and shoring devices shall be provided. Some parts of these devices are
integrated into the panels.
In the case of installation on blocks, the material used for the manufacture of the holds must be
a deformability at least equal to that of the hardened concrete.
Otherwise, the holds must be removed after filling of the horizontal joint.
Instead of wedges, you can also use special devices to adjust the height.
A bed mortar is implemented before final height adjustment. He crashed during the final setting
(see figure 4.28).
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b) Links
Insofar as possible, links have reconstituted the continuity between parts prefabricated and
structure.
When this continuity is restored, parts may be justified by the rules of reinforced concrete and
those of the poured concrete [4.4], [4.3].
The calculation of the joints can be made from the conclusions of Mr. Pommeret [4.13].
DTU 22.1 [4.12] (specification), defines different types of bindings:

-RDC,
-stitch,
-bolted,
-welded.
These links are usually provided as part of a process for manufacturing of the notice
technique of the CSTB.
Links continuous horizontal forming chaining must have a minimum section frame in accordance
with the provisions laid down in 5.2,1.
For the vertical links with pouring concrete on-site, auto-formwork devices are generally
expected:
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Horizontal cut (the provisions of frames represented are repeated in all the signs leading to the
node).
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Walls.
The volume to concreting must be properly caulked or formed in particular at the foot of the
bond to avoid leakage of milt or mortar.
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Walls.
4. SLIPFORM WALLS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
When a wall at a certain height, it can realize it by the technique of sliding formwork.
This process allows a concreting continuously, using a special form that builds on the
lower layers of concrete which decision-making is sufficiently advanced.
This support is obtained using rod holders.
Implementation technique is the subject of 'Recommendations' [4.14].
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Walls.
4.2 DESIGN OF WALLS

The minimum thickness of the walls must be 15 cm and can be reduced exceptionally, on
13 cm when the wall is not loaded tensile (little injurious cracking).
The angles between the walls are always difficult to implement correctly. Rounded connections
are the best; otherwise, the right section of the wall should not have any protruding sharp angles
less than 135 ° or returning greater than 225 ° (fig. 4.33).
Otherwise, this angle must be connected by a chamfer or rounded with a connection from
such a way that:
-the radius of the circle tangent to the sides of the angle and the chamfer satisfies the relation:
R > 2 D (D = dimension of aggregates).
-length of the chamfer is at least equal to 4 cm.
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Walls.
-for continuous decorative elements in relief, the provisions below should be followed:
4.3 EXECUTION
4.3,1 concrete
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Walls.
The aggregates must be preferably aggregates rolled.

It is recommended to use cement of 42.5 or 42.5 R classes that are compatible with the
sliding speeds commonly performed.
The implementation of concrete is done by layers of 20 to 25 cm thick.
The constancy of concrete quality is essential.
4.3,2 formwork
(a) the skin of the formwork may be made by:
-pine boards planed,
-plywood,
-a metal sheet.
For the calculation of the formwork, can admit on a height H, the diagram of concrete
shown in figure 4.36.
(b) the bridging and the bracing the formwork and the work floor must be carefully studied.
Operating expenses are taken to be equal to 2 kN/m 2 at least on the floor work and 1.5 kN/m 2
on the catwalks of patching.
We assume, further, a load of 20 kN located on an area of 2 m 2 may be filed in any area of the
work floor.
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Walls.
c) bars constituting holders-rods cylinders, that they be abandoned in concrete or they remain in
the channels left by the sleeves and injected after coup, are not
taken into account in the calculations of the walls.
4.3,3 Reinforcement.
The reinforcement of the walls or large radius of curvature can consist of welded fabrics
and independent bars.
The frames overlap areas must be alternated.

The presence of the channels mentioned in 4.3,2. (c) causing a local weakening, the
reinforcement must be strengthened in the weakened zone whenever cracking is detrimental.
Because collections and their length depending on the size of the meshes, employment of
welded mesh (see Chapter 1, title 2.3,3) is particularly indicated.
The maximum size is 20 x 20 cm. Only the PAF C or PAF V-ST10 panels, ST 60, ST 15 C,
25 C ST, ST 25 CS, ST 25 MI, ST 40 C, 50 C and ST 65 ST meet at this condition.
Welded mesh panels can be shaped and locked together to form prefabricated cages.
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Walls.
The coating must be more than 3 cm; if it is too large, there are risks of concrete training
costs during the rise of the formwork.
With vertical wires of the welded fabrics shall be placed on the side of formwork and the
horizontal side wires inside the wall.
It is desirable to have a panel of mesh welded on each side, arranging for that horizontal wires
form two slicks, laid out in part and other vertical frames.
Initially, should be perfectly supportive base vertical wires so that they are
not driven by first raising of the formwork.
In areas of brackets rods crossing or junction of walls, the connection between the welded mesh
panels is carried out using independent deformed bars.
Recoveries must comply with the indications of Chapter 1, title 2.3,3.
Link bars can be fixed to a welded mesh panels, then slipped in time wanted under the calipers
of the formwork sliding (figure 4.32) and permanently tied at each end adjacent welded mesh
panels.
Welded mesh panels must have dimensions and locations as they do not likely to be driven by
the lifting jacks.
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Walls.
5 .DETERMINATION OF REINFORCEMENT
IN POURED CONCRETE WALLS.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
May be considered to determine the reinforcement of the walls as poles, but this solution is
usually chosen when one leaves the scope of the DTU 23.1 [4.3].
A wall is characterized by:

-its thickness "a".
-free height « (free distance between two successive floors, or distance between the face)
top of footing and the underside of the first floor).
-its free buckling length (to determine as indicated in the title) 5.3,1.
-an initial eccentricity 'e '.
Europeean Standard DTU 23.1 applies to the walls meeting the following conditions:
-thickness "a": a 0.10 m
-length 'c': c 5a
(Which corresponds to a mechanical slenderness 80)

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Walls.
-initial eccentricity "e": at most equal to the largest two values 2 cm and .
In addition, the characteristic strength f c28 taken into account in the calculations should not be
superior to 40 MPa.
The walls, whether or not they are reinforced for the transmission of taken into account, are
subject to multiple solicitations (differential withdrawal due to phases of casting or their thick by)
example, effects of fluctuations thermo - hygrometric or climate actions), which requirement take
to certain levels of minimum constructive provisions.
The corresponding frames are called "reinforcement of behavior" (see title 5.2).
If the rationale for stability and resistance of the wall (see title 5.3) requires no other
reinforcement, wall says " "not reinforced »; otherwise, it says “reinforced ».
_
5.2 BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCEMENT

In what follows (see figures 4.41 and 4.42) using the following abbreviated designations:
CH horizontal chaining.
HR horizontal reinforcement.
RH1 local horizontal reinforcement at the corners of the bays (avoids cracking from these
angles).
HP vertical reinforcements at the extremity of the wall.
RV local vertical reinforcement in the vicinity of the angles of the bays (avoids cracking
departing from these angles).
AT frames waiting at floor level.
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5.2,1 Horizontal connections (C.H.)

These settlements are to be expected:
-at the crossing of each wall with a floor,
-in strapping of facade when the installment of the floor is visible from the outside or in the case
of masonry facade.
Reinforcement constituting this chaining shall be arranged in the common wall volume (or
facade) and the floor as well as in two bands floor width at most equal to four times
the thickness of the latter and located on part and other wall (a single band in the case of a
front view) (figure 4.38).
These frames must be anchored from the ends of the walls (or faceplate) and present on
the length of the chaining required recoveries. The cable of the welded fabrics may be taken
into account; the recovery provisions were those applicable to bearing wires (see chapter
1, title 2.3,3).
Is A (cm2) frames of chaining section. We take:
• (A) 1.5 cm 2 in the case of a chaining between a floor and:

-a gable wall,
-a wall against earth,.
-facade masonry,
-a facade cast on-site.
• (A) 0.28 L (m) in other cases, with L width floor which postpones its vertical loads on
the wall (figure 4.39).
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5.2,2 Reinforcement of internal walls.

Occurs in the walls which accidental cracking would not compromise the tightness of the
construction. Are conventionally considered to be such walls that are not directly exposed to rain
(shear walls), located part walls and sides of an expansion joint, except those bear coated
sealing members, as well as the outer walls of type IV (title 1.3,2,4).
In the current, floors it's RV 0.7 cm 2 in B500 (e.g. 3 6 HA in triangle bordering
the openings on 0.40 m at least and anchored beyond (figure 4.41).
In addition to reinforcement RV, it is prudent to provide level of floors from reinforcement

pending (AT) they are localized in the form of triangular pockets made of welded mesh and
arranged all 2 or 3 meters, or spread in the form of panels of mesh welded, these
reinforcement involved in the stability of the construction.
Vertical reinforcements at the ends are sometimes necessary; particular, to ensure the snap
the facades, a U-shaped welded mesh panel can be used.
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Walls.
Fig. 4.40
Partial elevation of the end of a wall supporting the attachment of panels
It is often use to reinforce of welded mesh the first wall sunk to the right of a joint, when it
participates in the formwork of the second wall cast against him.
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Walls.
• For floors with terrace, it is necessary:

-to the ends of the walls:
CV 1.2 cm 2 in B500 (e.g. 3 8 HA) : these steels must start from the
low floor the last floor and be anchored by square back in the terrace floor (fig. 4.41).
-at the corners of the berries:

RV 0.7 cm 2 in B500
-under the terrace, to a height not greater than 0.50 m place RH = 1.2 cm 2 in B500 (3 8). If
the fallout over the openings does not exist, wear the chaining of the terrace section at
CH + RH.
5.2,3 reinforcement of the exterior walls

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Walls.
A possible cracking of these walls would compromise the stability of the construction.
You must:
Have  15 cm for walls of types I-III (see Title 1.3.2.).
Have  12 cm for walls of type IV.
For the other walls than the walls of type IV non coated with members, for waterproofing
coatings which should refer to the title 5.2.2, the reinforcement consists mainly by a PAF V sign
placed outside, by having a coating of:
-3 cm in the case of current exposure and, when there is a complementary effective protection
of steel and concrete, in the case of exposure to the aggressive atmospheres.
-5 cm in the case where this additional protection does not exist.
PAF V panels are designed to ensure themselves the recovery of steels vertical from floor to
floor, but if necessary, can be bars B500 waiting, placed the on the outside of the wall at the
level floors and length at least equal to the thickness of flooring, more than 8 cm.
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Walls.
(a) floor with terrace (figure 4.42).
1. To the floor below, provide 0.8 cm2 in grade B500 to vertical by horizontal meter steel
anchored part and sides of this floor and obtained either by AT recovery of panels of upstairs
terrace and the floor immediately below it.
2 CH and CV as for interior walls.
3 edges of bays: RH1 0.8 cm2 and RV 0.7 cm2 for steel B500.
4 HR (have a height not greater than 0.50 m) 2 cm2 in B500 (3 10). If the
had settled below openings do not exist, provide max (CH + RH, RH1) in the thickness of
floor-terrace.
b) common floors (fig. 4.42).
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Walls.
The openings shall be lined by steels representing at least cut steels section by opening, and
such that: but lower crosspieces steels result calculations of

reinforce concrete of the exterior walls (steels B500)
5.2,4 reinforcement binding of upper walls

In the case of upper walls, vertical steel must be provided at the level of the binding between
the walls and floors.
In the case of a reinforced wall surmounted by a wall not weapon (criterion given the title 5.3,3),
just that these steels are anchored from the lower transition floor naked. In the case of a wall
weapon surmounted by another armed wall, just to achieve the recovery of the frames,
optionally using bars for equivalent section.
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5.3 REASON FOR STABILITY

AND RESISTANCE TO THE LIMIT- STATE
5.3,1 determination of the buckling of a wall length
Geometric and mechanical walls characters have been defined in paragraph 5.1.
A wall may or may not be, stiff laterally. A wall in return is an effective stiffener.
A stiffener may be taken into account only if its dimension, measured according to the
perpendicular to the wall, is at least equal to three times the thickness of the latter.
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Walls.
Note : When braces do not meet the condition of figure 4.46, the whole wall and stiffener must
be identical to that of a post audit.
5.3,1,1. buckling of a wall not stiffened length
In what follows, this length is designated by

a) simplistic method for the determination of
DTU 23.1 offers, in the absence of a more rigorous approach to retain the values of rapport
(where represents the height of the wall, see 5.1).
Wall reinforced Wall not

vertically reinforce
vertically
* Wall recessed head and foot

-with a floor of hand and other 0.80 0.85
-with a floor on one side 0.85 0.90
1.00 1.00
* Wall articulated in head and foot
b) more accurate method for the determination of

The previous method is really acceptable if all the floors are identical. When it is in
is not so, it's best to assess more precisely , by applying the methods of the strength of
materials.
Might, for example, to use the abacus of Jackson and Moreland (fig. 4.48), which allows to
evaluate  taking into account the conditions of trim at the two upper ends (N) and bottom (S)
of wall.
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For each of these ends, we compute the ratio


the numerator being on the moments of inertia and litters of share walls and other node (n or)
s as appropriate) and the denominator, the moments of inertia and litters of floors leading to this
node (w or e according to the side, left or right).
is a coefficient taking account of the conditions of installation of the floors at the end
opposite:
-for an opposite end flush, rigidly or elastically:
-for a simply supported opposite end:
-for an overhang, or a lack of floor side:
By adopting the notations of figure 4.47 where indices n, s, e, w, which refer to the rose of the
winds (w = west West =) identify the respective positions - up, down, right, left - the various
elements, we have for the conditions of support shown in this figure:
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Walls.
When the walls leading to the node under consideration are not armed, it is prudent to
determine the values of f from values of K N and K S be increased by 50%.
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Walls.
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Walls.
(for It is prudent to not take account of values less than 0.7).
5.3,1,2. Securing of stiffened wall length
This length, designated by is inferred from the length that it would be

without stiffeners.
For a wall that is stiffened at both ends (fig. 4.49) b means the distance separating the two
stiffeners.
For a wall stiffened to one of its ends (fig. 4.50), asked b = 2.5 c.
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Walls.
The free buckling length is obtained, or by applying the formulas 4.4 and 4.5
herein, either in using the chart in figure 4.51.
1 wall non-reinforced horizontally
formula [4.4]
2. Horizontally reinforced wall formula [4.5]
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Walls.
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Walls.
5.3,2. Ultimate acting normal effort - principle of justification

a) Determination of effort regarding ultimate Nu
.
1. In the general case, if there is only distributed vertical loads, Nu is determined by the
combination
N u = 1.35G+1.5Q formula [4.6]
with G dead loads
and Q operating expenses
(It is reminded that writing the formula 4.6 - as well as that of the 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9 formula given
more far is symbolic and vector and means "combined effects of... with those of..." without
(s) sign (s) + would still have the character of an algebraic addition).
The vertical loads acting on the walls can be determined by, if applicable, application of the laws
of digression of variable costs (see Chapter 1).
To assess these loads, we can accept the discontinuity of the various elements of the right
floors walls; However, if the building has several solidarity spans, the charges assessed in
admitting the discontinuity spans to the law of support must be increased:
-by 15% for Central walls, in the case of two-span buildings
-by 10% for intermediate walls nearby shore walls, in the case of buildings with more than two
spans.
In the absence of localized loads (see b below) ultimate vertical normal stress acting on
a strip of wall length d is
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Walls.
where a is the thickness of the wall.
If the loads are evenly distributed, this constraint is uniform. If the loads vary along
of the wall, the calculations are performed by bands of wall taking for N u the average value in
each band reporting. The width of each band is then chosen so that (fig. 4.52):
where refers to the height of the wall
and the length of the area subject to compressive stresses.
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2. When considering the effects of the wind, then consider successively:
N u = 1.35 G + 1.5 Q + W formula [4.7]

and N u = 1.35 G + 1.5 W + Q formula [4.8]
W representing in these formulas 1, 2 times the normal wind rules NV 65, [4.7].
and in addition, taking into account the effects of the earthquake:
N u G F a  a  Q formula [4.9]
F a and  a being defined in parts of the market and by the rules PS 92 [4.8] (and [4.9]).
The horizontal forces due to wind and vertical loads, as well as the effects of the earthquake,
develop loads of composed flexion. There again, admits that the distribution of normal stresses
in each of the elements of wall bounded openings is flat.
The checks are made by bands of walls (see Figure 4.52) whereas the average in constraint
each band.
The reaction of support from a supported header into account in the study of the brace brings
along considered opening an additional local constraint, which must be estimated
(see DTU 23-1) in looking for a rectangular or triangular stress distribution balancing
solicitations.
b) Principles of justification of a wall

.
DTU 23-1 application that checks are made:
-Firstly, for section I halfway up the wall
-on the other hand, for section II located immediately below a floor.
In either case, should take into account stress supplement the charges localized likely to act in
section II. It is recognized that these loads spread evenly to the Interior of an area bounded by
two planes inclined on the vertical with a slope equal to:
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1/3 in the case of a non-reinforced wall (fig. 4.53).

2/3 in the case of a reinforced wall (fig. 4.54).
Fig. 4.53 - non-reinforced wall
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Walls.
Fig 4.54- Reinforced wall.

So for example, if R u refers to the reaction of a continuous width b beam support o perpendicular
to the wall (thickness a case represented fig. 4.53 and 4.54) local stress supplement is:
-at the level of section II, immediately below the floor:
-at the level of section I, halfway up the wall:
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Walls.
with :
-in the case of a non- reinforced wall:
-in the case of a wall reinforced:
If p u is the uniform load per unit length at the top of the wall, the strip of width d supports in
section I a force per unit length:


while in section II, the force per unit length to consider is the length b o,
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Walls.

According to the General principles of the calculation to the limit States, checks are to ensure
that:
-in section I:
(or, what amounts to the same, by dividing the two members by the width of the wall a:
the value of Nulim being fixed in the DTU 23-1 expression in particular taking into account
the slenderness of the wall by the coefficient  whose values differ depending on whether the
wall is reinforced or not.
-in section II, where the slenderness effects do not feel:
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Walls.
The formula giving Nulim, as well as giving the coefficient  , contained in the DTU 23-1 do
are not reproduced here. Indeed, this volume from designers who have to determine
. the welded fabrics required to arm a wall, the formulas of verification DTU 23 - 1 were
transformed into forms of sizing direct the Division has sought, steel
when f e = 500 MPa (see e.g. formula 4.10).
5.3,3 procedures for the calculation of a wall
1. Calculate the length of fastening corresponding to a non-reinforced wall (5.3,1,1.

a or b and if ) needs figure 4.51, curve B).
2. using the curve in fig. 4.53 following, determine OU according to the ratio
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Walls.
Equation of the curve:
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Walls.
3 calculate, for reporting wall Strip, thick a and length d (d = 1.00 m if Nu is )

expressed in MN/m):
B r = (a - 0.02) d (m2, m), see figure 4.54
and
Where N u means the ultimate effort in section I on the considered d-length band, and
k a coefficient that takes values:
1 if more than half of the charges is applied after 90 days,

1.1 if more than half of the charges is applied after 28 days and before 90 days,
1.2
If the bulk of the charges is applied at an age less than 28 days j.
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Walls.
4. If u OU, the wall does not have to be reinforced: A = 0.

If  u >  UO , the wall must be armed. In this case, the frames are determined as indicated in
the title 5.3,4 after. It is necessary to recalculate the buckling length from curve A of
the figure 4.51.
5.3,4 Determination of vertical reinforcement of

a reinforced wall
Given a strip of wall, total section A in cm 2 vertical reinforcement per meter of wall length shall
be such that (1):
formula [4.10].
(Units: MN/m, m2m, MPa)
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Walls.
With for
for
If more than half of the charge is applied after 28 days and within 90 days, the value of  must
be multiplied by 1.10.
If the major load is applied at an age less than 28 days, the value j of  must be multiplied by
1.20 and must be substituted f CJ to f c28 in the 4.10 formula (for fcj, see Chapter 1, fig. 1.2).
In all cases, found A section should not be less than a minimum (see 5.3,5).
This case occurs in particular as soon as as the 4.10 formula would

lead then to A < 0.
(1) in the case of a design to the earthquake, the 4.10 formula established for _ = 1.5 and _ = 1.15 is no longer appropriate
and should
be replaced by A 20  N u -19.3 (b) r f c28 .
If it is to determine the effort limit N ULIM that can support a wall given, several cases can be
present:
-If the wall is not reinforced (A = 0): N  Lim =  UO B r f c28 ,  UO given by the chart in fig. 4.53
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Walls.
.
-If the wall is reinforced by appointing by A r A (and Amin, see 5.3,5.) the section of vertical
reinforcement actually set up (for two panels of TS: Ar = 2S):
formula [4.11].
(Nulim in MN/m, ar in cm2m, Br m2m, fc28 in MPa, taking the values indicated above, )
with the corrections appropriate to reflect the age in which loads are applied).
• Chart for the determination of section A of the vertical reinforcing (or limit stress)
N ULIM )
4.10 formula can be put in the form:

A =  B r f c28 formula [4.12]
with where (see 5.3,3,3.)
The Chart in fig. 4.55, pulls the value of  according to  u and 4.12 formula gives
then A cm 2/ m, provided that express B r in m 2 / m and f c28 in MPa.
When the Chart does not determine the value of  (because it would then have to read the value
in the negative, area that is below the axis O  u ), it is necessary to provide the minimum
percentage
(see 5.3,5).
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Abacus for the calculation of the reinforced walls
Ex: 0.15 m thick wall, _ f 1.65 m, f c28 = 25 MPa, N u = 1.95 MN/m (Br fc28 = 3.25
MN/m )  u = 0.6   = 3  A = 9.75 cm 2 m)
The same chart to determine the effort limit N ULIM that can support a wall section of vertical
reinforcement A r is known.
Just calculate
(Ar in cm2m, Br m2m, fc28 in MPa)
and to deduce by the chart, taking into account the value of a , the value of  u'
where
(for k. see 5.3,3,3.).
5.3,5 choice of welded net panels

Ended and vertical joints of welded mesh panels shall be carried out in accordance with the
provisions set out in Chapter 1.
1 vertical wires
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For each band of wall thickness and length, the percentage
given by the chart in fig. 4.57 on the basis of the report
When the calculation of the section of the vertical threads per 4.10 formula leads to A < 0, it
begins with make an initial estimate of the minimum section by adopting

May be worth A a little inferior to that resulting from this first estimate for calculate using the
formula 4.11:



(A in cm2/m, other units being MN/m, m2 / m, MPa).
Then
and restate more accurately the value of  v (and therefore Amin) by means of
the chart in fig. 4.57.
If, to calculate A, was used the chart in fig. 4.55 and found  < 0, it should be from
read along the O  u the value of  u corresponding to the rapport
considered wall, and make the first estimate of the minimum from section
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Once these calculations, the vertical to hold wires section is, finally.

This section is distributed between two identical welded mesh panels, corresponding to a
Section arranged in the vicinity of each of the faces of the reporting,

wall band in so
that vertical wires are closest to these (fig. 4.56).
Fig. 4.56 - example of arrangement at the end of a strip of wall
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Vertical wires spacing must adhere to the condition:

E Min [2; 33 cm]
(which complements the data rules in 5.2,3. for walls sprockets).
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2 horizontal wires. Minimum percentage h 

Wide wall or a wall of width band d bounded openings, the
minimum percentage of the horizontal wires
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with A hmin sum of the sections of the wires horizontal in cm 2 /m and a thickness of the wall in
cm, is given by the chart in fig. 4.57 in function of the rapport
(see above) corresponding to the most requested wall band.
Spacing of horizontal wires should not exceed 33 cm; all panels of the range
ADETS meet this requirement.
3. horizontal pins perpendicular to the sides of the walls.

Only vertical steel (diameter _ < 12 mm) taken into account in the calculation of N ULIM must be
maintained by cross, pins at the rate of at least 4 m 2 i.e. following nodes
a mesh, most large dimension does not exceed 50 cm. (Fig. 4.57)
5.3,6 Justification under tangent solicitation in the plane of the wall

Provided that the normal effort seeking the wall is a compression, there is no place to justify a
wall under ultimate tangent solicitation as long as
Otherwise, this justification and calculation of necessary steels must be

made by application of the rules BAEL (without taking into account minimum constructive
provisions only these rules for these steels).
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6. EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION:
BUILDING INTERNAL BEARING WALL.
6.1 DESCRIPTION
It is a building with 8 levels (7-storey above the ground floor, fig. 4.58).
This building has a floor area of 22 m x 10.55 m. its height above the ground is 25 m.
It is located in region II, normal site. The characteristic strength of the concrete is f c28 = 30 MPa.
It is assumed that more than half of the charges is applied after 90 days (k = 1 see 5.3,3,3).
Fig 4.58
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(The sides refer to medium plans of floors or walls)
The example concerns the file C shear wall in height of the ground floor (fig. 4.59).
6.2 PERMANENT ACTIONS.

a. Loads in the m2
• Floor-terrace kN/m 2
Ceiling plus coating 1.50
Slab B.A. 25 x 0.20 5.00
6.50
• Current floor
Coating 0.50
Slab B.A. 25 x 0.20 5.00
5.50
b. Total loads in section I halfway up the ground floor:

-Floor area concerned (hatched area, fig. 4.59):
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• Floor-terrace: 6.50 x 33,32 = 216.6 kN

• Floor high RC floor top 6th floor is 7 levels 7 x 5.50 x 33,32 = 1 282,8 kN
Total = 1 499.5
rounded to 1 500 kN
• Wall B.A. (from the terrace, until section I halfway up the ground floor or on a height
25 x 0.15 (3.50 + 0.50) x 23 = 345 kN
Total permanent loads for section I considered: G = 1500 + 345 = 1 845 kN = 1.845 MN
6.3 VARIABLES ACTIONS

a. Operating loads
To accumulate operating loads, we enforce the vertical digression law (see Chapter 1.
Title 3.3,2,2.) where loads operating in kN/m2:
Floor - terrace: 1.0

P.H. from the 6th floor: 1.5
P.H. from 5th floor: 1.35
P.H. from the 4th floor: 1.20
P.H. from the 3rd floor: 1.05
P.H. from the 2nd floor: 0.90
P.H. from 1st floor: 0.75
P.H. from the ground floor: 0.75
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Total: 8.5 kN/m 2
Total expenses for section I considered:

8.50 x 33,32 = 283,22 kN
either Q = 0,285 MN
b. Climatic loads (wind)

The building is located in region II, normal site, according to the rules snow and wind NV 65, for
this case:
-base dynamic pressure q 10 (on a height H 10 m) is 0.70 kN/m 2 . A height H more than 10 m
we have:
-the site coefficient k s is equal to 1,

-dynamic coefficient  is equal to 1,
-coefficient of drag overall c t is equal to 1.3,
-the reduction coefficient  corresponding to an exposed surface of 5.05 m x 25 m is equal to
0.78.
The resulting action unit is thus equal to:
qHxksxxx ct
i.e.:
0.88 x 0.78 x 1.3 = 0.90 kN/m 2 at H = 25 m
0.70 x 0.78 x 1.3 = 0.71 kN/m 2 for H 10 m
By simplification we assume an average weighted 0,80 kN/m 2 ('normal' wind).
In accordance with Annex D of the BAEL rules for ultimate limit state calculations, the value
characteristic of wind load must be taken equal to 1.2 times the resulting from the application of
Rules NV65,
i.e.: w = 0.80 x 1.2 = 0.96 kN/m 2
either a uniform load along the wall (fig. 4.58):

w = 0.96 x 5.05 « 5 kN/m.
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6.4 GEOMETRICAL AND MECHANICAL

CHARACTERISTIC OF THE WALL
As the width of the stiffener in the transverse direction is 0.50 m, i.e. more than three times the
thickness of the wall, this stiffening can be taken into account in the calculations of resistance.
Horizontal cut of wall studied (located in the height of the ground floor)
a.Calculation of the area B, the moment of inertia lo and the position of the centre of gravity v, v'
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Surface
(it is recalled that, according to the theorem of Huygens J = lo + Sv = lo + Bv2 ))
b. calculation of the fold length in the case of a reinforced wall:
• Calculation of
We will use the abacus Jackson and Moreland (fig. 4.48) because due to the different
clearances from floor to floor, this method is preferable to the simplistic method.
The clearances are worth:

-in the basement of the upper side of the base plate to the underside of the floor: 2.40 - 0.10 =
2.30 m
-on the ground floor: 4.00 - 2 x 0.10 = 3.80 m
-on the current floor: 3.00 - 2 x 0.10 = 2.80 m
For the studied wall, the height is therefore: = 3.80 m.
We have:
-for the wall above the relevant wall:
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-for the particular wall:
-to the wall below the relevant wall:
-to the floor (see fig. 4.58).
-to the right of the concerned shear: span
-left of the considered shear: span
Where
-at the top of the wall:
-at the base of the wall:

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For these values, the chart in fig. 4.48 gives
Where
• Calculation of
The wall being stiffened at one end, we have:
Curve A of Figure 4.51 gives:
What is a qualifying initial eccentricity (see 5.1):
c. calculation of the buckling length in the case of a no reinforced wall.
In this case, as we said in 5.3,1,1.b, it is prudent determine by increasing the values

k N and K S 50% where
K' N = 1.5 K N = 1.5 x 0,6314 = 0.947

and K' S = 1.5 K S = 1.5 x 1.317 = 1,976
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For these values, the chart in fig. 4.48 gives 0.81
There is then successively:
Curve B in fig. 4.51 then gives 0.33
Also
Eligible initial eccentricity retains the e value = 0.01 m.

At the end, we retain, with a = 0.15 m:
-in the case of a non-reinforced wall:
-in the case of a reinforced wall:
6.5 Calculation of Nu
In this example, as it has not concentrated at the top of the wall, loads it does check that the
section I halfway.
Paragraph 5.3,2. shows the different combinations of actions to consider (Forms 4.6, 4.7 and)
4.8):
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Combination : 1) , 35 G + 1.5 Q
Combination : 2), 35 G + 1.5 Q + W
Combination: 3), 35 G + 1.5 W + Q
In what follows, it is assumed that the resultant of the G loads and Q passes through the centre
of gravity G o from the horizontal section of the wall.
a. Stress resulting from the combination 1)

1.35 G = 1.35 x 1.845 = 2.49
1.5 Q = 1.5 x 0.285 = 0.43
The total vertical load is, therefore, P U1 = 2.92 MN
that is, per meter of wall there (calculation of B in 6.4.a):
b. stress resulting from the combination 2)

The vertical load has the same value as for the combination 1) P = Pu1 u2
Distributed wind action is 5 kN/m applied uniformly over the full height of the building (see
6.3.b); This load is transmitted to the shear wall by floors where the distribution of the stress:
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-at the level of the terrace
-at the level of the common floors
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-at the level of the top floor of the ground floor

W 3 5 1.5 217.5 kN
The moment in the section I halfway up the wall of ground floor is not weighted value:
M G 7.5 23  15 20 17 14 118 5  17.5 2 1332, 5 kNm
For the combination of actions 2) so there:

P U2 = P U1 = 2.92 MN
And
Assuming that constraints can be computed at the ultimate limit State by forms of
Strength of materials the distribution of loads on the width of the wall is flat
passing through the two points corresponding to the values of stress at ends A and B of this
width (fig. 4.63), namely:
-at point A:
-in point (b):
signs corresponding as shown.
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By introducing into these formulas instead of P and MG the numeral values of
found:
where the diagram of the most unfavorable load at the ultimate limit state for the combination 2)
_
(fig. 4.63).
c. stress resulting from the combination 3)

_
P U3 = 1.35 G + Q = 2.49 + 0.285 = 2.775 MN

M u3Go = 1.5 M G = 1.5 x 1.33 = 2 MNm
By introducing into the formulas given above, instead of P and M G , numerical values of
P U3 and M u3Go there, for the combination 3)
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where the diagram of the most unfavorable load of this combination (fig. 4.64).
The combination 3) therefore the worst the most requested band has a width of

free height of the wall, see fig. 4.52 to 5.3,2 b) and the mean
value of theultimate load for this band is:
either:
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6.6 DETERMINATION OF THE WELDED MATERIALS

We follow the market indicated in 5.33.
1. For we found in the case of a non-reinforced wall (see 6.4(b)):
where
2. For the curve in fig. 4.53 gives:  UO = 0.24
3. Is to a strip of wall 1 m of length Br = (a - 0.02) = (0.15 - 0.02) = 0.13 m2
and  
(k = 1)
4. it is in the case u > OU, the wall must therefore be reinforced.
• Determination of the reinforcement .
The wall now armed, vertically and horizontally, the new buckling length
(see calculation in 6.4(b)) is:
If using the 4.10, formula one has
And A = 27 x 2.08 x 1.11-17 x 0.13 x 30 < 0
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The value of A is negative, should be the minimum percentage.
In this case (see 5.3,5) you start by calculating
For this value, the chart in fig. 4.57 gives:

100  v = 0.218
100  h = 0.146
The minimum vertical have wire cross section on each of the faces would be:
and the section of the horizontal wires also by face
A ST 20 panel corresponds to S = 1.89 cm 2 m, s = 1.28 cm 2 /m and E distance between the

rods of 15 cm < Min [2a; 33 cm] or Min [60; 33 cm]
Use this solution. As there will be a Panel on each side:
Where by the formula 4.11:
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For the chart in fig. 4.57 led to required minimum

percentages 100  v 0.204 and 100  h 0.136 then the actual values are respectively
. and
A ST 20 Panel on each side should therefore be perfectly. The length of the panels (6.00 m)
allows to completely cover the height of the wall and ensure recovery with the welded fabrics
the floor above, any subject, to execution, regulatory provisions regarding the bar setting.
Welded on each side mesh panels must be coupled together by horizontal frames
perpendicular to the sides of the wall (see 5.3,5,3.). As = 6 < 12 mm must have a
pins cross at the rate of at least 4 m 2.
4O10 HA
standard panel ST20
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Note : If, instead of f c28 = 30 MPa, there had been f c28 = 25 MPa should have been a section of
steel (form 4.10):
A = 27 x 2.08 x 1.11-17 x 0.13 x 25 = 7.09 cm2 /m
i.e. a ST 35 Panel on each side (2 S = 7.70 cm2m) instead of a ST 20 Panel

(2 S = 3.76 cm2m). Thus, a decrease moderate resistance of concrete leads to increased
considerable amount of steel required. In the example chosen, this quantity has doubled while
the strength of the concrete has been reduced by 20%.
Generally, 4.10, 4.11 and 4.12 formulas are very sensitive to gaps, even weak, on
the different settings, whether it's N u , b r or f c28 . For proof, just look at
the slope of the straight lines of the abacus to figure 4.55, especially for high values of _ f /a:
following the value of this ratio, a variation of + 3% on  u can lead to a section of steel of 15
higher. 20% to that which is strictly necessary.
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Conversely, an error-3% on u can lead to underestimate of 15-20% steel section that would
have had to provide.
Consequently, do the calculations with great care and precision.
7. RETAINING WALLS
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Y ou often see retaining walls along the sides of roads and highways, used to help
prevent rocks, dirt and other debris from spilling into traffic.
When such a wall is in place, you can create an area that is level on a sloped surface.
The ancient Romans, for example, built retaining walls so they could construct roads through irregular
terrain.
Retaining walls can also be used in private yards and gardens to help prevent soil erosion, create usable
beds out of steep terrain and even add decorative accents or functional seating to a yard.
The basic function of a retaining wall is to retain soil at a slope that is greater than it would naturally
assume, usually at a vertical or near-vertical position.
The natural slope taken up by any soil is called its angle of repose and is measured in relationship to the
horizontal. Angles of repose for different soils range from 45° to near 0° for wet clays, but for most soils
a typical angle of 30° is usually taken. It is the segment of soil resting on this upper plane of the angle of
repose that a retaining wall has to support.
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The walls are designed to offer the necessary resistance by using their own mass to resist the push or
trusting upon the principles of force.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The design of any retaining wall is basically concerned with the lateral pressures of the
retained soil and any subsoil water. The wall must be designed to ensure that:
 overturning does not occur;

 sliding does not occur;
 the soil on which the wall rests is not overloaded;
 the materials used in construction are not overstressed.
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It is difficult to accurately define the properties of any soil, because they are variable materials,
and the calculation of pressure applied at any point on the wall is a task for the expert technician, who
must take into account the following factors:
 nature and type of soil;

 height of water table;
 subsoil water movements;
 type of wall;
 materials used in the construction of the wall.
Design calculations relate to the resultant push of retained material behind a 1 m length of wall.
This can be determined by either of two well-established methods:
 Rankine’s formula;
 Coulomb’s graphical representation or wedge theory.
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 Rankine’s formula;
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 Coulomb’s graphical representation

(Or Wedge theory).
As before, w = 1400 kg/m3, h = 2 m and θ = 30°.
The procedure is plotted graphically below:
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4. Coulomb’s wedge is completed by drawing a horizontal line (y) from the top of the wall line until it
intersects with the plane of rupture. Dimension y is scaled or calculated:
Tangent 30° = y/2

Tangent 30° = 0.5774, therefore y = 0.5774 × 2 = 1.155 m.
Wedge area = (2 × 1.155)/2 = 1.155 m2.
Wedge volume per meter run of wall = 1.155 × 1 = 1.155 m3.
Weight of wedge per meter run of wall = 1.155 × 1400 = 1617 kg.
5. A vertical vector line AB is drawn through the wedge section center of gravity at y/3.
6. AB is drawn to a scale to represent the wedge weight (1617), from where it intersects the line of
thrust (h/3) and the plane of rupture.
7. Vector line BC is drawn at the angle of repose (30°) to the normal to the plane of rupture, until it
intersects horizontal vector CA.
8. ABC is the triangle of forces for the wedge section of retained soil. CA is scaled (934) to represent P,
the resultant thrust of 934 kg.
EARTH PRESSURES
The designer is mainly concerned with the effect of two forms of earth pressure:
 active earth pressure;
 passive earth pressure.
Active earth pressures are those that at all times are tending to move or overturn the retaining wall,
and are composed of the earth wedge being retained together with any hydrostatic pressure caused by
the presence of groundwater.
The end can be reduced by the use of subsoil drainage behind the wall, or by inserting drainage
openings called weep holes through the thickness of the stem, enabling the water to drain away.
Passive earth pressures are reactionary pressures that will react in the form of a resistance to
movement of the wall. If the wall tends to move forward, the earth in front of the toe will be
compressed, and a reaction in the form of passive pressure will build up in front of the toe to counteract
the forward movement. This pressure can be increased by enlarging the depth of the toe or by forming a
rib on the underside of the base. Typical examples of these pressures are shown in the Figure below.
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STABILITY
The overall stability of a retaining wall is governed by the result of the action and
reaction of a number of loads:
 Applied loads: For example, soil and water pressure on the back of the wall; the mass of the
wall; and, in certain forms of cantilever wall, the mass of the soil acting with the mass of the
wall.
 Induced loads: For example, the ground pressure under the base, the passive pressure at the
toe, and the friction between the underside of the base and the soil.
EFFECTS OF WATER
Groundwater behind a retaining wall, whether standing or percolating through a
subsoil, can have adverse effects upon the design and stability. It will increase the pressure on the back
of the wall, and by reducing the soil shear strength it can reduce the bearing capacity of the soil; it can
reduce the frictional resistance between the base and the soil and reduce the possible passive pressure
in front of the wall. It follows consequently that the question of drainage of the water behind the
retaining wall is of the extreme importance in the design.
SLIP CIRCLE FAILURE

This type of failure, shown in the Figure below, is sometimes encountered with retaining walls in clay
soils, particularly where there is a heavy surcharge of retained material. It takes the form of a rotational
movement of the soil and wall along a circular arc. The arc commences behind the wall and passes
under the base, resulting in a sloping and forward movement of the wall. Further movement can be
prevented by driving sheet piles into the ground in front of the toe, to a depth that will cut the slip circle
arc.
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TYPES OF WALL
The Four Retaining Wall Types

1. Mass (or Gravity) Retaining Wall
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2. Cantilever Retaining Wall

3. Piling Retaining Wall
Piling retaining walls, or sheet pile retaining walls, are used in areas where the soil is soft and there isn’t a lot
of room to create a wide barrier. A piling retaining wall consists of wood planks, steel or vinyl that has been
driven into the ground and fixed by soil on either side. When you see this type of barrier above ground, you are
generally seeing only one-third of the materials, because the remaining two-thirds are below the ground. Tall
piling retaining walls use a tieback anchor to help the barrier stay in place. Individuals place such anchors
behind the face of a wall and the soil’s potential failure plain. A cable then connects the anchor to the retaining
wall. They key to a piling retaining wall is to make sure the piles can withstand the bending forces created by
the dirt on either side of the barrier.
4.Anchored Retaining Wall

An anchored retaining wall is like any of the previously mentioned walls, but it is stronger because of the
addition of extra cables or stays that are anchored into the earth or soil behind the barrier. The cable and anchor
act like a large nail that helps secure the retaining wall to the soil or rocks behind it. The anchors expand
within the soil or rocks with the help of pressurized concrete that expands into a bulb shape, or by mechanical
means. Anchored retaining walls are ideal for loads that are heavy, tall or in areas where space is limited.
MASS RETAINING WALLS
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These are sometimes called gravity walls and rely upon their own mass together
with the friction on the underside of the base to overcome the tendency to slide or overturn. They are
generally economic only up to a height of 1.800 m. Mass walls can be constructed of semi-engineering
quality bricks bedded in a 1:3 cement mortar or of mass concrete. The ending could have some light
fabric reinforcement to control surface cracking. Natural stone is suitable for small walls up to 1.000 m
high, but generally it is used as a facing material for walls over 1.000 m.
Typical examples of this are shown in Figure below.
Typical mass retaining walls.
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Walls.
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Walls.
PRECAST CONCRETE CRIB-RETAINING WALLS

Crib walls are designed on the principle of a mass retaining wall. They consist of a framework or
crib of precast concrete or timber units within which the soil is retained. They are constructed with a
face batter of between 1:6 and 1:8 unless the height is less than the width of the crib ties, in which case
the face can be constructed vertical. Subsoil drainage is not required, because the open face provides
for adequate drainage.
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Reinforced Retaining Walls

Reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry walls on spread foundations are gravity structures in
which the stability against overturning is provided by the weight of the wall and reinforcement bars in
the wall. The following are the main types of wall:
CONCRETE CANTILEVER RETAINING WALL
A cantilever retaining wall is one that consists of a wall which is connected to foundation.
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A cantilever wall holds back a significant amount of soil, so it must be well engineered. They are the
most common type used as retaining walls. Cantilever wall rest on a slab foundation.
This slab foundation is also loaded by back-fill and so the weight of the back-fill and surcharge also
stabilizes the wall against overturning and sliding.
It work on the principles of force. Two basic forms can be considered: a base with a large heel
so that the mass of earth above can be added to the mass of the wall for design purposes, or, if this form
is not practicable, a cantilever wall with a large toe. The drawings show typical sections and patterns of
reinforcement encountered with these basic forms of cantilever retaining wall. The main steel occurs on
the tension face of the wall, and nominal steel (0.15% of the cross-sectional area of the wall) is very
often included in the opposite face to control the contraction cracking that occurs in in-situ concrete
work. Reinforcement requirements, bending, fabricating and placing are dealt with in detail in the
section on reinforced concrete.
Reinforced cantilever walls have an economic height range of 1.200–6.000 m; walls in excess of this
height have been economically constructed using prestressing techniques. Any durable facing material
may be applied to the surface to improve the appearance of the wall, but it must be remembered that
such finishes are decorative and add nothing to the structural strength of the wall.
Typical reinforced concrete cantilever retaining walls.
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COUNTERFORT RETAINING WALLS

These walls can be constructed of reinforced or Prestressed concrete, and counter
forts are used for high walls with heights from 8 to 12 m. The counterforts are triangular Beams
placed at suitable centers behind the stem and above the base to enable the stem and base to act
as slabs spanning horizontally over or under the counterforts.
Figure below shows a typical section and pattern of reinforcement for a counterfort retaining wall.
Typical reinforced concrete counterfort retaining wall.
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If the counterforts are positioned on the face of the stem they are termed buttresses, and the
whole arrangement is called a buttress-retaining wall. The design and construction principles are
similar in the two formats. Counterfort walls are cantilever walls strengthened with counterforts
monolithic with the back of the wall slab and base slab. The counterforts act as tension stiffeners
and connect the wall slab and the base to reduce the bending and shearing stresses. To reduce
the bending moments in vertical walls of great height, counter-forts are used, spaced at distances
from each other equal to or slightly larger than one-half of the height
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Walls.
PRECAST CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS

These are manufactured from high-grade precast concrete on the cantilever principle, usually to a
600 mm wide module.
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Walls.
They can be erected on a foundation as a permanent retaining wall, or be free standing to act as
a dividing wall between piled materials such as aggregates for concrete.
In the latter situation they can increase by approximately three times the storage volume for any
given area. Other advantages are a reduction in time by eliminating the curing period that is
required for in-situ walls and eliminating the need for costly formwork together with the time
required to erect and dismantle the temporary forms. The units are reinforced on both faces to
meet all forms of stem loading. Lifting holes are provided, which can be utilized as strap-fixing
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Walls.
holes if required. Special units to form internal angles, external angles, junctions and curved walls
are also available to provide flexible layout arrangements.
REINFORCED MASONRY RETAINING WALLS

Steel reinforcement may be used in brick retaining walls to resist tensile forces and to
prevent the effects of cut off. A brick bonding arrangement known as “Quetta bond” is used to create a
uniform distribution of vertical voids.
Vertical steel reinforcement is tied to the foundation reinforcement and spaced to coincide with the
purpose-made voids. When the brickwork is completed, the voids are filled with concrete to produce a
series of reinforced concrete mini-columns within the wall.
Where appearance is not important, or the wall is to receive a surface treatment,
reinforcement and in-situ concrete within heavy concrete blockwork provide for economical and
functional construction.
Reinforced concrete block retaining wall.

The Figure below shows the application of standard-profile, hollow, dense concrete blocks laid in
stretcher bond as permanent formwork to continuous vertical columns.
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Walls.
The height potential and slenderness ratio (effective height to width) for reinforced masonry walls can
be improved by post-tensioning the structure. For purposes of brick walls there are a number of
construction options, including:
 Quetta bond with steel bars and concrete in the voids.
 Stretcher-bonded wide cavity with reinforced steel bars coated for corrosion protection.
 Solid wall of perforated bricks with continuous voids containing grouted steel reinforcement
bars.
Post-tensioned brick retaining walls.
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Walls.
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Walls.
Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls
Mechanically stabilized earth walls are those structures which are made using steel
or Geotextile soil reinforcements which are placed in layers within a controlled granular fill.
Reinforced soils can also be used as retaining walls, if they are built as:
1. As an integral part of the design

2. As an alternative to the use of reinforced concrete or other solutions on the grounds of
economy or as a result of the ground conditions
3. To act as temporary works
4. As remedial or improvement works to an existing configuration.
This category covers walls which use soil, reinforced with reinforcing bars, to provide a stable earth
retaining system and includes reinforced soil and soil nailing.
Soil Nailing
Constructing a soil nailed wall involves reinforcing the soil as work progresses in the area being
excavated by the introduction of bars which essentially work in tension, called Passive Bars. These
are usually parallel to one another and slightly inclined downward. These bars can also work partially
in bending and in shear. The skin friction between the soil and the nails puts the nails in tension.
Hybrid Systems
The type of retaining walls that use both factors that is their mass and reinforcement for stability are
called Hybrid or Composite retaining wall systems.
Anchored Earth walls
Any wall which uses facing units tied to rods or strips which have their ends anchored into the
ground is an anchored earth wall. The anchors are like abutments. The cables used for tying are
commonly high strength, Prestressed steel ligaments. To aid anchorage, the ends of the strips are
formed into a shape designed to bind the strip at the point into the soil.
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Walls.
Tailed Gabion (“boxes”).

Gabions are cages, cylinders, or boxes filled with earth or sand that are used in civil
engineering, road-building, and military application and many others. Gabion elements fitted to
geogrid 'tails' extending into supported soil. For erosion control caged rip-rap are used. For dams or
foundation building, metal structures are used.
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Walls.
Sheet Pile Walls

Steel sheet pile walls are constructed by driving steel sheets into a slope or excavation up to the
required depth. Their most common use is within temporary deep excavations. They are considered
to be most economical where retention of higher earth pressures of soft soils is required. It cannot
resist very high pressure.
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Walls.
Example of building of retaining wall

(With AB Fieldstone that uses recycled materials).
Install base material, level and compact.
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136
Walls.
Level blocks, adjust where needed.
Step 1: Site Prep and Excavation
 Remove surface vegetation and organic soils

 Per the approved plan, excavate base trench a minimum of 24 in.
(610 mm) wide and 12 in. (300 mm) deep.*
 Remove unsuitable soils and replace with compactable materials.
 Buried block should be a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm). Check plans to
see how much buried block is required.
 Compact and level trench.
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Walls.
Stepping up the Wall Base
Start retaining wall at the lowest elevation
Walls built on a sloping grade require a stepped base
 Begin excavation at the lowest point and dig a level trench into the
slope until it is deep enough to accommodate the base material
and one entire block.
 At this point step up the height of one block, and begin a new
section of base trench.
 Continue to step up as needed to top of slope.
 Always bury at least one full unit at each step.
Step 2: Install Base Material
 Per the approved plans, place a minimum of 6 in. (150 mm) of wall
rock in the base trench and rake smooth.*
 Compact and level base material.
 Site Soils Engineer should verify that a proper base is established.
Step 3: Install Base Course

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Walls.
 Begin at the lowest retaining wall elevation. Place retaining wall

blocks on base material in the center of the trench. Check and
adjust for level and alignment of each unit.
 Drain pipe is required for retaining walls over 4 ft. (1.2 m) tall or are
constructed in silty or clay soils. See approved plans for location and
specifications. Refer to design details on an alternate drain location.
Step 4: Install Wall Rock and Backfill Materials
 Fill the hollow cores and a minimum of 12 in. (300 mm) behind the
retaining wall with wall rock.
 Use approved soils to backfill behind the wall rock and in front of the
base course.
 Use a plate compactor to consolidate the area behind the
block. Compact in lifts of 8 in. (200 mm) or less.
Step 5: Install Additional Courses
 Remove all excess material from the top surface of retaining wall
blocks. This can be done when installing the next course of block, by
sliding the block into place.
 Stack the next course of blocks so that the vertical seams are offset
from the blocks below by at least 3 in. (75 mm) or 1/4 the length of
the block.
 Check and adjust for level, alignment and the wall batter as the
retaining wall stacks up.
 Fill the block cores and behind the block with wall rock a minimum
of 12 in. (300 mm). Use approved soils to backfill behind the wall
rock.
 From course 2 and above use a plate compactor to compact
directly on the blocks as well as the area behind the blocks.
Compact in liftoff 8 in. (200 mm) or less.
 Complete the retaining wall to required height. See finishing
details for information on retaining wall ending options.
 Use 8 - 12 in. (200-300 mm) of low permeable fill on the last lift to
finish off wall.
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Walls.
*For walls under 4 ft. (1.2 m), an 18 in. (460 mm) wide by 10 in. (250 mm)
deep trench with 4 in. (100 mm) of wall rock base material is acceptable
Install blocks facing units. Level and adjust where needed.
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Walls.
Install blocks anchoring units.
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Walls.
Install and compact wall rock and backfill soils.
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Walls.
Sweep to remove excess materials for proper placement of the next course.
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Walls.
Compact wall rock and backfill soils starting on the blocks.
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Walls.
Base Course for AB Fieldstone
 Begin at the lowest wall elevation by placing the AB Fieldstone

facing units on the base material towards the front of the trench,
leaving room for the AB Fieldstone anchoring unit so when entire
assembly is installed it is centered on the base materials. Check
each unit and adjust for level and alignment. The facing units can
be randomly flipped upside down to give different facing
appearances.
 For proper placement of the anchoring units, use a brick hammer or
shovel to create a small trench to allow for the lip.
 Install the anchoring units into the receiving slots of the facing units
with the lip facing down in the trench just created. Make
adjustments to ensure anchoring units are installed reasonably level
with the facing unit. The anchoring units should never be installed
higher than the facing unit. Except for special applications like
corners, each anchoring unit should match up with one facing unit.
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Walls.
 A drain pipe is required for any reinforced wall, gravity walls over 4
ft. (1.2 m) tall or sites with poor drainage. Place the drain pipe at the
lowest possible point toward the back of the trench and vent to
daylight every 50 ft. (15 m). See approved plans for location and
specifications. Learn more about water management.
Start retaining wall at the lowest elevation. Use 824 units to span the step up (if available)
Stepping up the Wall Base
When building Step-Ups into a slope, always begin at the lowest wall
elevation of the base course.
To create a Step-Up, span a block between the leveling pad and the
block course below. Step-Ups are most stable when the upper block has
sufficient bearing on the lower block. The length of the 824 assembly (if
available) provides the flexibility to make this block ideal for this
application. An 812 assembly will work as well.
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Walls.
Install Wall Rock and Backfill Materials
Backfill with wall rock
wall with wall rock. Install the wall rock to be level or below
the receiving notch of the anchoring unit.
 Use approved soils to backfill behind the wall rock and in front of the
base course.
 Use a plate compactor to consolidate the area behind the blocks.
 Compact in lifts of 8 in. (200 mm) or less
Additional Courses for AB Fieldstone
 Remove all excess material from the top surface of the AB Fieldstone
units. This should include running a brush or broom across the
receiving notch to remove any debris.
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Walls.
 For faster installation and alignment of the second course, install the
first AB Fieldstone facing unit and AB Fieldstone anchoring unit at the
same time. Make adjustments so that the vertical seams are offset
from the blocks below by at least 3 in. (75 mm) or ¼ the length of
block.
 Install the rest of the facing units using the first block as a placement
guide.
 Place anchoring units into the receiving slots of the facing units. Slide
the two piece assembly so that the lip of the anchoring unit is
placed into the receiving notch of the block on the course
below. Each anchoring unit should match up with one facing unit.
 Check and adjust for level and alignment of the facing units.
wall with wall rock. Install the wall rock behind the anchoring unit to
be level or below the receiving notch or approximately 0.5 in. (12
mm) below the top of the anchoring unit.
 Use approved soils to backfill behind the wall rock.
 From course 2 and above use a plate compactor to compact
directly on the blocks as well as the area behind the blocks.
Compact in lifts of 8 in. (200 mm) or less.
 Remove excess material from the top surface and repeat steps to
complete the wall to the height required. More for information
on ending walls with turn-ins.
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Walls.
(- See more at: http://www.allanblock.com/retaining-walls/gravity-wall-

construction.aspx#sthash.ebpnW5zD.dpuf)
B ibliography :
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Walls.
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Walls

Dr. De Bortoli Maurizio.

Walls Illustrated handbook.

Translated and revised by Dr. De Bortoli Maurizio from the original

1. Concrete walls. Pg. 7

Dr. De Bortoli Maurizio

Functions of the external envelope.

A) Strength and stability

Choice of materials for external walls.

a) The structural form of the building.

Functions of internal walls.

A) To assist in carrying out the loads imposed on the structures.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF WALLS

1.3,2 Types of feature walls exposure to rain

1.3, 2, 1. WALL OF TYPE I

Example of wall Type I

1.3,2,2. WALL OF TYPE II

Examples of walls of type IIa

Examples of walls of type IIb.

1.3,2,3. WALL OF TYPE III

Examples of walls of type III.

Examples of walls of type IV.

1.3,2,5. AREAS OF CONSTRUCTIONS

There are four situations:

1.3,2,6. CONVENIENCE OF SHUTTERED BY CONCRETE WALLS EXPOSURE TO RAIN

Walls intended to receive a coating or a traditional exterior

Walls which the cladding is intended to remain apparent

<6 IIa IIa IIa IIb or III III

1.3,4 means of manufacture of concrete walls

2. POURED CONCRETE WALLS

2.3. SETTING OUT

2.3,3 Renting of formwork

Flatness Local flatness

15 mm 6 mm Uniform and homogeneous. Nests of pebbles or

Individual area of less than 3 cm bubbles 2.

5 mm 2 mm Neat identical to current siding, the extent of clouds

(2) lateral pressure exerted by fresh concrete

p = Min [p1 p2 p3] 150 kN/m 2

a) Effect of height H (m) of the lifting of concrete: p1

In the case of a concrete through a dumpster performing successive rotations,

Is V (m3) volume of concrete to flow

t period t of a full cycle in minutes and

c) Effect of the curing of concrete: p3

(mm) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8

5 50 70 95 115 135 150 150 150 150 150

5 60 85 110 140 150 150 150 150 150 150

(1) according to NF P 18-451 [4.10].

1. it is not normally necessary to take an additional margin to take account of a effect of

(3) Security of personnel on the work plan

Sealing must be sufficient to avoid harmful seepage of Milt.

(5) Implementation of the formwork.

The tolerance on the distance between two walls is ± 2 cm.

In addition the e2 maximum measured horizontally between the footsteps of plans

2.3,4 Layout of frames

-the maximum length is about 8 meters,

There are mainly two types of precast panels:

The current minimum thickness of base is 15 cm for the full plates.

-Rules BAEL modified 91 99 [4.4]

-Length difference  a of Interior diagonal relative to its theoretical a length:

-Tolerance on dimensions and the settlements of berries: 6 mm,

A rule of 2 m must not measure more than 4 mm gap.

3.3,4 Minimum constructive provisions regarding frames

It is possible to use panels ST 10 (or PAF C) or better, PAF V. panels

CUTTING HORIZONTAL "A - A" SETTLEMENTS O8 HA