ACIDS, BASES, and SALTS 1) H+1 is unlikely to exist in water because of its high charge

ACIDS and BASES density; therefore H3O+1 is preferred

Ionic solids which ______________________________ are not the only 2) all acid/base behavior may be considered in terms of reactions
substances which dissociate into ions. between relative acids and bases to produce weaker relative acids
Such solids or "salts" may be considered to be the and bases (conjugate acid/base pairs).
______________________________ between two other classes of * * By comparison, a weak acid has a strong conjugate base,
compounds which also exhibit dissociation behavior in water. and a strong acid has a weak conjugate base.
These compounds are known as acids and bases. The second concept could use a few examples for explanation:
Like the solids which they form when they react, some dissociate
100% and some, like the insoluble salts, (which dissociate to a very
small extent - CaCO3). Therefore, some solids may be treated
simply (the STRONG acids and bases) - and others require
treatment as equillllibrium systems (the WEAK acids and bases).
Acids and bases are common substances which we encounter in
everyday life. They have been known for many years and the
original descriptive definitions which have come down to us are still · The pairs shown are called conjugate pairs (the conjugate acids
useful and interesting to look at: and bases are the ______________________________ ) and differ only
ACIDS by one proton (H+1).
conduct electricity · Substances such as water, have the ability to act as either a base
taste sour or an acid. [H3O+1 or OH-1 ]
react with "active" metals to produce H2 (g) [Refer to the Activity In the pair, the one with the extra proton is the acid.
Series of Metals in the BALANCING EQUATIONS & CHEMICAL The relative nature of acids and bases can be shown by selecting a
REACTION TYPES section] reaction in which water behaves as a base:
neutralize bases
change litmus to ______________________________
* Indicators: An indicator is a substance that is one color in an
acidic solution and another color in a basic solution.
common examples:
citric acid
acetic acid
Practice Problems:
hydrochloric acid
Determine the Brønsted-Lowry Acid, Brønsted-Lowry Base,
sulfuric acid
conjugate acid and conjugate base for the following reactions:
BASES
conduct electricity
1. H3PO4 + HOH ® H2PO4-1 + 3O+1
______________________________
feel slippery
2. NH3 + HOH ® NH4+1 + OH-1
neutralize acids
ANSWERS:
change litmus to ______________________________
HOMEWORK PROBLEMS:
common examples:
1a. Get worksheet from Mr. Craig - "Brønsted-Lowry Acids and
sodium hydroxide
Bases"
potassium hydroxide
ANSWERS:
ammonia
Practice Problems:
ACID / BASE THEORIES:
The following substance acts as a Brønsted-Lowry Acid in water.
In addition to the operational definitions for acids and bases, a
Write the chemical equation that illustrates its reaction with water.
number of theories have been developed to explain the behavior of
3. HCO3-1
these substances.
The following substance acts as a Brønsted-Lowry Base in water.
One of earliest and simplest is the Arrhenius Theory. In it, acids
Write the chemical equation that illustrates its reaction with water.
and bases are defined in terms of their behavior
4. HCO3-1
______________________________.
ANSWERS:
Arrhenius Acid: dissolves in water to form H+1 ions (commonly in
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS:
the form of hydronium ion, H3O+1).
2a. The following substances act as Brønsted-Lowry acids in water.
Arrhenius Base: dissolves in water to form OH-1 ions.
Write the chemical equation for each that illustrates its reaction
For example:
with water.
HCl(l) ® H+1(aq) + Cl-1(aq)
i. hydroiodic acid, HI
HCl is an acid
ii. ammoium ion, NH4+1
NaOH(s) ® Na+1(aq) + OH-1(aq)
iii. H2CO3
NaOH is a base
iv. HNO3
The careful construction of the definitions will be appreciated when
2b. The following substances act as Brønsted-Lowry bases in water.
we consider the base ammonia, NH3:
Write the chemical equation for each that illustrates its reaction
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ® NH4+1(aq) + OH-1(aq)
with water.
The water is required here to make sense out of the basic (or
i. cynide ion, CN-1
alkaline) behavior of ammonia in water, even though it does not
ii. SO4-2
contain hydroxide ions in its structure.
iii. C2H3O2-1
Because it is so simple to use, we will frequently fall back on the
iv. NH3
Arrhenius theory.
ANSWERS:
In the 1920's the Arrhenius Theory was supplanted by a theory
STRONG ACIDS and BASES:
developed simultaneously by Brønsted and Lowry. This model
The ______________________________ of an acid or base (as opposed
describes the reactions between acids and bases in terms of a
to its concentration) is a measure of how much it dissociates in
competition for protons.
water. The so-called ______________________________ acids and bases
Brønsted-Lowry Acid: a PROTON ______________________________
dissociate essentially 100% and thus need not be treated as
(any compound that donates a H+1)
equilibrium systems in themselves.
Brønsted-Lowry Base: a PROTON ______________________________
However, since dissociation takes place in water, an understanding
(any compound that accepts a H+1)
of the equilibrium that exists in pure water and all water solutions
In practice, the results are the same as in the Arrhenius system,
is helpful.
although a few more substances may be classified as acids or
Liquid water dissociates to a very small extent at room
bases, and ammonia, NH3, does not require any special treatment.
temperature:
In terms of ordinary use, the Brønsted-Lowry Theory contributes 2
H2O(l) ® H+1(aq) + OH-1(aq)
important concepts to our understanding of acids and bases:
This equilibrium lies far to the left, and in fact the value for Keq at
250C is 1.00 x 10-14 . Since this is such an important constant, it is
given its own symbol: Kw. It has a denominator of 1 since the
reactant is a pure liquid. Thus Kw is:
[H+1][OH-1] = 1.00 x 10-14
Obviously in "neutral" or pure water the concentrations of
hydrogen and hydroxide ions are equal at 1.00 x 10-7 M.
In an acid solution [H+1] > [OH-1]
In a base solution [H+1] < [OH-1]
O.K., so what does this have to do with strong acids and bases?
Recall the definitions (Arrhenius will do). Strong acids will
______________________________ solvent with H+1 ions.
This forces the water equilibrium to the left, reducing the number
of hydroxide ions. The converse can be said for the addition of a
strong base to water.
But whatever the case, the product of hydrogen and hydroxide ion
concentrations must equal 1.00 x 10-14 (at 250C, of course!). Thus
we have a way to calculate the concentration of both ions in an
solution of a strong acid or base.
examples:
What are both H+1 and OH-1 ion concentrations in a 0.5 M solution
of nitric acid?
[H+1] = 0.5 M since nitric acid is STRONG and dissociates 100%
(hydrogen ion from water is negligible)
[OH-1] = (1.00 x 10-l4) / 0.5 = 2 x 10-14 M
What is [OH-1] in a 0.1 M HC1 solution?
since [H+1] = 0.1 M (HCl is STRONG), then:
[OH-1] = (1.00 x 10-14) / 0.1 = 1 x 10-13 M
What is [H+1] in a 0.01 M KOH solution?
since [OH-1] = 0.01 M (KOH is STRONG), then:
[H+1] = (1.00 x 10-14) / 0.01 = 1 x 10-12 M
A good question comes to mind: how can you tell if an acid or base
is strong? For bases the answer is easy: strong bases contain metal
ions from Groups I or II.
WEAK ACIDS and BASES
The WEAK acids and bases are those which are not
______________________________, i.e., those which
______________________________ dissociate to any great extent in
water solutions.
As such, they must be considered as equilibrium systems and their
quantitative treatment is more complex than that of their strong
counterparts.
A typical example of a weak acid is acetic acid:
HC2H3O2(aq) ® H+1(aq) + C2H3O2-1(aq)
Therefore, at equilibrium a considerable amount of HC2H3O2
molecules remain.
Practice Problems:
5. Calculate the [OH-1] if the [H+1] = 7.45 x 10-6 M. Then indicate if
the solution is acidic or basic.
6. Calculate the [H+1] if the [OH-1] = 1.87 x 10-3 M. Then indicate if
the solution is acidic or basic.
ANSWERS:
HOMEWORK PROBLEMS: Note: [H+1][OH-1] = 1.00 x 10-14 M
3a. Calculate the [OH-1] if the [H+1] = 1.00 x 10-4 M. Then indicate if
the solution is acidic or basic.
3b. Calculate the [H+1] if the [OH-1] = 4.50 x 10-9 M. Then indicate if
the solution is acidic or basic.
3c. Calculate the [H+1] if the [OH-1] = 8.30 x 10-2 M. Then indicate if
the solution is acidic or basic.
ANSWERS:
What you have learned about acids and bases so far has provided
you with the essential tools to begin investigating how acids and
bases react with each other.
You learned the Brønsted-Lowry definitions of acids and bases.
Exactly what happens when an acid and a base are mixed
together? How could you tell that a chemical reaction has taken
place? To answer these questions we will discuss the reaction
between two common substances found in the laboratory, HCl
(hydrochloric acid) and NaOH (sodium hydroxide).
NEUTRALIZATION - REACTIONS OF ACIDS and BASES:
The reaction of an acid with a base---both of which dissociate in
water---produces another substance which dissociates in water,
and WATER itself!
These products of the neutralization of acids with bases are
known collectively as ______________________________.
A salt is simply an ionic compound which dissociates in water to
some extent. Generally, salts are composed of metal cations (the
cation comes from the base) and non-metal anions (the anion
comes from the acid).
There are, however, a few exceptions, the most important of which
for us is "ammonium, NH4+1."
So the ______________________________ might be expressed:
Acid + Base = Salt + Water
This is a double displacement reaction in which the first part of the
acid and the last part of the base combine to make HOH or water,
and the other parts form some salt.
Of course, if the salt is soluble, it will not form a solid unless the
water is removed (evaporated). Therefore, many acid/base
reactions simply result in the formation of water (the net-ionic
equations would all be the same). Only when the salt is
______________________________ will it show up in the reaction.
The one notable exception to this general scheme is reactions with
the base ammonia, NH3. Since ammonia contains no hydroxide ion,
reactions with acids produce no water and do not neatly fit the four
categories of reactions we have studied.
EVIDENCE OF AN EXOTHERMIC REACTION:
In this case, one indication of a reaction can be found by feeling
the flasks before and after the reaction. If
______________________________, the solution is distinctly warmer
after mixing. However, this change in
______________________________ does not mean that a chemical
change took place - a physical change could have occurred.
DEFINING NEUTRALIZATION:
Acids and Bases can be considered opposites because their
behaviors can be described as either proton donors or proton
acceptors. Chemists say that an acid ______________________________
a base when the two react completely, leaving no excess acid or
base.
Similarly, when sodium hydroxide neutralizes hydrochloric acid, the
resulting solution has neither acidic nor basic properties.
Reactions between an acid and base may be classified as a
______________________________.
Neutralization may occur between acids and bases other than HCl
and NaOH.
COMPLETE NEUTRALIZATION:
The salt produced depends on whether the acid reacts with the
base in a one-to-one ratio or a one-to-two ratio. Acids can donate
more than one proton are called ______________________________
acids.
example, phosphoric acid, H3PO4:
For a reaction in which all of the acidic protons (hydrogen ions,
H+1) leave the acid, the term complete neutralization is used.
TITRATION:
A frequently used technique for comparing the concentrations of
two solutions is known as titration.
A measured sample of ______________________________ concentration
is "titrated" with an acid or base of known concentration-- generally
added from a buret--until the added H+1 or OH-1 has been exactly
neutralized.
At that point, the pH of the solution may be 7, or less, or more,
depending on the salt formed during neutralization. In any case, an
indicator may be used to show the "endpoint" of the titration, or
instruments may detect the sudden change in pH as the
equivalence point is passed.
It is important to realize that at the equivalence point, the moles
of hydrogen ion added equals the moles of hydroxide ion
neutralized, or visa versa. It is not always true, however, that the
concentrations of these two ions are equal. If that were true every
equivalence point would be at pH 7.
The use of an ______________________________ helps to determine
when a certain pH has been achieved (which will be demonstrated
in class). Typically, an indicator is placed in an acidic solution and a
base is added to the acid (during a titration). When the desired pH
has been reached the indicator will change the clear solution (acid
mixed with base) into a colored (not cloudy) solution.
Since the moles of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are equal, the
calculation of either can be achieved with a formula which equates
moles of two mixed solutions:
VaMa = VbMb
As before, in the dilution formula, the volume units do not have to
be in liters, but they must match. Here, however, the second
volume is NOT the total, but the volume of the base.
example
If it takes 50 mL of 0.30M HCl to titrate 100 mL of a NaOH solution,
what is Mb?
(50 mL)(0.30M) = (100 mL)Mb
Mb = 0.15M
Titration becomes a little confusing with polyprotic acids and their
base counterparts, since one molecule may bring 2 or more
hydrogen or hydroxide ions with it. An adjustment must be made in
the molarity values in these cases.
example
What is the M of an Al(OH)3 solution if 10.5 mL is neutralized by
15.0 mL of 0.20M H2SO4?
the acid molarity must include a factor of 2 for the two hydrogens
in the acid; similarly, the base molarity must include a factor of 3:
(15.0 mL)(2 x 0.20M) = (10.5 mL)(3 x Mb)
thus, Mb = 0.19M
Also, and you will learn this in AP Chemistry, stoichiometry MAY BE
used (for ALL titration problems) and never have to worry about a
"multiplication factor"...
Practice Problem - Let's do these BOTH ways - using MaVa and
using stoichiometry...
7. When 42.5 mL of 1.03 M NaOH is added to 50.0 mL of vinegar (a
solution of acetic acid, HC2H3O2), the phenolphthalein in the
solution just turns pink. Calculate the concentration of acetic acid
in vinegar.
8. Calculate the volume of a 2.55 M HNO3, an acid, needed to
neutralize 67 mL of barium hydroxide, a base.
ANSWERS:
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS:
4a. In a titration of another sample of vinegar, you find that it
requires 11.10 mL of 0.748 M NaOH to neutralize a 10.0 mL sample
of vinegar. What is the concentration of acetic acid in the sample of
vinegar?
4b. What is the concentration of acid in rainwater when 100.0 mL is
titrated with 25.12 mL of 0.00105 M NaOH? Since acid rain contains
several acids, use the symbol HA to represent the acids that are
present.
4c. What does an indicator "indicate"?
ANSWERS:
pH SCALE:
The pH scale is an easy way to classify how strong an acid or a
base is in a solution.
The pH scale is a scale from 0 to 14. On the scale, 0 is the
strongest acid, 14 is the strongest base, and a neutral solution is
located at 7.
So if you know that substance had a pH of 6, you would know that
it was a weak acid. If you were given a substance with a pH of 13,
you would know that it was a strong base. Also, if you were given
the H+1 concentration of an acid or base you can use the below
formula to find the pH for that substance.
pH = -log [H+1]
If you were given the OH-1 concentration of an acid or base, you
would have to use the below equation.
pOH = 14 - (-log [H+1])
or
pOH = -log [OH-1]
The extent to which an acid or base dissociates in water will
determine the relative acidity or alkalinity of the solution. Chemists
have found it convenient to express this property as a power of
ten. For example, in a neutral solution, [H+1] = 1 x 10-7M. Thus the
"pH" of that solution is 7.
A "p" function in chemistry is a negative log (base 10) function.
And so pH is defined as -log [H+1] (or, alternatively, log 1 / [H+1]).
A companion function known as pOH similarly expresses the
hydroxide concentration. Although pH is more common, both are
used. They are related simply:
pH + pOH = 14.
To summarize:
pH > 7 BASE pOH < 7
pH = 7 NEUTRAL pOH = 7
pH < 7 ACID pOH > 7
examples
a. Find pH if [H+1] = 3.1 x 10-3M
pH = - log ( 3.1 x 10-3 ) = 2.5
b. What is the pOH?
Since pH + pOH = 14, then:
14 - 2.5 = 11.5
c. If pH = 5.7, what is [H+1]?
[H+1] = antilog (-5.7) = 2.0 x 10-6M
[emphasize the order of things here--the sign must be changed
first and then the anti-log taken]
Practice Problems:
9. Calculate the pH of a 0.01 M nitric acid solution, HNO3? Nitric
acid is a strong acid.
10. Calculate the pOH of 2.3 x 10-4 M sodium hydroxide solution.
11. Calculate the pH of a 0.0045 M lithium hydroxide solution.
ANSWERS:
HOMEWORK QUESTIONS: Recall: [ H +1 ] = [ H3O +1 ]
5a. What is the pH of a 0.50 M solution of HCl? HCl is a strong acid.
5b. Find the pH of a solution whose H3O+1 concentration is
i. 0.1 M
ii. 1.0 x 10-7 M
iii. 2.55 x 10-3 M
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANTS: Kc
This page explains what is meant by an equilibrium constant,
introducing equilibrium constants expressed in terms of
concentrations, Kc. It assumes that you are familiar with the
concept of a dynamic equilibrium, and know what is meant by the
terms "homogeneous" and "heterogeneous" as applied to chemical
reactions.
Important: If you aren't sure about dynamic equilibria it is
important that you follow this link before you go on.
If you aren't sure what homogeneous and heterogeneous mean,
you would find it useful to follow this link and read the beginning of
the page that you will find (actually on catalysis).
Use the BACK button on your browser to return to this page.
We need to look at two different types of equilibria (homogeneous
and heterogeneous) separately, because the equilibrium constants
are defined differently.
• A homogeneous equilibrium has everything present in
the same phase. The usual examples include reactions
where everything is a gas, or everything is present in the
same solution.
• A heterogeneous equilibrium has things present in
more than one phase. The usual examples include
reactions involving solids and gases, or solids and liquids.
Kc in homogeneous equilibria
This is the more straightforward case. It applies where everything
in the equilibrium mixture is present as a gas, or everything is
present in the same solution.
A good example of a gaseous homogeneous equilibrium is the
conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide at the heart of the
Contact Process:
A commonly used liquid example is the esterification reaction
between an organic acid and an alcohol - for example:
Writing an expression for Kc
We are going to look at a general case with the equation:
No state symbols have been given, but they will be all (g), or all (l),
or all (aq) if the reaction was between substances in solution in
water.
If you allow this reaction to reach equilibrium and then measure
the equilibrium concentrations of everything, you can combine
these concentrations into an expression known as an equilibrium
constant.
The equilibrium constant always has the same value (provided you
don't change the temperature), irrespective of the amounts of A, B,
C and D you started with. It is also unaffected by a change in
pressure or whether or not you are using a catalyst.

Compare this with the chemical equation for the equilibrium. The
convention is that the substances on the right-hand side of the
equation are written at the top of the Kc expression, and those on
the left-hand side at the bottom.
The indices (the powers that you have to raise the concentrations
to - for example, squared or cubed or whatever) are just the
numbers that appear in the equation.
Note: If you have come across orders of reaction, don't confuse
this with the powers that appear in the rate equation for a reaction.
Those powers (the order of the reaction with respect to each of the
reactants) are experimentally determined. They don't have any
direct connection with the numbers that appear in the equation
You may come across attempts to derive the expression for Kc by
writing rate equations for the forward and back reactions. Except in
a very limited number of very simple examples, this can't be done!
These attempts make the fundamental mistake of obtaining the
rate equation from the chemical equation. That's WRONG! Deriving
an expression for Kc is impossible at this level of chemistry.
It isn't relevant to this page, but if you want to find out more about
orders of reaction, you might like to follow this link at some time in
the future.
Some specific examples
The esterification reaction equilibrium
A typical equation might be:
There is only one molecule of everything shown in the equation.
That means that all the powers in the equilibrium constant
expression are "1". You don't need to write those into the Kc
expression.
As long as you keep the temperature the same, whatever
proportions of acid and alcohol you mix together, once equilibrium
is reached, Kc always has the same value. At room temperature,
this value is approximately 4 for this reaction.
The equilibrium in the hydrolysis of esters
This is the reverse of the last reaction:
The Kc expression is:
If you compare this with the previous example, you will see that all
that has happened is that the expression has turned upside-down.
Its value at room temperature will be approximately 1/4 (0.25).
It is really important to write down the equilibrium reaction
whenever you talk about an equilibrium constant. That is the only
way that you can be sure that you have got the expression the
right way up - with the right-hand substances on the top and the
left-hand ones at the bottom.
The Contact Process equilibrium
You will remember that the equation for this is:
This time the Kc expression will include some visible powers:
Although everything is present as a gas, you still measure
concentrations in mol dm-3. There is another equilibrium constant
called Kp which is more frequently used for gases. You will find a
link to that at the bottom of the page.
The Haber Process equilibrium
The equation for this is:
. . . and the Kc expression is:
Kc in heterogeneous equilibria
Typical examples of a heterogeneous equilibrium include:
The equilibrium established if steam is in contact with red hot
carbon. Here we have gases in contact with a solid.
If you shake copper with silver nitrate solution, you get this
equilibrium involving solids and aqueous ions:
Writing an expression for Kc for a heterogeneous
equilibrium
The important difference this time is that you don't include any
term for a solid in the equilibrium expression.
Taking another look at the two examples above, and adding a third
one:
The equilibrium produced on heating carbon with steam
Everything is exactly the same as before in the equilibrium
constant expression, except that you leave out the solid carbon.
The equilibrium produced between copper and silver ions
Both the copper on the left-hand side and the silver on the right
are solids. Both are left out of the equilibrium constant expression.
The equilibrium produced on heating calcium carbonate
This equilibrium is only established if the calcium carbonate is
heated in a closed system, preventing the carbon dioxide from
escaping.
The only thing in this equilibrium which isn't a solid is the carbon
dioxide. That is all that is left in the equilibrium constant
expression.
Calculations involving Kc
There are all sorts of calculations you might be expected to do
which are centred around equilibrium constants. You might be
expected to calculate a value for Kc including its units (which vary
from case to case). Alternatively you might have to calculate
equilibrium concentrations from a given value of Kc and given
starting concentrations.
This is simply too huge a topic to be able to deal with satisfactorily
on the internet. It isn't the best medium for learning how to do
chemistry calculations. It is much easier to do this from a carefully
structured book giving you lots of worked examples and lots of
problems to try yourself.
If you have found this site useful, you might like to have a look at
my book on chemistry calculations. It covers equilibrium constant
calculations starting with the most trivial cases, and gradually
getting harder - up to the moderately difficult examples which may
be asked in a UK A' level examination.