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Center on International Education Benchmarking

Japan Overview

Overview | Learning Systems | Teacher and Principal Quality

Supporting Equity | Career and Technical Education | Governance and Accountability

Japan has consistently performed well on major education surveys including PISA and TIMSS. On PISA
2015, Japan ranked second in science and fifth in math among 72 participating countries and regions,
scoring highest among the 35 OECD member countries in both fields. Japan’s reading scores, while still
among the top ten overall, slipped from fourth in 2012 to eighth in 2015. On TIMSS 2015, out of 60
participating countries, Japanese 4th graders placed 3rd in science and 5th in math, with 8th graders
placing 2nd in science and 5th in math.

Many observers credit the quality of Japanese education to the quality of the Japanese curriculum, set
by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), advised by the
Central Council for Education. The curriculum demands mastery of a great deal of information about the
discipline, but it also demands a good deal of problem-solving ability and emphasizes student mastery of
the concepts underlying the disciplines. Hence the ability of Japanese students to do very well both on
curriculum-based tests like TIMSS and applications-based tests like PISA.

But it is more than the curriculum that has led to Japan’s success. Education has always been highly
regarded in Japan and the country has prided itself on being highly egalitarian. Japan has promoted the
idea of an “all middle class society” where access to opportunity is a function of merit, and merit is
determined by achievement in school as recorded by performance on exams. That achievement is
viewed by the Japanese not as the result of inherited and unalterable intelligence, but rather as the
result of effort.

While primary school has been universal in Japan since the early 20th century, access to education at
higher levels was highly selective and reserved for the elites. After World War II, the Japanese education
system became more democratized with compulsory school extended to nine years (six years of primary
plus three years of lower secondary school) and higher education expanded. All Japanese students are
funded equitably, have the same curriculum and face the same expectations. Students in Japanese
schools do not skip grades nor are they held back. There is no tracking or streaming during compulsory
education. As a result of these policies, Japan has had success in providing students from low-income
backgrounds with equal educational opportunities. On PISA 2015, only about 10 percent of the variation
in student science performance in Japan was explained by students’ socioeconomic backgrounds. The
OECD average was 13 percent.

However, outside the public schools there is a very active after-school private tutoring and schooling
business, propelled by the ambitions of parents for their children. Known as “juku,” these private “cram
schools” offer one-on-one tutoring, remedial classes, and preparation for the exams that will determine
a student’s progression from lower to upper secondary school and on to higher education. Juku are both
expensive for families and time-consuming for students, and the Japanese have been trying to decrease
the role of juku in Japanese society for much of the last decade.

Looking ahead, in 2017 Japan outlined its Third Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education, to guide
education policy from 2018 through 2022. The plan includes five major education priorities: supporting
the development of emotional intelligence and physical health in addition to academic abilities;
preparing students to participate and innovate in the global economy; promoting lifelong learning;
creating “safety nets” of supports for students, such as through free access to early childhood education
and care; and establishing the necessary conditions, such as increased access to classroom technology,
to implement policies in these priority areas.

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September 27, 2018

Making the Grade

August 30, 2018

PISA 2015 Mean Scores

USA

Japan

OECD Avg

Japan 2012

Science

Reading

Mathematics

460

480

500

520

540

560

Population

126,451,398

Ethnic Makeup

Japanese 98.5%, Koreans 0.5%, Chinese 0.4%, other 0.6%

GDP

$5.238 trillion; $41,300 per Capita

Major Industries

Services: 71.1%; Industry: 27.7%; Agriculture: 1.2%

Employment

Unemployment: 3.2% ; Youth Unemployment: 4.9%

Educational Attainment

Upper Secondary Graduation Rate: 98%

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Center on International Education Benchmarking

Japan: Learning Systems

Overview | Learning Systems | Teacher and Principal Quality

Supporting Equity | Career and Technical Education | Governance and Accountability

System Structure
The school system in Japan consists of three years of optional kindergarten, six years of primary school,
three years of lower secondary school and three years of upper secondary school. Children are required
to attend school for a minimum of nine years – six years of primary and three years of lower secondary
education. Students who have completed lower secondary school, at about age sixteen, may choose to
apply to upper secondary school. Roughly 98 percent of Japanese students elect to continue on to upper
secondary schools, and each type of school has its own admissions processes and requirements.There
are three types of upper secondary schools in Japan: senior high schools, colleges of technology and
specialized training colleges. The graduation rate from upper secondary school is 94 percent.

Of the students continuing into upper secondary, the vast majority (over 97 percent) enroll in senior high
schools which provide general, specialized and integrated courses. General courses are intended for
students who hope to attend university, or for students who wish to seek employment after high school
but have no particular vocational preference. Seventy-five percent of senior high school students enroll
in general courses. Specialized courses are for students who have selected a particular vocational area of
interest; about 19 percent of senior high school students choose this path. Integrated courses allow a
student to choose electives from both the general and specialized tracks, and roughly 6 percent of senior
high school students choose this option.

The small percent of students who do not attend senior high schools go to either colleges of technology
or specialized training colleges. Colleges of technology require their own set of entrance exams. They
provide five-year programs in engineering, culminating in an associate’s degree. Some colleges also offer
additional two-year “advanced courses” for students wishing to earn bachelor’s degrees. Most students
go on to full employment after graduation, though a portion elect to continue on to university.

Specialized training colleges provide vocational education in eight fields: technology, agriculture, medical
care, personal care and nutrition, education and welfare, business, fashion and general education. These
colleges are open-entry and do not require a specific entry exam. Graduates receive a diploma after
completing the high school portion and can continue into post-secondary courses to earn advanced
diplomas.

Many primary and secondary schools are open six days a week and many students spend additional
hours in “cram school,” or juku, to prepare for exams and to drill on the concepts they learned in the
classroom. Juku are essentially a shadow school system in which students may spend up to 12 hours a
week, particularly in the months leading up to upper secondary and university entrance exams. MEXT
has tried many different strategies to try to reduce the number of hours students spend in juku schools
over the past decade but they have not been particularly effective. Students also continue to be assigned
several hours of homework a day and summer vacation remains short. The cumulative effect of these
additional hours spent learning is that Japanese students complete the equivalent of several more years
of schooling than students in other nations.

Standards and Curriculum

The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), in conjunction with
university professors and the Central Council for Education, establishes broad guidelines for the content
of each school subject from preschool education through senior high school. The curriculum for each
grade level is carefully calibrated to pick up each year where the previous grade left off, and to ensure
preparation for the following grade. Ministry specialists prepare teacher guidebooks in each subject with
input from experienced teachers. While teachers may make adaptations, they are expected to follow the
national curriculum.

This national curriculum is revised about once every decade. It is currently being revised and a new
curriculum will be rolled out in stages starting in 2020. The current curriculum was revised in 2008 and
was fully implemented in 2013. That revision represented a shift from the previous decade when
curriculum was “loosened” and requirements reduced to allow more flexibility for schools and to reduce
the “burdens” on students. After a dip in both PISA and TIMMS scores following those changes, the 2008
revisions reversed direction and added more instructional time and increased the content and
complexity of subject matter. It also required students to begin English in primary school. While the
reform did move Japan back towards its more traditional curriculum, it also maintained teaching of
integrated subjects and a focus on applying knowledge. The latest proposals for revision include adding
history, geography and public affairs as compulsory subjects in senior high schools and adding an
optional course for high school students that allows students to choose themes from mathematics and
science for independent research.

Textbook publishers produce books that adhere very closely to the national curriculum, and MEXT must
examine and approve each book before it is made available for schools. Local boards of education then
select which Ministry-approved texts will be used in schools.

Currently, Japan’s primary school curriculum is divided into three main categories: compulsory subjects,
moral education and special activites. Compulsory subjects are Japanese language, Japanese literature,
arithmetic, social studies, science, music, arts and handicrafts, programming and PE. English is currently
required in fifth and sixth grade, but it is taught through informal activities rather than as a graded
subject. Beginning in 2020, English will be a graded subject for fifth and sixth graders, with informal
activities starting earlier in third and fourth grade. Moral education is intended to teach students to
respect one another and the environment, to understand the importance of life, to respect the rules of
society and to learn general self-control. Special activities refer to activities and ceremonies that
emphasize teamwork and cooperation such as graduations, field trips or school concerts. The
compulsory subjects are continued in lower secondary school, with the addition of fine arts, foreign
languages and a greater array of electives.

Assessment and Qualifications

The first major gateway in Japanese schools is the entrance to upper secondary school, when they take
entrance exams for admission. Admission into senior high schools is extremely competitive, and in
addition to entrance examinations, the student’s academic work, behavior and attitude, and record of
participation in the community are also taken into account. Senior high schools are ranked in each
locality, and Japanese students consider the senior high school where they matriculate to be a
determining factor in later success. Japanese students are admitted to university based on their scores
on the National Center Test for University Admissions, known as the “Center Test,” as well as their
performance on the individual exams administered by each university. The Center Test assesses
candidates in five fields: Japanese language, foreign language, math, science and social studies. The
entrance exams for upper secondary school and university are so important in determining placement
that they often are the sole educational concern of students in the years leading up to the exams.

MEXT is planning an overhaul of the Center Test, amidst concerns that the test emphasizes rote
memorization and is not well suited to the changing economy. The new Center Test (which has been
rebranded as Daigaku Nyugaku Kyotsu) will be designed to assess critical thinking, judgment and
expression. This is part of a larger effort to restructure higher education at a time when the population is
shrinking — a decline of 35 percent by 2065 is predicted — and the country needs to ensure that its
students are well trained and equipped for the job market. The new test is expected to be rolled out by
the 2020 academic year. Some junior colleges and universities have also begun accepting students based
on recommendation from upper secondary schools, instead of requiring an entrance examination.

Teachers at all levels of schooling consistently assess their students through teacher-developed tests and
other forms of student work. Homeroom teachers often spend many years with the same group of
students and are involved with their lives outside the classroom, making the assessment process more
consistent, more precise and more accessible to parents.
Japan has national assessments — the National Assessment of Academic Ability (NAAA) — in grades six
and nine. These assessments are in mathematics, Japanese and science. NAAA was first administered in
2007 to a sample of students at the two grade levels for the purpose of informing curriculum and policy
planning. Since 2013, the assessments have been administered annually to all sixth and ninth grade
students, with the goal of providing more data to districts and schools to improve performance. The
same items are administered to all students simultaneously and are made available after the test has
been administered. Mean NAAA subject scores for each region are announced annually and municipal
boards of education and schools use the scores to identify areas where teaching and learning could be
improved.

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Center on International Education Benchmarking

Japan: Teacher and Principal Quality

Overview | Learning Systems | Teacher and Principal Quality

Supporting Equity | Career and Technical Education | Governance and Accountability

Japan is unique in how it assigns teachers to schools. Teachers are hired at the prefecture level, not at
the school level. Prefectures are analogous to states in the United States; there are 47 of them in Japan.
There are multiple municipalities in each prefecture, each with its own school board. Teacher school
assignments change every three years or so when they first start out teaching, with fewer changes later
in their careers. This allows the prefecture to assign the strongest teachers to the schools and students
that need them the most. This not only ensures that the most disadvantaged students have access to the
most capable teachers but it also helps to build capacity within the profession. Young teachers are
exposed to experienced teachers in a number of different environments with the expectation that they
will learn from and interact with their peers.

Japanese teachers work some of the longest hours among OECD member countries, but the time they
spend directly teaching students is below average. According to the OECD, statutory working hours for
teachers at public schools in Japan in 2015 were 1,891 per year, which was 200 hours more than the
OECD average. Japanese teachers spend substantially more time on other tasks such as planning lessons,
working with peers, counseling students and leading extracurricular activities, such as sports and cultural
club activities.

Teacher Recruitment and Compensation

Teaching is a popular profession in Japan and the system has an oversupply of qualified candidates. An
individual can become certified to be a teacher after graduating from one of many teacher education
programs in Japan. These programs are based in either junior colleges or universities; a teacher’s level of
certification is based on the amount of education an individual receives prior to becoming a teacher. The
lowest level of certification is temporary, valid for 15 years, and available to graduates of a junior college
teaching program. The highest, or “advanced level,” certification is available to teacher candidates who
hold master’s degrees. The vast majority of Japanese teachers hold at least a bachelor’s degree. In
addition to the three levels of certification available to teachers, there are three types of certificates
available at each level – a general, or non-subject-specific certificate; a subject-specific certificate; and a
special subject certificate for non-academic fields such as music or the arts.

In Japan, teaching is a respected profession, and teachers have traditionally been paid better than other
civil servants. Japan’s average teacher salary for a lower secondary school teacher after 15 years of
service (the number that the OECD typically uses for international comparison) is US$47,561, as
compared to the OECD average of US$40,569. Following WWII, over concerns about teacher shortages,
the Prime Minister decreed that teachers would be paid 30 percent more than other civil servants.
Although this gap has decreased over the last 50 years, by law teachers remain relatively highly paid
among civil servants. A lower secondary school teacher with minimum education made a starting salary
of US$29,009 in 2015. At the top of the scale, in 2015, the same teacher could expect to make
US$63,215. Teachers’ salaries are lower than the OECD average (US$32,202) at the bottom of the scale,
and higher at both the mid-point and at the top, where the OECD average is US$55,122.

Teacher salaries do not vary much across the country because teachers are paid from both the national
government and the prefecture government so they are relatively consistent regardless of an area’s
income levels or property values.

Teacher Initial Education and Training

The teaching profession in Japan is highly selective, particularly at the hiring phase. Those who do make
the cut only do so after a rigorous set of school board exams and evaluations.

Teachers must hold a degree from an institution of higher education. Any higher education institution,
including junior colleges, can provide teacher training as long as their courses satisfy the requirements of
the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and MEXT has approved the
syllabus. Prospective teachers must take the National Center Test for University Admissions in order to
be considered for admission into an undergraduate teacher education program. National universities
also often administer their own examinations alongside the national exam. While in training, prospective
teachers must take courses in both subject areas and pedagogy, and are evaluated by an experienced
teacher under the supervision of a principal. After graduation from a teacher education program,
teachers must undergo a teaching practicum for at least three weeks.

Teacher supply exceeds demand. Once teacher preparation is completed, candidates must pass a hiring
exam overseen by the prefectural board of education. In addition, prefectural boards of education also
typically require a prospective teacher to pass several tests before being hired. These often take the form
of proficiency tests, interviews or essays, and examine a candidate’s pedagogical and subject area
knowledge; the interview also usually includes a demonstration lesson. The requirements vary in each
prefecture. Teachers are not automatically hired after passing the exam; they are added to the
registration list in order of exam score. Those at the top of the list are hired first. Candidates who are not
hired are required to retake the exam the following year. In 2013 only about one in five new-teacher
candidates who took the Public School Teacher Employment Exam were hired as teachers so being hired
as a teacher is very competitive. There are virtually no classes taught by teachers who do not hold a
certificate in the field or subject they teach. There are also no alternative routes into teaching.

Once teachers have been hired, they undergo a one-year induction period. During this period, they are
supervised by a senior teacher who acts as a mentor. Both the new teacher and the mentor are given
reduced teaching responsibilities to allow them to work together on classroom management, subject
guidance, planning and analyzing classroom teaching. Mentor selection varies across prefectures and
even individual schools. Mentors are not given special training nor additional compensation. New
teachers are hired on a probationary basis. At the end of the first year, a teacher can be hired as a fully
employed regular teacher and have access to all teacher benefits, including membership in the teachers’
union. The majority of Japanese teachers remain in the profession until retirement age.

Teacher Career Ladders

Japanese teachers are able to move up within schools over the course of their careers, with the most
straightforward path being teacher, head teacher and then principal. Within each of these steps, there
are multiple salary grades based on performance and experience. There are 36 steps within the teacher
level, 20 within the head teacher level and 15 within the principal level. Some teachers may never be
promoted to head teacher, but they are able to see their salary climb from about US$29,000 to more
than US$60,000 over a lifetime. Specific requirements for promotion to the principal level are set at the
prefecture level.

Teacher Professional Development

Continuing professional development is required in the teaching profession. Professional development

programs are available at the national through the school level, and each local board of education
determines the minimum hours a teacher must spend on professional development each year.

At the local level, prefectural boards of education plan daily in-service training and also provide specific
training programs for teachers five, ten and twenty years into their careers. At the national level, the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) holds central workshops for head
teachers and administrators. Under a new system implemented by MEXT in 2009, Japanese teachers
must prove that they are up-to-date on skills and practices every ten years in order to renew their
teaching certificates, and this includes participating in at least 30 hours of formal professional
development.

In addition to formal professional development programs, Japanese teachers use “lesson study” to learn
from colleagues informally. Principals organize meetings during which teachers with varying levels of
experience identify an area of need in the classroom, research intervention options and create a lesson
plan. One teacher then uses this sample lesson in the classroom, with the other teachers observing.
Following the sample lesson, the group meets again to discuss, reflect, and make adjustments to refine
the lesson plan. This method of teacher led-research is well regarded, has shown effectiveness in
improving student and teacher learning and has been adopted in other countries.

School Leader Development

In Japan, specific qualifications for becoming a school leader are detailed at the prefecture level. Most
prefectures require a combination of age and teaching experience. Prefectures are also responsible for
developing competent school leaders and fostering their leadership skills. Leadership development
programs are often embedded in prefecture-wide teacher training systems.

Japan’s system of personnel relocations also plays a part in developing school leaders. Rather than being
transferred to new schools, high-performing teachers in middle to late-career stages are sometimes
transferred to administrative offices, including local boards of education, and expected to contribute to
the prefecture’s educational planning with their practical experience. After several years in such an
assignment, they are transferred back to leadership positions within schools. Such opportunities enable
education leaders in administrative offices and schools to build shared visions for planning and
implementing educational policies and practices.

At the national level, MEXT developed a training curriculum for effective school management. The
curriculum is available to local boards of education, schools and other public training institutions. This
curriculum is for principals as well as “mid-level” leaders, such as vice principals and lead teachers.

Additionally, the National Center for Teachers’ Development (NCTD) provides national-level leadership
training programs in cooperation with MEXT. The programs by NCTD are available to selected school
leaders who are nominated by their board of education. After completing the program, participants are
expected to play a leading role in developing school organizational management skills throughout their
region.

USEFUL LINKS

Arani, Mohammad, Reza Sarkar, Fukaya Keisuke and James P. Lassegard, “‘Lesson Study’ as Professional
Culture in Japanese Schools: An Historical Perspective on Elementary Classroom Practices,” Japan Review
22 (2010). (PDF)

Consortium for Policy Research in Education. (2007). A Comparative Study of Teacher Preparation and
Qualifications in Six Nations. – Ingersoll provides an indepth analysis of teacher training and teacher
demographics in six Asian economies, including Japan (page 41). (PDF)

Ratio of Lower Secondary Teachers Salary

to GDP Per Capita (2017)

USA

Japan

OECD Avg

Starting Salary

Salary After 15

Years

Experience

Maximum

Salary

0.00

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

1.50

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Center on International Education Benchmarking

Japan: Supporting Equity

Overview | Learning Systems | Teacher and Principal Quality

Supporting Equity | Career and Technical Education | Governance and Accountability

Support for At-Risk Pre-Primary Children and Families

According the the OECD, in Japan, 80 percent of three-year-olds and 94 percent of four-year-olds attend
daycare or preschool. However, only 46 percent of the cost of early childhood education and care (ECEC)
in Japan is covered by public funds—the lowest of all OECD countries. The remaining 54 percent is borne
by families. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe has proposed making ECEC free of charge for all families. Japan
will spend roughly ¥800 billion (US$7 billion) to expand its free preschool program to all three- to five-
year-olds. By fiscal year 2019, five-year-olds will be covered and three- and four-year-olds will be added
the following year.

Currently, the national and local governments provide subsidies to households with children enrolled in
preschool or daycare based on socio-economic background and income. Of 1.25 million children enrolled
in ECEC, more than 80 percent received subsidies in 2017-2018. About 120,000, or 9.6 percent, attended
preschool for free. The government remains dedicated to improving supports for families with young
children, in large part out of concern for the country’s low birthrate—Japan’s proportion of students as a
percentage of its total population is the lowest of OECD countries.

Japan has also struggled to provide enough preschool and daycare spaces for those that need them.
According to the Health, Labor and Welfare Ministry, around 23,500 children were on the waiting list for
certified daycare services in April 2016. But the Ministry said some 67,300 more children were
potentially waiting to enroll, as the figure does not include parents who are on child care leave. Prime
Minister Abe has announced plans to dramatically increase the number of government subsidized
daycares and preschools by 2019. Currently, about 60 percent of preschools in Japan are privately run.

Supports for At-Risk Students

Local government oversees the hiring and transfer of teachers in Japan, so high-quality teachers can be
assigned to high-need schools, such as those in remote or low-income areas. Conditions for periodic
teacher rotation vary by prefecture. For example, Tokyo prefecture requires teachers to transfer every
three to six years, and a teacher’s first four transfers must cover at least three of 12 geographic areas in
the prefecture.
The government provides several forms of financial assistance for low-income students. Compulsory
education students who meet income eligibility requirements can receive Education Assistance through
the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, and Assistance to School Attendance through MEXT. Public
schools do not charge tuition for compulsory education, so these programs cover other school expenses
including meals, transportation, supplies and trips. For upper secondary students, the High School
Enrollment Support Fund System provides tuition subsidies to families making below the annual income
threshold, which is ¥9.1 million (US$83,447) for a two-parent, two-child household. Upper secondary
students can also choose to use the subsidy toward private school tuition; in this case, the subsidy is
higher for lower-income students. The High School Supplemental Scholarship Fund was created to cover
costs other than tuition.

The Law for the Promotion of Education in Remote and Isolated Areas, passed in 1954, prioritizes
conducting research on education in these areas; providing state subsidies for school infrastructure; and
improving access to initial teacher education, in-service training, instructional materials, housing and
healthcare. Teachers receive an allowance that varies depending on the remoteness of the school, as
determined by criteria such as Internet access. As of 2012, Japan’s National Institute for Educational
Policy Research reports that there is no meaningful difference in performance between remote and
other schools on nationwide achievement tests.

Supports for Struggling Students

The compulsory education system in Japan is predicated on heterogeneous, age-based groups of

students in each classroom. Thus students who are particularly talented are not removed from the
classroom and placed in “gifted” classes or allowed to skip a grade. The same is true for struggling
students. Instead of being sent to separate classes away from their peers, the needs of struggling
students are addressed in the classroom so that they can progress to the next grade with their
classmates. Classmates are also expected to help one another. Both the struggling and the excelling
students benefit from this expectation, because tutoring another student reinforces the concepts for the
stronger student while the entire process reinforces the sense of community within the classroom.

Teachers have a number of resources at their disposal to support struggling students. They can provide
individual attention within a lesson, while students are working independently; students can receive
after-school instruction from their primary teachers; and teachers regularly meet with one another to
discuss how to help their struggling students. Teachers communicate regularly with all students’ parents,
and in particular will provide information and advice to parents whose children are underperforming.
Parents are expected to buttress the teacher’s efforts at home, and to seek professional help if the
problem cannot be easily remedied.

Special Education

Special education is provided in three ways: in special schools, in special classes and resource rooms
within mainstream schools and/or within the mainstream classroom. The type of special education a
child receives is based on his or her disability. Whenever possible, Japanese educators try to keep
students with mild to moderate learning disabilities in class and on track with their peers, and as of 2014
less than one percent of compulsory school age students were taught in special schools. Special schools
are reserved for students who may need more support than is available in mainstream schools, including
students who are blind, deaf or otherwise handicapped. In 2014, about 3 percent of Japanese students
in primary and lower secondary school received some form of special education.

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Center on International Education Benchmarking

Japan: Career and Technical Education

Overview | Learning Systems | Teacher and Principal Quality

Supporting Equity | Career and Technical Education | Governance and Accountability

System Structure

About 20 percent of 15- to 18-year-olds in senior high schools attend programs that focus on career and
technical education (CTE). These programs provide educational opportunities for students who know
that they want to work in a particular occupational area. In these schools, 50-70 percent of class time is
spent on career and technical subjects, with the remaining class time devoted to math, Japanese and
foreign languages. Students who graduate may apply to universities, though the majority of them go on
to two-year CTE institutions if they pursue higher education. One area that has been particularly
successful in adapting to a changing economy is the system of Kosen colleges, Japan’s 57 national
colleges of technology. Though this system of institutions was founded in 1961, they have enjoyed
increased popularity in recent years as their graduates have been swamped with job offers in an
otherwise difficult economy. Kosen colleges were established in response to industry needs, which have
shifted from manufacturing to computer science and applied chemistry. Students can enter these
colleges at the age of fifteen, and after five years of study, leave with the equivalent of a bachelor’s
degree. Most students go on to full employment after graduation, though a portion elect to continue to
postgraduate school in university. While the number of students entering Kosen colleges is just one
percent of all Japanese students, the program is growing, and now students compete for each spot.

Other small CTE programs for upper secondary school students are specialized training colleges. These
colleges provide CTE in eight fields: technology, agriculture, medical care, personal care and nutrition,
education and welfare, business, fashion and general education. Graduates of these two-year programs
receive a diploma and have a high rate of employment compared to graduates from universities or junior
colleges. Specialized training colleges also offer four-year programs leading to advanced diplomas, and a
portion of graduates from senior high schools go on to take these post-secondary courses at specialized
training colleges.

Current Reforms

In the past decade, Japan has tried to address high rates of unemployed and underemployed youth in a
series of reforms of its higher education and CTE sector. There has been concern, in particular, about
high rates of unemployment among university graduates, and lack of uptake of current CTE options. In
2016, MEXT’s Central Council for Education recommended a new type of four-year university for career
and technical education. The council hopes the new institutions will train more specialists in information
technology, agriculture and tourism. Students attending these new universities will be expected to spend
600 hours in practical courses such as internships. The plan also calls for teachers with at least five years
of work experience to make up 40 percent of full-time faculty members. Under the current plan, these
universities can open as early as April 2019.

Another major initiative is enhancing student career counseling at university, with an eye toward
directing students into highly-skilled trades. This counseling is carried out in conjunction with advice
from industry leaders, who identify growth areas and worker shortages.

Percentage of Youth Who Are NEET*

USA

Japan

OECD Avg

NEET

0.0

2.5

5.0

7.5

10.0

12.5

15.0

*15-29 year-olds not in education, employment or training

Source: OECD

USEFUL LINKS

“With workplace training, Japan’s Kosen colleges bridge ‘skills gap'”, The Hechinger Report, Oct. 16,
2011.

UNESCO-UNEVOC Discussion Paper Series. (2009). The Changing Status of Vocational Higher Education in
Contemporary Japan and the Republic of Korea. (PDF)

Ogden, Anthony C. (2010). “A Brief Overview of Lifelong Learning in Japan,” The Language Teacher 34,
no. 6. (PDF)
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Japan: Governance and Accountability

Overview | Learning Systems | Teacher and Principal Quality

Supporting Equity | Career and Technical Education | Governance and Accountability

Governance System

Japan has three levels of government: national, prefectural and municipal. There are 47 prefectures,
each with their own smaller municipalities (cities, towns and villages). The Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) is responsible for the education system from early
childhood to upper secondary, including establishing national curriculum standards, setting teacher and
administrator certification programs and pay scales and developing requirements for setting up schools.
MEXT also allocates some funding to prefectural and municipal authorities for schools. Prefectures play a
significant role in resource and personnel management. Municipalities are responsible for the
supervision and day-to-day operation of schools.

At the prefectural level, there is a board of education comprised of five governor-appointed members;
this board is responsible for appointing teachers to primary and lower secondary schools, funding
municipalities, appointing the superintendent of education at the prefectural level and operating upper
secondary schools.

Within municipalities there are boards of education appointed by the mayor. These boards are
responsible for making recommendations on teacher appointments to the prefectural board of
education, choosing textbooks from the MEXT-approved list, conducting in-service teacher and staff
professional development and overseeing the day-to-day operations of primary and lower secondary
schools. In the schools, principals are the school leaders, and determine the school schedule, manage
the teachers and take on other management roles as needed. Teachers are responsible for determining
how to teach the curriculum and for creating lesson plans, as well as being in contact with parents.

Education Funding

Public schools are funded by a combination of support from the national, municipal and prefectural
governments. In public compulsory education, prefectures pay two-thirds and the national government
pays one-third of teachers’ salaries. Public primary and lower secondary schools do not charge tuition,
and government tuition support makes public upper secondary school essentially free for families
making below an annual income threshold. Families earning above this threshold pay tuition at the
upper secondary level.
Private schools also receive a great deal of public funding, with the Japanese government paying 50
percent of private school teachers’ salaries. Other forms of funding are capital grants, which go to
private schools for specific costs, including new buildings and equipment. While private schools are
considered to be more competitive and prestigious than public schools, public schools still account for
the vast majority of primary and lower secondary schools. Private schools are a significant part of upper
secondary schools, with about one in four upper secondary schools classified as private.

The Japanese government spends less on its schools than do many other OECD countries. Schools are
functional but unadorned, and most schools have a very small administrative staff, with only a principal,
an assistant principal, a janitor and a nurse. The focus of the funding is on teachers and students. In
2014, Japan spent 3.2 percent of its GDP on education – lower than any other OECD country and well
below the OECD average of 4.4 percent. Japan spends US$9,062 per student in primary school,
US$10,422 in lower secondary, and US$11,047 in upper secondary, compared to the OECD averages of
US$8,733, US$10,235 and US$10,182, respectively.

Accountability and Incentive Systems

Schools are evaluated and inspected by municipal and prefectural board of education supervisors, who
are expected to provide external guidance on school management, curriculum and teaching. Typically,
these board of education supervisors are former teachers and administrators.

The National Assessment of Academic Ability, a set of examinations in Japanese, science and
mathematics for students in grades six and nine, are not used as an accountability exam but average
scores are shared with schools and prefectures so that they can identify weak schools or areas of policy
that need attention.

Support for Low-Performing Schools

The Japanese government believes that staff is often the key to turning low-performing schools into
average or high-performing schools. They have developed the innovative practice of circulating high-
performing teachers and administrators among prefectural schools. These teachers are compensated
with generous subsidies and given a formal introduction to the area, in addition to mentoring and
professional development. This strategy ensures equitable access to the most capable staff for low-
performing schools, while allowing staff from low-performing schools to get a sense of how higher-
performing schools are run.

Annual Expenditure per Student

USA

Japan

OECD Avg.

Primary

Secondary

$8,000.00

$10,000.00

$12,000.00

$14,000.00

USD

(2015, in equivalent USD converted using PPPs for GDP, by level of education for public institutions only,
for all services) Source: OECD Education at a Glance 2018

USEFUL LINKS

Jabar, Melvin Allena. (2010). “How Do Japanese Schools Promote Parental Involvement?,” International
Journal of Social Sciences and Humanity Studies 2:1. (PDF)

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2008). Basic Plan for the Promotion of
Education.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2006). School System Statistics.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2006). Basic Act on Education.

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Education in Japan

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Education in Japan is compulsory at the elementary and lower secondary levels.[5] Most students attend
public schools through the lower secondary level, but private education is popular at the upper
secondary and university levels. Education prior to elementary school is provided at kindergartens and
day-care centers. Public and private day-care centers take children from under age 1 on up to 5 years old.
The programmes for those children aged 3–5 resemble those at kindergartens. The educational
approach at kindergartens varies greatly from unstructured environments that emphasize play to highly
structured environments that are focused on having the child pass the entrance exam at a private
elementary school. The academic year starts from April and ends in March, having summer vacation in
August and winter vacation in the end of December to the beginning of January. Also, there are few days
of holidays between academic years. The period of academic year is the same all through elementary
level to higher education nationwide.

Education in Japan

Primary languages

Japanese

Total

99.9%[1]

Male

99.9%[1]

Female

99.9%[1]
Primary

10.9 million[2]

Secondary

3.8 million[2]

Post secondary

3.7 million[2]

Secondary diploma

94.3%[4]

Post-secondary diploma

59%[3]

Japanese students consistently rank highly among OECD students in terms of quality and performance in
reading literacy, math, and sciences. The average student scored 540 in reading literacy, maths and
science in the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the country has one
of the world's highest-educated labour forces among OECD countries.[4] Its populace is well educated
and its society highly values education as a platform for social mobility and for gaining employment in
the country's high-tech economy. The country's large pool of highly educated and skilled individuals is
largely responsible for ushering Japan’s post-war economic growth. Tertiary-educated adults in Japan,
particularly graduates in sciences and engineering, benefit economically and socially from their
education and skills in the country's high tech economy.[6]

Spending on education as a proportion of GDP is below the OECD average. Although expenditure per
student is comparatively high in Japan, total expenditure relative to GDP remains small.[6] In 2015,
Japan’s public spending on education amounted to just 3.5 percent of its GDP, below the OECD average
of 4.7%.[7] In 2014, the country ranked fourth for the percentage of 25- to 64-year-olds that have
attained tertiary education with 48 percent. In addition, bachelor's degrees are held by 59 percent of
Japanese aged 25–34, the second most in the OECD after South Korea.[3] As the Japanese economy is
largely scientific and technological based, the labor market demands people who have achieved some
form of higher education, particularly related to science and engineering in order to gain a competitive
edge when searching for employment opportunities. About 75.9 percent of high school graduates
attended a university, junior college, trade school, or other higher education institution.[8]

Japan's education system played a central part in Japan's recovery and rapid economic growth in the
decades following the end of World War II. After World War II, the Fundamental Law of Education and
the School Education Law were enacted. The latter law defined the school system that would be in effect
for many decades: six years of elementary school, three years of junior high school, three years of high
school, and two or four years of university. Although Japan ranks highly on the PISA tests, its educational
system has been criticized in the US for its focus on standardized testing and conformity;[9][10] bullying
problems;[9][11][12] and its strong academic pressure on students.[13]

History

School grades

Edit

The school year in Japan begins in April and classes are held from Monday to either Friday or Saturday,
depending on the school. The school year consists of two or three terms, which are separated by short
holidays in spring and winter, and a six-week-long summer break.[36]

The year structure is summarized below:

Age Grade Educational establishments

6–7 1 Elementary school

(小学校 shōgakkō)

Compulsory Education Special school

(特別支援学校 Tokubetsu-shien gakkō)

7–8 2

8–9 3

9–10 4

10–11 5

11–12 6

12–13 1 (7th) Junior high school/Lower secondary school

(中学校 chūgakkō)

Compulsory Education
13–14 2 (8th)

14–15 3 (9th)

15–16 1 (10th)High school/Upper secondary school

(高等学校 kōtōgakkō, abbr. 高校 kōkō) College of technology

(高等専門学校 kōtō senmon gakkō, abbr. 高専 kōsen)

16–17 2 (11th)

17–18 3 (12th)

18–19 Associate's University: Undergraduate

(大学 daigaku; 学士課程 gakushi-katei) National Academy

(大学校 daigakkō) Medical School

(医学部 Igaku-bu)

Veterinary school

(獣医学部 Jūigaku-bu)

Dentistry School

(歯学部 Shigaku-bu)

Pharmaceutical School

(薬学部 Yakugaku-bu)

National Defense Medical College

(防衛医科大学校, Bōei Ika Daigakkō) Community College

(短期大学 Tanki-daigaku, abbr. 短大 tandai)

Vocational School

(専門学校 Senmon-gakkō)

19–20

20–21 Bachelor's

(学士 Gakushi)
21–22

22–23 Master's

(修士 Shūshi)

Graduate School: Master

(大学院博士課程前期 Daigaku-in Hakushi Katei Zenki) National Academy: Master

(大学校修士課程 Daigakkō Shūshi katei)

23–24

24–25 Ph.D.

(博士 Hakushi)

Graduate School: Ph.D.

(大学院博士課程後期 Daigaku-in Hakushi Katei Kōki) National Defense Academy: Ph.D.

(防衛大学校博士課程 Bōei Daigakkō Hakushi katei) Medical School: Ph.D.

(医学博士 Igaku Hakushi)

Veterinary School: Ph.D.

(獣医学博士 Jūigaku Hakushi)

Dentistry School: Ph.D.

(歯学博士 Shigaku Hakushi)

Pharmaceutical School: Ph.D.

(薬学博士 Yakugaku Hakushi)

25–26

26–27

27– Ph.D.
(博士 Hakushi)

Lower secondary school

Edit

Main article: Secondary education in Japan

Learn more

This section needs additional citations for verification.

International educational scores (latest, 2007)

(8th graders average score, TIMSS

International Math and Science Study, 2007)

Countries:

(sample)

Global

rank

Maths

Science

Rank

Score

Rank

Score

Singapore

593

1
567

Taiwan

598

561

South Korea

597

553

Japan

570

554

Hong Kong

572

530
Hungary

517

539

England

513

542

Czech Republic

11

504

539

Russia

512

10

530

Slovenia
10

12

501

538

United States

11

508

11

520

Lithuania

12

10

506

12

519

Australia

13

14

496

13

515

Sweden

14
15

491

14

511

Armenia

15

13

499

17

488

Italy

18

19

480

16

495

Maths Highlights from TIMSS 2007

Science Highlights from TIMSS 2007

A typical classroom in a Japanese junior high school

Lower secondary school covers grades seven through nine, with children typically aged twelve through
fifteen. There are 3.5 million primary school students in Japan as of 2012, down from over 5.3 million in
1990.[37] However, the number of junior high schools has remained relatively static, falling from 11,275
in 1990 to 10,699 in 2012. The number of junior high school teachers has also changed little, with
257,605 junior high school teachers in 1990, and 253,753 in 2012). Approximately 8% of junior high
students attend a private junior high school (accounting for 7% of all junior high schools). Private schools
are considerably more expensive: as of 2012, the average annual cost of private primary school
attendance was ¥1,295,156 per student, roughly thrice the ¥450,340 cost for a public school.[38] Japan's
compulsory education ends at grade nine, but less than 2% drop out; 60% of students advanced to
senior education as of 1960, increasing rapidly to over 90% by 1980, rising further each year until
reaching 98.3% as of 2012.[39]

Teachers often major in their respective subjects, and more than 80% graduate from a four-year college.
Classes are large, with an average of thirty-eight students per class, and each class is assigned a
homeroom teacher, doubling as a counselor. Unlike kindergarten students, primary school students have
different teachers for different subjects. However, the teacher changes rooms for each period, rather
than the students.[citation needed]

Instruction in primary schools is often in the form of lectures. Teachers also use other media, such as
television and radio, and there is some laboratory work. By 1989 about 45% of all public primary schools
had computers, including schools that used them only for administrative purposes. All course contents
are specified in the Course of Study for Lower-Secondary Schools. Some subjects, such as Japanese
language and mathematics, are coordinated with the elementary curriculum. Others, such as foreign-
language study, begin at this level, though from April 2011, English became a compulsory part of the
elementary school curriculum.[citation needed] The junior school curriculum covers Japanese language,
social studies, mathematics, science, music, fine arts, health, and physical education. All students are
also exposed to industrial arts and homemaking. Moral education and special activities continue to
receive attention. Most students also participate in one of a range of school clubs that occupy them until
around 6 p.m. most weekdays (including weekends and often before school as well), as part of an effort
to address juvenile delinquency.[citation needed]

A growing number of primary school students also attend juku, private extracurricular study schools, in
the evenings and on weekends. A focus by students upon these other studies and the increasingly
structured demands upon students' time have been criticized by teachers and in the media for
contributing to a decline in classroom standards and student performance in recent years.[citation
needed]

The ministry recognizes a need to improve the teaching of all foreign languages, especially English. To
improve instruction in spoken English, the government invites many young native speakers of English to
Japan to serve as assistants to school boards and prefectures under its Japan Exchange and Teaching
Program (JET). Beginning with 848 participants in 1987, the program grew to a high of 6,273 participants
in 2002.[40] The program was in a decline in recent years due to several factors, including shrinking local
school budgets funding the program, as well as an increasing number of school boards hiring their
foreign native speakers directly or through lower-paying, private agencies. Today, the program is again
growing due to English becoming a compulsory part of the elementary school curriculum in 2011.[41]
Upper secondary school

Edit

A typical Japanese high school classroom

Main article: Secondary education in Japan

Though upper-secondary school is not compulsory in Japan, 94% of all junior high school graduates
enrolled as of 2005.[42] Private upper-secondary schools account for about 55% of all upper-secondary
schools, and neither public nor private schools are free. The Ministry of Education estimated that annual
family expenses for the education of a child in a public upper-secondary school were about ¥300,000 in
the 1980s and that private upper-secondary schools were about twice as expensive.

The most common type of upper-secondary school has a full-time, general program that offered
academic courses for students preparing for higher education as well as technical and vocational courses
for students expecting to find employment after graduation. More than 70% of upper-secondary school
students were enrolled in the general academic program in the late 1980s. A small number of schools
offer part-time programs, evening courses, or correspondence education.

The first-year programs for students in both academic and commercial courses are similar. They include
basic academic courses, such as Japanese language, English, mathematics, and science. In upper-
secondary school, differences in ability are first publicly acknowledged, and course content and course
selection are far more individualized in the second year. However, there is a core of academic material
throughout all programs.

Vocational-technical programs includes several hundred specialized courses, such as information

processing, navigation, fish farming, business, English, and ceramics. Business and industrial courses are
the most popular, accounting for 72% of all students in full-time vocational programs in 1989.

Most upper-secondary teachers are university graduates. Upper-secondary schools are organized into
departments, and teachers specialize in their major fields although they teach a variety of courses within
their disciplines. Teaching depends largely on the lecture system, with the main goal of covering the very
demanding curriculum in the time allotted. Approach and subject coverage tends to be uniform, at least
in the public schools.
Training of disabled students, particularly at the upper-secondary level, emphasizes vocational education
to enable students to be as independent as possible within society. Vocational training varies
considerably depending on the student's disability, but the options are limited for some. It is clear that
the government is aware of the necessity of broadening the range of possibilities for these students.
Advancement to higher education is also a goal of the government, and it struggles to have institutions
of higher learning accept more students with disabilities.

Universities and colleges

Edit

Main article: Higher education in Japan

Higher education in Japan is provided at universities (daigaku), junior colleges (tanki daigaku), colleges of
technology (koto senmon gakko) and special training schools and community colleges (senshu gakko). Of
these four types of institutions, only universities and junior colleges are strictly considered
postsecondary education providers.[43]

As of 2010, more than 2.8 million students were enrolled in 778 universities. At the top of the higher
education structure, these institutions provide a four-year training leading to a bachelor's degree, and
some offer six-year programs leading to a professional degree. There are two types of public four-year
colleges: the 86 national universities (including the Open University of Japan) and the 95 local public
universities, founded by prefectures and municipalities. The 597 remaining four-year colleges in 2010
were private. With a wealth of opportunities for students wishing to pursue tertiary education, the
nation’s prestigious schools are the most appealing for students seeking to gain top employment
prospects.[43]

The overwhelming majority of college students attend full-time day programs. In 1990 the most popular
courses, enrolling almost 40 percent of all undergraduate students, were in the social sciences, including
business, law, and accounting. Other popular subjects were engineering (19 percent), the humanities (15
percent), and education (7 percent).

The average costs (tuition, fees, and living expenses) for a year of higher education in 1986 were ¥1.4
million. To help defray expenses, students frequently work part-time or borrow money through the
government-supported Japan Scholarship Association. Assistance is also offered by local governments,
nonprofit corporations, and other institutions.
According to the Times Higher Education Supplement and École des Mines de Paris, the top-ranking
universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Kyoto University.[44][45]

The QS Asia University Rankings Top 40 included the University of Tokyo at 13th position, Tokyo Institute
of Technology at 14th, Osaka University at 15th, Kyoto University at 17th, Tohoku University at 20th,
Nagoya University at 27th, Kyushu University at 29th, Keio University at 36th, Waseda University at 39th,
and the University of Tsukuba at 40th.[46]

Based on the 2011 Times Higher Education–QS World University Rankings, there are 33 Japanese
universities in the top 100 Asian university rankings.[47]

Disability

Extracurricular activities

Criticisms

International education

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Last edited 4 days ago by KinHikari

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