1.

Introduction
BHARAT HEAVY PLATES AND VESSELS LIMITED was established in 1966
at Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. It was undertaken by BHARAT HEAVY
ELECTRI-CALS LIMITED and it is renamed as BHARAT HEAVY
ELECTRICALS LIMITED, HEAVY PLATES AND VESSELS PLANT. It is
the 17th unit of BHEL and the 1st unit in coastal area. It is the largest fabrication
industry for fabrication of process equipment's and Boiler plants, in India required
for fertilizers, petroleum, chemical, Petro-chemical, Steel and allied industries.
Since then BHPV has come a long way and exceeded a turnover of 200 crores
expanding its product line to include technology equipment and systems like Multi-
Layer Vessels, Turn Key Cryogenic Plants, Storage and Distribution Systems,
Industrial Boilers, Waste Heat Recovery Systems, Oil and Gas Processing Systems.
Production services include planning, industrial technology, welding technology and
production shops. Production shops are sub classified as feeder shops and assembly
shops. Material preparation ship, light machine shop, heavy machine shop, press
shop, shells, nozzles section come under the feeder shop while valve trays, pressure
vessels assembly, heat exchangers assembly, boilers assembly, cryogenic assembly
come under assembly shops.

1.1 General functions in BHEL-HPVP plant

1.1.1 Marketing Department

Marketing is the methodology of communicating the value of product or service to
customers, for selling that product or service. Marketing techniques include choosing
target markets through market analysis and market segmentation, as well as
understanding con-summer behaviour and advertising a product's value to the
customer. From a societal point of view, marketing is the link between a society's
material requirements and its economic pat-terns of response. Marketing satisfies
these needs and wants through exchange processes and building long-term
relationships. Marketing blends art and applied science (such as behavioural
sciences) and makes use of information technology.
Marketing sector in BHEL-HPVP plant (BHPV) mainly involves in three sections.
1. Cryogenics
2. Combustion systems
3. Process plants

1.1.2 Commercial Department

This is the department which is involved in each and every function that
takes part after marketing until completion of execution and the closure of
the contract.
Execution of contract involves manufacturing of the products, dealing with the
customers, timely contact with the customers, any damage costs involved, pre order
and post order bill and final payment.
1. Project Monitoring Group
2. Preparation of bar charts
3. PMIS (Project Management Info Sys) updating

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 4. Periodical submission of progress reports to customers
5. Highlighting of criticality/bottlenecks in execution of the job time to time
6. Close follow up of job progress for completion as per contract

1.1.3 Engineering Department

Functions of engineering department in manufacture of boilers in BHEL-HPVP:
1. Understanding the customer requirements through PRS
2. Performing fuel efficiency calculations of different fuels
3. Fixing of Fluidized Bed as per utilization velocity/Grate based on the Grate
Area loading of the fuel
4. Fixing of furnace height and furnace outlet temperature based on usage
composition and ash properties
5. Performance calculation of Bed coil, Bed super heater, Furnace, convective
and radiant Super heaters, Evaporators, Economizers and Air heaters of
AFBC, Waste heat Recovery Boilers
6. Air and gas quantity calculation, ow and head Calculations Based On
performance
7. Design for selection of fans and pumps
8. Checking out the pressure drop in water and steam side and draft loss
calculation for gas side
9. Initial check of thickness calculation for pressure parts and piping
10. Working out the thickness as per IBR & ASME codes
11. Estimation of pressure parts and non-pressure parts weight details Bought out
items for boilers
12. Review of proposal drawings such as General Arrangement, Plan, P&ID of
Feed Water and Steam Circuit, P&ID of Air & Flue Gas Circuit and Plant
Steam Circuit
13. Filling of Consultant/Customer technical data sheets Preparation of different
types of technical offers such as budgetary, detailed and tender per standard
in line with customer requirement
14. Working out the total estimation of Traveling grate, FBC and Waste Heat
boilers

1.1.4 Thermal Calculations

Tentative sizing: Online thermal calculator for tentative sizing. Evaluate the number
of shells to be used in series and a tentative heat transfer area needed for the
specified duty. This is a starting point to use in the iterative Thermal Rating
calculations.

Thermal rating: Thermal Rating for a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.
Online calculators to perform iterative thermal rating calculations for shell and tube
heat exchangers. The calculators are quite sophisticated and, although they have
been made user friendly, require sufficient knowledge of Heat Exchangers. It saves
an incredible amount of calculation work.

Heat transfer coefficient inside a tube:

Calculation for the inside heat transfer coefficient for a tube. Performs online
calculation for the heat transfer coefficient inside the tube and the pressure drop. To
get both is convenient to obtain a compromise between the heat transfer and pressure
drop.

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 1.1.5 Quality Control Department
Quality control (QC) is a procedure or set of procedures intended to ensure that a
manufactured product or performed service adheres to a defined set of quality
criteria or meets the requirements of the client or customer.
Quality Assurance: QA is defined as a procedure or set of procedures intended to
ensure that a product or service under development (before work is complete, as
opposed to after) meets specified requirements. QA is sometimes expressed together
with QC as a single ex-precision, quality assurance and control.

1.1.6 Material Management Department

Materials Management is simply the process by which an organization is supplied
with the goods and services that it needs to achieve its objectives of buying, storage a
movement of materials. Materials Management is related to procuring, storing and
providing the appropriate material of right quality, right quantity at right place in
right time so as to co-ordinate and schedule the production activity in an integrative
way for an industrial undertaking. Most industries buy materials, transport them in to
the plant, change the materials in to parts, assemble parts in to finished products, sell
and transport the product to the customer. All these activities of purchase of
materials, ow of materials, manufacture them in to the product, supply and sell the
product at the market requires various types of materials to manage and control their
storage, ow and supply at various places. It is only possible by efficient materials
management. Efficient materials planning, buying or purchasing, procuring and
receiving, Storing and inventory control, supply and distribution of materials,
Quality assurance, Good supplier and customer relationship, Improved departmental
efficiency.

1.1.7 Planning Department

In planning department, the material from material management department and
technical department is taken and planned. This is the department, which splits the total
work of fabrication by sending the parts of the job to different departments such as
marking, rolling, shell section, water panels, pipes, headers, press section and different
machining processes. It also decides the complete plan of finishing, quality checking
and NDT tests.
This is an important department, which directly decides the rate of manufacturing.

1.1.8 Production Department

It mainly has four sections:
1. Combustion systems
2. Heat exchangers
3. Cryogenic products
4. Pressure vessels

Combustion systems: It contains (Combustion System Plant) CSP -1 & CSP -2. This
plant produces boilers.
Heat Exchangers: It consists of header shop and mainly focuses on production of
boilers. Cryogenics plant: This plant produces cryogenic products which are used in
separation of different gases from air in many industries. These plants are exposed to
very low temperatures around -180 to 200°C. Modules are produced in these plants.

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 Pressure Vessels: Pressure vessels are used in many chemical and refinery industries.
Any industry in course of its function, requires to mix different types of materials.
This process requires high pressures and temperatures in this process. While this
various equipment are being fabricated, it needs certain shapes such as bends, curves,
holes etc. These requirements are fulfilled by feeder shops.

1.1.9 Feeder Shop

This shop involves the following sections.
 Marketing section
 Press shop
 Shell section
 Light Machine Shop
  Heavy Machine Shop
 Valve Trays

1.1.10 Logistics Department

Logistics is the management of the ow of goods between the point of origin and the
point of consumption in order to meet some requirements of customers or
corporations. After checking all the required NDT testing and quality assurance, the
product is shipped to the consumers by logistics department. This department also
includes loading, unloading, transportation, alignment of the job and positioning of
centre of gravity while loading. Very complicated tasks and high-level accuracy
operators are required while transporting dimensioned consignments.

1.1.11 Erection Department

Very large consignments are transported as parts and assembled and erected, even
the lifting equipment such as cranes are also unassembled and transported to the site
of working and assembled again. This process may take around two to six months.

1.1.12 Finance Department

This is the department which is involved in each and every function that takes part
after marketing. Their role can be summarized as:
i. Prepare and create financial accounts
ii. Keep and maintain financial records
iii. Prepare and plan integral financial information
iv. Analyse current financial performance
v. Pay creditors
vi. Pay employees' wages and salaries

1.1.13 Major production areas of BHEL-HPVP

Pressure Vessels & Columns from multilayer construction with design pressure of
332 Kg/sq. cm to simple low and medium pressure columns. Earlier BHEL had
manufactured Columns of length up to 90 meters and weight up to 450 M.T with a
Pressure range from vacuum to 55 Kg/cm2. With the backup of experienced
engineers and a host of heavy capacity cranes and other equipment, BHEL
undertakes site fabrication and erection of heavy equipment of any size and weight.
The pressure vessel range includes agitator vessels, jacketed vessels and autoclaves
with limpet coils. Shell & Tube Heat Exchangers: From medium to high-pressure

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 heat exchangers with test pressures as high as 450 Kg/cm2 and temperatures ranging
from - 65C to 900celsius.Almost all types of tubular exchangers for practically every
requirement in chemical, fertilizer, petrochemical, refinery and heavy water plants
have been fabricated and supplied. Air Fin Coolers of forced draft type for refineries,
petrochemicals, and fertilizers. Complete units with fans, driving systems, structural
scheme, louvers and panelling are supplied by BHEL as a package.
Fired Heaters: BHEL has full-edged collaboration with M/s ABB LUMUS heat
transfer for design manufacture, erection and commissioning of red heaters. With the
vast experience and expertise gained in design, manufacture, and erection and
commissioning of red heaters, BHEL is now in a position to take up total systems
involving heaters on turnkey basis, encompassing civil, structural, electrical,
instrumentation and piping. the capabilities of BHEL include following type of
heaters.
1. Crude and vacuum heaters
2. Coker heaters
3. Recycle heaters
4. Start-up heaters

Storage spheres: BHEL manufactures Storage spheres of any size and thickness
including low temperature service. BHPV also undertakes erection and site stress
relieving of these spheres.
Transportation tanks: BHEL manufactures rail or truck mounted transportation tanks
of stainless steel and carbon steel including low temperature applications.
Deaerators and feed water heaters: BHEL manufacture complete feed water heater
systems including deaerators, HP heaters and LP heaters and steam condensers.
Paper & Pulp: BHEL manufactures batch and continuous pulp digesters and multiple
effect evaporation plants.
Column internals: BHEL manufactures column internals like valve trays, bubble cap
trays, sieve trays, etc.
Liquefied gas containers: BHEL manufactures storage and transportation containers
for LPG, chlorine, ammonia etc. System-oriented equipment for process plants on
turnkey basis: O_/on-shore skid mounted package units like Separators, Glycol
Dehydration Packages, Gas Collection Modules, etc., including site fabrication and
commissioning. Today, SHEL with its vast manufacturing capability can
manufacture process equipment of almost any size. In addition, it has
the requisite handling facilities - and being located at Visakhapatnam, has excellent
port facilities for transporting large size vessels. In case of extra-large equipment,
which cannot be transported, SHEL undertakes site fabrication and erection.
Hydro cracker reactors: The hydro cracker reactors are highly critical equipment in
the refinery. They require heavy forging with internal strip cladding.
Boilers: BHEL entered into full-edged collaboration with BHEL I CE for design,
manufacture, erection and commissioning of Industrial Boilers for process and
captive power. The technology obtained from CE, USA has been improvised to suit
Indian fuels with the support of BHEL's vast experience and continuous R&D effort.
BHPV has fully absorbed the technology from BHEL. A large number of highly
efficient Boilers from BHEL / CE are operating successfully all over the world. With
this back up, BHPV has more than thirty such installations to its credit.
Other systems: The following equipment/systems are offered by BHPV along with
boilers as a part of total service package. Deaerators and feed water system with

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 HP/LP heaters, feed water pumps with motors/turbine drives, control valves Main
stream, feed water piping and other external piping
Cryogenic plants and equipment: BHEL branched into the manufacture of cryogenic
equipment in 1971. In collaboration with L' Air Liquid of France, BHEL ventured
into this technology-intensive field. In just a few years, BHEL has left its mark. In
1982, in the face of international competition, it bagged a prestigious contract from
Vizag Steel Plant to meet the entire cryogenic need of the plant. Air separation units
of capacities ranging from 50 Nm3=h up to 2200 t d 1 to produce oxygen, nitrogen
and argon. Nitrogen wash units for preparation of synthesis gas mixtures for the
fertilizer units. Purge gas recovery units for separation of hydrogen from purge gas
of ammonia plants using naphtha or natural gas as feedstock. Storage tanks of
horizontal and vertical designs starting from 500l upto 20 000 l capacity to hold
liquid oxygen, nitrogen & argon. Largely-erected cryogenic storage tanks of 200m3
to 10 000m3 capacity. SWOT analysis of the company:

Strengths:

1. Experienced engineers
2. Long lasting quality of product
3. Top notch Non-Destructive testing facility
4. Strictly abides the ASME and IBR regulations
5. Excellent geographical advantage nearest to sea port, Airport, NH-5, and railway
station.
6. One of Asia's biggest fabrication units
7. Best manufacturers in market for cryogenic vessels

Weakness:
Old machinery

Opportunities:
1. Young engineer’s/workers recruitment
2. Good demand and work order for vessels
3. Infrastructural and equipment renovation on merger with BHEL
4. Good pay grades after merger good and strong technological tie-up with Skoda,
Czechoslovakia.

1.1.13.1 List of Machines in BHEL-HPVP

Cutting Machines:
1.Plate shearing machine
2.Profile gas cutting machine
3.Plasma cutting machine

Welding Machines:
1. Manual welding machines
2. Submerged arc welding machines
3. TIG welding machines
4. MIG welding machines

Special purpose machines:

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 1. Orbital TIG welding machines
2. Tube sheet welding machines and stud welding machine.

Metal forming machines:

1.Pipe bending rolls
2.Pipe bending machine
3.Hydraulic press

Machine tools
1. Light machine shop
Various lathes including semi-automatic milling, shaping,
drilling and boring machines.
2. Heavy machine shop
3. Material handling

1.2 Workshop
The production is done in the workshop and it is classified into 2 types.

1.2.1 Feeder Shop

Parts that are used for assembling in production shop are made in feeder shop. The
feeder shop is again subdivided into six types.
1. Material Preparation
2. Shells Rolling Operation
3. Press Bending Plates
4. L.M.S. Light Machine Shop
5. H.M.S. Heavy Machine Shop

1.2.2 Production Shop

In this shop assembling of parts take place, which are prepared in the feeder shop. This
shop
is subdivided into five categories. They are:
P.V. Pressure Vessels
H.E. Heat Exchangers
C.P. Cryogenic Products
C.S.P. 1 Combustion System Products
C.S.P. 2 Combustion System Products

1.3 Salient Features of Different Shops

1.3.1 Material Preparation Shop

Plate materials drawn from stores is cut to size and delivered to concerned production
shops. In this shop, marking is the main consideration which is given by the design
department according to the dimension and material required. The main operations in
this shop are to prepare plates, angles and beams. First, the design department will
give route card and job cards. The main purpose of the route card is to route the
number of operations. For example,
1.061 700-marking

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 2.062 710-gas cutting
In this, the first three digits indicate the department and the last three digits indicate
the process to be done.
Machinery used in material preparation shop:
1. Flame cutting
2. Plate edge planning
3. Plate edge shearing
4. Plate edge shearing
5. Manual plasma cutting
6. CNC gas cutting (cultrate)
7. Pad cutting only round shape
8. Flame cutting (sparred)

Flame Planning Machine

The FLAME PLANER is a large-scale gas cutting machine suitable for the heaviest
duties while maintaining the accuracy and precision movements of smaller machines.
Time and labour-saving high production efficiency is the key to the low
Production costs available with the flame planer. Both strip and bevel cutting are
simplified operations and may be performed simultaneously, and a quick cutting tip
exchange is all that is necessary to switch between acetylene and propane capacity.
A highly accurate carriage system is assembled with quality cutting apparatus as one
rugged, efficient, hardworking unit.

fig1.1: Flame planning machine

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 Shearing Machine: A shearing machine is made of straight blades that cut stock
without making a formation of chips or making the use of burning or melting.
Shearing Machines are commonly used to produce sheet metal or plates as well as
rods. The processes covered by shearing machines include blanking, piercing, roll
slitting and trimming. The machine can also be used in the metalworking industry as
well as the paper and plastic industry.

Fig1.2 : Shearing machine

Manual Gas Cutting: - For cutting metallic plates, the general purpose shears, and
planning machines are used as explained above. These are useful for only straight line
cuts. For thicker plates when the cut is to be made along specified contours the two
above mentioned cannot be used. To this end oxy-fuel gas cutting is useful. It is possible
to rapidly oxidize iron and steels when heated to temperature between 800 to 1000 _C.
When a high-pressure oxygen jet with a pressure of the order 300 KPa is directed
against a heated steel plate, the oxygen burns the metal and blows it away causing the
cut (kerf). This process was invented by Thomas Fletcher in 1887 and is extensively
used for cutting steels mainly because, the equipment required is simple and can be
carried anywhere without heavy steel plates.

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 Fig1.3 : Manual gas cutting machine

Automatic gas cutting equipment: - Gas cutting is functional for use with
low carbon and low alloy steels, with a carbon content generally restricted to 1/10 to
3/10 of 1%. The various alloy elements found in steel affect the ability of the oxygen
to cut the metal. Elements such as manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and Sulphur have
very little effect in normally found levels. Other elements such as chromium, nickel,
molybdenum, and carbon generally reduce the ability of oxygen to sever the material
up to the various limits of each.

Prior to attempting to cut a piece of material, you must study it and consider the
elements it contains as well as the combinations of these elements, just as you would
if you studied the metal for physical properties for heat treatment and hardening, etc.
A cutting torch diverts the oxygen and mixes part of it with the fuel gas to create the
pre-heat and, forming the ring of around the cutting tip. This preheat and will reach a
temperature of 440 _ F to 6000 _ F, depending on the fuel gas used as well as the
ratio of oxygen to fuel gas. It enables high accuracy, high efficiency, and a high
safety work.

Fig1.4 : Automatic gas cutting machine

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 Edge Planning Machine: - In high thick carbon steel plates and stain less steel
plate's edge preparation is not possible by ordinary gas cutting. In those cases, we go
for machining of the plate by edge planning machine. The length of the bed of an
edge planning machine is 12meters which can hold a plate up to that length. For
holding, the plate firmly during machining hydraulic and mechanical jacks were used
which are arranged alternately above the bed. Just like as in a lathe machine here
also we have carriage, cross slide, tool post with similar applications. Main
advantage of this machining is that it can even be used for stainless steels.

Fig1.5 : Edge planning machine

CNC Header Pipe Drilling Machine: It adopts the form of the gantry CNC
drilling machine, machine tool rigidity, and strong processing stability, suitable for
heavy cutting. The machine is equipped with laser cross the line device, according to
the need to install any drilling power head spindle taper hole, easily in the cylindrical
drum surface longitudinal and transverse weld position alignment, determine the
drilling location. The machine head part through finite element analysis in the weak
link to strengthen processing. Make the structure more reasonable. CNC drilling
machine configuration key mechanical, hydraulic, electrical components, such as
linear roller guide vice, precision reducer, gear and rack, hydraulic pump, valve,
servo motors and drives, numerical control system for foreign famous manufacturer
products, thus the accuracy of the who le machine has high reliability less failure,
high risk.

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 Fig1.6 : CNC Header pipe drilling machine

Bending Machine: The HAEUSLER VRM type machine is a universally usable

four roller bending machine with linear hydraulic roll movement of side and bottom
rolls. It can be used to roll tubes, tube segments, rounded boxes, ovals or other
shapes. The following basic operations can be used:
1. Pre-bending of sheet edges
2. Rounding of sheets into cylindrical shapes
3. Cone bending
4. Press bending for even and uneven radii
5. Calibrating for minimization of radius variations in a welded tube

Fig1.7 : Bending machine

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 Advantages
1. Work piece only needs to be aligned once at the start of the bending process.
2. Automatic minimization of at ends.
3. Secured rolling traction throughout the process.
4. Simple cone bending.
5. Simple calibrating of apple-ore pear- shaped welded tubes.
6. Correction of axial offsets possible.
7. Minimal wear on guide ways for long-lasting machine precision.
8. High-alloy steel rolls are very crack-resistant.
9. Roll breaks allow blocking of rotation for pre-bending thus improving process-
safety.
10. Minimal foundations work required for installation.
11. High-torque drives on bottom and top rolls.
12. Bending of oval, elliptic or rounded box shapes is possible.

1.3.2 Shell Section

In this shop, plates are rolled to required size longitudinal seams and circumferential
seam welding will be done. Narrow gap welding is one in this shop. Special narrow
gap welding machine is available in this shop. It can weld up to 350mm thick groove
width about 18 to 25mm. In this feeder shop, plates are rolled on to shells with the
help of plate bending/rolling machines. The plate bending/rolling machines are
classified according to the thickness of the plate and diameter of the shell. In this
shop, C-seam welding and I-seam welding is also done after the plates are rolled.

Machinery used in Shell Shop:

1. Plate edge planning
2. Plate bending rolls
3. Plate bending rolls
4. Plate bending rolls
5. Submerged arc welding twin head

1.3.3 Light Machine Shop

In this shop, all small components machining such as marking holes in tube sheet,
and drilling planning of small items will be taken up here. Nozzle to angle welding is
done in this shop. In this feeder shop, lathe works, drilling, boring and milling
operations are done. Boiler works, nozzles and angles are prepared too in this shop.
Machinery used in Light Machine Shop:
1. Small & medium lathes
2. Automatic lathe
3. Capstan turret lathes.
4. Milling (middle).
5. Small Vertical Turning & Boring Machine.
6. Radial Drilling.
7. Small horizontal boring.
8. Medium horizontal boring.
9. Heavy lathe.
10. Plain milling.
11. CNC drilling.

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 12. CNC deep hole drilling machine.
13. Heavy lathe.

Horizontal boring machine: Used for facing operation of discharge elbows

etc. Boring machines can be horizontal or vertical according to the orientation of the
axis of rotation of the machine spindle. In horizontal boring operation, boring bar is
mounted in a tool slide, which position is adjusted relative to the spindle faceplate to
machine different diameters. The boring bar must be supported on the other end
when boring long and small diameter holes.

Fig1.8 : Horizontal boring machine

Vertical boring machine: It is used for large, heavy work piece with diameters
up to 12 m. The typical boring mill can position and feed several cutting tools
simultaneously. The work piece is mounted on a rotating worktable.

Fig1.9 : Vertical boring machine

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 1.3.4 Heavy Machine Shop
Machining, drilling, surfacing of components which are larger than the capacity of
LMS will be carried out here. The shop is equipped with one 5000mm dia., one
4000mm dia. and two 2500mm dia., heavy double column vertical timing and boring
machines besides a number of small machines.
Machinery used in Heavy Machine Shop:
1. Radial drilling.
2. Universal drilling
3. Single column planning
4. Double column planning
5. Large horizontal boring
6. Medium VTBS
7. Large VTBS
In this feed shop, bending of plates is carried out. By this bending operation, end
petals are prepared with the help of suitable dies fixed to hydraulic presses.

1.3.5 Press shop

Hydraulic presses up to a maximum capacity of 1600 t used for pressing of dished
ends, petals of storage spheres and various other parts.
Maximum thickness that can be handled in single stroke: 80mm
Maximum thickness that can be handled in stages: 120mm
Machinery used in press shop:
1. Section Bending
2. Pneumatic Hammer
3. Pipe bending
4. Hydraulic press 250 t
5. Hydraulic press 400 t
6. Hydraulic press 1600 t 1
7. Bending roll for SEC & tubes1 [5].

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 Fig1.10: 400-ton industrial hydraulic press machine

Fig 1.11 Manual Hydraulic Press

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 2. Introduction to NDT methods

2.1.1 Definition
Non-destructive testing (NDT) can be defined as the testing of an object in any
manner which will not impair the future usefulness of the object.

2.1.2 Introduction
Although, in most cases non-destructive tests do not provide a direct measurement of
mechanical properties, they are very valuable in locating material defects that could
impair the performance of a machine member when placed in service. Such a test is
used to detect faulty material before it is formed or machined into component parts,
to detect faulty components before assembly, to measure the thickness of metal or
other materials, to identify and sort materials, and to discover defects that may have
developed during processing use. Parts may also be examined in service, permitting
their removal before failure occurs. Non-destructive tests are used to make products
more reliable, safe and economical. In-creased reliability improves the public image
of the manufacturer, which leads to greater sales and protests. In addition,
manufacturers use these tests to improve and control manufacturing processes.

2.1.3 Importance
Before World War II, non-destructive testing was not urgent because of the large
safety factors that were engineered into almost every product. Service failures did
take place but the role of material imperfections in such failures was not, then, fully
recognized and therefore little concentrated effort was made to and them. During and
post-World War II, the significance of imperfections to the useful life of a product
assumed greater importance. In air-craft design, in nuclear technology and in space
explorations, high hazards and costs have made maximum reliability essential. At
the same time, there has been extensive growth of all inspection methods in
industrial and scientific applications.

2.1.4 Reason for use of NDT

Non-destructive tests are used by manufacturers for the following reasons:
1. To ensure product reliability
2. To prevent accidents and save human life
3. To make a protest for the user
(a) To ensure customer satisfaction and to maintain the manufacturer's reputation
(b) To aid in better product design
(c) To control manufacturing processes
(d) To lower manufacturing costs
(e) To maintain a uniform quality level

2.1.5 Basic elements of NDT

1. Source: Source which provides some probing medium, namely a medium that can
be used to inspect the item under test
2. Modification: This probing medium must change or be modified as a result of the
variations or discontinuities within the object being tested
3. Detection: Detector capable of determining the changes in probing medium

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 4. Indication: It is a means of indicating or recording the signals from the detector
5. Interpretation: Method of interpreting those indications
While there are many proven non-destructive tests in use, the most common methods
of inspection are:
1. Liquid Penetrant Testing
2. Magnetic Particle Testing
3. Radiography Testing
4. Ultrasonic Testing

2.2 Liquid Penetrant Testing

2.2.1 Introduction
Liquid penetrant testing is a non-destructive method for finding discontinuities that
are open to the surface of solid are essentially non-porous materials. Indications of
flaws can be found regardless of the size, configuration, internal structure or
chemical composition of the work piece being tested and regardless aw orientation.
Liquid penetrants can sweep into various types of minute surface opening by
capillary action. Because of this, the processes well-suited to the detection of all
types of surface defects such as cracks, laps, porosity, shrinkage areas, laminations
and similar discontinuities. It is used extensively for the testing of variety of products
of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals. In practice, the liquid penetrant process is
relatively simple. Equipment generally is simpler and less costly than that for most
other NDT methods. Liquid penetrant testing depends mainly on liquids effectively
wetting the surface of a solid work piece of specimen, owing over that surface to
form a continuous and reasonably uniform coating and then migrating into cavities
that are open to the surface. Closely related to wetting ability is the phenomenon of
capillary rise or depression. The liquid penetrant testing requires at least five steps.
1. Surface preparation
2. Application of penetrate
3. Removal of excess penetrant
4. Application of developer
5. Observation & Reporting

Fig2.1 : Liquid particle testing

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 18

 2.2.2 Preparation of parts
In all penetrant inspection processes, the preparation of the part to be inspected prior
to the actual processing is of great importance. The principle of all penetrant
processes is that the penetrant must enter the surface openings or discontinuities if it
is later to identify them .Scale and rust must be removed, since they tend to the cover
defects or may cause confusing indications by trapping and holding on the surface of
the part .Acids and chromates in the solution could not be left on the surface of parts
or within the surface discontinuities at the time of inspection because these
chemicals adversely affect some penetrants. Oil and grease should be removed
completely from the part before inspection. Many oils are somewhat fluorescent and
are good penetrants. They may fill the surface discontinuities and prevent the
inspecting penetrants from entering If parts have been in contact with water, it is
important that all traces of water be removed before inspection. Water must be
removed not only from the surface of the part but also from any other surface defects
present When using the visible-dye penetrant system, the solvent cleaner, usually
supplied to re-move the excess penetrant from the surface of the part is an excellent
material for pre-cleaning the parts before the penetrant is applied.

2.2.3 Application of penetrants

Penetrants are applied by spraying, swabbing, brushing or dipping (immersion). The
area under test is covered with penetrants and the penetrant is allowed to remain for a
predetermined amount of time called `dwell time'. The means of application and the
length of dwell are determined by the test article, the type of discontinuities to be
detected, the penetrant used and temperature.

2.2.4 Penetration time

The period during which the penetrant is permitted to remain on the specimen is a
vital part of the test. This time, known as dwell time is directly related to the size and
shape of discontinuities anticipated, since the dimensions of discontinuities
determine the rapid action through which penetration occurs.

2.2.5 Application of emulsifier

When post-emulsification penetrants are used, an emulsifier must be applied to the
penetrant to make it removable by water rinse. The amount of time that the emulsifier is
per-mitted to remain prior to the removal process is usually in the range of 1 to 3
minutes, and seldom exceeds 5 minutes. The exact emulsification dwell time must be
determined by experiment.

2.2.6 Removal of excess surface penetrant

Following the application of the penetrant and elapse of sufficient time for
penetration, the penetrant is removed from the surface of the specimen. This
operation is meant to remove the penetrant that has entered a discontinuity. Complete
removal of the surface penetrant is effected to ensure against formation of non-
relevant indications.

Excess surface penetrant can result in the formation of non-relevant indications that
would obscure or hide true discontinuity indications. When descent penetrants are
used, it is necessary to observe the specimen under black light during penetrant
removal operation to ensure the complete removal of excess penetrant. For visible

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 19

 dye penetrants, the absence of penetrant traces on the wiping material ensures
complete penetrant removal.

2.2.8 Application of developer and drying

Some penetrants provide sufficient discontinuity indications without a developer. They
are self-developing. But generally, when minimum sensitivity is desired a developer is
required. The developer assists in the detection of penetrant retained discontinuities by
aiding in the capillary bleed out process, and by accentuating the presence of penetrant
in a discontinuity. Developer accentuates the presence of discontinuity because it causes
the penetrant from the discontinuity because it causes the penetrant from the
discontinuity to spread out over a greater area. It also serves as a colour contrast
background for the visible dye used invisible dye processes and for the unresent material
used in the unresent processes. Developer is available in both dry and liquid forms and
the selection of developer is in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendation for
the type of penetrant used. When a dry or non-aqueous wet developer is used, the
specimen must be completely dry before the developer is applied. When water based wet
developer is used, it is applied immediately after penetrant removal is accomplished and
prior to the drying operation.

2.2.9 Drying
When dry or non-aqueous wet developer is used, the specimen is dried after the
removal of excess penetrant and prior to the application of the developer. When
water based wet developer is used, the specimen is dried after the developer has been
applied. Required drying time is determined by the size and shape of the specimen,
and by the nature of unsuspected discontinuities. It should be sufficient duration to
dry the surface of the specimen without affecting the penetrant in the discontinuities.

2.2.10 Observation and reporting

To interpret an indication means to decide what condition caused it. It may be a crack,
porosity, lack of bond, or merely penetrant remaining on the surface due to some non-
relevant cause. Evaluation follows interpretation. If a discontinuity exists, its effect on
the useful-ness of the article requires evaluation, i.e., the article is either accepted as is or
reworked or scrapped. The success and reliability of the interpretation and evaluation of
liquid penetrant test indication depend upon the thoroughness of the process. The liquid
penetrant test is not a method by which a specimen is processed through a machine that
separates the good article from a defective article. Testing personnel are required to
carefully process each specimen, interpret indication, evaluate the seriousness of
discontinuities, and determine dis-position. Since penetrant can only indicate surface
discontinuities, proper interpretation, however, re-quires familiarity with the
manufacturing processes, the types of discontinuities likely to occur, and their
appearance. It requires a knowledge of how different materials fail and where. It requires
the careful control of development time.

2.2.11 Post cleaning

Post cleaning is necessary in those cases where residual penetrant or developer could
interfere
with subsequent processing or with service requirements. It is particularly important
where residual penetrant and inspection materials might combine with other factors in

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 20

 Service to produce corrosion. A suitable technique, such as a simple water rinse,
machine wash, vapour degreasing, solvent soap, or ultrasonic cleaning may be
employed.

2.2.12 Limitations
1. The major limitation of liquid penetrant testing is that it can detect only
imperfections that are open to the surface.
2. Another factor that may inhibit the effectiveness of liquid penetrant testing is the
surface roughness of the object being tested. Rough or porous surfaces are likely to
produce false indications [3].

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 21

 3. Magnetic Particle Testing

3.1 Basic principle

Magnetic Particle Testing is a method for locating surfaces and near surface
discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials .The principle of this method depends on
the fact that, when the material or part under testis magnetized, the discontinuities
that lie in a direction generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field will
cause a leakage field and therefore the presence of discontinuities is detected by the
use of divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the surface, some particles
gathered and held by the leakage field. This magnetically held collection of particles
forms an outline of the discontinuity and indicates its location, size, shape, and
extent. This method is most applied to reveal material discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt, nickel alloys etc.

Fig 3.1 : Magnetic particle testing

3.2 Methods of Magnetization

Basically, there are two methods of magnetization namely,
1. Longitudinal magnetization
2. Circular magnetization

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 22

 3.2.1 Longitudinal Magnetization
Electric currents can be used to create a longitudinal magnetic field in magnetic
materials. When electric current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is
established length wise or longitudinally within the coil. The longitudinal
magnetization can be adopted in two methods:
1. Coil magnetization (Solenoid)
2. Field ow magnetization (Yoke)
Coil Magnetization (Solenoid): When magnetic material is placed within a coil, most
of the magnetic lines of force created by the electric current concentrate themselves
in the test object and include longitudinal magnetization. Test objects, too large to in
a fixed coil can be magnetized by longitudinally by making a coil form several turns
of flexible cable. There is no theoretical limit to the size of the object that can be
tested in this manner. Field ow magnetization (Yoke): Another means of producing a
longitudinal field in a test object is the field ow method. Here, the field is produced
by electromagnets and passed through objects as if they were the keepers in a yoke.
The field is almost wholly contained within the test object. While there is no
theoretical limit to the length of a test object that can be magnetized this way, a
practical issue arises with the A.C. source. Thus, the power requirements limit the
effective length to about 1:3m (4 ft.).

3.2.2 Circular Magnetization

Electric currents passing through a straight conductor creates circumferential
magnetic lines of force that are always at right angles to the direction of current that
induces a magnetic field. The passage of current induces a magnetic field strength in
conductor as well as in sur-rounding space. An object magnetized in this manner is
said to have a circular field or to be circularly magnetized. This method eases the
detection of arbitrarily oriented defects. This can be adopted generally in three ways.
1. Head shot method
2. Prod method
3. Central conductor method

3.3 Applicability
The principal industrial uses of magnetic particle testing are final inspection,
receiving inspection, in process inspection and quality control, maintenance and
overhaul in the transportation industries, plant and machinery maintenance and
inspection of large components.

3.4 Limitations
Thin coatings of paint and other non-magnetic coverings such as plating, adversely
affect sensitivity of magnetic particle inspection. Other important limitations are
1. This method will only work for ferromagnetic materials
2. For best results, the magnetic field must be in a direction that will intercept the
principal plane of the discontinuity. Sometimes this requires two or more sequential
inspections with different magnetization.
3. Demagnetization following testing is often necessary.
4. Post cleaning to remove remnants of the magnetic particles clinging to the surface
may sometimes be required after testing and demagnetization.
5. Seldom, high amount of current is required for large parts.

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 23

 6. Care is necessary to avoid local heating and burning of finished parts of surfaces
at the points of electrical contact.
7. Although magnetic particle indications are easily seen, experience and skill in
interpreting their significance is a must.[4]

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 24

 4. Ultrasonic Testing Method

4.1 Introduction
Ultrasonic testing is non-destructive method in which beam of high frequency sound
waves that are introduced into the material being tested are used to detect surface and
subsurface. The sound waves travel through the material with some attenuation of
energy and are reflected at interfaces. The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to
define the presence and location of was. Sound waves are almost completely
reflected at metal gas interfaces. Partial reflection occurs at metal liquid or metal
solid interfaces, with the specific percentage of reflected energy depending primarily
on the ratios of certain properties of the matter on either side of the interface. Cracks,
laminations, shrinkage cavities, bursts, lakes, pores, bonding faults and other dis-
continuities that can act as metal-gas interfaces can be easily detected. Inclusions and
other non-homogeneities in the metal being inspected can also be detected by
causing partial reflection or scattering of the ultrasonic waves or by producing some
other detectable effect on the ultrasonic waves.

Fig 4.1 : Ultrasonic testing machine

4.2 Ultrasonic vibrations

Sound is a vibration and it has a range of frequencies. Man can hear only vibration
from10 Hz to 20 000 Hz. The word sound is also used at frequencies above 20 000 Hz.
Such sound is called ultrasonic vibrations i.e., vibrations above the audible range. The
word `ultra' means beyond the range or limits of something and the word `sonic' means
using sound waves.

4.2.1 Generation of ultrasonic waves

Crystals like Quartz and ceramic materials like barium titanium at exhibit interesting
properties. If electrical energy is applied to these crystals through two wires
connected to them, they get vibrated. This ability of the crystals to convert electrical
energy to mechanical energy is called piezoelectricity or piezoelectric effect.
Electrical energy causes a piezoelectric crystal to expand and contract, forming
mechanical vibrations. Similarly, if the crystal is subjected to pressure changes, it

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 25

 generates electrical charge on its surface. This ability of the crystal converting
mechanical energy into electrical energy is known as piezoelectric effect.

Normal probes: Normal probes are constructed based on piezoelectricity with

circular radiating surface with diameters ranging between 5 and 40 mm. They will
have the provision to keep the thin layer made of plastic material which are known as
protective covers, at the transducer base for their protection from wear and tear.
Those covers also provide more uniform coupling at lower pressures. These normal
probes are of two types.
1. Single transducer probes
2. Double transducer probes
Single transducer probes: In this transducer, only one crystal is used and it
acts as both transmitter and receiver.
Double transducer probes: It consists of two transducers assembled in a single ease
but separated from each other and two plastic cones. In addition, there is a disc of
insulating material and a fixing ring. By its design, the incident echo from the
interface of the plastic to specimen is avoided and there by the dead zone is not
present. Angle probes: Probes whose beams enter at an angle are called angle beam
probes be-because they transmit and receive the sound waves at an angle to the
surface of the test object. Most standard angle-beam probes transmit and receive, due
to technical reasons, trans-verse waves or shear waves. They use the principle of
refraction and mode conversion at a boundary to produce refracted shear or
longitudinal waves in a test piece. In this type, a number of angle probes are
available in the field e.g., 35, 45, 60, 70 degrees.

4.3 Ultrasonic testing methods

Pulse echo testing method. Through transmission testing method, Immersion testing
method.

Typical industrial applications:

1. Testing of cylindrical forging
2. Testing of tubular or round bad stock
3. Testing of at or rectangular stock
4. Testing of turbine parts
5. Testing of large, cast cylindrical parts

4.4 Ultrasonic Testing System

A-scan system: The pulse echo instrument generally makes use of A-scan
presentation to show the soundless or quality of a material being tested. A-scan
preparation is time versus amplitude display which reveals the existence of
discontinuities using `pipes on a cathode ray tube (CRT) from the pipe location on
the CRT and its amplitude. We can find the relative depth of discontinuity in the
material and estimate its size B-scan system: The B-scan presentation applies mostly
to the medical applications of ultrasonic and is generally not used in non-destructive
testing. However, when used it gives a cross sectional view of the material being
tested indicating discontinuities. C-scan system: The scan presentation is a plan view
indication. Similar to an X-ray picture, it projects the internal details of a material
into a plane. If the front and back surface reflections are not used, only the reflection

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 26

 from the front surface of the test material. The display is usually a paper recording
however a CRT is sometimes used.

4.5 Limitations
1. Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin or not homogeneous are
difficult to be tested.
2. Discontinuities that are present in a shallow layer immediately beneath the surface
may not be detected.
3. Couplets are needed to provide effective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy
between transducer and parts being tested.
4. Reference standards are needed, both for calibrating the equipment and for
characterizing was
Manual testing required careful attention by experienced technicians.[2].

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 27

 5. Radiography Testing

Radiography testing is a method used for non-destructive testing of boiler components

and assemblies based on differential absorption of penetrating radiation such as X-ray
and gamma rays by the part being tested. Because of differences in density and variation
in thickness of the part or difference in absorption characteristics caused by variations in
composition, different portions of a test part absorb different amounts of penetrating
radiation. Unabsorbed radiation passing through the part is recorded on _lm or
photosensitive paper, viewed on scent screen or monitored by various types of electronic
radiation detectors.

Radiography can detect only those features that have an appreciable thickness in the
direction parallel to radiation beam. This means that the ability of the process to
detect planar discontinuities such as cracks, lack of sidewall fusion depends on
proper orientation of the test part during testing. Discontinuities such as voids and
inclusion, which have measurable thickness in all directions, can be detected as long
as they are not too small in relation to section thickness. Radiography is more
effective for voluminal defects.

5.2 Applications
Radiography is used extensively on castings and weldments. It is well-suited to the
testing of semiconductor devices for cracks, broken wires, unsoldered connections,
foreign material and misplaced components. Sensitivity of radiography to various types
of was depends on many factors including type of material, type of aw and product
form. Both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys can be radiographed, as can non-metallic
materials and composites.

5.3 Sources of radiography

1. X-rays
2. Gamma rays

5.3.1 X-ray technology

Production of X-rays: They are produced when a beam of high-energy electrons collides
with any material (target) X-rays production increases with increase in atomic number of
the target atom and with increase in the incident electron energy. In an X-ray machine,
less than one percent of electrical power supplied is converted to X-rays and their
manning power appears as heat. If this heat is not removed efficiently, the target material
may melt. Although, X-ray intensity is different for different target material, the
distribution of X-rays energized for all targets is similar. The maximum energy is the
energy of the incident electrons. In an X-ray machine, if the potential difference between
the lament and the target for the applied voltage is 200 Kev, the maximum energy of the
X-rays would be the same. The continuous X-ray spectrum will also contain one or
more called peaks. These peaks are of definite energies, dependent on the target
element.

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 28

 The quality of an X-ray beam can be described by its half value thickness (HVT).
The HVT is a function of effective energy of the X-ray beam, which is
approximately 1/3rd of the applied voltage. It also depends upon the nature of the
supply and added filtration. The essential requirements for the production of X-rays
are:
1. A source of electrons
2. High voltage supply to accelerate the electrons
3. A target, usually tungsten, to stop the electrons and to convert their energy to X-
rays. The target is usually of small dimension, say 2-3 mm. When the electron hit
the target, much of the energy appears in the form of heat and it has to be rapidly
removed. Mineral oil is sometimes used around the X-ray unit to remove heat and
served as electrical insula-tor.

Fig5.1 : Radiography testing

Selection of target material is based on the following properties:

1. Target material should have a high melting point.
2. It should possess a high atomic number.
3. It should possess high thermal conductivity to dissipate heat quickly.
4. It should have a low vapor pressure at high temperatures to prevent evaporation of
the target material and its deposition on the walls of the X-ray tube, as this would
cause absorption of X-rays and disturbances in the insulation properties of the tube.
Tungsten having atomic number 74 and melting point 3400 _C is the most preferred
target material X-ray tube is enclosed in a suitably shaped steel shell for ruggedness.
The power ratings, which are in kilo voltage (kV), tube current (mA), beside the
cooling pattern decides the structure of an X-ray unit.

Advantages
1. X-ray machine has higher radiation output enabling larger turnover of workload.
2. They have small focal spot size, which helps to obtain sharper images.
3. Use of X-rays results in better image contrast, as X-rays have continuous
spectrum.
X-ray units ensure complete radiation safety, when they are switched off.

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 29

 Disadvantages
1. X-ray units are bulky offer use at intricate & inaccessible locations.
2. They require electrical power for operation.
3. They require high capital investment.

5.3.2 Gamma ray technology

Introduction: Radio-isotopes are broadly classified as
1. Naturally occurring and
2. Artificially made Potassium-40, uranium-238 and its daughters are some
radioisotopes. Of these naturally occurring radioisotopes, radium-226(encapsulated)
was used early in the industrial radiography viz., Cobalt-60, iridium-192, thallium-
170 are artificially produced.
Production of radioisotopes: There are three methods of producing artificial radio
Isotopes by
1. Activating elements with neutrons in a nuclear reactor.
2. Processing passion products from spent uranium fuel rods from a nuclear reactor.
3. Bombarding elements with charged particles from particle accelerators.

5.3.3 Sources for industrial radiography

A radioisotope, to be useful in industrial radiography should have
1. Suitable radiation energies
2. High radiation output
3. Reasonably long half life
4. Possibility of economic production at high specific activities

5.3.4 Gamma Ray Equipment

Introduction: Gamma radiography equipment or camera consists of the following:
1. A source housing, which serves as a shielded container for the gamma source
during its storage and it has an arrangement to give a controlled radiation beam,
when needed.
2. An `exposure mechanism', usually, built in the source housing or can be separately
attached.
3. Accessories such as source manipulators, telex cable and gear dire system,
flexible guide tubes for the cable and source travel, source position indicators,
radiation beam collimator, source changers (for transport) etc.

5.4 Structure of X-ray _lm

The type of X-ray _lm used in radiography, plays an important role in the detection
of was.
It is, therefore, important to have detailed knowledge about structure and properties
films.
A typical X-ray _lm consists of base, emulsion, binding layer, and protective layer.
_ Film base {Polyester is the most commonly used material}.
_ Emulsion {Silver bromide (AgBr) mixed with gelatin is used}.
_ Binding layer {this layer acts as a binder between _lm base and emulsion}.
_ Protective layer {the protective layer consists only gelatin. It serves to protect the
lower from physical damage, abrasion and stress marks}

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 30

 5.5 Various types of films
The films can be divided into three groups on the basis of radiography requirements.
1. Salt screen films with florescent screen.
2. Metal screens or direct films without any screens. These films are further sub
classify debased on their grain size.

5.6 Film Processing

After exposure to radiation a latent image of the object is formed in the X-ray _lm.
Film processing converts this invisible image to a visible permanent image. There
are _very main stages involved in _lm processing.
1. Development (Creation of the visible image).
2. Stop Bath (Removal of excess developer solution and stopping of developing
action).
3. Fixation (Removal of unwanted unexposed silver halide and making image
permanent).
4. Washing (Removal of unwanted exaction products).
5. Drying (Removal of unwanted water).

5.7 Viewing of radio graphs

Conventional black and white radio graphs are viewed against a light source. The
equipment providing the light is called as `illuminator'. Various types of illuminators
are commercially available. However, the most suitable illuminator is the one which
has highest intensity light source, sufficient to penetrate the _lm densities more than
4, with provisions for intensity control and mechanical arrangement for masking the
lighted area.

5.8 Evaluation of radiographic quality

Radiographic sensitivity:

Radiographic contrast:

Subject contrast:

Image Quality Indicators: The quality of radio graph is expressed in terms of IQI or
Penetrate meter sensitivity. These are small devices placed on the surface of the
specimen during exposure and visibility of their image on the radio-graph, forms the
criteria of sensitivity. Desirable properties of IQI are as given below.
1. The material should preferably be the same as that of the inspected.
2. It must be sensitive in its readings to changes in radiographic technique.
3. Method of recording should be simple.
4. It should have means for identification.

5.9 Control of radiographic quality

There are many factors which contribute to the resultant quality of a radio graph.
These factors should be carefully controlled by following a well-recognized national
and international practice, usually specified in codes. Information on the following
points is essential.

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 31

 Technique classification and general requirements such as very high sensitivity and
medium sensitivity are followed as per code.
Material and its thickness data is essential to select the source, SFD and other
important radiography parameters. Whenever possible, fabrication procedure such as
welding, casting etc., should be made available. Film and screen used are checked up
with the recommendations of the codes with respect to the technique classification.
Film processing should be standard as per the recommendations of the manufacturers
of the chemicals. Both shortened and prolonged development time must be avoided.
Density of the radio graph should be between 2-3. Higher density may be employed
provided high intensity illuminators are available for viewing the radio graphs. Fog
density and expiry date of the _lm should be checked. Fog density should not exceed
0.2. Identification marking system has to be explicit to enable finding the exact area
of the specimen without any ambiguity. Lead markers impression must appear on the
radio graph.
Source {Its active dimension and calibration data should be verified with
recommendations of the code. SFD is directly linked with specified Ugo value. It also
determines the diagnostic area coverage of the specimen.
Exposure geometry with relative position of source, specimen and films shown
be given in a sketch for verification.

IQI {its location bears the most important information leading to assessment of the
sensitivity of a radio graph. Observed sensitivity is calculated in terms of thickness
of plaque/hole or diameter of the wire}.
Exposure time should be specified range in the code. Besides the above points, the
radio graph is carefully examined on both sides with reflected light to reveal
superficial marks such as scratches, crimps and other processing marks. Use
of a magnifying glass would be helpful. Familiarity with artifacts and their
indications is also essential to determine the genuine discontinuity as different from
the spurious indication on the recommendations for optimum results are
1. Source of focal spot size should be as small as possible. Ideal source will be a point
source.
2. Source to object distance should be as large as possible.
3. The _lm should be in close contact with object.
4. Source location should be such that radiations pass normal through object
thickness.

5.10 Safety in enclosed radiography installations

The following are some of the salient points which need to be considered while
planning radiography enclosures as well as during the use of radiography sources
inside such enclosed installations.
1. All walls, floors, ceilings, and doors shall have efficient shielding so as to
minimize radiation levels, below the recommended dose limits. The shielding
material chosen should be structurally strong and should be purposely supported.
2. All exposure should be given from a separate control room situated outside the
expo-sure room.
3. The exposure room should be kept locked when not in use.
4. Entry of unauthorized person into those areas should be strictly prohibited.
5. The entrance door to exposure room should be locked during exposures. A
suitable electrical or mechanical interlocking system for the door may be
incorporated so that the radiation beam cannot be made on when the door is opened.

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 32

 6. Underground conduits should be provided for cables between the room and exposure
room.
If there is a lead glass viewing window in the wall between the control room and
expo-sure room, it is essential to confirm its lead equivalence.[1].

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 33

 REFERENCES
1.“www.bhel.com” an official website of BHEL.

2.” www.wikipedia.org” global data base for any information.

3.“ietd.iipnetwork.org” an official website of the institute for industrial productivity.

4. “Management Training Guide” provided by BHEL authority.

5. “Manufacturing Technology” by P. N. Rao.

STUDY ON NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 34