A

Summer Internship Report

At
Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited (UPPCL)
On
“TRANSMISSION IN 132KV SUB-STATION”

In the fulfillment of the fifth semester Practical Training

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

By:

Name: VISHWAM GUPTA

Under the guidance of

Dr. GEETIKA SRIVASTAVA

(Professor)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,

Amity School of Engineering and Technology,

Amity University

1
 DECLARATION

I, Vishwam Gupta, student of B.Tech Electrical and Electronics Engineering fifth

semester, hereby declare that the term paper titled “TRANSMISSION in 132KV SUB-
STATION”, which is submitted by me to Department of Electronics & Communication
Engineering, AMITY School OF Engineering & Technology, AMITY UNIVERSITY UTTAR
PRADESH, LUCKNOW, in partial fulfillment of fifth semester practical training. This is a
comprehensive study based on the literature survey & brief review on existing knowledge, which
is produced in best possible manner.

Place: Lucknow

VISHWAM GUPTA

Date:

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

“There are people, who, simply by being what they are, influence, encourage & inspire you
to do things you never thought yourself capable of doing….”

Among these are my teachers, friends & family members to whom I wish to extend my
gratitude on the event of completing my term project file.

Through the columns of this project file, I would like to take the opportunity to thank
Prof. S.T.H.Abidi (Director,ASET) &Brig.U.K.Chopra (Dep. Director, ASET) for
encouraging us in doing the summer training. I would also like to thank Prof.O.P.Singh (HOD,
Department of Electronics and Communication) who gave us valuable suggestions during the
execution of the project.

I would like to thank my external guide Mr. ANCHAL MISHRA (Training Coordinator) and
mentor Dr. GEETIKA SRIVASTAVA who collaborated with me in bringing this project in its
present form. They have been a great source of help & have cleared all our doubts thus being a
great support in every respect.

I would also like to mention the support of my friends & family members for giving me useful
suggestions & contributed a lot to this file without whose endless efforts this work would ever
have been possible. At last I would like to thank all those around me who helped me in any
way to bring the project in its present form.

Any suggestions for the improvement of this project file would be highly accepted.

VISHWAM GUPTA
B.Tech EEE

3
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE OF FIGURE PAGE NO.
1.1 HV and LV transmission side of Khurram Nagar sub-station. 8

2.1 High Voltage DC transmission lines 10

2.2 High Voltage AC transmission lines 11

3.1 A lightning arrester 12

3.2 A simple spark gap device 13

4.1 Double Break Isolator used in sub-station 14

5.1 SF6 Circuit Breaker 17

5.2 Vacuum circuit Breaker 19

6.1 Power transformer in Khurram nagar sub-station 21

6.2 ONAF cooling type of transformer 22

6.3 Current Transformer 23

6.4 Potential Transformer 24

7.1 Overhead transmission lines 26

8.1 Porcelain Insulator (Disc) 28

8.2 Glass Insulator (Disc) 29

8.3 Polymer Insulator (Suspension) 30

9.1.1 Bus coupler 31

9.2.1 Busbar 32

9.3.1 A 33KV Capacitor Bank 33

10.1.1 Relay and Control Panel 35

10.2.1 Fuses used in sub-station 37

4
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TABLE TITLE PAGE NO.

3.1 Data sheet of lightning arrester installed in Khurram 13
nagar sub-station.

5.1 Specifications for SF6 circuit breaker used in Khurram 18

Nagar 132KV sub-station

6.1 Data sheet for power transformer installed in 132kV sub- 21

station.

6.2 Specifications for CT used in Khurram Nagar 132KV 23

sub-station

6.3 Specifications of Capacitor Voltage Transformer used in 24

Khurram Nagar 132KV sub-station

7.1 Ground clearance of overhead transmission lines with 25

respect to voltage they are carrying.

8.1 Properties of Porcelain Insulator 29

8.2 Properties of Glass Insulators 29

5
 CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE NO.

1) INTRODUCTION 8-9

1.1) 132/33KV Khurram Nagar Sub-station 8

2) TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 10-11

2.1) Advantages of using HVDC Transmission System 10

2.2) Advantages of using AC Transmission System 10

2.3) Disadvantages of using AC Transmission System 11

3) LIGHTNING ARRESTER 12-13

4) ELECTRICAL ISOLATOR 14-15

4.1) Working 15

5) CIRCUIT BREAKERS 16-19

5.1) Working Principle 16

5.2) SF6 Circuit Breakers 17

5.2.1) Disadvantages 18

5.3) Vacuum Circuit Breakers 18

5.3.1) Advantages 19

6) TRANSFORMERS 20-24

6.1) Power Transformer 20

6.2) Instrument Transformer 22

6.2.1) Current Transformer 22

6.2.2) Potential Transformer 23

6
7) CONDUCTORS 25-27

7.1) Properties of Conductors used in Sub-station 25

7.2) Performance of Transmission Line 26

8) ELECTRICAL INSULATOR 28-30

8.1) Porcelain Insulator 28

8.2) Glass Insulator 29

8.2.1) Advantages of Glass Insulator 29

8.2.2) Disadvantages of Glass Insulator 29

8.3) Polymer Insulator 30

8.3.1) Advantages of Polymer Insulator 30

8.3.2) Disadvantages of Polymer Insulator 30

9) MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT 31-34

9.1) Bus coupler 31

9.2) Busbar 32

9.3) Capacitor Bank 33

9.3.1) Placement of Capacitor Bank 34

10) PROTECTIVE GEAR 35-37

10.1) Relay 35

10.1.1) Types of Relays used in Control Panel of Sub-station 36

10.2) Fuse 36

11) CONCLUSION 38

12) REFERENCES 39

7
 1) INTRODUCTION

Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited or in short UPPCL was recognised on

January 14, 2000. UPPCL was formed because of the need of reforms in power and energy
sector in Uttar Pradesh. These modifications were necessarily responsible for the management
and planning of electrical power industry while considering electricity (power) generation,
transmission, distribution and supply.

1.1) 132/33KV KHURRAM NAGAR SUB-STATION

Figure 1.1- High voltage and Low voltage transmission side of Khurram Nagar sub-station.

The sub-station, in which I did my internship, is located near Gudumba Bus station,
Lucknow. The sub-station gets its 132KV supply from the power grids located at
NandKishoreNandan (NKN) sub-station and Chinhut power grid. Here the supply from
Chinhut is used as a primary feed to the sub-station whereas the NKN supply is used for backup.
At first a Lightning Assertor is used in a 3-phase transmission setup in order to protect the grid
from surges due to lightning. After this comes the need to measure the voltage and current in the
transmission lines. For that we use a Capacitor Voltage Transformer and Current
Transformer respectively. Just like an ammeter and a voltmeter, a CT is connected in series

8
with the transmission line whereas a CVT is connected parallel to the transmission line. Since
they both are transformer they must have a transformation ratio. In Khurram Nagar sub-station
the transformation ratio of these to instrument transformers is 400:1 step down.

Now comes the time of implementing some safety features in the transmission line setup.
For that we first use a Line Isolator and then a Bus Isolator. But these alone are not enough, so
we use a Gas Circuit Breaker. These circuit breakers can be operated via control panel in the
operating room.

Two transformers of 40MVA capacity each are installed in Khurram nagar sub-station,
thereby making a total station capacity of 80MVA. A lightning arrestor, current transformer and
some control equipment are used on both sides of the transformers for better monitoring. The
transformers step down the 132KV supply to 33KV supply. Then this 33KV supply is fed to the
nine feeders that are installed in the sub-station. These feeders deliver the power to the following
power houses under the control of LESA:-

 UPSIDC
 MAHANAGAR
 VIKAS NAGAR
 SECTOR 25 SARVODAYANAGAR
 PGCIL
 GSI
 ENGINEERING COLLEGE
 KALYANPUR
 CDRI

There is also a jack bus which is connected to the main bus with the help of a bus
coupler. It is used as a backup feeder when some other feeder is under maintenance. Also there is
another step down transformer installed in the sub-station which is used to supply electricity to
the sub-station.

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 2) TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Generally, two systems are there that can be used to transmit electrical energy:-

 HVDC – High Voltage Direct Current transmission system

 HVAC – High Voltage Alternating Current transmission system

2.1) ADVANTAGES OF USING HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM -

 HVDC uses only two conductors for transmission. Furthermore, use of only one
conductor is also possible but with earth as return path.
 About 70% potential stress compared to that of AC transmission system for the same
voltage. Thereby reducing the insulation cost.
 No problem of capacitance, phase displacement, inductance and surge.

Figure 2.1- High Voltage DC transmission lines

2.2) ADVANTAGES OF USING AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM -

A three phase AC transmission is generally used instead of HVDC transmission system,
even though the latter has many advantages, because:-

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  Stepping up and stepping down is easy in AC transmission system.
 Ease of transforming in AC sub-station than in motor-generator sets of DC system.
 Low maintenance.
 More economical.

2.3) DISADVANTAGES OF USING AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM -

 Skin effect and proximity effects.
 More volume of conductor is required.
 More possibility of corona effect.
 Line reactance which cause change in voltage regulation of transmission system.
 Proper synchronisation required while connecting two or more transmission line.
 Complicated transmission network.

Figure 2.2- High Voltage AC transmission lines

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 3) LIGHTNING ARRESTER

Lightning strikes and surges can become a major problem in electrical power systems and
to deal with that we use lightning arrestors. They protect the conductors, insulators, transformers
and other equipment that are attached to it. Usually a lightning arrester is made up of a high
voltage terminal and a ground terminal. The lightning arrester easily channels to the earth any
lightning surge that travels to it through the transmission line.

In the absence of lightning arrestor, thousands of kilovolts of electricity can be introduced

causing serious damage to the transmission system. Costly instruments such as transformers are
very much sensitive too these kind of surges and once damaged they are very expensive to
repair. Chances of fire hazards also increase in these situations.

In transmission systems, lightning arrestors are made up of porcelain tube. They are high
usually several feet and several inches in diameter. Disks of zinc oxide are generally filled in
them. They are provided with a safety port on the side to dissipate occasional internal explosions
without harming the porcelain cylinder.

Lightning arresters are graded by:-

 the peak current that they can endure

 the amount of energy they can absorb
 the break-over voltage that they require to start conducting

Figure 3.1- A lightning arrester

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 If we look at figure 2, then we will be able to understand how a lightning arrester works.
Let there be an instrument which is connected to terminal A and terminal E is earthed. In normal
conditions, no current flows through terminal A to terminal E because of the large resistance
between B and C; and C and D. But when lightning strikes, the voltage is very high and even
those large resistances have no effect. So electricity gets channeled to earth without destroying
the instrument.

Figure 3.2- A simple spark gap device which is used to divert lightning strike to ground.

The lightning arresters installed in the sub-station were of ABB. All the arresters were
carefully placed so as to avoid any sort of damage to the sub-station due to lightning strikes and
surges.

Table 3.1- Data sheet of lightning arrester installed in Khurram nagar sub-station.

Product name POLIM-K

Company ABB
Nominal discharge current In 8/20µs 10kA (pk)
Break over 2
High current impulse Ihc 4/10µs 1000kA (pk)
Long duration current impulse 500A/2000µs
Short circuit rating Is 50Hz 50kA(rms) for 0.2s

13
 4) ELECTRICAL ISOLATOR

Even though the circuit breakers physically disconnect the current carrying contacts thus
isolating the two lines from each other, but we cannot see that from outside the circuit breaker
and hence it is advisable not to touch the transmission line just by opening the circuit breaker.
For safety purposes, a mechanical isolation technique must be employed so that we can be 100%
sure that there is no current in the transmission line. To achieve that, Electrical Isolators are used.
These are like mechanical switches which are used to completely isolate a part of transmission
circuit so that some maintenance work can be performed.

Figure 4.1- Double Break Isolator used in sub-station

Thus an Isolator is a manually operated mechanical on-off instrument that is used to

isolate a part of electrical power system generally at off load condition. Electrical isolators are of
various types:-

 Depending upon system requirement:

o Double Break Isolator
o Single Break Isolator
o Pantograph Isolator

14
  Depending upon the position in power system:
o Bus Side Isolator (isolator directly connected to main bus)
o Line Side Isolator (isolator situated at line side of a feeder)
o Transfer Bus Side Isolator (isolator directly connected to transfer bus)

4.1) WORKING – the first and most important thing to be kept in mind before operating the
isolator is that there are least chances of current flowing in the wire. This is done to avoid arcing.
Therefore an isolator must be opened only after opening the circuit breaker and must be closed
before closing the circuit breaker. The isolator mechanism can be operated both manually by
hand and using a motor that is operated from a distance. Motor system is costly and hence must
be chosen properly, whereas hand operated system is cost effective. Usually hand operated
systems are used for voltages upto 145KV and motorized system are used for higher voltages.

Khurram nagar 132KV sub-station has single break isolators which are used on bus
side, line side as well as on transfer bus side. They all are operated using hand held mechanism.

15
 5) CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Circuit breakers are a sort of switching devices that can be activated manually to control
the electrical power system as well as automatically for the protection of the grid. Modern power
systems deal with huge amount of current so the designing of these circuit breakers should be
such that no arc is produced and hence we get safe and loss free functioning.

5.1) WORKING PRINCIPLE - The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and
moving contacts. The physical connection between the two current carrying contacts due to the
applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts, make the “on” state of the circuit breaker.
The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by different ways:-

 Deforming metal spring

 Compressed air
 Hydraulic pressure

This stored potential energy is the main factor in the working of the circuit breaker and it
must be released whenever the signal is given. This causes tremendously fast sliding of the
moving contact. All circuit breaker have operating coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever
these coils are energized by switching pulse, the plunger inside them gets displaced. This
operating coil plunger is typically attached to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker and the
moving contacts are mechanically connected with this operating mechanism through a gear lever
arrangement. There is a conversion of stored potential energy into kinetic energy, which makes
the moving contact to move. Once the cycle of circuit breaker operation is complete, the total
energy is again stored in the form of potential energy by means of spring charging motor or air
compressor or by any other means.

The circuit breaker has to carry large rated or fault power. While carrying this large
power there is always a risk of dangerously high arcing between the moving and the fixed
contacts during the circuit breaker operation. For safe arc quenching in the circuit breaker, the
dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts should be increased rapidly during every
zero current crossing of the alternating current. The dielectric strength of the media in between
contacts can be increased in numbers of ways:-

 Compressing the ionized arcing media since compressing accelerates the

deionization process of the media
 Cooling the arcing media since cooling increase the resistance of arcing path
 Replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses.

16
Now we discuss about the two types of circuit breakers used in the sub-station.

5.2) SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER – It is a type of circuit breaker in which the current
carrying contacts are immersed in Sulphur Hexafluoride gas. SF6 gas has a high affinity of
absorbing free electrons as its electro-negativity is very high. Moreover, SF6 is an excellent
insulator. The SF6 molecules absorb the free electrons from the arc, and hence form a negative
ion. These negatively charged ions have a very low mobility compared to the free electrons.
Hence there is no arcing as the mobility of the charges is the main reason of movement of current
through the gas. Electron can be attached to SF6 molecule in two different ways:-

𝑆𝐹6 + 𝑒  𝑆𝐹6−

𝑆𝐹6 + 𝑒 → 𝑆𝐹5− + 𝐹

SF6 has a very high dielectric property and not only that, its molecules recombine very
fast after the arcing has stopped. The gas can also transfer heat very efficiently through
convection due to its low viscosity. Considering all these properties of SF6, it becomes 100 times
more effective than air to be used in circuit breakers. Hence they can be used for voltage ranges
from 33KV to 800KV and beyond.

Figure 5.1- SF6 Circuit Breaker

17
5.2.1) Disadvantages –

 SF6 is a greenhouse gas and the circuit breaker must be manufactured and handled
carefully in order to prevent its release into the atmosphere.
 The design of these types of circuit breakers requires almost five times greater
mechanical energy than oil circuit breakers for their proper functioning.

Table 5.1- Specifications for SF6 circuit breaker used in Khurram Nagar 132KV sub-station

Breaking Current 50A

Making Capacity 80KA
Total Break Time <60ms
Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current 31.5KA
(symmetrical)
Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current 36.86KA
(asymmetrical)
Rated Duration of Short Circuit Current 3s
Rated Nominal Current 1250A
Rated Voltage 145KV
Rated SF6 Gas Pressure 6kg/cc

5.3) VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS – In this type of circuit breaker, the arc
quenching is done in vacuum. This setup is generally used for arc quenching in medium voltage
applications. Vacuum interrupter is a vacuum chamber in the breaker where all the operations of
opening and closing of contacts and linked arc quenching takes place. The vacuum pressure
inside the vacuum interrupter is generally maintained at 6-10 bar. The interrupter is basically a
steel arc chamber in the center of symmetrically arranged ceramic insulators.

CuCr is generally used to make vacuum circuit breaker contacts, because these current
carrying contacts are very important for the performance of these circuit breakers. Vacuum
circuit breaker is a developing technology, although it was first introduced in 1960’s. Its size has
been greatly reduced and the contact geometry has evolved from butt contact to spiral shape, cup
shape and axial magnetic field contact. These are one of the most reliable medium voltage
switchgears and require least maintenance.

18
 Figure 5.2- Vacuum circuit Breaker

5.3.1) Advantages –

 Service life is high.

 No fire hazard as in oil circuit breakers.
 No environment hazard as in SF6 circuit breakers.
 Easy replacement.

19
 6) TRANSFORMERS

The energy is generated in bulk at the power plants situated in remote areas. Here the AC
power so generated by these plants is then transmitted over all parts of the country. The power
should be transmitted at appreciably high voltage to reduce the losses and increase the
transmission efficiency. On contrary, at the consumer end, the power should be transmitted at
low voltages based on the nature of load. Such transformation of AC power from one voltage
level to another is obtained by the use of a device known as transformer.

Transformer is an alternating current dependent machine that is employed to transfer

electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another. It does so without change in frequency
and follows the principle of electromagnetic induction. It has two electric circuits that are linked
with a common magnetic circuit.

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER – The transformer used to step down the distribution

voltage to a standard service voltage or from the transmission voltage to the distribution voltage.
These are kept in use 24 hours a day whether they are carrying any load or not. They have very
good voltage ratio and are designed for small value of leakage resistance.

6.1) POWER TRANSFORMER – Power transformers have a very important role

in the distribution of electricity till it reaches us. They are used to step up and step down voltages
greater than 33kV and upto 400kV. They are used to transmit very heavy loads and are usually
rated upto 200MVA. They are maintained to have very high efficiency so that minimum power is
lost during the transmission process. They are bigger in size as compared to distribution
transformers. They have high insulation levels. Their type generally is (according to needs):-

 Generator transformers
 Sub-station transformers
 Unit Auxiliary transformers
 System transformers
 Interconnecting transformers
 Multi-winding transformers for specific needs

20
 Figure 6.1- Power transformer in Khurram nagar sub-station

In Khurram nagar 132KV sub-station, there were two transformers with 40MVA
capacity each. One was from EMCO and the other from PME.

Table 6.1- Data sheet for power transformer installed in 132kV sub-station.

Company EMCO
Serial Number IS 2026/77
Type of cooling Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
Rated power 40MVA
Rated Voltage at No Load 132/33kV
Rated Line Current 175/699.82A
Guaranteed Max. Temperature Rise 50oC for top oil ; 55oC for winding
Reference Ambient Temperature 50oC
Frequency 50Hz
Core & Winding Mass 41000kg
Tank & Fitting Mass 23700kg
Mass of Oil 18670kg
Total Mass 83370kg

21
 Figure 6.2- ONAF cooling type of transformer

6.2) INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER – Instrument transformers are classed as

highly accurate electrical devices. They are used to isolate and transform voltage and current
levels. The most common use of these transformers is to operate instruments or measuring from
high voltage and current circuits. They can safely isolate the secondary low voltage (current)
circuit from the primary high voltage (current) circuits thus ensuring that the secondary circuit is
not harmed by such high voltage (current). The meter is always connected to the secondary
circuit. They are primarily of two types:-

 Current transformer
 Potential transformer

6.2.1) CURRENT TRANSFORMER – These types of transformers are typically used

to measure current flowing in high voltage AC circuits. They are usually connected a low
range ammeter. They thus insulate the ammeter which could not be connected directly to
the lines. They step down the current by a desired a transformation ratio. The primary is
made up of thick wire which is connected in series with the circuit where current has to
be measured. The secondary is made up of thin wire but has large number of turns which
is connected to the ammeter terminals.

The current transformer is usually used short circuited because the ammeter
resistance is very low. To be on the safe side, if for some reason the ammeter is removed
then the secondary windings must be short circuited with the help of a short circuiting
switch. If not done then in absence of counter ampere turns by the secondary, the

22
unconstrained primary mmf will result in extremely high flux in the transformer core
producing extreme core loss causing super heating of the core. Also, high voltage gets
produced across the secondary terminals. Hence, the secondary terminals of the CT
should not be left open circuited in any circumstances.

Figure 6.3- Current Transformer

Table 6.2- Specifications for CT used in Khurram Nagar 132KV sub-station

Manufacturer BHEL
Highest System Voltage 145KV
Frequency 50Hz
Rated Current Factor per Time 25KA/s
Rated Primary Current 800A
Turn Ratio 400:1

6.2.2) POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER – These types of transformers are used for very
accurate voltage readings from a high voltage circuits. They are step down transformers
with a defined voltage transformation ratio. Their secondary is connected to a low range
voltmeter for voltage measurements. Power rating of these transformers is very high.
Dry type potential transformers are used for upto 5,000V and immersed type for beyond
13,800V. Between 5,000V to 13,800V, both types are available. The power ratings are
usually 40W to 100W. A precautionary tip: the secondary is always completely insulated
and isolated from the primary (high voltage) and is grounded for protection of operators.

23
 Figure 6.4- Potential Transformer

Table 6.3- Specifications of Capacitor Voltage Transformer used in Khurram Nagar

132KV sub-station

Manufacturer BHEL
Rated Voltage Factor per Time 1.5/s
Highest System Voltage 145KV
Primary Voltage 76.21KV
Frequency 50Hz
Class 3 Phase

24
 7) CONDUCTORS

7.1) PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTORS USED IN SUB-STATION –

For an efficient working of the sub-station, an ideal conductor or wiring used in the sub-
station should have the following characteristics:

 Capability of withstanding the specific load currents and short time currents.
 Free from corona discharge at the rated voltage.
 Economical
 Minimum number of joints.
 Ability to endure various mechanical forces acting on it due to its situation. These forces
can be weight of self and other conductors, atmospheric forces like wind and rainfall;
short circuit forces et al.
 Requires minimum number of support insulators.

Suitable materials for conductor systems are copper and aluminum. Another option can
be steel, but it has its limitations which are poor conductivity and high susceptibility to
corrosion.

In order to achieve the above properties of an ideal conductor, they are categorized into
different types depending on utilization:-

 Flat surfaced conductors

 Stranded conductors
 Tubular conductors

Table 7.1- Ground clearance of overhead transmission lines with respect to voltage they are
carrying.

Voltage Level Minimum Ground Clearance

< 66KV 6.1m
66KV – 110KV 6.4m
110KV – 165KV 6.7m
>165KV 7.0m

25
 Overhead transmission lines can be a nuisance sometimes. So in order to eliminate that
we have two methods:-

 Tensioning conductors to sub-station structures or building.

 Tensioning conductors to ground winches.

7.2) PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE

There are three categories of transmission lines:-

 Short transmission line – upto 80km line length

 Medium transmission line – 80km to 160km line length
 Long transmission line – above 160km

Figure 7.1- Overhead transmission lines

The main use of the transmission lines, whatever their categories are, is to transfer power
from one place to another. While transmitting power it is but obvious that there would be some
voltage drop and power loss. This is because of the resistance, capacitance and inductance of the
conductors used as transmission lines. Therefore, the efficiency of transmission lines can be
calculated as:-

26
 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡

Where, Power sent – line losses = Power delivered

Similarly, the voltage regulation of the transmission lines can be calculated using:-

𝑛𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

%𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

27
 8) ELECTRICAL INSULATOR

Electrical insulators are one the most important part of a power system. They are used to
avoid unnecessary contact of the transmission lines from their supporting structures. This ensures
that the electric current doesn’t flow to earth through the supporting points. Electrical insulators
basically are extremely high resistive paths through which virtually no current can flow. In
power system, the overhead transmission lines are supported by properly grounded towers and
poles. So an insulator must be used between the transmission lines and the poles in order to avoid
the flow of electric current to earth. The material of the insulator must possess certain specific
properties for its effective utilization:-

 High mechanical strength to carry the weights of the conductors.

 High dielectric strength to endure voltage stresses in high voltage systems.
 Non-porous.
 High insulation resistance to avoid leakage of current to earth.
 Free from unwanted impurities.
 Resistant to changes in temperature.
 Properly sealed to avoid entrance of moisture and gas.

8.1) PORCELAIN INSULATOR – Overhead insulators, now-a-days, are mostly made of

porcelain. Porcelain insulator is basically aluminum silicate mixed with plastic kaolin, feldspar
and quartz hard and glazed. To avoid water tracing, the surface of porcelain insulator should be
properly glazed. It must be non-porous to avoid deterioration of its dielectric strength. Also it
must be free from any air bubble or impurity in the material.

Figure 8.1- Porcelain Insulator (Disc)

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 Table 8.1- Properties of Porcelain Insulator

Dielectric Strength 60KV/cm

Compressive Strength 70000Kg/cm2
Tensile Strength 500kg/cm2

8.2) GLASS INSULATOR – It is one the most popular type of insulator used in power
system. It is made up of annealed tough glass.

8.2.1) Advantages of Glass Insulator –

 High dielectric strength compared to porcelain.

 High resistivity.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
 Higher tensile strength.
 Transparent body so that it’s not heated in sunlight.
 Cheaper than porcelain.
 Longer life.
 Lesser impurities.

8.2.2) Disadvantages of Glass Insulator –

 Easy condensation of moisture on the glass surface causes a much easier deposition of
dust on that wet surface. This provides a path to the leakage current of the system.
 Glass cannot be cast into irregular shapes for higher voltage applications.

Figure 8.2- Glass Insulator (Disc)

Table 8.2-Properties of Glass Insulators

Dielectric Strength 140KV/cm

Compressive Strength 10000kg/cm2
Tensile Strength 35000kg/cm2

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8.3) POLYMER INSULATOR – These types of insulators have two parts: a rod shaped
core made of glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin and weather sheds made with silicone rubber or
EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer). Here the weather sheds cover the rod shaped core.
It is also called composite insulator because of its two part structure. The weather sheds
safeguard the rod shaped core from outside environment.

Figure 8.3- Polymer Insulator (Suspension)

8.3.1) ADVANTAGES OF POLYMER INSULATOR –

 Very light weight.

 Highly flexible so less chances of breakage.
 Higher tensile strength.
 Better performance in polluted areas.
 Low installation cost.
 Lesser cleaning required due to hydrophobic nature of material used.
 Light weight exerts lesser pressure on the supporting towers.

8.3.2) DISADVANTAGES OF POLYMER INSULATOR –

 Due to unwanted air gaps between rod shaped core and weather sheds, moisture may
enter the insulator causing electrical failure.
 Mechanical failure of the core of insulator may occur due to over crimping of end
fittings.

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 9) MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT

9.1) BUS COUPLER

Whenever we need to couple the main bus with any other bus or two busses so that there
is no interruption in the power supply, a bus coupler is used. A bus coupler can be used without
arcing. A setup of isolators and circuit breakers is used for coupling.

Bus coupler can be used to couple every generator and feeder with the main bus or with
the spar bus. If we have to repair or analyze a feeder or any other instrument then we can do that
by putting it on the spar bus, thus ensuring that the main bus supply is not disturbed.

Figure 9.1.1- Bus coupler

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9.2) BUSBAR

A busbar, in power transmission and distribution system, is an important piece of metallic

strip usually made of copper or aluminum. Its work is to conduct electricity within a sub-station,
battery bank, switchboards and many other electrical instruments.

If we talk about transmission system, the primary work that the busbar does is to transmit
electricity from one part to another without much loss.

Figure 9.2.1- Busbar

There are various busbar arrangements used in a transmission system. The main three being:
 Single busbar system
 Single busbar system with section alisation
 Duplicate busbar system
Large substations carry huge amount of power and they cannot afford fault or maintenance
work to hinder the power supply. It can prove to be a very costly affair. Hence, to avoid that, a
duplicate busbar arrangement system is used. The system is very easy to understand and consists
of two busbars. One busbar is the main bus while the other one is the transfer bus or the spare
bus. They are connected by a bus coupler which is a combination of circuit breaker and isolators.

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9.3) CAPACITOR BANK

One of the most important parts of an electrical power system is a capacitor bank. The
active power, the power required to run all the electrical appliances, is mainly used to run
inductive loads. It is measured in Watts, usually in Kilos and Megawatts for power systems. The
inductive load may include transformers, motors (Synchronous and inductive both), tube lights,
CFLs, electric furnaces et al. they increase the overall inductance of the power system, thereby
increasing the current lag. This causes decrease in the power factor of the system. Lower the
power factor causes increase in demand of supply power in order to maintain same active power
in the system. And finally more power (current) means more losses. Moreover high power factor
results in bad voltage regulation.

Thus to avoid all these problems, current lag must be decreased so that power factor of
the system may be improved. This is ensured by using a capacitor that nullifies the inductive
effect. This is generally achieved by using a static capacitor in series or shunt with the electrical
power system. For better maintenance and effectiveness, a group of capacitor units are used.
They are preferred over using a single capacitor unit per phase. This setup of a number of
capacitors is known as CAPACITOR BANK.

Figure 9.3.1- A 33KV Capacitor Bank

There are two types of capacitor banks (based on their connections in the power system):-

 Shunt Capacitor
 Series Capacitor

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 The most commonly used capacitor bank connection is shunt connection. They are
usually connected in grounded star connection because of some advantages:-

 Lower cost of installation.

 Better surge protection.
 Lesser over-voltage phenomenon (comparatively).
 Reduced recovery voltage on circuit breaker for normal capacitor switching delay.
 All 3 phases of capacitor bank are fixed and remain unaffected even during two
phase operation period.

9.3.1) PLACEMENT OF CAPACITOR BANK – If we consider theory then a capacitor bank

must be connected near to an inductive load, so that whatever lagging is produced can be
compensated there and then. Moreover if the inductive load is removed from the system then the
capacitor bank will also get disconnected. Hence there will be no condition where the inductive
load is over-compensated. But practically speaking, this is not possible. Firstly the inductive load
is not connected 24X7, so the capacitor bank will not be utilized for its full potential. Moreover,
there are various size of inductive loads and to compensate that we will require various sizes of
capacitor banks. The latter requirement is not feasible and is not even readily met in the market.
Therefore, a capacitor is not installed at small loads but is used only for medium to large loads.
Considering all the above challenges, it is thus wise to install a large capacitor bank in a sub-
station than connecting single capacitor to each load.

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 10) PROTECTIVE GEAR

10.1) RELAY

Sometimes, sooner or later, a failure will definitely occur somewhere in a power system.
Its might be because of human negligence or obsolete instruments. But a better system is where a
failure is speedily detected and tackled with proper measures. Immediate disconnection of the
faulty part of the system prevents further damage to it as well as to other parts of the system. In
high voltage circuitry, relays are installed to provide automatic and reliable switchgear
functioning. These relays are used to identify the problem and convey it to the control panel.

Whenever a fault occurs, there are possibilities that any one or a combination of all of
these electrical quantities change (voltage, current, frequency or phase angle). Whenever there is
a short circuit in the transmission line, there is an enormous current flow through it. Therefore, a
large amount of current also flows from the relay causing its contacts to close. This action closes
the trip circuit of the circuit breaker forcing it into a open state. Hence, the faulty part of the
system gets isolated from rest of the power system. This way relays are used as protective
instruments, safeguarding the power system. The relays work mainly on two operating
principles:-

 Electromagnetic attraction relay

 Electromagnetic induction relay

Figure 10.1.1- Relay and Control Panel

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10.1.1) TYPES OF RELAYS USED IN CONTROL PANEL OF SUB-STATION –

 Differential Relay – It is a type of relay that operates when the vector difference of two
or more electrical quantities exceed a fixed value. When the differential quantity becomes
equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay will be activated and the circuit
breaker opens causing the isolation of faulty section.

 Over-current Relay – It is the type of relay that functions when the current in the circuit
exceeds the fixed value. They are only attached to alternating current circuits and hence
can be operated for fault detection in both the directions. It operates when phase to phase
fault occurs. The starting source is the current in the electrical circuit supplied from the
current transformer to the relay.

 Directional Relay – This relay operates when there is an earth fault, i.e. if any one of the
phase touches the earth due to any fault. It is so designed that it attains its operating
moment of force by interacting with the magnetic field of the voltage and current source
it protects. The direction of the moment of force is dependent on the current relative to
the voltage.

 Tripping Relay – It is the type of relay that is used in combination with the main relay.
Whenever a fault occurs, the main relay signals the tripping relay to isolate the faulty part
of the power system.

 Auxiliary Relay – It is used to indicate the fault in the power system by glowing a bulb
to warn the employees of the fault.

10.2) FUSE

A fuse is a type of protective device that consists of a short piece of wire or thin strip of
metal with low melting point. It is designed such that whenever high current flows through it for
large amount of time, then the wire melts. The fuse is connected in series with the electrical
circuit so that it can physically disconnect the circuit in case of excessive current flow, which
otherwise would damage the electrical circuit. The fuse wire melts due to overheating. If used
efficiently, a fuse wire can be used for both detection and interruption of fault.

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 Fuses can be work as alternative to circuit breakers. Hence in a power system, they are
used where the cost of buying a circuit breaker is too much to bear. They are used in power
systems for upto a voltage of 115KV, to defend instrument transformers.

Figure 10.2.1- Fuses used in sub-station

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 11) CONCLUSION

The practical training that I got from Electricity Training Institute of Uttar Pradesh Power
Corporation Limited, made me learn many thing about the Transmission System deployed for
transmission of electricity from power plants to power houses.

The sub-station allotted to me was Khurram Nagar 132KV in Lucknow. It was a great
experience and I learnt a lot there. The sub-station has of two 40MVA transformers which
determine the capacity of the sub-station. I have also learnt about the various circuit breakers,
busbars, lightning arresters, isolators, and insulators, various types of relays, fuses and bus
coupler.

The hands on experience I had, like repairing burnt cooling fans of transformer and using
temporary measures to ensure supply et al, were all very interesting. The most important thing
that I learnt was that sometimes, especially during summers, it becomes really necessary for the
staff at sub-station to do load shedding because of the over consumption of electricity by us.

Thus, doing my practical training at the 132kV sub-station had been a great experience
and very helpful.

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 12) REFERENCES

 http://www.uppcl.org/about_us.html

 http://www.meidensha.co.jp/epages/tech/tech-01.html

 http://www.universalengineersindia.com/mehru.htm

 http://www.electrical4u.com/voltage-transformer-or-potential-transformer-theory/

 http://powermin.nic.in/ministry_of_power/miscellaneous/pages/33KV,%205MVAR%20

Capacitor%20Bank.htm

 http://upptcl.org/

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightning_arrester

 http://www.electrical4u.com/

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busbar

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