CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General

Water is the most precious gift of nature to living beings, particularly to the

mankind. The population growth has been creating more and more stress on

agricultural sector for increasing the food grain production, which consequently

increased deforestation and demand for water. The available surface water

resources are inadequate to meet the entire water requirements of all sectors. So

the demand for groundwater has increased day by day over years. Groundwater is

a strategic resource due to its usually high quality and perennial availability.

However, groundwater management all over the world often lacks sustainability as

evidenced by falling water tables, drying wetlands, increasing sea-water intrusion

and general deterioration of water quality.

Ground water contributes worldwide about 20% of people's fresh water.

Despite this relatively small proportion its role is important for two reasons: On the

one hand, ground water is well suited for the supply of drinking water due to its

usually high quality. On the other hand, ground water basins are important long-

term storage reservoirs, which in semi-arid and arid countries often constitute the

only perennial water resource. The storage capacity is evident if one compares the

volumes of surface and ground water resources. Globally the volume of fresh

water resources in rivers and lakes is about 100,000 km3. With about 10,000,000

km3 , the volume of ground water is two orders of magnitude larger. For sustainable

water management, however, the renewal rate is more relevant, and for this

quantity the situation is reversed. The renewal rate of surface water resources is

1
30,000 km3/a, that of ground water only about 3,000 km3/a. Worldwide, about 800

km3 of ground water are utilized annually by mankind. This number still looks

considerably smaller than the yearly renewal rate. However, the global comparison

does not do justice to the real situation. Average figures hide the fact that of the

yearly withdrawal rate about one quarter is supplied by non-renewable fossil

ground water reserves.

1.2 International Scenario

Despite a constant supply of freshwater on a global scale, the withdrawal of

freshwater from rivers, lakes and groundwater aquifers has increased by 400%

between 1940 and 1990 due to increased population growth and expanded

economic development activities (UNEP 2003). As the result, the demand for

freshwater resources has continued to increase in most regions of the world and

many local areas have begun to experience significant freshwater shortage

problems. An estimate of United Nations reveals that by the year 2025, two third of

humanity will face the shortage of fresh water. In 1992 the Earth summit

emphasized to balance the human needs for natural resources and the ability of

nature to provide these resources in a sustainable manner. It also emphasized the

need to develop successful approaches and solutions to address the balance. In

turn, many countries in the world have accelerated rain water harvesting schemes

and are greatly benefited.

1.3 National Scenario

India has got 4% of world's water resources, whereas it houses about 16%

of the global population. This indicates that the water sector of the nation is under

severe stress. The national figures indicate that the per capita availability of water

2
is under severe stress. Population of India is expected to stabilize around 1640

million by the year 2050. As a result, gross per capita water availability will decline

from —1829 m3 / year of 2001 to as low as — 1140 m3 / year in 2050. Total water

requirement of the country for various purposes around the year 2050 has been

assessed to be 1450 km3/ year (which were 600 km3 / year in the year 2000). This

is significantly more than the current estimate of utilizable water resource potential

at 2050 (le, 1122 km3/year) through conventional development strategies (Gupta

and Deshpande, 2004). This indicates that our nation will face acute water scarcity

in the future. Hence, various options have to be found out in quantitative terms to

augment the anticipated deficit. Viewed in the international perspective of

<1700m3/ person/ year as water stressed and < 1000 m3/year as water scarce,

India is water stressed today and is likely to be water scarce by 2050. Therefore, it

is clear that India, as a nation has to initiate now action on all fronts for developing

its water resources by all possible means. Due to considerations of gestation

period and capital requirements, rainwater harvesting and water conservation

measures must receive the highest priority. Moreover, the investigations and

planning processes for all options must begin immediately.

1. 4 Kerala State Scenario

Kerala State is located in the south - western part of the Indian peninsula. It

lies between 08° 18' 00"and 12° 48' 00" N latitudes and 740 52' 00" and 77° 22'

00" E longitudes. The length of the State is around 560 km and maximum width is

about 125 km. The State receives an annual rainfall of about 3000 mm and climate

is mainly humid tropical to humid temperate. Total population as per census of

2001 is 31.8 million.

3
 Physiographically, the State is divided into three major units viz, the coastal

plains, the midlands and the hill ranges. The coastal plains have an elevation of

less than 6 m above Mean Sea Level (MSL), whereas the elevation of midland

ranges from 6 to 80 m above mean sea level and that of the hill ranges is more

than 80 m above mean sea level.

Geologically, nearly 88% of the State is underlain by crystalline rocks of

Archean age comprising Schistose formations, Charnockites, Khondalites and

Gneisses. All these formations are intruded by dykes of younger age. The

sedimentary formations of Tertiary age occurring along the western parts of the

State comprise four distinct beds viz. Alleppy, Vaikom, Quilon and Warkali.

Groundwater occurs under phreatic, semi - confined and confined

conditions in the above formations. The weathered crystalline, laterite and the

alluvial formations form the major phreatic aquifers, whereas the deep fractures in

the crystalline and the granular zones in the Tertiary sedimentary formations form

potential confined to semi- confined aquifers.

As per the Groundwater Estimation Committee (GEC) in March 2004, the

total annual groundwater recharge of the state has been estimated to be around

6841.33 MCM and net annual groundwater availability was 6229.55 MCM. Existing

gross groundwater draft for irrigation was 1821.27 MCM and for domestic and

industrial water supply is 1098.74 MCM. Thus, existing gross groundwater draft for

all uses has 2920.01 MCM. Stage of development of the State is 46.88 `)/0.

Out of 151 blocks of Kerala State, 101 blocks (66%) are falling in safe

category indicating a vast potential to be harnessed. Thirty blocks fall under semi

critical category and 15 under critical category. Five blocks come under over

4
exploited category. Groundwater developments in these blocks are to be

controlled / restricted.

1.5 Study area

Major part of the study area comes under Thiruvananthapuram district

and a small portion lie in Kollam district Fig 1.1. The Chittar Basin, is a fifth order

basin of Vamanapuram river, originating from the Madamukalil kunnu north west of

Kadakkal village in Chadayamangalam block of Kollam district and drains through,

Kilimanoor block of Thiruvananthapuram district in southern direction and joins

the Vamanapuram river at Munnumukku in Kallara panchayat. From the origin it

proceeds through rugged topography and subsequently broadens and merges to

Vamanapuram River. The river meets several non-perennial tributaries before it

joins the Vamanapuram River.

1.5.1 Location and Accessibility

The Chittar basin lies in between 08° 44' 00" and 08° 52' 00" N latitude and

76° 52' 00" and 76° 56' 00" E longitude, falling in survey of India toposheets

numbers of 58 D/13 and 58 D/14.1t covers an area of 102.77sq.kms and the study

area is well connected by road network.

1.5.2 Physiography

Physiographically, the Chittar basin can be divided ' into two zones

viz.midland and high land. The northeast part of the basin comes under high land

and the southwest parts are low land area. Drinking water supply projects are

seen at various places of the basin by various governmental agencies. Due to

interrupt and deficit rains and rugged topography, most of the tributaries become

dry subsequent to monsoon.

5
 76°520E 76°560"E
CHITTAR BASIN
STUDY AREA
KERALA
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INDIA
ayan

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Legend
Drainage co
1.5 0.75 0 1.5 Km
Vamana m River
Roads
76°52.0"E 76°56'0E
Fig.1.1 Key Map

6
1.5.3 Climate and Rainfall

The study area experiences tropical monsoon climate. The average

temperature maxima of 33.42°C and minima of 22.29°C were observed between

1997- 2006. The mean annual temperature remains to be around 27.86°C. The

monsoon commences in June and extends up to September. The study area

receives an average annual rainfall of 2283.19 mm and cold weather prevails

during December and January months.

1.5.4 Land use / Land cover

Land use is the result of human interference and the interaction with natural

environment. Natural resources like vegetation, water and soil are responsive to

human intervention and these together with terrain features determine the

selection of proper land use pattern, which also, in some way, reflects the cultural,

social and economic conditions (Vink, 1975). A substantive analysis of land use is

an essential prerequisite for economic planning. The study area has a diversified

crop pattern, consistent with the geomorphic and socio-economic conditions

prevailing in the area.

The different land use categories and their areal extent in the basin have

been obtained through interpretation of Survey of India topographical sheets,

satellite imagery and by field checking. The major land use categories of the basin

are cultivable land (paddy), settlement with mixed crops and rubber plantations.

1.6 Statement of the problem

The Chittar Basin has good climate, vegetation, and scenic beauty.

However, due to the westerly slope, water scarcity occurs in some parts of the

basin. The basin is composed of various types of soils and hard rocks, with varied

7
hydrogeological characters. Most part of the basin is drought prone, characterized

by high temperature, low groundwater recharge and fertile soils. The region does

not possess adequate surface water irrigation sources and has less number of

bore wells. The basin comes under Kilimanoor block which is a semi - critical block

as per Groundwater Estimation Committee (2004) and the stage of development is

80.76%. Unscientific exploitation of groundwater and land degradation causes

many problems in the basin.

The region occupied by the Chittar basin, comprises of hard crystalline

rocks and detailed hydrogeological studies have not been carried out so far. Being

a drought prone area, the farmers of this region have been compelled to exploit

the sub surface water, which has cropped up many environmental and socio

economic problems. On the other hand, owing to the vagaries of monsoon, lack of

primary porosity and unpredictable pattern of fracture geometry of the crystalline

rocks, the Hydrogeologist faces many hurdles while exploring water resource.

1.7 Aims and objectives

The main aim of the study is to understand the groundwater system of

Chittar river basin with a special emphasis on the spatial patterns. It is also aimed

to develop site specific models for recharging the aquifer artificially as per the field

condition. The objectives of the study are,

To understand the hydromorphometry of the Chittar basin.

To develop a GIS based database about the various factors which

influence the water environment of the study area.

To analyse the hydrogeochemical parameters of the study area.

8
 To find out suitable areas for artificial recharge of groundwater using

Remote Sensing and GIS.

1.8 An Integrated approach to morphometric analysis

During the last three decades, groundwater management has become an

important aspect throughout the world, particularly in the developing countries. In

India, prospecting for additional sources of water has become a necessity due to

population growth, agricultural demand and industrial leap.

In hard rock terrains, like Chittar basin, the storage of groundwater is

controlled by the thickness of weathered zone, interconnected structural weakness

and fracture geometry. Keeping in view of the water scarcity and drought prone

character of the basin, studies have been carried out adopting a basin approach to

identify areas through conventional, remote sensing and GIS. These investigations

would be of immense use for groundwater induction development and the planning

of the water management of the region. Keeping the problem in mind, present

research study has been under taken to

• Prepare thematic data bases on geo-terrain parameters for groundwater

resources using Remote Sensing and GIS.

• Analysis of hydro geochemical properties of the study area.

• Finding out the critical slope to assess the slope stability.

• Assigning Ranks and weightages for the geo terrain parameters with

reference to groundwater using GIS.

• Integration of the terrain parameter using GIS overlay analysis and

identification of the artificial recharge zones.

• To suggest suitable sites for artificial recharge.

9
1.9 Methodology

The methodology adopted in the present study is given in flow chart I and II.

Thematic maps, that have direct influence on groundwater recharge were

prepared from IRS ID Satellite data (2006) and also from data collected through

conventional methods. Additional thematic maps were developed from the

topographic sheets and data collected by conventional field methods, such as

drainage, lineaments, land form, geology, drainage density, soil infiltration, slope,

fluctuation, water quality, geophysical and meteorological data. Details collected

during field checks were also incorporated. Geological data were collected from

Geological Survey of India.

The weightages and ranks were assigned to the themes and units

depending upon their influence over recharge. Then, GIS techniques were

adopted to integrate and analyse the thematic maps and to prepare a map

showing areas suitable for artificial recharge of groundwater. Finally, the maps

were integrated by overlay technique using GIS and zones favourable for recharge

was delineated.

To analyse the quality of the water environment, groundwater samples were

collected from the open wells, bore wells and the river channels of the study area.

A total of 47 water samples were collected and analysed for the major cations,

anions and general parameters. The samples were analysed titrimetrically and

also by using instruments such as Flame photometer and Spectro photometer.

10
 FIELD DATA
• DEPTH TO WATER LEVEL

• PUMPING TEST DATA

I EXISTING MAPS I
• SOIL THICKNESS

• SOIL TEXTURE
GEOLOGY
SO'
LANDUSE
TOPOSHEETS
GEOMORPHOLOGY
LINEAMENT KEYBOARD ENTRY TO
RAINFALL DATABASE

DIGITIZATION AND
BUILDING TOPOLOGY
I INTERPOLATION

THEMATIC LAYER

BEHAVIOURAL GROUNDWATER
14 DEM
AVAILABLE SPACE

AQUIFER PROPERTIES
-14 SLOPE
• SOIL THICKNESS
DRAINAGE DENSITY
• SOIL TEXTURAL PROPERTIES

RELATIVE RELIEF

GIS DATA BASE

OTHER MORPHOMETRIC
PARAMETERS

ATTRIBUTE
RASTER VECTOR
TABLES

CRITERIA
DEFENITION DATA INTERPRETATION GROUNDWATER
BALANCE
ESTIMATION
ASSIGNING
WEIGHTAGE OVERLAY

I
COMPOSITE RANKING I
SCORE DERIVATION

SLOPE STABILITY
AREA
WEIGHTED ANALYSIS
SUITABLE FOR
INDEX
146* ARTIFICIAL
TENTATIVE SITES FOR RECHARGING
ARTIFICIAL RECHARGING

GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL ZONES

FLOW CHART I - GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT

11
 SAMPLE COLLECTION
I

LAB ANALYSIS

MAJOR CATIONS OTHER PARAMETERS II V

MAJOR ANIONS I

V
*ON
pH EC TDS SALINITY

COMPARING WITH BIS STANDARDS AND IRRIGATION WATER

QUALITY STANDARDS

DELINEATING AREAS
ESTIMATION OF SAR,
EXCEEDING THE
WILCOX, RSC, %Na, CR ETC
DRINKING WATER LIMIT

THEMATIC MAP THEMATIC MAP

PREPARATION PREPARATION

FLAME PHOTOMETER

TITRIMETRIC

SPECTROPHOTOMETER

INSITU

FLOW CHART II- WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

12
 1.10 Review of literature

1.10.1 International

Cohen and Durfer (1967) have conducted a series of artificial recharge

experiments by injecting highly treated sewage effluents in the network of barrier

injection well in Long Island, New York, to prevent the salt water intrusion from the

Atlantic Ocean into the major aquifer of the Island. Droracek (1969) has

suggested that recharge pits, recharge wells, recharge trenches and rubble cones

are the best mechanisms for artificial recharge in semi - arid tracts. Hargis and

Peterson (1970) have mainly encircled the recharge wells, shafts, pits, induced

recharge techniques and percolation ponds in the artificial recharge practices in

Hawai.

Dixit (1972) has opined that evaluation of groundwater potential in hard

rock areas depends upon various geological and geomorphological factors.

Asano and Wassermann (1980) have conducted an experiment in California,

and suggested that recharge by injection is usually better where groundwater is

deeper and in urban areas where the basin recharge is impractical. Huisman

and Olsthoom (1983) have suggested that the recharge depends upon the rate

of infiltration and percolation and also capacity of horizontal movement of

groundwater and they have suggested infiltration galleries or line wells parallel to

the drainage for induced recharge.

Cook and Walker (1990) advocated the importance of soil taxonomy in the

site selection of suitable sites for artificial recharge. Davis (1990) has suggested

that the application of GIS in the extraction and management of groundwater is

13
highly useful. Gustafsson (1993) used GIS for the analysis of lineament data

derived from satellite imagery for ground water potential mapping. Minor et at

(1994) developed an integrated interpretation strategy to characterize ground

water resources for identification of well locations in Ghana using a GIS as the

unifying element.

Chauhan et al (1996) have conducted studies on structural geometry and

strain history of the early Proterozoic Aravalli rocks of Gorimari, Udaipur district,

Rajasthan and revealed that variations in hydrogeology are controlled mainly by

the region's structural geology. Due to the lack of primary porosity in the rock

types present, groundwater flow is controlled primarily by the presence of

fractures. Das et at (1996) observed that the combined effect of drainage density,

stream frequency, bifurcation ratio and granitic lithology favour high surface run-

off and low infiltration in study on Geomorphological approach for selecting the

sites for artificial recharge of groundwater in the upper catchment area of the

Kumari river basin, eastern India. Richards et at (1996) took the advantage of GIS

for spatial analysis and data visualization for the assessment of ground water

resources of northwest Florida Water Management District.

Sander (1997) has been reported that application of GIS can be effectively

used for ground water resource assessment in the study carried out on water-well

siting in hard-rock areas. Saraf et al (1998) have exposed study on integrated

remote sensing and GIS for ground water exploration and identification of artificial

recharge sites and narrates that groundwater is a dynamic and replenishable

natural resource but in hard rock terrain availability of groundwater is extended to

a limit and its occurrence is essentially confined to weathered zone and fractured

14
zone. Reddy (1999) opined that National Remote Sensing Agency, Govt. of India

under the auspices of the National Technology Mission for Drinking Water and

with the active collaboration of state departments has prepared

hydrogeomorphological maps for the whole of India, utilizing landsat TM/IRS

imagery. Longley et al (2000) stated that GIS has emerged as a powerful

technology for instruction, for research and for building the stature of programmes

in the study on the academic success of GIS in geography. Haimerl (2001)

pointed that the success of artificial groundwater recharge via surface infiltration is

highly effective.

Anbazhagan et al (2003) have suggested that knowledge based rank and

weightage can assigned to all the thematic maps used for the analysis depending

upon the importance of each parameter with reference to other parameter and

concluded that the groundwater potential map can be reclassified qualitatively into

different zones such as excellent, very good, moderate and poor in the studies

carried out at Panvel basin in Maharashtra. Sakthivadivel et al (2004) conducted

studies on decentralised artificial recharge movements in India and highlights the

decentralized groundwater recharging as well as the associated issues and

describes the direct and indirect methods of artificial recharging and concluded

that investing in water management through water harvesting and artificial

recharge in rain fed agriculture can have positive environmental impacts on other

eco- systems as a result of reduced land degradation and improvements in water

quality of down streams.

15
 Anbazhagan et al (2005) has studied remote sensing based integrated

terrain analysis in Ayyar basin, Tamilnadu and stated that it was useful for

identifying and prioritizing the suitable sites for artificial recharge and suggested

that it is essential to calculate the runoff potential prior to implementing an artificial

recharge project in a water table depleted area. Alexander Vandenbohede et al

(2005) have conducted study on artificial recharge of fresh water in the Belgian

Coastal Dunes and concluded that recharge method assure a sustainable drinking

water production. It also results in an increase of the capacity of the extraction

although a decrease of the extraction of natural dune water achieves.

Consequently, hydraulic heads and groundwater flow in the dunes are partly

restores. The extracted water is a mix of recharged and native dune water and

concerning the recharge water a mix of water with different residence times. This

results in a stable quality of the extracted water.

Israil et al (2006) have conducted study on groundwater resources

evaluation in the Piedmont zone of Himalaya, India, using Isotope and GIS

techniques, opined that thematic maps for hydrogeomorphology, slope, and

drainage density can be integrated on GIS by assigning the weights to various

attributes controlling occurrence of groundwater to generate the groundwater

potential map.

Ramasamy et al (2007) have suggested an integration of groundwater

features of different periods and their analysis with different structural features in

the study on GIS based visualization of groundwater levels and its significant and

concluded that DEM based visualization of groundwater levels can be effectively

16
used in monitoring the recharge / discharge pattern and also for rapidly identifying

suitable sites / basins for artificial recharge. Jasrotia et al (2007) have conducted

study on delineation of groundwater recharge sites using integrated remote

sensing and GIS in Jammu district, India and opined that integrated remote

sensing and geographic information system (GIS) techniques can provide an

appropriate platform for convergent analysis of multidisciplinary data and decision

making for artificial recharge to groundwater, concluded that suitable sites for

replenishing groundwater can be identified by superimposing the drainage

network map over artificial recharge zone map, by considering the terrain

conditions for artificial recharge.

Ghayoumian et al (2007) conducted study on application of GIS

techniques to determine areas most suitable for artificial groundwater recharge in

a coastal aquifer in southern Iran and factors such as: slope, infiltration rate, depth

to groundwater, quality of alluvial sediments and land use were considered, to

determine the areas most suitable for groundwater recharge in a coastal aquifer in

the Gavbandi Drainage Basin in the southern part of Iran. Thematic layers for the

above parameters were prepared, classified, weighted and integrated in a GIS

environment for groundwater artificial recharge.

Muthukrishnan et al (2008) suggested that weighted index overlay

analysis is a simple and straightforward method for a combined analysis of multi-

class layers. Considering to the hydro-geomorphic conditions of the study area

weighted indexing has been adopted to delineate groundwater prospective zones

from the integration of geomorphology, geology, soils, land use / land cover and

17
water level. Saumitra Mukherjee (2008) has conducted studies on role of satellite

sensors in groundwater exploration and discloses that remote sensing techniques

can be effectively used in landuse, geological and structural studies for surface

water management through rainwater harvesting.

Bhagyashri et al (2009) have recommended the GIS based site suitability

analysis by giving weightages to individual parameters of different thematic layers

which are favorable for artificial recharge in the study conducted at Aurangabad

District, Maharashtra and concluded that the possible recharge through proposed

recharge structures can be quantified. Hida ( 2009) in managed aquifer recharge

by using spreading basin methods on alluvial fans suggest a general overview of

the situation in Japan reviews the situation of managed aquifer recharge by using

basin method in Japan and concluded that generally, managed aquifer recharge

basin contributes to sustainable aquifer management in the alluvial fan. Arun

Kumar Dwivedi et al (2009) have conducted study on roof top rainwater

harvesting and developed a mathematical equation expressing the relationship

between the required size of water tank and different rooftop areas and concluded

that 20% quantum of the water recharged into ground can be reused by means of

the existing Groundwater tapping arrangements. John M. Stiefel et al (2009)

studied the effects of rainwater-harvesting-induced artificial recharge on the

groundwater of wells in Rajasthan, India. According to results, water quality in

wells that receive artificial recharge was improved through the dilution of chemical

constituents in groundwater.

18
 Pallavi Saxena et al (2010) studied the groundwater recharge process in

relation to the climatic and geographical conditions. They have studied the artificial

recharge in Delhi and Haryana state of India and opined that the best and simplest

cost - effective technique is direct recharge of groundwater which further includes

ditch and furrow method, percolation tanks and recharge of dug wells or hand

pumps. In addition, case histories of two of the states are also discussed to

explain the type of techniques used there to provide sustainability to groundwater

development. Balachandar et al (2010) have studied the application of remote

sensing and GIS for artificial recharge zone in Sivaganga district, Tamil Nadu,

India by using various thematic data sets such as drainage, drainage density,

lineament, lineament density, geomorphology, landuse and land cover and

concluded that by using GIS, thematic data sets can be integrated for evaluation

of groundwater potential zones.

Binay Kumar et al (2010) opined that Hydrogeomorphological studies

which includes the hydrogeological and structural / lineament data are very

effective to discern ground water potential zones and concluded that the

groundwater prospect sites can be identified by remote sensing and GIS

techniques by an integrated approach using remote sensing and GIS techniques.

Ismail Chenini et al (2010) conducted thematic layers integration using GIS, to

enable a map showing artificial recharge zones in the study on groundwater

recharge in arid region. Imran et al (2010) have used various digitised vector

maps pertaining to chosen parameters, viz. geomorphology, geology, land

use/land cover, lineament, relief, and drainage in the study on deciphering

groundwater potential zones in hard rock terrain using geospatial technology.

19
 Venkateswaran, et al (2011) have proved that amongst all physical

properties, it is the electrical resistivity that changes significantly from the barren to

the water bearing rocks and hence electrical resistivity methods should be used as

one of the most effective geophysical methods for groundwater.

1.10.2 National

Padmavathy et al., (1992) have integrated various thematic maps derived

from remote sensing, through GIS analysis to locate suitable sites for artificial

recharge in central part of Tamilnadu. Sharma (1992) has recommended that

Remote Sensing and GIS can act as potential tools in selecting suitable sites for

artificial recharge, also suggested that various thematic maps like fracture

systems, geology, lineament intersection, drainage network and dyke systems

could be generated from remote sensing and the data could be integrated through

GIS for selecting suitable sites for artificial recharge.

Ramasamy (1993) has elaborated that the integrated terrain analysis

filtering out the zones of pervious lithology, suitable geological structures, open

fractures systems, loamy soil types, suitable geomorphology and subsurface

geology are essential in site selection for artificial recharge. Anbazhagan et al

(1993) have opined that the evaluation of detailed geomorphology of an area can

give potential clues for selecting suitable sites for Artificial Recharge.

Haridas et al (1994) stated that geomorphological and lineament studies

can be applied for potential zones of groundwater and also estimation of water

resources. Anbazhagan (1994) opined that remote sensing can be effectively

20
used in terrain analysis for artificial recharge studies. Chi et al, (1994) have

narrated about extraction of groundwater resources using remotely sensed data

and GIS techniques and water management.

Krishnamurthy et al (1996) have studied the groundwater resources

development in hard rock terrain and opined that the exact type of artificial

recharge structure, for example, check dam, nalla bund, gully plugging and

percolation pond, suitable for replenishing groundwater can identified by

superposing a drainage network map over an artificial recharge zones map.

Chattopadhyay et al (1996) revealed that the influence of drainage,

geomorphology, lineament, soil, climate, lithology and land use upon resource

evaluation of Vamanapuram river basin of Kerala. Elango et al (1997) opined that

percolation tanks can be effectively used for recharging techniques.

Obi Reddi et al (2000) revealed that the relief, slope, depth of weathering,

type of weathered material, thickness of alluvium, nature of the deposited material

and the overall assemblage of different landforms play an important role in

defining the ground regime, especially in hard rocks and the unconsolidated

sediments. Pankaj et al (2000) have made a study to identify the groundwater

potential zones based on hydrogeological parameters in a hard rock terrain of

Bargarh District, Orissa and concluded that drainage density and lineaments are

the important contributory factors to groundwater recharge. Harinarayanan et al

(2000) opined that remote sensing data can be used for groundwater development

and management in watershed in the Keralapura watershed of Cauvery Basin of

Karnataka State. Report on Artificial recharge of groundwater by Central Ground

21
Water Board (2000) describes how different sites for recharge structures can be

selected. Srivastava. et al (2000) narrates about the delineation of groundwater

potential zones using IRS data in a hard rock terrain of Bargarh District, Orissa.

Sarkar et al., (2001) conducted a multi-criterion evaluation in Shamri micro

watershed in the Shimla Taluk, based on drainage, lineament, lithology, slope and

landuse, and concluded that high groundwater potentiality is in flood plains and

river terraces. Jyothiprakash et al (2001) opined that percolation ponds are

suitable for artificial recharge and can be used for sustainable drinking water

supply in rural areas. Joji et al., (2001 a) have studied the morphometric analysis

of fourth order sub basins of Vamanapuram river basin, Kerala, established the

application of Horton's law pertaining to morphometric analysis of fourth order sub

basins. Joji et al., (2001 b) in his studies established the relationship between

rainfall and discharge to infiltration and slope of the terrain in studies conducted

inVamanapuram river basin, Kerala. Subha Rao et al., (2001) have identified

groundwater potential zones by integrating geomorphological and associated

features in the study conducted at Guntur Town, Andhra Pradesh. They concluded

that adequate recharge source of groundwater can be expected surrounding the

residual hills as it act as surface runoff zone.

Umrikar (2002) studied artificial recharge and water conservation

techniques in Deccan trap aquifers of Maharashtra and stated that the areas of

more runoff and less recharge also need attention for water conservation and

artificial recharge projects like percolation tanks, Nala Bunds, Checkdam,

Underground Dykes, Contour bunds etc. He has observed that physiography,

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geology and climatic conditions play an important role in groundwater availability

and recharge conditions.

Gurugnanam et al., (2003) have studied that geology, geomorphology,

subsurface lithology and water level fluctuation can be taken for selecting the

suitable sites for artificial recharge. He also suggested that sites for suitable tanks

and percolation pond zone for artificial recharge can be identified through GIS for

Gomukhi - Manimuktha sub basin. Girish et al., (2003) have studied the

Muvattupuzha river basin, Kerala for the evaluation of the phreatic aquifer

parameters (transmissivity, storage coefficient, recovery rate and specific capacity)

and optimum yield of wells for the basin. He concluded that the Pleistocene

laterites and Miocene formations have high potential for groundwater prospecting

than steep slopes and moderate weathering areas. Jyothiprakash (2003) has

suggested that potential zones for artificial recharge can be delineated through

integration of various thematic maps. GIS have been used for the integration of

various thematic maps to delineate the potential zones for artificial recharge. He

also assigned a weightage to each theme depending on its influence on

groundwater recharge for Agniar - Ambuliar - Southvellar river basins in

Tam ilnad u.

Ashish et al., (2004) have studied the morphometric analysis of Karso

watershed in Damodar Barakar catchment of Hazaribagh, Jharkhand. He opined

that morphometric characters like stream order, drainage density, drainage

frequency, relief ratio, and relative relief can be analysed using GIS techniques. In

his study percolation tanks are recommended based on the land use and drainage

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pattern to increase the irrigated area and recharge of the study area. Anbazhagan

et al (2004) has studied the water quality analysis of Panvel basin in Maharashtra.

He opined that water quality maps can be generated using GIS techniques and

based on the spatial analysis of water quality maps, water quality for drinking and

irrigation purpose of the Panvel basin is determined.

Gurugnanam et al (2007) have suggested that the potential zones for

artificial recharge can be delineated through conventional remote sensing and GIS

techniques in the studies carried out at Vamanapuram river basin in south Kerala.

Each class or unit on the thematic map was assigned a knowledge based ranking

from one to four depending on its significance in storage and transmittance of

groundwater. Rajesh et al., (2007) have opined that critical slope approach can be

a useful tool in identifying suitable locations, which are hazard free for taking up

further developments or implementing new projects related to soil and water

conservation as well as artificial groundwater recharging in the study conducted at

Attappady block of Palakkad district.

Akram et al., (2009) demonstrated the utility of remote sensing and GIS

techniques in delineating groundwater potential zones in highly variable terrains

representing various geomorphic features / landforms. The groundwater prospects

map generated using Remote Sensing and GIS reveals that valley fills possess

good to very good groundwater prospects, followed by alluvial plains and buried

pediments which seem to possess moderate to good groundwater prospects. It is

also stated that lineaments that are present on the hilly terrain and cut across

some of the tributaries may also prove to be moderately potential zones as they

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allow surface water to infiltrate through weak zones. The linear ridges and residual

hills act as run off zones. Brema et al., (2009) identified suitable sites for artificial

recharging in Noyyal river basin, Tamilnadu by integrating various thematic maps

such as geology, soil, lineament density and land use.

Nagarajan et al (2009) have opined that overlay analysis of the thematic

maps in terms of weighted overlay method using the spatial analysis tool in GIS

can be used for delineating groundwater potential zones for Kattankulathur block,

Tamilnadu. Singh et al (2009) have studied the selection of suitable sites for water

harvesting structures in Soankhad watershed, Punjab using remote sensing and

GIS, established the use of various thematic maps such as land use,

hydrogeological soil group, slope and DEM for delineation of suitable sites for

artificial recharging and concluded by selecting check dams and percolation tanks

for recharging of groundwater.

Adham et al., (2010) on their remote sensing study along with Geographic

Information System for groundwater recharge potentiality reflects hidden

hydrogeologic characteristics and deals with indicative elements at the surface

such as, lineaments, drainage frequency and density, lithologic character,

landcover / landuse etc. It provides a better estimate and qualitative assessment

of the recharge potential at Barend Tract, especially in its southeastern part of

Rajshadi district in Bangladesh. They prepared groundwater potential map on the

basis of weightages assigned to different features and it provides first - hand

information on groundwater recharge, useful for planning of groundwater

exploration.

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